University of North UNF Digital Commons

All Volumes (2001-2008) The sprO ey Journal of Ideas and Inquiry

2003 "If the Spanish Would But Join" The orF gotten Implications of Spanish Involvement in the American Revolution Allison Coble

Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.unf.edu/ojii_volumes Part of the History Commons

Suggested Citation Coble, Allison, ""If the Spanish Would But Join" The orF gotten Implications of Spanish Involvement in the American Revolution" (2003). All Volumes (2001-2008). 98. http://digitalcommons.unf.edu/ojii_volumes/98

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the The sprO ey Journal of Ideas and Inquiry at UNF Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in All Volumes (2001-2008) by an authorized administrator of UNF Digital Commons. For more information, please contact Digital Projects. © 2003 All Rights Reserved "If the Spanish Would But Join" military strategy divided and therefore The Forgotten Implications of weakened Britain's forces through Spanish Involvement simultaneous battles in the Americas and Europe. joined the war because in the American Revolution American independence coincided with Spanish interests, yet its economic and Allison Coble military contributions influenced the course Faculty Sponsor: Dr. Michael Francis, of the American Revolution. Assistant Professor of History Relations between Britain, France and Spain as they existed on the eve of the Spain's Forgotten Role in the American revolution evolved over hundreds of years. Revolution There were numerous wars preceding the revolution, and the eighteenth century found The participation of other countries is a strengthening alliance between France and generally absent from most American Spain. The century began with the War of recollections of the Revolutionary War. The Spanish Succession. By the close of the war stories of the War of Independence in 1713, branches of the Bourbon Family generally invoke images of the young held the French and Spanish thrones. They colonies rebelling against the British shared a common enemy in Great Britain, monarchy, but how could a small strip of who became more powerful during the war. colonies break away from Britain unaided? The British increased their territory by Acknowledgement is given to the seizing Minorca and from Spain. French, if only briefly, for their presence at They also secured limited trading rights in the Battle of Yorktown, but Americans tends Latin America, which became a cover for to forget that France was the first ally of the black market and contraband trade in the United States. Even less attention is given to Spanish colonies.' another European county that aided the war Relations with Britain soured further effort. Although rarely mentioned in during the Seven Years War, which ended just textbooks, Spain played an important role in thirteen years before the United States America's War of Independence. declared its independence. France and Spain As a major colonial power in the experienced great losses in the war while Americas, Spain did not enter the war Great Britain made strong gains. Spain because its King believed that the British joined France in the war as part of the Third colonies had an inherent right to Family Compact of 1761, an agreement independence. However if the United States between the Bourbon houses of France and gained its independence, British colonial Spain. They agreed to combine forces against boundaries would be pushed further away Great Britain to defend their possessions, and from Latin America. The war also provided neither side would negotiate peace without a renewed opportunity to reclaim lands lost the consent of the other. 2 to Great Britain, including Florida, Minorca The brief involvement in the Seven and most importantly, the Rock of Gibraltar. Years War went badly for Spain. Eight American independence frequently seemed months after its official declaration of war, to hinge on possession of Gibraltar. Perhaps the British navy seized . British vessels if Britain had not held on to it so tightly, the also attacked and raided Spanish ships in war could have ended differently. the Caribbean. An estimated eleven million While initially participating in secret, dollars was lost due to the raids. 3 France Spain contributed weapons, supplies and faired even worse. By the end of the war, it money to fund the war. Then after formally lost most of its colonial possessions in the declaring war on Great Britain, the Spanish Americas. Canada fell to the control of

168 Osprey Journal of Ideas and Inquiry Great Britain, and France gave , Despite these ambitions for the course which included all of its territories west of of the war, Spanish officials wanted to the River, to Spain. Meanwhile participate secretly in the early years of the Britain expanded its North American conflict. Spain had to protect its own territories even further by extending their interests, namely its Latin American western boundary to the east coast of the colonies. To openly aid the revolution of , and the British secured British colonies could inspire subsequent the right to navigate the river: Britain also rebellions in Latin America. Officials were took control of Florida after Spain offered it also concerned about risking the loss of in order to recover Cuba. 5 Cuba or other territories in another war with The , which ended the Britain.' To safeguard Spanish interests by war, addressed another point of growing appearing to be neutral while still furthering conflict between Britain and Spain the revolution, Spaniards set up a network involving Central America. The British of agents among the British in the Americas established lumber operations in the area, and, most importantly, a method of and there were increasing numbers of funneling greatly needed supplies and skirmishes between the English and money into the colonies. Spanish. The British black market was also By the end of the war, the amounts of active in the region. With the treaty, Spain Spanish currency going into the United was forced to agree to no longer interfere States through were so with the English settlements.6 extensive that Spanish money was Despite these gains by Britain, the commonly seen throughout the colonies.9 Seven Years War ultimately resulted in the However Spain's initial contribution was revolt of its American colonies. Sparked by made in collaboration with France. In an increase in taxes to pay for Britain's war November of 1775, the Continental expenses, the American Revolution provided Congress established the Committee of a weakness that Spain and France could Secret Correspondence to solicit foreign aid, exploit. For Spain, the opportunity to push particularly from France and Spain.lo In Britain away from Latin America was too response, the foreign ministers of the two great to ignore. Louisiana provided a buffer countries set up the dummy company between the Spanish and British colonies, Roderique Hortalez et Cie in May 1776 but if the Americans gained their with one million livres in weapons and independence and Spain reclaimed Florida, supplies donated from each country. the southern boarder of the British Through this company, which was located territories would be pushed to Canada. in Paris but operated out of the Dutch Even before the United States declared Antilles, the two countries laundered money its independence, secret negotiations began and supplies to the American cause. I I It between the colonies, France and Spain. remained in operation until France and During these negotiations Jose Monillo y Spain officially entered the war. Redondo, the conde de Floridablanca, By the end of 1776, Spain was using outlined what Spain expected for entering the New Orleans to directly supply the war. Spain wanted to recover Gibraltar, American government. The Spanish city was Minorca and Florida, all of which were lost initially used for this purpose after General to Great Britain in previous wars. Spain also George Gibson led a band of men from Fort planned to seize British-held Jamaica and the Pitt to New Orleans, taking a route down the Bahamas and to eliminate all British Ohio and Mississippi Rivers. Gibson settlements on the east coast of Mexico, operated under the direction of the Honduras and Campeche, which were centers Committee of Secret Correspondence. They of illegal trade and smuggling operations.' collected nine thousand pounds of

Osprey Journal of Ideas and Inquiry 169 gunpowder at a Spanish establishment up the increase in British military activity on the river from' New Orleans. To avoid any Mississippi River. 17 suspicion by the British who had settlements In addition to the regular shipments, the along the Mississippi River, Louisiana's American government collected additional , Don Luis de Unzaga, placed money and materials from New Orleans Gibson under arrest. He was soon released when needed. For instance, in the Spring of and put on a vessel with more supplies. 12 1778 approximately thirty American troops Later that year, a Royal Order released traveled down the Ohio and Mississippi on December 24, 1776, declared that all Rivers to New Orleans, raiding British involved Spanish officials, specifically the settlements imd plantations along the way. of Havana and Louisiana, were to The expedition was organized by the give gunpowder and weapons to the Continental Congress as a way to retrieve Americans via free merchant ships.I3 In more supplies from New Orleans. To response, Jose de Galvez, the Minister of reinforce Spanish claims of neutrality, the Indies, implemented a plan for monthly Galvez notified his commanders on the river shipments of weapons, gunpowder, that English settlers fleeing the American ammunition and clothing. The shipments, troops could use Spanish establishments as which began in May 1777, routed the places of refuge. He also secretly informed supplies from Spain to Cuba and then to another commander to accept any New Orleans. I4 conquered territories that the Americans When the first shipment arrived, local may wish to tum over to Spain. When the customs officials did not know about the expedition reached New Orleans, the royal order governing the supplies due to its captured British property and slaves were level of secrecy. Because the bills of lading sold at public auction. The profits from the showed the Spanish government as the sale were in tum given to the Americans. owner of the shipment, they took control of Additional supplies were "sold" to Pollack, it and sent it to the garrison. In order to who transg0rted them upriver in the usual transfer the supplies to the Americans, manner. 1 When the British learned that Bernardo de Galvez, the newly appointed Galvez allowed the American raiders to governor of Louisiana and nephew of Jose remain in New Orleans, three British war de Galvez, announced that the garrison's ships separately sailed to New Orleans, each surplus of supplies would be sold at public demanding the return of the captured auction. The governor then gave money to a property. Galvez defused the situation by local merchant to buy the shipment. To returning some of the remaining property.I9 avoid future problems, subsequent As the American raiding party made its shipments were transported to New Orleans way to New Orleans, Spanish spies hiding on the merchant's ships and then stored in out in British reported to his warehouse. 15 Galvez that British troops mobilized in To transfer the shipments to the response to the American threat. 20 During American government, the Continental the period of neutrality, Bernardo de Galvez Congress used Oliver Pollack, a resident of sent agents into Florida to monitor British New Orleans. Pollack shipped the supplies activity and to report on their defenses. In up the Mississippi River to inland ports. In a July 1777 one of the agents in Pensacola letter to Galvez, the Continental Congress uncovered that there were two British agents asked the governor to extend protection to in New Orleans, and that the British Pollack and his shipment and to provide government was aware of the supplies given Pollack with money to cover the costs of the to the Americans. The British agents were transports. I6 These shipments continued over captured in New Orleans and banished from the course of the war, although the route Louisiana. 21 changed to the east coast following an

170 Osprey Journal of Ideas and Inquiry As the covert operations continued in would take away Spain's monopoly on the North America, open conflict erupted in trade at the mouth of river, plus the South America. Spain quickly used Britain's Mississippi could become a method for the distraction with the American Revolution to new country to push into Louisiana, the only its advantage. In late 1776, Spain overtook a division between the Americans and Mexico. British smuggling operation in Brazil. Then Floridablanca maintained that Spain must in 1777 Spanish forces attacked illegal retain sole access to the mouth of the river Portuguese and British trading posts in and consequently the Gulf of Mexico. Uruguay and Argentina. 22 Spanish officials ~rance's representative in the called the incidents in 1777 attacks on the negotiations, Charles Gravier Comte de Portuguese, and warned Britain that any Vergennes, repeatedly tried to convince interference could lead to a declaration of Floridablanca to compromise and enter the war. They were risking that British forces war with France.2s However as the would not be spared from the colonies to discussions with Spain dragged on, react. The tactic worked, and the Spaniards Vergennes negotiated an independent alliance shut down the smuggling operations. 23 Spain between France and the colonies. France and and Portugal negotiated a peace treaty in the United States entered into two treaties in October 1777. With the treaty, Great Britain February 1778, the Treaty of Amity and lost its ally.24 Commerce and the Treaty of Alliance. With While Spain established its position these treaties, France officially recognized against Great Britain in the Americas, the independence of the United States. The representatives from France and Spain French agreed that peace would not be continued to negotiate the terms of an open negotiated with Great Britain until the entrance into the war. Floridablanca was monarchy recognized its independence, and hesitant to officially enter the conflict. As he neither ally would declare peace without the expressed in December 1777, "Great consent of the other. 29 wisdom is necessary in order not to delude The French and Americans also signed ourselves nor to place ourselves on the a secret agreement regarding Spain. It precipice of a premature war in which any stipulated that if Spain entered the war, its fatal blow could backfire on Spain, the goals would be included in the peace country which has the most to lose under negotiations, and they would not negotiate the present circumstances."25 Floridablanca with Britain without Spain's consent. The pursued what was most beneficial for Spain. Americans also agreed that if the United Therefore he pressed for specific States took possession of Florida during the stipulations. From the beginning, Gibraltar war, they would return it to Spain if was always a requirement. He maintained Americans could have free navigation of the that if Spain entered the war, peace could Mississippi River.30 not be declared until it possessed Gibraltar.26 In February of 1779, Congress offered As the negotiations carried on another compromise in which Spain would throughout 1777 and into 1778, the future have sole navigation rights of the boundaries of the United States became a Mississippi River below thirty-first principal question. Would its boundaries be parallel. 31 Once again, Floridablanca limited to the boarders of the colonies, or refused. He also refused to compromise would the United States adopt the with France over Gibraltar. He was in a boundaries of the surrounding British position to make demands, because France territory, which extended to the Mississippi and the United States wanted Spain to River?27 If the United States expanded to the enter the war. George Washington stated in Mississippi River, its government would October of 1778, "If the Spanish would but expect navigation rights. Navigation rights join their fleets to France and commence

Osprey Journal of Ideas and Inquiry 171 hostilities, my doubts would all subside. led an overland march to Manchac in Without if I fear the British navy has it too September 1779, and the Spanish forces much in its power to counteract the overtook the British fortification. He schemes of France.m2 Finally in order to continued to Baton Rouge, which bring Spain into the war, Vergennes agreed surrendered on September 22, and then to to the demands over Gibraltar. 33 Fort Panmure in Natchez, which also On April 12, 1779 France and Spain surrendered. In one month England lost all entered into an alliance that officially of its ports on the Mississippi River, and brought Spain into the war. The Treaty of Spain cut off all aid to British Aranjuez was not a treaty with the United establishments on the river.39 States, and it did not make Spain a direct In the early months of 1780, Bernardo ally of the American colonies. However this de Galvez led a sea assault against Mobile. alliance with France tied Spain to the He then moved on to British-Florida. Since pursuit of American independence, because its early settlement, Florida held little value it stipulated that peace could not be for Spain as it lacked any valuable natural negotiated with Britain until the monarchy resources and held a relatively small native recognized the independence of the Untied popUlation. However British Florida was a States. It also stipulated that neither France threat to Spanish activities in the Gulf of nor Spain would negotiate peace without the Mexico and to Louisiana. Through his consent of the other. In tum the French agents, Galvez had detailed information on would not discuss peace without the consent the military infrastructure of Pensacola, the of the United States due to their alliance. seat of the civil and military government in This treaty also established that the war and Britain's key position in would continue until Spain held Gibraltar, the Gulf of Mexico:o His forces laid siege Minorca and Florida. 34 Before entering into to the settlement, and the British the alliance, Floridablanca gave a final surrendered Pensacola, thereby giving up opportunity to King George III. He offered their last foothold in the Gulf. Spanish neutrality if Britain would return As Bernardo de Galvez moved Gibraltar.35 George III refused, and Spain offensively against the British in North accepted the treaty. The Spanish America, his father, Jose de Galvez, government announced its declaration of commanded the Spanish armies in Central war against Britain on June 21, 1779. 36 America. After Spain's declaration of war, Before the declaration was made, word circulated of an impending British Bernardo de Galvez, the governor of invasion. British forces moved up the San Louisiana and Matias de Galvez, el Juan River in Central America. They were Presidente de la Audiencia de Guatemala, pushed back by Matias de Galvez's men, were instructed to prepare for open military who in tum attacked British-held Roatan, 37 4 conflict with the British. Both men Honduras. ! For the remainder of the war, he reported to Jose de Galvez in Cuba. The coordinated forces with the governor of the primary military plan for the war was to Yucatan to destroy all English settlements in divide and therefore weaken British forces the area. 42 through simultaneous battles in Europe and While these battles developed in the the Americas. Americas, combined French and Spanish They began in the Gulf of Mexico. As forces simultaneously led assaults in Jose de Galvez related, "Divisions should be Europe, specifically on Minorca and detached to clean out the English from the Gibraltar. The brunt of these Franco-Spanish banks of the Mississippi, which should be forces was set on Gibraltar, which was considered like an outer wall of New under constant assault throughout the war:3 Spain's vast empire."" Bernardo de Galvez Near the close of the war, the allies even

172 Osprey Journal of Ideas and Inquiry contemplated an invasion of England itself.44 As the European powers debated terms of . As the Spanish military continued its settlement, the United States held separate assault in Europe and the Americas, negotiations with Great Britain. Britain Floridablanca secretly organized agreed to recognize the independence of the negotiations with Great Britain in 1780. He United States and to relinquish its territories offered to withdraw from the war if Britain to the Mississippi River in return for would hand over Gibraltar. These secret navigation rights. Throughout the war, negotiations violated Spain's treaty with Floridablanca was determined to secure the France, but Floridablanca proposed a way to Mississippi for Spain, but had no control accommodate the Franco-Spanish and over the issue once it was settled between Franco-American treaties without Britain the United States and Britain. officially recognizing the independence of Meanwhile the fighting continued the colonies. His plan was for Britain to between the European powers. By this time, offer a truce in which the war would end, Bernardo de Galvez headed the West Indies and Britain and the colonies would retain operations, and he planned an attack on whatever areas they held at the time the British-held Jamaica. However the plan was truce was called. These negotiations abandoned after much of his forces were continued until early 1781, but King George sent to control a rebellion that erupted in refused each of his offers. 45 South American. 50 Meanwhile Franco­ George III was confident that Britain Spanish forces captured Minorca and kept would triumph in the war. However English Gibraltar under constant attack. Then on perspectives changed after the British September II, 1782, a British fleet of thirty­ General Charles Lord Cornwallis four naval vessels and over one hundred surrendered his 8000-man force at Yorktown, merchant ships defeated the allied forces. 51 Virginia on October 18 1781, after a nine­ Unable to take it by force, the Spanish could day battle with French and American no longer debate over Gibraltar. forces. 46 Spain was indirectly involved in the With little hope of recovering Gibraltar, battle. Jose de GaJvez released the French Spain relented to negotiations with Britain. fleet that blocked Chesapeake Bay from The parties agreed to an armistice and their position in the West Indies. They were preliminary accord, which included the replaced by the Spanish navy, which agreed agreements between the United States and to protect French possessions in the Britain. Representatives of Britain, France Caribbean. In addition, the battle was and Spain signed the Treaty of Paris at financed by money from the Spanish Versailles on January 20, 1783.52 For its 4 government. ' Perhaps most importantly, efforts in the Revolution, Spain recovered however, Spain divided British naval forces possession of Florida and Minorca through through the battles in Europe and Central the treaty, but it could not regain the coveted America. In defense of Gibraltar, Britain did Rock of Gibraltar. not send naval reinforcements to the The colonies declared their American colonies:s Reinforcements may independence at a time when Spain and have overcome the French blockade and France welcomed an opportunity to defeat changed the course of the war. the British. Spaniards participated in the war After the defeat at Yorktown, British out of their own interests in weakening public opinion turned against the war and Britain, regaining territories lost in on February 27, 1782, the House of preceding wars and pushing the British Commons voted to end all offensive away from Latin America. Pursuit of these military action against the Americas:9 interests coincided with the needs of the However, Floridablanca was not willing to Revolution. However the question remains, seriously negotiate peace without Gibraltar. what would have happened if Spain's

Osprey Journal of Ideas and Inquiry 173 interests were no longer aligned with those Yorktown, but if the British fleet protecting of the United States? Gibraltar was in the colonies instead, Floridablanca appeared always eager to perhaps it could have overcome the French trade American independence for Gibraltar, blockade and won the battle. but George III would not agree. Perhaps the Regardless of these possibilities, the war would have had a different outcome if Revolution remained aligned with Spain's King George had not held on to it so tightly. interests, and Spain contributed to the If Floridablanca had his way, Spain may American cause throughout the Revolution. have withdrawn from the war, taking with it Spanish financial aid sustained the war, the supplies, money and military power it while its military power drew British forces added to the American cause. Great Britain way from the colonies to Europe and Latin undoubtedly could have concentrated its America. Therefore although never an ally forces in the colonies if there was not a of the United States, Spain was directly tied need to combat the assault on Gibraltar. The to the American pursuit of independence. turning point of the war was the Battle of

174 Osprey Journal of Ideas and Inquiry I Raymond Carr, Spain: A History, 20 Bemis, 88. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001) 27 Bemis, 94. 174. 2S Bemis, 94. 29 "Treaty of Alliance" and "Treaty of 2 James W. Cortada, Two Nations Over Time: Spain and the United States, 1776- Amity and Commerce Between the United 1977, (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1978) 4. States and France," in Treaties and Other International Acts of the United States of 3 Samuel Flagg Bemis, The Diplomacy of the American Revolution, (Bloomington: America, Vol 2, ed. Hunter Miller, Indiana University Press, 1957), 11. (Washington: Government Printing Office, 193q. 4 "Treaty of Paris 1763," in Treaties and Other International Acts of the United 30 "Act Separate and Secret Between the States ofAmerica, Vol 2, ed. Hunter Miller, United States and France," in Treaties and (Washington: Government Printing Office, Other International Acts of the United 1931), Article VII. States of America, Vol 2, ed. Hunter Miller, (Washington: Government Printing Office, S "Treaty of Paris 1763," Article XIX and XX. 1931). o "Treaty of Paris 1763," Article XVII. 31 Bemis, 105 32 Bemis, 110. 7 Thomas E. Chavez, Spain and the Independence of the United States: An 33 Bemis, Ill. Intrinsic Gift, (Albuquerque: University of 34 Chavez, 133. New Mexico Press, 2002) 8. 35 Cortada, 7. , Cortada, 6. 30 Chavez, 133. 37 Chavez, 89. 9 Townsend Cummins, Spanish Observers of the American Revolution, 1775 3S Reparaz, 35. - 1783, (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State 39 Reparaz, 39. University Press, 1991), 108. 40 Nixon Orwin Rush, Spain's Final Triumph Over Great Britain in the Gulf of 10 Chavez, 49. " Chavez, 49. Mexico: The Battle of Pensacola, March 9 to May 8, 1781, (Tallahassee: Florida State 12 Chavez, 31. University, 1966), 2. 13 Chavez, 49. 41 Chavez, 14. 14 Cummins, 78. 42 Chavez, 134. 15 Cummins, 80. 43 Carr, 175. 16 Cummins, 84. 44 Chavez, 147. 17 Chavez, 109. 45 Benis, 105. 18 Cummins, 88. 46 Chavez, 198. 19 Cummins, 88. 47 Chavez, 203. 20 Cummins, 99. 4' Chavez, 201. 21 Cummins, 6 49 Chavez, 206. 22 Chavez, 42. 50 Chavez, 205. 23 Chavez, 43. 51 Bemis, 127. 24 Chavez, 64. 52 "Treaty of Paris 1783," in Treaties 25 Carmen de Reparaz, I Alone: Bernardo de Galvez and the Taking of and Other International Acts of the United Pensacola in 1781: A Spanish Contribution States of America, Vol 2, ed. Hunter Miller, to the Independence of the United States, (Washington: Government Printing Office, Translated by Walter Rubin, (Madrid: 1931 ). Ediciones de Cultura Hispanica, 1993) 32.

Osprey Journal of Ideas and Inquiry 175 References Cummins, Light Townsend. Spanish Observers of the American Revolution, 1775 "Act Separate and Secret Between the - 1783. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State United States and France." In Treaties and University Press, 1991. OtherInternational Acts of the United States ofAmerica, Vol 2, ed. Hunter Miller. Dull, Jonathan R. A Diplomatic History Washington: Government Printing Office, of the American Revolution. New Haven: 1931. Yale University Press, 1985.

Bemis, Samuel Flagg. The Diplomacy Galvez,. Bernardo de. Diario de las of the American Revolution. Bloomington: Operaciones de la Expedicion Contra la Indiana University Press, 1957. plaza de Panzacola concluida por las arrnas de S. M. 43 cat6lica, baxo las 6rdenes del Cardinales de Dos Independencias: mariscal de campo D. Bernardo de Galvez. Noreste de Mexico-Sureste de los Estados Tallahassee: Florida State University, 1966. Unidos: Memoria del Simposio Celebrado Fisher, John Robert. The Economic Aspects of en la Universidad Iberoamericana, con la Spanish Imperialism in America, 1492-1810. Colaboraci6n de la Universidad de Florida Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1997. los dfas 29 y 30 de noviembre de 1976 con motivo del Bicentenario de la Independencia Haarmann, Albert W. "The Spanish de los Estados Unidos. Mexico: Fomento Conquest of British West Florida, 1779- Cultural Banamex, 1978. 1781," Florida Historical Quarterly XXXIX. St. Augustine: Florida Historical Society Carr, Raymond. Spain: A History. (1960) 107-134. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001. "Proclamation Declaring the Cessation Chadwick, French Ensor, 1844-1919. of Arms: April 11, 1783." In Treaties and The Relations of the United States and Other International Acts of the United Spain, Diplomacy. New York: C. Scribner's States of America, Vol 2, ed. Hunter Miller. Sons, 1909. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1931. Chavez, Thomas E. Spain and the Independence of the United States: An Reparaz, Carmen de. I Alone: Bernardo Intrinsic Gift. Albuquerque: University of de Galvez and the Taking of Pensacola in New Mexico Press, 2002. 1781: A Spanish Contribution to the Independence of the United States. Codinach, Jimenez, Estela Guadalupe. Translated by Walter Rubin. Madrid: The Hispanic World, 1492-1898: A Guide to Ediciones de Cultura Hispanica, 1993. Photoreproduced Manuscripts from Spain in the Collections of the United States, Guam, Rush, Nixon Orwin. Spain's Final and Puerto Rico. Washington: Library of Triumph Over Great Britain in the Gulf of Congress, 1994. Mexico: The Battle of Pensacola, March 9 to May 8, 1781. Tallahassee: Florida State Cortada, James W. Two Nations Over University, 1966. Time: Spain and the United States, 1776- 1977. Westport: Greenwood Press, 1978.

176 Osprey Journal of Ideas and Inquiry Servies, James A. The Log of H.M.S. "Treaty of Paris 1763." In Treaties and Mentor, 1780-1781: A New Account of the Other International Acts of the United British Navy at Pensacola. Pensacola: States of America, Vol 2, ed. Hunter Miller. University Presses of Florida, 1982. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1931. Servies, James A. The , 1781: A Bibliography. "Treaty of Paris 1783." In Treaties and Pensacola: John C. Pace Library, 1981. Other International Acts of the United States of America, Vol 2, ed. Hunter Miller. Tarrag6, Rafael E. Early U.S.-Hispanic Washjngton: Government Printing Office, Relations, 1776-1860: An Annotated 1931. Bibliography. Metuchen: Scarecrow Press, 1994. Whitaker, Arthur Preston. Documents Relating to the Commercial Policy of Spain "Treaty of Alliance." In Treaties and in the : With Incidental Reference Other International Acts of the United to Louisiana. DeLand: Florida State States of America, Vol 2, ed. Hunter Miller. Historical Society, 1931. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1931.

"Treaty of Amity and Commerce Between the United States and France," Paris. February 6, 1778.

Osprey Journal of Ideas and Inquiry 177