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CHAPTER Basic small 1

LEVEL1 p22623_gg_hill's_2011_vna_mas_chapter_1_VNA 2005Master05/12/201108:55Page2 VNA 1 • CHAPTER 1 C Contents 1 1.5 Building yourportfolio • Self-assessment questions • Summaryofkey points • 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.6 .. ieto 22 . 1.4.2 .. niiulmnrl ...... 31 . minerals Individual 1.5.4 30 . levels Recommended 1.5.3 29 . . Absorption 1.5.2 28 . Function 1.5.1 .. xeso eiinis 23 . deficiencies or Excess 1.4.4 22 . levels Recommended 1.4.3 21 . Function 1.4.1 19 . deficiencies or Excess 1.3.4 17 . levels Recommended 1.3.3 15 . Digestion 1.3.2 14 . Function 1.3.1 11 . levels Recommended 1.2.3 10 . Digestion 1.2.2 9 . Function 1.2.1 ieas 27 . Minerals abhdae ...... 8 . nixdns 35 . Antioxidants a ...... 19 . 12 . ae ...... 7 . . 2 eeim 34 . . Selenium 34 . . Copper 33 . . Zinc 33 . Iron 33 . 32 . chloride and , 31 . and ir 10 . . Fibre 10 . starches and carbohydrates Simple 9 . Fibre 9 . starches and carbohydrates Simple p22623_gg_hill's_2011_vna_mas_chapter_1_VNA 2005Master05/12/201108:55Page3 3 2 4 Buildingyourportfolio • questions Self-assessment • ofkey points Summary • Building yourportfolio • Self-assessmentquestions • Summaryofkeypoints • 3.3 3.2 Buildingyourportfolio • questions Self-assessment • Summary ofkeypoints • 2.3 1.7 Building your portfolio • Self-assessmentquestions • Summaryofkeypoints • 3.1 2.2 2.1 Differences betweendogsandcats contentoffood Energy .. niiulvtmn 40 . Individual 1.7.4 39 . levels Recommended 1.7.3 38 . Absorption 1.7.2 37 . Function 1.7.1 iais 37 . . Vitamins nrybsscmaio ...... 56 . comparison basis Energy 55 . comparison matter Dry 54 . comparison fed As 49 . requirements Energy 48 . requirements energy of Calculation 47 . food of content Energy 3 lvnis 43 . . Flavonoids 43 . Carotenoids 42 . L-Carnitine 42 C . 42 . B-complex Vitamin 41 . K Vitamin 41 . E Vitamin 40 D . Vitamin 40 A . Vitamin

VNA 1 • CHAPTER 1 p22623_gg_hill's_2011_vna_mas_chapter_1_VNA 2005Master05/12/201108:55Page4 VNA 1 • CHAPTER 1 4 p22623_gg_hill's_2011_vna_mas_chapter_1_VNA 2005Master05/12/201108:55Page5 L Learning outcomes build yourdailyworkandmaybefuturecareer. of cake.Remember,VNAissupposedtobealotfunonwhichyoucan If youaredoingwellwiththesequestions,thefinalexammayproveapiece the finalexam. throughout thetext.Answeringthesequestionswillalsobegoodpracticefor To helpyouseehowaredoing,self-evaluationquestionsgiven thereasonwhycatsanddogsneeddifferenttypesoffood. explain • providecorrectrecommendationsforhowmuchfoodtofeedperdayby • comparetwodifferentpetfoodsbasedoncalculationsdrymatterbasis • adviseclientswiththebestpossiblerecommendationsbasedonyour • defineandexplainbasicterminologylikeproteins,aminoacids,energyetc. • skills thatwillenableyouto: these canbeapplied.Bytheendofthischapter,youwillhavegainedaset This chaptercoversthebasicterminologyandconceptsofnutritionhow calculating theDailyEnergyRequirement(DER) and energybasis understanding oftheimportancedifferentnutrients 5

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NUTRIENTS VNA 1 • CHAPTER 1 The sixbasicnutrients.Carbohydrates, andproteinsmaybeusedforenergybutalsoserveasstructuralcomponents. Nutrients aredividedintosixbasiccategories 1 Some nutrientsprovide Let yourclientknow vitamins. but onlymicrogramsofcertain requirekilogramsofwater example, bothhumansand varying amountsperday.For Different nutrientsareneededin like petrolinacar. provide thebodywithfuel,just , fatsandcarbohydrates AE ABHDAE RTISFTMNRL VITAMINS MINERALS FAT PROTEINS CARBOHYDRATES WATER

ENERGY Nutrients energy . Definition essential ornon-essential. component offood,whichmaybe Nutrient: Essential aminoacids:gramsperday Essential fattyacids:gramsperday Microminerals: milligramsperday Micrograms tomilligramsperday Macrominerals: gramsperday Glucose: gramsperday A metabolicallyuseful kilograms perday Carbohydrates Vitamins Minerals Protein Water Fat 6 “ poison. Thedosagemakesit Nutriment isbothfoodand either poisonorremedy. T. B.vonHohenheim from thefood. in thebodyandmustbeobtained nutrient thatcannotbesynthesised Essential nutrient: Any required ” p22623_gg_hill's_2011_vna_mas_chapter_1_VNA 2005Master05/12/201108:55Page7 for a4kgcat. ml mlperkgbodyweightperday;e.g.,200 would normallyneedaround50 to itsdailyenergyintakeinkilocalories.Thismeansthatahealthydogorcat The amountofwaterananimalshouldconsumeperdayisroughlyequivalent oftheirwater,itwillmeandeath. 15% lose almostalltheirfatandhalfproteinstillsurvive,butifthey Water isthemostimportantnutrientofallandessentialforlife.Animalscan Water 1.1 Clinical note lactation • increasedtemperatureofthe • due to: water lossesincrease.Thiscouldbe A petneedsextrawaterwhen and lossofmoisture) surroundings (causespanting severebleeding. • vomiting • diarrhoea • (increasedurine polyuria • bodytemperature increased • production) 7 .Theamountofwateracat 2. Clean,freshwatershould 1. Let yourclientknow energy density. content willusuallyhavealow so afoodwithhighmoisture Water hasnoenergyvalue, or determines its producing nutrientsinfood The proportionofenergy Definition energy density it providespartofthedaily content thandryfood,so food hasahigherwater eats. Forexample,canned depending onwhatfoodit or adogdrinkswillvary and excessivelyvomiting. except ifthepetispersistently always befreelyavailable water requirement. energy content .

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NUTRIENTS – Carbohydrates VNA 1 • CHAPTER 1 . glucose. Glucoseisclassifiedasa Composition ofthedietarycarbohydrate, Carbohydrates 1.2 The nutrientsthatsupplyuswithenergyarecarbohydrates,proteinsandfat. Energy-producing nutrients are theendproducts. cell’), carbondioxideandwater energy, ATP(the‘gasolineofthe When glucoseismetabolisedas Interesting fact HO (glu) (glu) D-glucose OH CH 2 OH OH O OH Rapidly fermentablefibre Moderately fermentablefibre Slowly fermentablefibrelikecellulose Starches Lactose Sugars Definition Iftheycontainfructose, theyare • raffinose) sugarunits(e.g., 3–9 • .Oligosaccharides 2. (e.g.,lactose) Disaccharides • glucose) (e.g., • Simplesugars 1. Carbohydrates (FOS) called fructooligo ( which consistoftwosugarunits ( di: Mono: two) one; saccharide: are: 8 saccharides ( oligo: sugar) few) be definedbasedondigestibility. complex carbohydratesandcan arealsocalled Fibres(e.g.,cellulose,pectins) • amylose, (e.g., Starches • Polysaccharides 3. glycogen) Guar gum Citrus pulp Apples Rice bran Wheat bran Potatoes Oats Barley Rice Wheat Corn Dairy products(milksugar) Milk Fruits Source Wheat bran Pea fibre Honey ( poly: many) p22623_gg_hill's_2011_vna_mas_chapter_1_VNA 2005Master05/12/201108:55Page9 Fibre hastwomajorfunctions: Function offibre of glucose.Assuch,theyhaveseveralmajorfunctions,they: Simple carbohydratesandstarchesinfoodsareusedbythebodyasasource Functionofsimplecarbohydrates 1.2.1 .tohelpmaintainthehealthofcolon,e.g.,byprovidingfuelforcells. 2. topromoteandregulatenormalbowelfunction: 1. .providestorageofenergyintheformglycogenorfat. 4. canbeusedasbuildingblocksforothernutrients(e.g.,certainamino 3. produceheatwhentheyaremetabolisedforenergy 2. provideenergy 1. indogswithrapidtransittime,fibreincreasesit • indogswithslowtransittime,fibreshortensit • acids, lactose(thesugarinmilk)andvitaminC) and starches 9 down. from bacteriacanbreakthem are linkedsothatonlyenzymes break themdown.Sugarsinfibre mammals’ digestivesystemscan such awaythattheenzymesin Sugars instarchesarelinked Interesting fact converted intobodyfat. Excess carbohydrateswillbe Clinical note an effect. of waterforthefibretohave constipation needstodrinklots Remember thatapetwith both constipationanddiarrhoea. means thatfibrehelpsprevent in theintestinalcontent,which Fibre increasesbulkandwater Let yourclientknow

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NUTRIENTS – Carbohydrates VNA 1 • CHAPTER 1 problems withdigestingmilk. lactase andthereforehave dogs andcatsproduceverylittle that breaksdownlactose.Adult islactase–theenzyme digestion. Oneofthebrushborder area producesenzymesusedin is calledthe‘brushborder’.This lumen ofthelininggut The veryedge,towardsthe Clinical note absorption. carbohydrate digestionand are importantinthefinalstagesof intestinal mucosalbrushborder intestine. Enzymesatthesmall sugars inthelumenofsmall digest themajorityofstarchesand Enzymes secretedbythepancreas Interesting fact caries asmuchhumans. that catsanddogsdonotdevelop mouth. Thisisoneofthereasons starch doesnotbreakdowninthe amylase intheirsaliva.Therefore, Dogs andcatslacktheenzyme Clinical note Liver Stomach Spleen inyDescendingcolon Kidney cells oftheintestine. becomes availablethroughfermentationandtherestcanbenefit themucosal they havetousefermentation.Themicrobesonlypartof the energythat without) becausetheycanlivewithoutoxygen.Toproduceenergy forsurvival, The bacteria(microbes)inthelargeintestinearecalledanaerobes( environment withlittleornooxygeninsuchawaythattheyyieldenergy. Fermentation istheprocesswherecarbohydratesarebrokendowninan Digestion offibre digestive tractandinvolves: Digestion ofsimplecarbohydratesandstarchesoccursthroughoutthe Digestionofsimplecarbohydrates 1.2.2 Interesting fact fgases. of chain fattyacids,andintheform containing compoundscalledshort- is intheformofsmaller,energy- The energythatmicrobesproduce .microbialprocesses: c. enzymaticprocesses: b. mechanicalprocesses: a. additionalenergyisproducedherebyfermentationoffibres. • largeintestine–intestinalmicrobes(bacteria)produceenzymes • intestine–enzymesmostofthecarbohydratedigestion small • the stomach–gastricjuices(e.g.,hydrochloricacidandpepticacid) • downinthemouth break • takes placehere – onlyalittlecarbohydratedigestionoccurshere and starches Small intestine Urinary bladder 10 Ureter Cardiac portion of thestomach antrum Pyloric mucosal cells. they canbeusedforenergybythe substrates forthehostanimalas Short-chain fattyacidsarevaluable Line ofdissection Esophagus Body portionof the stomach an : the stomach Portion of Fundus Gastric folds p22623_gg_hill's_2011_vna_mas_chapter_1_VNA 2005Master05/12/201108:56Page11 economical andeasilydigested energysource. metabolism tosupplytheglucose precursors.Sugarsandstarchesarean Without dietarycarbohydrates, thereisaddedstrainonlipidandprotein glucose precursorstoprovideessentialfuelforthecentralnervous system. provided. Theydo,however,havearequirementforadequate glucoseor their dietinthewaythatessentialaminoacidsorfattymust be Dogs andcatsdonothaveanabsoluterequirementforcarbohydrates in Recommendedlevels 1.2.3 functions offibre. fermentation areimportantcharacteristicswhendiscussingphysiologic are producedinashortperiodoftime.Therateandextentfibre more rapidlyafibreisfermented,thegasesandshort-chainfattyacids Some fibresaremorerapidlyfermentedthanothers(seefigurebelow).The tract ofdogsandcats. Relative degreeoffermentationvariousdietaryfibresourcesinthegastrointestinal monocytogenes bacteria. Bacteria: colourenhancedscanningelectronmicrograph(SEM)ofListeria Cellulose Peanut hulls Soybean hulls Beet pulp Slowly fermentable Bran Soy fibre Guar gum Pectin 11 fermentable Rapidly constipation. • inflammatoryboweldisease • helps alleviatethesymptomsof: Increases faecalbulkwhich byreducingthesurgeinblood • mellitus: Helps tocontroldiabetes bydelayinggastricemptying, • byslowingdownthe • reducinginteractionsof by • Helps tomanageobesity: advantages: fermentable fibrehasseveral faeces byholdingwater.Slowly fermentable fibresbulkupthe Moderately andslowly Clinical note the petisfedindiscriminately. flatulence andevendiarrhoeaif effect. Thiscancauseunpleasant in thedietmayhavealaxative A highleveloffermentablefibre Clinical note tend tofartmore. is produced–inshort,thepetwill fermented, themoreintestinalgas The morerapidlyafibreis Let yourclientknow and otherGIdisorders (beneficial indiabetesmellitus) sugar thathappensaftermeals fullness forlonger thus providingasensationof absorption ofnutrients provide fewercalories digested lessandtherefore surfaces, sothenutrientsare enzymes andepithelial food particleswithdigestive

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NUTRIENTS – Proteins VNA 1 • CHAPTER 1 molecules composedofhundreds Proteins: Definition adversemetaboliceffects: b. maldigestion: a. in ,suchas: dry matterbasiscausesproblems More than40%carbohydrateon Clinical note to thousandsofaminoacids. carbohydrates causeavarietyofproblems: synthesis inmilk.Dietswithnoorlowcontentof need forglucosetosupportfoetalgrowthandlactose has shownthatgestationandlactationincreasethe differences thatlimittheirabilitytoefficientlyuselarge protein content.Catsalsohavesomeuniquemetabolic • excretion ofsignificant excretion • hyperglycaemia • gas. • bloating • diarrhoea • the urine. amounts ofglucosein large, complex causes noadverseaffect.Researchindogs carbohydrate, mostlystarchandthis Dry dogfoodstypicallycontain30–60% CANINE CARBOHYDRATEREQUIREMENTS a lowcarbohydratecontentandhigh blood glucoselevelswhenfedadietwith Normally, catscanmaintainadequate FELINE CARBOHYDRATEREQUIREMENTS properties, e.g.,theproteinsof hair,skin,muscle,hormonesorantibodies. infinite varietyofnaturallyoccurring proteins,eachwithitsowncharacteristic aminoacidscanbearrangedin anycombinationgivinganalmost These 21 in animalproteins. areused yarn. Althoughtherearehundredsofdifferentaminoacids,only21 is thenbundledintotoathree-dimensionalstructure,liketangledballof To makeaprotein,aminoacidsarelinkedtogetherinlongchain.Thechain 1.3 Proteins 12 reduced milkproduction • • foetal abnormalities • reduced motheringabilitiesofthebitch • •lethargy reduced numberoflivebirths • more than40%drymatterbasis,problemscanoccur. tolerated wellbycatsbutiflevelsofcarbohydratesare forexplanationofdrymatterbasis)are basis (seep.55 carbohydrate upto35%ofthefoodonadrymatter amounts ofabsorbeddietarycarbohydrates.Levels embryo resorption p22623_gg_hill's_2011_vna_mas_chapter_1_VNA 2005Master05/12/201108:56Page13 must besuppliedbyfood.Thesearecalledessentialaminoacids. are somethatcannotbesynthesisedinsufficientquantitiesandtherefore Many aminoacidscanbesynthesisedfromotherswithinthebodybutthere Protein structure. Interesting fact ESSENTIAL AMINOACIDS .Acarboxylgroup(COOH–one 2. Ahydrogen(H)atom 1. groups: Amino acidsalwayscontainfour a (H)atom) (C),twooxygen(O)and Phenylalanine Tryptophan carbon Alpha Arginine Leucine H n-terminal c –HC HC–ONH–CH–COOH NH–CH–CO N–CH–CO R b Histidine Taurine Valine Lysine etd odManyamino Peptide bond .Anaminogroup(NH 3. .Achemicalgroupthatisspecific 4. e.g., SulphurorSO. for eachindividualaminoacid, (H) atoms) (N)andtwohydrogen 13 Methionine Threonine acids Isoleucine R =differentchemicalgroupsandthusaminoacids nR Rn 2 – one etd odCarboxyl Peptide bond of protein. meal issuchanimportantsource iswhytheingredientmeat This relatively lowproteincontent. protein whereasfattissuehasa tissue, forexample,isveryrichin quantities thanothers.Muscle but somecontainsitinhigher All tissueismadeupofprotein, Clinical note tissue. dogs, isonlyfoundinanimal amino acidforcatsbutnot Taurine, whichisanessential Clinical note amino acid c

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NUTRIENTS – Proteins VNA 1 • CHAPTER 1 energy insteadofrepair. because proteinwillbeusedfor enough toeat,especiallyifitisill, facatstarvesordoesn’tget if This cancausehealthproblems oproduceenergy. to blocks’, proteinwillstillbeused diet forreplenishing‘building enough proteinavailableinthe because, evenifthereisnot requirement thandogs.Thisis Cats haveahighertotalprotein Clinical note may alsobeusedasasourceof dietaryenergy. If thereismoreproteinavailable thannecessaryforbuildingblocks,proteins replenishment andrepair. structural roleinallcellwalls.Proteinsarerequiredfortissue growth, Proteins areoftendescribedasthe‘backbone’ofcellsbecause theyhavea antibodies. 7. hormones 6. enzymes 5. bloodproteins(haemoglobin,transferrin,albuminandglobulins) 4. skin,hairandnails(keratin) 3. theelementofmusclesthatcontract(actinandmyosin) 2. cartilage,tendonsandligaments(collagen andelastin) 1. i Proteins aretheessentialbuildingblocksofalltissuesandorgansbody Function 1.3.1 ncluding: AND ELASTIN Skin, hairandnails Insulin, oestrogen, Cartilage, tendons HORMONES COLLAGEN and ligaments KERATIN etc. SUBSTANCE NYEEZM NYEENZYME ENZYME ENZYME 14 transferrin, albumin Haemoglobin, PROTEINS ENZYMES and globulins BLOOD REACTION PRODUCT AB are thefilamentsof lymphocytes inthe ANTIBODIES ACTIN AND immune system produced by MYOSIN the muscles p22623_gg_hill's_2011_vna_mas_chapter_1_VNA 2005Master05/12/201108:56Page15 and efficiently. value becausethenecessaryaminoacidswillbesuppliedmoreeasily However, thepetneedslessofitcomparedtoaproteinwithlowbiological When afoodproteinhashighbiologicalvalue,itisusuallymoreexpensive. andwhenmostareabsorbedretained(hasahighdigestibility). b. closelymatchananimal’srequirementsfor them a. (EAAs) inamountswhich: said tohaveahighbiologicalvalueifitsuppliestheessentialaminoacids The qualityofaproteinisindicatedbyitsBiologicalValue(BV).A • In thesmallintestine, thepolypeptidesarebrokendownintoaminoacids In • arebroken downinthestomachformingsmallerfragments Proteins • Digestion hasseveralsteps: the nextpage). Dietary proteinmustbedigestedtoabsorbedfromthegut(seefigureon Digestion 1.3.2 small intestine. the actionofenzymesproducedbypancreasandcellslining that canbeabsorbedthroughtheintestinalwall.Thistakesplace or noabsorptionoccurshere. the actionofenzymepepsininpresencehydrochloricacid.Little consisting ofmanyaminoacids(polypeptides).Thisstageisperformedby 15 proteindigestibility. • acidprofile amino • Biological valuedependson: Interesting fact EAA: Definitions deficient intheessentialamino biological valueislowbecauseit very highdigestibilitybutthe from animalcollagen.Gelatinehas Gelatine: Definition are relativetothatofegg. 100. Allotherproteinpercentages been assignedabiologicalvalueof in theintestinesandhastherefore animals. Eggisveryeasilydigested matches therequirementsofmost The profileofEAAsinegg Clinical note BV: acid tryptophan. Biological Value. Essential AminoAcid a proteinsourcederived

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NUTRIENTS – Proteins VNA 1 • CHAPTER 1 .surplususedforenergy. 3. synthesisofenzymes,albumin,hormones andothercompounds 2. tissueproteinsynthesis 1. three generalcategories: other tissuesofthebody.Thefateaminoacidsafterabsorptionfallsinto The absorbedaminoacidsarereassembledinto‘new’proteinsbytheliverand 16 .DIGESTION 1. .ACTIVITYINTHELIVER 4. ABSORPTION 3. DIGESTION 2. through blood Amino acidspass • Surplus usedasenergy Surplus • of: Synthesis • oftissueproteins Synthesis • portal vein livervia to intestine Blood flowfromsmall Into theblood Polypeptides lining ofsmallintestine Enzymes frompancreasand Protein stomach the Hydrochloric acidproducedin •etc. hormones • albumin • enzymes •  Polypeptides  Amino acids p22623_gg_hill's_2011_vna_mas_chapter_1_VNA 2005Master05/12/201108:56Page17 the betteritis. required proportions.Inotherwords,thecloserbiological value isto100, acids thatarenecessarytosynthesiseaspecificproteinmustbe presentinthe to becorrect.Whenaminoacidsareusedforproteinsynthesis, alltheamino Not onlytheamountsofproteinbutalsoproportionaminoacidsneed of extraproteinasbuildingblocksfortissuerepair. information, readVNA3).Insimpleterms,intheseconditionsyouneedalot need extradailyprotein,becausetheyareinahypermetabolicstate.(Formore increased needofprotein,e.g.,patientswithcancer,burnsandtraumamay The pathophysiologicalstateofthepetcanalsomeanthatthereisan maintenance proteinrequirement’. The amountofdietaryproteinthatmustbeconsumedeachdayistermed‘the replace thelossofnitrogenviafaeces,urine,sweat,hairetc. the bodyfortissuerepairandnewcells,toreplenisholdbloodproteins Adult animalsneeddietaryproteintoreplacetheaminoacidsthatareusedin Recommended levels 1.3.3 to thelesstoxicureainliverandexcretedurine. which istoxictobodycells.Ammoniathenconverted Protein breakdownleadstotheproductionofammonia, organ tissues. it willbreakdownmuscletissuefirstandthenbody has aneedformoreaminoacidsthanitgetsfromfood, excess proteincannotbestoredinthebody.Ifbody Even ifyoufeedadietwithhighproteincontent,the protein catabolism the breakdowniscalled called The build-upofnewproteinis Definition a drymatterbasisforgrowing dogs. However,thisis nadymte ai o dl osad95 on on adrymatterbasisforadult dogs and9.5% protein anabolism extremely high-qualityproteinis6.0% requirement fordogsthatarefedan The absoluteminimumdietaryprotein CANINE PROTEINREQUIREMENTS . and 17 22% and for adult dogs 18% on adrymatterbasis. on 22% andforadultdogs18% biological valueforgrowingdogs shouldbeatleast recommended dailyallowanceofproteinwithanaverage Control Officials(AAFCO)hasestablishedthata extremely low.TheAmericanAssociationofFeed PROTEIN CATABOLISM KIDNEY Urea Urea United States. official petfoodregulationsinthe AAFCO: Definition to promotegrowth. higher amountsofprotein and lactatinganimalsneed Young animalsandpregnant Let yourclientknow physiology ofdisease. of disorderedfunction,i.e.,the Pathophysiology: Definition Amino Acids Ammonia Urine the agencythatdevelops LIVER the physiology Protein

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NUTRIENTS – Fats VNA 1 • CHAPTER 1 Normal kidney Kidney withchronic Kidney Normal kidney for ahealthylife. ensure thebestpossiblesupport feed agoodqualitypetfoodto Therefore, theclientshouldalways to behealthyarefreeofdisease. Not alldogsandcatsthatappear Let yourclientknow other pets. requirements thanmost adult catshavehigherprotein Both growingkittensand Let yourclientknow available proteinsources,AAFCOhasrecommended requirements. Forcommercialfoodusingcommonly foradultcats.Again,thesearethe 14% Renal artery Renal vein Ureter Renal pelvis dry matterbasisforgrowingkittens,and on protein estimated tobearound24% tThe minimumrequirementhasbeen FELINE PROTEINREQUIREMENTS renal sinus Fat inthe Renal CutSurface Capsule Kidney Clinical note Clinical note excessive amountsofprotein Losing Enteropathy,thebodyloses Losing NephropathyorProtein- In certaindiseases,likeProtein- functional renaltissueislost. point thattwo-thirdsormoreof the diseasehasprogressedto disease areusuallysub-clinicaluntil Dogs andcatswithchronicrenal minimum Medulla Cortex 18 renal disease requirement, whichisnotappropriateforhealthycats. times theminimumprotein foodscontain2–4 and as adailyallowance.Noticethatthisisallowance onadrymatterbasis,respectively, protein and 26% that foodsforkittensandadultcatscontainatleast30% not a minimumrequirement.Somecommercial deficiency tooccur. the typicalsymptomsofprotein .Thiscauses through eitherthekidneysor disease progresses. worst caseofhangovers...)asthe acidaemia (lowbloodpH–likethe Protein excessmaycontributeto Pale, shrunken,firmkidney with apittedsurface Scarring p22623_gg_hill's_2011_vna_mas_chapter_1_VNA 2005Master05/12/201108:57Page19 nutritional characteristicsofthe lipid. alcohol .Thespecificfatty acidspresentdeterminethephysicaland three moleculesofacertainfatty acidcombinedwithamoleculeofthe Dietary fats(lipids)mainlyconsistoftriglycerides.Atriglyceride consistsof Fats 1.4 death. • oedema(fluidaccumulatinginthebodytissues) • susceptibilitytodisease increased • muscle wasting • dullhaircoat • anaemia • anorexia • poorgrowthorweightloss • Protein deficiencymayleadto: protein orfromadeficiencyofparticularaminoacid. For bothdogsandcatsproteindeficiencycanresultfrominsufficientdietary where kidneydiseaseismoreprevalentthaninyoungerpets. Therefore, anexcessofdietaryproteinshouldbeavoidedintheolderpet High levelsofproteincanbedamagingtopatientswithkidneyproblems. Proteinexcessordeficiencyin 1.3.4 :Nra,hatylvr : Fattyliver. Noticetheplumpedgesof B: Normal, healthyliver. A: cats anddogs the liverandswollenappearance. 19 (R glycerol nucleusandthreefattyacids which iscomposedofathree-carbon forms offattyacids,eachmolecule of Triacylglycerides arethemainstorage deficiency. Catsareespecially quantities, ifatall,duringprotein synthesised inadequate fat fromtheliverarenot needed topackageandexport the specificproteinsthatare protein deficiency.Thisisbecause A fattylivercanalsobeasignof Clinical note susceptible tothiscondition. 1 , R 2 , R H H HCO c c 3 ). CO CO O O O C C C R R R c d b

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NUTRIENTS – Fats VNA 1 • CHAPTER 1 Fatty acidsconsistofhydrocarbonchains with acarboxylicacidgroup(COOH)on one doublebond,polyunsaturated. bond asmono double bondsinthehydrocarbonchain opposite terminus.Fattyacidswithno one terminusandamethylgrouponthe are referredtoassaturated,onedouble Omega-6 Omega-3 Family ESSENTIAL FATTYACIDS between twoatoms. of fourelectrons(twopairs) A Definition 1 1 1 bond 2 2 3 3 11 15 13 11 9 7 5 3 4 4 4 Alpha-linolenic acid(18:3n-3) 5 Arachidonic acid(20:4n-6) results fromthesharing 6 6 Linoleic acid(18:2n-6) 6 Palmitic acid(16:0) 7 7 unsaturated andmorethan 7 7 Oleic ( Monounsaturated 9 9 9 9 Polyunsaturated 10 10 10 10 18:1n–9) 11 11 11 12 13 13 13 13 Saturated 15 COOH 15 15 15 Linoleic Acid Acid ALA: Precursor 16 17 COOH 17 17 17 COOH COOH Alpha-Linolenic 19 COOH synthesise theprecursorsofbothseries. that reasonarecalledessentialfattyacids(EFA).Dogsandcatsunableto (or n-6)fattyacidsthatareessentialinthedietandfor (or n-3)andomega6 There aretworelevantseriesofpolyunsaturatedfattyacids,calledomega-3 PUFA Definitions Interesting fact Definitions , thatispolyunsaturated bonds. Forexample,afatwith18 location andnumberofdouble number ofcarbonatomsandthe (nomenclature) specifiesthe The wayfatisnamed groups areasfollows: lipids indifferentgroups.Themain involved, allassistinplacingthe number ofcarbonmolecules number ofdoublebondsandthe The placementofthebonds, EFA : Essential . : Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid. Acid Arachidonic Acid Linolenic Acid) GLA: Docosahexaenoic DHA: Eicosapentaenoic Acid EPA: Name (Gamma 20 inflammatory More pro- and retinafunction Important forbrain Less inflammatory Unique function .Polyunsaturated: 3. Monounsaturated: 2. Saturated: 1. γ This particularfatisalsoknownas wouldbenamed18:3n-6. to 7 6 first ofwhichisbetweencarbons and hasthreedoublebonds,the -linolenic acid. More thanonedoublebond. One doublebond. bonds inthehydrocarbonchain. Fatty acidswithnodouble poultry andporkfat Linoleic acidalsofrom oil, sunfloweroil. Maize oil,safflower oil fish EPA: canola oil blackcurrant oiland oil, linseed ALA: Source from marine from flaxseed p22623_gg_hill's_2011_vna_mas_chapter_1_VNA 2005Master05/12/201108:57Page21 this fromLinoleicAcid. need ArachidonicAcid,astheycannotsynthesise As wellasthesetwoessentialfattyacids,catsalso LinoleicAcid. 2. Alpha-linolenicAcid 1. Dogs havetwoessentialfattyacids: to controlwaterlossthroughtheskin. • for thesynthesisofdiverse,activesubstancesinbody, • constituentsofcellmembranestomaintainfluidthatallow as • The essentialfattyacidsareneeded: supplyessentialfattyacids: c. aidabsorptionofthefatsolublevitamins(vitaminsA,D,EandK): b. supplyenergy: a. Dietary fatsarerequiredto: Function 1.4.1 .. prostaglandins i.e., passage ofmolecules omega-3 andomega-6fattyacids. dietary fatintheirfoodtoabsorbfat-solublevitamins absorption offat-solublevitamins.Dogsandcatsneedatleast1–2% dietary fatprovidesaphysicalenvironmentinthegutthatenhances than proteinorcarbohydrates timesmorecaloriesperweightunit dietary fatprovidesthepetwith2.25 21 .toassistinthecontrolof 4. withsometypesofcancer 3. aftertrauma,burns,injury 2. beforeandaftersurgery 1. the followingconditions: therefore recommendedin feeding extraamountsis anti-inflammatory effect,so Omega-3 fattyacidshavean Clinical note longer carbonchains. unsaturated (fewerdoublebonds), Higher meltingpoint: shorter carbonchains. unsaturated (moredoublebonds), Low meltingpoint: Oils: Fats: composition. temperature andfattyacid or asolidstate,dependingon Lipids Definitions •etc. kidneydisease • colitis • bowel disease inflammatory • arthritis • dermatitis • inflammatory diseases: liquid atroomtemperature. solid atroomtemperature. may eitherbeinaliquid more less

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NUTRIENTS – Fats VNA 1 • CHAPTER 1 in mammals. Digestion, absorptionandfateofdietarytriacylglycerides convert fattyacidsintoenergy. vitamin-like aminoacidthathelps L-Carnitine: Definition oainProcess Location Enterocyte A watersoluble, repackaged aslipoprotein Chylomicron metabolised Chylomicron remnantsto Chylomicron remnants Chylomicron formed General circulation Pancreatic lipase food canlimittotalcaloricintake. amounts ofexerciseorcertain diseases wheretheenergyconcentrationof fat. Thisisespeciallyimportant in casesofhigh-energydemandsuchaslarge diet highinfatmaymeettheenergydemandsmoreeasilythan adietlowin Because fathasahigherenergycontentthancarbohydrateand protein,a Recommendedlevels 1.4.3 disease processes. process inthebody,explainingwhyweoftenseeproblemswiththis to rememberthatthedigestionofdietaryfatismostcomplex fats primarilytakesplaceinthestomachandsmallintestine.Itisimportant b Fats andoilsmustundergodigestionviaenzymaticphysicalprocesses Digestion 1.4.2 Gastric lipase efore theycanbeabsorbedfromthelumenofgut.Digestiondietary Lymphatics Absorption Bile salts Colipase liver     22 2. SmallIntestine: Stomach: 1. the fattyacidscanbeusedforenergy. fatty acidsintotheactivepartofmitochondrion,so the importantL-carnitine.L-Carnitinehelpstransport cell: themitochondrion.Thisisachievedwithhelpof energy supply,theymustreachthefactoryof Fatty acidsenterthecells,butinordertobeusefulas chylomicron hasacentralcoreoftriglyceridesand cells followingtheabsorptionofdietaryfats.A Chylomicron: Definition cholesterol surroundedbyphospholipidsandproteins. • The longerthefattyacidsare,moredifficultit The • bilesaltsthatactasdetergents:they Contains • Bile: fat intofattyacidsandglycerol Contains pancreaticlipase,whichagainbreaksdown Pancreatic juice: fatty acidsandglycerol The enzymegastriclipasebreaksdownsomefatto down thefat so thefatsarebrokenintosmalldroplets.This than longchainfattyacids. short chainfattyacidsaremoreeasilydigested is forthelipasetobreakthemdown.Thiswhy makes iteasierforthelipasetoreachandbreak break thesurfacetensionbetweenfatsandwater A largelipoproteinformedinintestinal p22623_gg_hill's_2011_vna_mas_chapter_1_VNA 2005Master05/12/201108:57Page23 reduced reproductivefunction. • moist dermatitis • oedema • alopecia • predispositiontopyoderma • scalyskin • drylacklustrecoat • impairedwoundhealing • Essential fattyaciddeficiencymaycause: increased antioxidantprotection,suchasaddedvitaminE(Seeantioxidants). Another consequenceofahighdietaryfatconcentrationisthatitrequires excessive amountofenergy.Thiscanmakethempredisposedtoobesity. If apetreceivesanexcessiveamountoffat,theywilloftenalsoreceive Fattyacidexcessordeficiencyin 1.4.4 cats anddogs 23 and theinjuredtissue wall offboththeinjuriousagent which servestodestroy,dilute,or injury ordestructionoftissues, protective responseelicitedby Inflammation: the skin Dermatitis: of fluidinthebody Oedema: Alopecia: Pyoderma: Definitions Abnormal accumulation Thin ormissingcoat Purulent skindisease Inflammation of A localised

NUTRIENTS – Fats VNA 1 • CHAPTER 1 p22623_gg_hill's_2011_vna_mas_chapter_1_VNA 2005Master05/12/201108:57Page24 VNA 1 • CHAPTER 1 Summary 17.On adrymatterbasisthe 17.On 7. Simplecarbohydratesandstarchesaresources of 6. 8. Polysaccharidesare 5. 3. Notallnutrientsprovideenergy. 2. Water,carbohydrates,proteins,fat,minerals and 1. Summary ofkeypoints 16.The 16.The arerequiredfor 15.Proteins 13. 12. 11. dogs, lowcarbohydratedietscanresultin 10.In Bothdogsandcatsrequireanadequatelevelof 9. Carbohydratesaredividedintothree main groups: 4. 14.Only ten(dog)oreleven(cat)aminoacidsare 14.Only are dogs. protein foradultdogsis other glucose include starchesandfibres. Proteins vitamins are to becorrect. Proteins process of Fermentable fibre throughout theentiredigestivetract. Simple carbohydratesandstarches mothering abilityandfoetalabnormalities. problems suchasstillbirth,lethargy,reduced diarrhoea polysaccharides monosaccharides producing nutrients. Amino Acids Excess repair of food,andcanhelpprevent Fibre the food. amino acids glucose (simplesugar)orglucose-precursors. essential foranimals.Theyarecalled 18% quantity nutrients Recommended DailyAllowances(RDA) provides bulkandreducestheenergycontent and areasourceofdietary carbohydrates arestoredas , and provide and are complexmoleculesconsistingofmany fats . fermentation nutrients . 22% and because theyneedtobepresentin and and canbe . proportion , carbohydrates respectively. complex carbohydrates oligosaccharides is brokendownthroughthe energy . 6% tissue growthand minimum allowance by intestinalmicrobes. stored and , helptoproduce constipation of aminoacidshas 9.5% energy . fat are energy Essential and . are digested for growing . and and of 24 25. 24. 23. or 22.Fats aredigestedinthestomachandsmall 21.Proteins qualityofaproteinisdeterminedbyits 20.The ofproteindeficiencyincludepoorgrowth 19.Signs 18.For kittens,the 18.For Excess and forcontrollingwaterlossthroughthebody. diverse, activesubstancessuchasprostaglandins to maintaincellmembranes,forthesynthesisof and Essential fattyacids(EFA) source ofessentialfattyacids. soluble vitamins,enhancepalatabilityandarea intestine by requirements aswellhowitisdigested. both howwelltheaminoacidsmatchananimal’s Biological Value(BV) and oedema. and weightloss,dullhaircoat,musclewasting Deficiencies inEFA wound healing ( 24% RDAs omega-6 (n-6) and are lipids dietary fatwillwithtimeresultin 14% 30% enzymes provide energy,aidabsorptionoffat- minimum allowance for adultcatsonadrymatterbasis and , dry coat fatty acids.Theseareneeded 26% may resultin . , whichisanindicatorof respectively). , scaly skin are omega-3 (n-3) impaired of proteinis , etc. obesity . p22623_gg_hill's_2011_vna_mas_chapter_1_VNA 2005Master05/12/201108:57Page25 20.Which nutrientisconsideredthemostimportant 20.Which nutrientsdonotprovideenergy? 19.Which arefatsandoilsdigested? 18.How isthenameoffattyacidthatrequired 17.What twoessentialfattyacidsdoesadogrequire? 16.Which dodietaryfatscontain? 15.What isthecorrecttermforfats? 14.What happenstoaminoacidsafterabsorption? 13.What isgelatinelowinbiologicalvalue? 12.Why areproteinscalledthe‘backbone’ofcells? 11.Why mightrecommendedlevelsofproteinvary? 10.When Whatisthefunctionofproteins? 9. Whichessentialaminoacidisrequiredbycatsbut 8. Aminoacidscontainfourgroups.Whatarethey? 7. Howareproteinsstructured? 6. Whereandhowaresimplecarbohydrates 5. Indogs,whatproblemscanalowcarbohydrate 4. Whatarethemajorfunctionsoffibre? 3. Whathappenstoexcesscarbohydratesin 2. Whichnutrientisconsideredthemost important 1. Self-assessment questions for sustaininglife? by catsbutnotdogsandwhydotheyneedit? not bydogsandwhereisitfound? starches digestedinthebody? diet cause? the body? for sustaininglife? 25

VNA 1 • CHAPTER 1 p22623_gg_hill's_2011_vna_mas_chapter_1_VNA 2005Master05/12/201108:57Page26 VNA 1 • CHAPTER 1 Exercise 1 q Photocopy andusetheformbelowtokeeparecordofyouranswers Building yourportfolio uestions below.Keepthisinformationforyourportfolio .Howwouldyouexplain,insimple terms,thefunctionandrecommendedamountsof c. ExplaintheimportanceandfunctionofL-carnitinetoclient. b. Explaintotheclienthowproteindiffersdependingonwhereitisutilisedinbody. a. each energy-producingnutrienttoaclient? e eal Explanation Pet details Pet details e eal Explanation Pet details 26 p22623_gg_hill's_2011_vna_mas_chapter_1_VNA 2005Master05/12/201108:57Page27 hr r macrominerals: There are7 All themacrominerals,exceptsulphur,aredescribedintext. amounts andmicromineralsortraceelementsinmuchsmalleramounts. By definition,macromineralsarerequiredbytheanimalindietlarger mineralelementsarebelievedtobeessentialformammals. More than18 Minerals 1.5 the healthofpetbuttheydonotprovideanyenergy. tMinerals, antioxidantsandvitaminsarenutrientsthatessentialfor producing nutrients The non-energy SULPHUR SODIUM POTASSIUM PHOSPHORUS 7 27 MAGNESIUM CALCIUM contain sulphur. amino acids,sincesomeofthese contains anappropriatemixof for sulphur,assuch,ifthediet There isgenerallynodietaryneed Interesting fact elements inafood. used todescribeallinorganic The term Definition CHLORIDE is generally

NUTRIENTS – Minerals VNA 1 • CHAPTER 1 p22623_gg_hill's_2011_vna_mas_chapter_1_VNA 2005Master05/12/201108:57Page28 VNA 1 • CHAPTER 1 .Catalysts/co-factors inenzyme 3. .Componentsofbodyfluids 2. Structuralcomponentsofbody 1. Minerals arefundamentalas: Interesting fact Molybdenum and hormonesystems. All oftheabove: .membranepermeability c. .musclecontraction b. maintenanceofacid-base a. and tissues: bones,teeth a. organs andtissues: calcium • magnesium. • chloride • potassium • sodium • balance magnesium. • phosphorus • calcium • Boron Cobalt Manganese .. Function 1.5.1 The majormicromineralsareiron,zinc,copper,andselenium. hr r tlat1 microminerals: There areatleast11 MINERALS AREREQUIREDFORTHEMAINTENANCEOF: Fluorine 11 Muscle contraction Acid basebalance Nerve conduction Skeletal structure Cellular function Fluid balance Iron 28 Chromium Zinc Iodine Magnesium Magnesium Magnesium Phosphorus Potassium Potassium Potassium Copper Chloride Calcium Calcium Sodium All Selenium p22623_gg_hill's_2011_vna_mas_chapter_1_VNA 2005Master05/12/201108:57Page29 .othernutritionalfactors, likethefibrecontentoffood. f. environmentalfactors e. intakeofthemineraldependingonneed(bodystores) d. theageandgenderofpet c. theamountsandproportionsofotherdietarycomponentsthathasan b. thechemicalformofmineral a. how wellamineralisabsorbed.Theseinclude: Apart frommineral-mineralinteractions,manyotherfactorshelptodetermine and complicated. This makesthecorrectbalanceofdifferentmineralsinfoodessential intheexcretorypathway. 5. attissuelevel 4. atthetimeoftransport 3. inthedigestivetract 2. inthefoodduringprocessing 1. mechanisms thattakeplace: i A tremendousnumberofinteractionsbetweenmineralsexist.Mostmineral Absorption 1.5.2 Mineral interrelationships.Minerals connectedbyalinehavebeenshownclinicallyorexperimentallyto interact nteractions areantagonisticandcanoccurviaanumberofdifferent

effect onthemineral Magnesium

Chromium with theothermineral.Thisinteraction maybebi-directionaloruni-directional.

Iodine

Molybdenum Zinc

Fluorine Sulphur Sodium

Manganese Phosphorus 29 Copper

Cobalt

Boron Iron

Calcium Chloride Potassium Selenium other mineralorthetwotogether by sparingorsubstitutingforthe in acomplementaryfashioneither or synergistic(thetwomineralsact or biologicalefficacyoftheother) one mineralreducesthetransport be antagonistic(thepresenceof Mineral tomineralinteractionscan Interesting fact enhance abiologicalfunction).

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NUTRIENTS – Minerals VNA 1 • CHAPTER 1 .. Recommendedlevels 1.5.3 Selenium Copper Zinc Iron Magnesium Sodium, potassiumandchloride Calcium andphosphorus MINERAL MINERAL FUNCTIONSANDRECOMMENDEDLEVELS • Important antioxidant Important • ofskinandhair Pigmentation • Redbloodcells • Needed for: Reproduction • Growth • Skinandwoundhealing • Immunocompetence • Important in: Essential componentofhaemoglobin • Neuromuscular transmissions • ofbone,enzymesand Component • • Muscle contractions Muscle • Transmittingnerveimpulses • FUNCTION Osmoticbalance • balance Acid-base • impulses Nerve • Musclecontractions • forenzymesandproteins Co-factor • Intracellularmessengers • partofbonesandteeth Structural • and myoglobin intracellular fluids 30 as Minimum25.1mg Cats: Dogs: Minimum Cats: Minimum 6mg Dogs: 1.0–63mg 1.3mg Cats: 12.5–502mg Dogs: 12.6–250mg Cats: Minimum Minimum0.08g Dogs: 12.5–750mg 20mg Cats: Dogs: 0.1–0.8g Adult dogsandcats) Cats: Minimum Dogs: Minimum Chloride Cats: Minimum 0.23g Minimum0.13g 0.19g Dogs: Minimum Potassium Cats: Minimum 1.5g 1.3g Minimum 1.5g Dogs: 1.3–4.0g Sodium 0.15g 1.4g Minimum Cats: 1.5–6.3g Dogs: Phosphorus Cats: Dogs: Calcium: 1000 RECOMMENDED LEVELSPER kcal (Minimum–Maximum. p22623_gg_hill's_2011_vna_mas_chapter_1_VNA 2005Master05/12/201108:57Page31 N 4.) VNA Stage Feedingandreadmorein ntefo.(e hpe onLife in thefood.(SeeChapter5 sensitive tohigherlevelsofcalcium puppies thatarealreadyespecially especially inlargeandgiant-breed detrimental inrapidlygrowingpets, Calcium excessisespecially and offal)inlactatingbitches. are highinphosphorus(highmeat o rwhi : andimbalanceinthisratiocanleadtoskeletaldeformities. for growthis1:1 but theratioofcalciumtophosphorusisalsosignificant.Theoptimum It istheabsoluteconcentrationofthesemineralsthatmostimportance that enoughcalciumispresenttokeepvitalfunctionsworking. bones whenthelevelsinblooddropbelowacertainpointtoensure reflected inthebloodlevels.Additionalcalciumisquicklyreleasedfrom This explainswhy,evenwhenthefoodisquitedeficientincalciumitnot beating, itisessentialtokeepthebloodlevelofcalciumatasteadylevel. Since calciumparticipatesinsomanyfunctionsincludingkeepingtheheart aco-factorforenzymes. 2. amessenger: 1. Calcium isalsoimportantas: the bonesandteeth. most common.Calciumandphosphorusserveasstructuralcomponentsof Calcium isthemostcommonmineralinbodyandphosphorusnext CALCIUM ANDPHOSPHORUS Individualminerals 1.5.4 commonly whenfeedingfoodsthat Calcium deficiencyoccursmost .bloodcoagulation e. secretionofhormones d. musclecontractions c. nerveimpulsetransmission b. constrictionanddilationofbloodvessels a. mediates thefollowing: Interesting fact membranes thatallowforrapid calcium channelsintheircell muscle andnervecellscontain Excitable cellssuchasskeletal 31 nerve impulsestotravel. enables musclestocontractand This ispartofthesystemthat changes incalciumconcentrations. and activevitaminD. (also fromtheparathyroidgland) (parathyroid hormone),calcitonin by theco-ordinatedactionsofPTH Calcium homeostasisismaintained Interesting fact of malignantcancer. seen inpatientswithcertaintypes calcium intheblood)issometimes Hypercalcaemia (highlevelsof •etc. eclampsia • pancreatitis • problem indiseasessuchas: calcium intheblood)isacommon Hypocalcaemia (lowlevelsof Clinical note Upper Teeth Lower teeth Premolars Premolars Incisors Incisors Canine Canine Molars Molars

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NUTRIENTS – Minerals VNA 1 • CHAPTER 1 high saltcontent. grocery storeshaveavery Many catfoodssoldin Let yourclientknow needed tokeepthebody’sbalance particles, orions.Electrolytesare present aselectricallycharged naturally inthebodythatare aremineralsfound Interesting fact of fluidsattheproperlevel. can acceleratesubclinical(undetected) renaldisease. shown thatusingahighsodium dietforthelong-termmanagementofcats highlighted thedangeroffeeding ahighsodiumdietlong-term.Ithasbeen method ofstimulatingwaterintake.However,breakthroughresearch has The supplementationoffoodwithsodiumchloride(salt)canbe aneffective tomaintainwaterbalance. inability • exhaustion • decreasedgrowth • anorexia • muscle tremors • e.g., asoccurswithvomitinganddiarrhoea.Signsofdeficiency include: A deficiencyoftheseelectrolytescanarisefromexcessivefluid loss, facilitating andtransmittingmusclecontractions. • transmittingnerveimpulses • maintaining osmoticbalance • maintaining acid–basebalance • They areinvolvedin: Sodium, potassiumandchloridearethemajorelectrolytesinbodywater. SODIUM, POTASSIUMANDCHLORIDE 32 caused by: imbalancescanbe Clinical note .medicine,suchasthose h. .chronicendocrinediseases, g. kidneydiseases f. chronicheartdisease e. anyproblemthatcauses d. fever c. vomiting b. diarrhoea a. fluid inthebody(diuretics). used togetridofexcess parathyroidgland • thyroid gland • pituitarygland • adrenalgland • e.g., fromthe: dehydration p22623_gg_hill's_2011_vna_mas_chapter_1_VNA 2005Master05/12/201108:57Page33 reproduction. • growth • skinandwoundhealing • immunocompetence • functions include: in ahighnumberofdiversephysiologicalfunctions.Somezinc’s primary ici osiun ratvtro oeta 0 enzymes,soitisinvolved Zinc isaconstituentoractivatorofmorethan200 ZINC milk. Irondeficiencycausesanaemiaandfatigue. or withthefeedingofmilkforalongtime,duetolowcontentironin Iron deficienciescanoccurwithchronicbloodloss,duetothelossofiron, IRON formation ofstruvitecrystalsintheurinecatsanddogs. magnesium. Excessdietarymagnesiumshouldbeavoidedtopreventthe deficiency. Thereisgreaterlikelihoodthatthefoodwillhaveahighcontentof If apetisfedcommercialfood,itunlikelytoexperiencemagnesium convulsions. 5. muscleincoordination 4. anorexia 3. hyperirritability 2. retardedgrowth 1. variety ofsigns,whichinclude: Because magnesiumhasawiderangeoffunctions,deficiencygives MAGNESIUM Struvite stones 33 .hasinfluenceonneuro b. isacomponentofbone, a. Magnesium: Definition 2. 1. Iron Definition muscular transmissions. enzymes andintra muscles. carrying pigmentofthe myoglobin: carrying pigmentoftheblood haemoglobin: is anessentialcomponentof: the - the oxygen- cellular fluids -

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NUTRIENTS – Minerals VNA 1 • CHAPTER 1 living cells. of oxidationbyfreeradicalson to reducethedestructiveeffects synergistically withvitaminE oxidative damage,andworks Gluthathione peroxidase Interesting fact Selenium: Definition contains adequatelevels. may occurevenwhenthefood the Siberianhusky,zincdeficiency such astheAlaskanmalamuteand In somearcticbreedsofdogs, Let yourclientknow which ispresentinallbodycells. gluthathione peroxidase, occurring antioxidant, component ofthenaturally protect cellularmembranesfrom an essential helps selenium inseafoodandfish-containing catfoods. toxicity hasnotbeennotedindogs andcatsdespitehighconcentrationsof although ithasbeenobserved experimentally indogs.Likewise,selenium The incidenceofseleniumdeficiencyhasnotbeenreportedin dogsandcats aidsretentionofvitaminEinthebloodplasma. 3. .reducestheamountofvitaminErequiredtomaintainintegritylipid 2. preservestheintegrityofpancreas,whichallowsnormalfatdigestion 1. Selenium sparesvitaminEinatleastthreeways: SELENIUM Terriers). from thebody(e.g.,Bedlington breeds thatcannotexcretecopper toxicity occursmainlyinspecific high levelsofzincandiron.Copper Copper deficiencymayoccurwith normalpigmentationofskin • the formationofredbloodcells • Copper isneededfor: COPPER hyperkeratosis. • de-pigmentationofthehairs • scalyskin • alopecia • anorexia • The mostcommonsignsofzincdeficiencyare: content thanfoodforyoungeradults. pets absorbzinclessefficientlyandseniordietsthereforeneedahigher Foods thathaveahighlevelofcalciumcanincreasetheneedforzinc.Older Let yourclientknow like layeroftheskin. (hypertrophy) oftheupperhorn- Hyperkeratosis: Definition These defectscauseexcessive to hepaticcopperstoragedefects. Highland WhiteTerriersareprone Bedlington TerriersandWest membranes and thereforenormalabsorptionofvitaminE and hair. 34 excessive growth (fibrosis, i.e.,scartissueformation). accumulation resultsinlivercirrhosis Copper istoxictothecells,and accumulation ofcopperintheliver. p22623_gg_hill's_2011_vna_mas_chapter_1_VNA 2005Master05/12/201108:58Page35 combat ageing. inflammation andchronicdiseaseprocesses,aswellhelpingto animals withchronicdiseases,sincefreeradicalsareproducedduring effects offreeradicals,canplayanimportantroleinthemanagement biologically activedietaryantioxidants,byprotectingagainstthedamaging accelerated ageing,cancerandheartdisease.Thereisstrongevidencethat and isanimportantcontributoryfactorinmanydiseaseconditionssuchas damage causedbyfreeradicalscanleadtoanimpairedimmuneresponse the bodyinanattempttoproducemorestableatomsandmolecules.The Free radicalsareunstableandcanstartdamagingchainreactionswithin These defencemechanismsconstitutethebody’santioxidantsystem. developed powerfuldefencemechanismstominimisethesetoxiceffects. all livingcells.Animalcellsareonlyabletotolerateoxygenbecausetheyhave H Oxygen isessentialforlifeand,withoutit,dogsandcatscouldnotsurvive. Antioxidants 1.6 through oxidation. (e.g., DNA)andmembranelipids damage toproteins,nucleicacids molecules thatcausecellular Free radicals: Definition also hasadverseconsequences. that oxidationoffatinthebody rancid, butitislesswellknown dietary fatcausesfoodtogo It iswellknownthatoxidationof Clinical note owever, oxygenisalsotoxicandaconstantpotentialthreattothehealthof reactive, unstable cellular damagebyfreeradicals. prevention ofdiseasebypreventing positive effectonhealthandthe that dietaryantioxidantscanhavea now considerableevidencetosuggest known andunderstood,butthereis the oxidationoffatinpetfoodiswell The roleofantioxidantsinpreventing 35 Energy isreleased. gainofoxygen. • ofstability loss • Oxidation Definition derivatives infoodortissue. damaging effectofoxygen molecules thatcancounteractthe Antioxidants: Definition is: enzymes orother

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NUTRIENTS – Antioxidants VNA 1 • CHAPTER 1 antioxidants naturally occurringfood Rosemary extractandvitaminE, Let yourclientknow .Biologicallyactiveantioxidants 1. Antioxidants canbedividedintotwogroups: in mostoftheirproducts. glutathione. • phenolicacid • selenium • acid alpha-lipoic • flavonoids • carotenoids(e.g.,beta-carotene) • vitaminC(ascorbicacid) • (alsoknownasvitaminE) alpha-tocopherol • , areusedbyHill’s ability tocounterthedamagingeffectoffreeradicalsonlivingtissue. rancid, aredifferenttothebiologicallyactivedietaryantioxidantsthathave appreciate thatfoodantioxidants,usedtopreventfatsinthefromgoing effect offreeradicals,antioxidantsareimportant.Howeveritisimportantto To protectdietaryfatfromgoingrancidandtothebody Let yourclientknow Many oftheHill’s with highlevelsofbiologically Diet ™ products areenhanced 36 ™ .Foodantioxidantspreventingfatfromgoing rancid 2. Prescription BHT/BHA. • mixed naturaltocopherols(othermembersofthe • citricacid • rosemary oil • i gamma-tocopherol ii. delta-tocopherol i. vitamin Efamily) of freeradicals. proved tohelpcombattheeffects active antioxidantsthathavebeen p22623_gg_hill's_2011_vna_mas_chapter_1_VNA 2005Master05/12/201108:58Page37 body. Forspecificfunctionsseeundertheindividualvitamin. Vitamins haveverydiversephysiologicalfunctionsandareessentialforthe Function 1.7.1 that aresimilartovitaminswithoutfittingexactlyintothecategories. s Vitamins canbedividedintotwomaingroupsdependingonwhethertheyare Vitamins 1.7 oluble infatorwater.Inaddition,thereisagroupofvitamin-likesubstances FAT-SOLUBLE VITAMINS Vitamin D Vitamin K Vitamin E WATER-SOLUBLE VITAMINS The VitaminBcomplex Pantothenic acid Cobalamin (B Riboflavin (B Pyridoxine(B Thiamine (B Vitamin C Folic Acid Choline Niacin Biotin 37 1 6 2 12 ) ) ) ) .Itmustnotbesynthesisedin 5. Itsabsencemustcausea 4. Itmustbeessentialinminute 3. Itmustbeacomponentof 2. Itmustbeanorganic 1. classified as characteristics inordertobe Substances musthavefivebasic Definition VITAMIN-LIKE SUBSTANCES normal physiologicalfunction. quantities sufficienttosupport deficiency syndrome physiological function amounts fornormal the diet protein andcarbohydrate compound differentfromfat, Carotenoids L-Carnitine Flavonoids vitamins :

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NUTRIENTS – Antioxidants VNA 1 • CHAPTER 1 AdaptedfromMachlinLJ,LangsethL.Vitamin-vitamininteractions.In:BodwellLE,ErdmanJWJr,eds.NutrientN * A highlevelofonevitamincanobscurethediagnosisdeficiencyanother One vitaminprotectsagainstoxidativedestructionofanother One vitaminprotectsagainstexcesscatabolismorurinarylossesofanother One vitaminneededformetabolismofanother A highlevelofonevitaminmayinterferewiththeabsorptionormetabolismanother One vitaminneededforoptimalabsorptionofanother EXAMPLES OFVITAMIn-VITAMININTERACTIONS* Different lifestagesaffectvitamin Let yourclientknow requirements. Dekker Inc,1988;287–306. FOLATE DEFICIENCY RIBOFLAVIN VITAMIN B VITAMIN B VITAMIN B VITAMIN C VITAMIN C VITAMIN E VITAMIN E THIAMIN FOLATE 6 6 6 are describedinthetablebelow. absorbed throughactivetransport.Examplesofvitamin-vitamininteractions transported tothelivervialymphaticsystem.Water-solublevitaminsare v Vitamins areabsorbedinthebodythroughavarietyofpathways.Fat-soluble Absorption 1.7.2 itamins requirebilesaltsandfattobepassivelyabsorbed.Theyarethen interferes with interferes with interferes with needed for needed for needed for needed for obscures spares spares spares 38 VITAMIN B VITAMIN B VITAMIN B RIBOFLAVIN VITAMIN B VITAMIN A VITAMIN K VITAMIN E THIAMIN ew York,NY:Marcel NIACIN NIACIN 12 6 AND NIACIN DEFICIENCY 12 6 p22623_gg_hill's_2011_vna_mas_chapter_1_VNA 2005Master05/12/201108:58Page39 a deficiency. vitamins aremorereadilystoredandsotoxicityislikelytoarisethan stored inthebody,adailysupplymustbeavailablefood.Fat-soluble Since thewater-solublevitaminsarereadilylostviaurineandpoorly h Growing andreproducingpetsarebuildingnewtissuesthereforeneed Recommendedlevels 1.7.3 igher levelsofvitaminsforoptimalperformance. VitaminB • FolicAcid • Pyridoxine • Niacin • Pantothenic acid • Riboflavin • Thiamin • Vitamin Bcomplex Vitamin K Vitamin E Vitamin D Vitamin A Vitamin VITAMINS, FUNCTIONSANDRECOMMENDEDLEVELS Flavonoids Carotenoids L-Carnitine Vitamin C Biotin • Choline • 2 Function in Biologic antioxidant • Biologic antioxidant • Helpstoconvertfatintoenergy • Biologicantioxidant • Components ofenzymes • Clottingof the blood • Membrane integrity • Biologicalantioxidant • Calciumand phosphorus • Healthyskin,coat,mucous • Vision • homeostasis membranes andteeth 39 None given Cats: Dogs: Cats: Dogs: Cats: Dogs: 1000 Recommended levelper None givenfordogsandcats None givenfordogsandcats None givenfordogsandcats None givenfordogsandcats μg Min: 300 μg Min: 5.5 μg Min: 45 Min: 0.25mg Min: 2.8mg Min: 2.5mg Min: 1.1mg Min: 0.25mg Dogs: None givenfordogsandcats kcal iiu . IU Minimum 9.4 IU Minimum 7.5 IU 190–2,500 IU 125–1,250 IU 2,250–100,000 1,250–100,000 IU i:1. μg Min: 17.5 μg Min: 598 μg Min: 5 i:20μg Min: 200 Min: 0.63mg Min: 10mg Min: 1.2mg Min: 1mg Min: 1.2mg Cats:

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NUTRIENTS – Vitamins VNA 1 • CHAPTER 1 .inadult animals b. inyounganimals a. deficiency include: Clinical signsofvitaminD Clinical note liverdamage. 3. failuretogroomduepain 2. painfulbonedisease 1. in cats: Signs ofvitaminAtoxicity(excess) Clinical note osteoporosis(thin,brittle • osteomalacia(softbones) • • enlarged junctionsofthe enlarged • upon flexingtheneck longbonesoftheforelimb • cervical vertebrae • rickets • bones). cartilage oftheribs retention andbonedeposition. • ofintestinalabsorptionandmobilisation enhancement • and includes: The primaryfunctionofvitaminDhastodowithcalciumandphosphorus VITAMIN D oil. liver receiving adiethighinliverorfollowingover-supplementationwithcod Deficiencies areuncommonbutvitaminAtoxicityisfairlycommonincats healthyteeth. • healthymucousmembranes • healthyskin • healthycoat • normalvision • Vitamin Aisrequiredfor: ready-made vitaminA,whichisonlyfoundinanimaltissue. can formvitaminAfromthecaroteneswhilecatsrequireadirectsourceof The precursorsofvitaminAarethecarotenes,especiallyß-carotene.Dogs Vitamin Aisalsocalledretinolandaddedalmostuniversallytopetfood. VITAMIN A IndividualVitamins 1.7.4 Definition calcify normally,whichleadsto or VitaminD.Thebonesdonot nutritional deficiencyofphosphorus growing animalscausedbya Rickets: a diseaseofyoung, 40 show retardeddevelopment. animals arelameandtheteeth joints toappearswollen.The them becomingbowedandthe p22623_gg_hill's_2011_vna_mas_chapter_1_VNA 2005Master05/12/201108:59Page41 destructionofgutflorabyantibiotictherapy(sulphonamidesand broad- • drugs thatantagonisecoagulation;e.g.,coumarin(arat poison) • malabsorption diseases • Causes ofvitaminKdeficiency: several blood-clottingfactors. calcium andphosphorus The requirementforvitaminDdependsonthedietaryconcentrationofboth Toxicity canoccurwithover-supplementationandcauseshypercalcaemia. problems inadultanimals. Deficiency isveryrarebutcancausericketsinyounganimalsandbone of selenium. levels ofpolyunsaturatedfattyacidsanddecreaseswithincreasing levels influenced bydietarycomposition.Therequirementincreaseswithincreasing is muchbiggerthanforvitaminsAorD.TheneedvitaminEmarkedly Vitamin Eisoneoftheleasttoxicvitamins.Thismeansthatsafetymargin damagetothemuscles. • damagetotheheart • ofthefattissue–steatitis=yellowdisease inflammation • Signs ofvitaminEdeficiencyincats: high enough. from theharmfuleffectsoffreeradicals,iflevelsantioxidantsare of whichvitaminEisonethemostsignificant,canprotectbody development ofmanydifferentdiseases.Thebiologicallyactiveantioxidants, immune system,acceleratesignsofageingandhaveanimportantroleinthe the cellsasaby-productofnormalmetabolism.Freeradicalsweaken The bodyproducesharmfulfreeradicals(oxidants)thatcausedamageto aidtomaintainmembraneintegrity. an • powerfulbiologicalantioxidant a • form. Alpha-tocopherolfunctionsas: Vitamin Eexistsindifferentformsofwhichalpha-tocopherolisthemostactive VITAMIN E Vitamin Kissynthesisedbygutbacteria,andregulatestheformation of VITAMIN K spectrum antibiotics). • dysfunctional immune system. immune • dysfunctional reproduction • reduced • dysfunction ofskeletalmusclesdueto Signs ofvitaminEdeficiencyindogs: cellular processes. membranes anddisruptionofothercritical attributed todysfunctionofcellular Signs ofvitaminEdeficiencyaremostly degeneration 41 .Selenium 4. Beta-carotene 3. VitaminC 2. VitaminE 1. The formulaconsistsof: antioxidant formulatopetfood. effect ofaddingaunique Research hasshownthebeneficial Clinical note 0.5mg/kg food. 1.5mg/kg food 70mg/kg food foodforcats 550mg/kg • foodfordogs 600mg/kg • Vitamin Emolecularstructure

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NUTRIENTS – Vitamins VNA 1 • CHAPTER 1 help overweightcatsloseweight. L-Carnitine hasbeenshownto Clinical note development ofhipdysplasia. have nopreventativeeffectonthe Even highdosagesofvitaminC Let yourclientknow due toexercise. benefit intherecoveryofstress Vitamin Cmayhavesome Clinical note indogs. ataxia • neurologicdysfunction • muscle weakness • failure togrow • anorexia • Signs ofthiaminedeficiency: down thiamine). contains thiaminase(whichbreaks from feedingrawfish,which Thiamine deficiencymayresult Clinical note converted intoenergy. mitochondria (theenergyfactories ofthecell),sotheycanbeoxidisedand L-Carnitine transportsfattyacidsacrosstheinnermembraneof the energy. into component ofallanimalcells.Itsprimaryfunctionistohelpconvert fat L-Carnitine isoneofthebestknownvitamin-likesubstances.It isanatural L-CARNITINE regenerating vitaminE,somoreisavailable toactasanantioxidant. • stimulatingtheleukocytes • protectingagainstfreeradicaldamage,whichthecellsofimmune • of disease.VitaminCplaysanimportantroleinimmunefunctionby: shifted thefocusfrompreventionofdeficiencytotreatmentand dogs andcatsitisnottechnicallyessential.However,morerecentresearchhas Because vitaminCcanbesynthesisedfromglucoseinthebodyofhealthy VITAMIN C dullcoat. • alopecia • dermatitis • Signs ofbiotindeficiencyincats: biotin deficiency. decrease thepopulationofintestinalmicrofloramayalsoresultinsigns thought tobemetbygutmicrobialsynthesis,treatmentwithantibioticsthat this containsavidinthatbindsbiotin.Sincehalfofthebiotinrequirementis antivitamins. Biotindeficiencycanoccurifacatisfedraweggwhitebecause B-vitamins arerelativelynon-toxic.Deficienciescanoccurduetospecific asco-factorsinthemetabolicprocesses. act • ascomponentsofenzymes act • The individualB-vitaminshavespecificfunctionsbutoverallthey: VITAMIN BCOMPLEX system areparticularlysusceptibleto MITOCHONDRIA L-Carnitine Long chainfattyacids 42 Fatty acids Christa Outer membrane Matrix folds andformsthechristae Inner membrane The innermembrane p22623_gg_hill's_2011_vna_mas_chapter_1_VNA 2005Master05/12/201109:00Page43 utru qahPa Broccoli Pumpkin Peas Butternut Squash oretsAbrieTmte RedGrapes Tomatoes Aubergine Courgettes support theantioxidantsystem. and vegetables.Theflavonoidshaveasparingeffectonvitamin Candfurther vitamin-like activity.Theyarefoundinthepeelsandskinsofcolouredfruits The flavonoidsareanothergroupofpigments(red,blueandyellow)thathave FLAVONOIDS orange andgreenvegetables.Carotenoidsfunctionasantioxidants. 10% canbeconvertedintovitaminA.Carotenoidsarefoundabundantlyin than 600differentcompoundsareclassifiedascarotenoidsbutfewer A groupofpigmentscalledcarotenoidsalsoexhibitvitamin-likeactivity.More CAROTENOIDS body andaresignificantstoragesites. Liver, skeletalandheartmusclescontain95–98%oftheL-carnitinein for longer. so fewerfreeradicalsareproducedandmitochondrialhealthismaintained are produced.L-Carnitinehelpsimprovetheefficiencyofmitochondria, With age,themitochondriabecomelessefficientandmorefreeradicals Peppers Carrots 43 liver) incatsduringweightloss. prevent hepaticlipidosis(fatty large-breed puppiesandtohelp density andthemusclemassin increase thebonemass, L-Carnitine hasbeenshownto Clinical note

NUTRIENTS – Vitamins VNA 1 • CHAPTER 1 p22623_gg_hill's_2011_vna_mas_chapter_1_VNA 2005Master05/12/201109:00Page44 VNA 1 • CHAPTER 1 Summary 10.A 10.A 9. 8. 7. 16. 11. 6. Mineralsprovide 5. 4. 3. Mineralsare 2. 1. Summary ofkeypoints 15.Vitamin requirementsvaryaccordingtothe 15.Vitamin 14. 12. 13.Each 13.Each Sodium bones Calcium mineral interactions Absorption ofminerals smaller amounts Microminerals larger amounts Macrominerals energy-producing Minerals and are organs andtissues,maintainbodyfluidstissues vitamin-like substances. excessive fluidloss electrolytes Calcium L-Carnitine stage ofthepet Antioxidants variety ofmeans Vitamins function Vitamins in foodortissue. that can deficiency vitamin and catalysts , combat . and is the , potassium are are either antioxidants teeth , inorganic carotenoids in thebodywater. phosphorus of thesemineralsmayarisefrom absorbed serves aspecificandessential are enzymesorothersubstances most common are requiredinanimaldiets . are requiredinanimaldiets structural components . . the damagingeffectof . in enzymeandhormonesystems. . nutrients. fat-soluble . and . elements infood. into thebodythrougha and can beinfluencedby chloride and are essentialforhealthy vitamins flavonoids mineral inthebody. or are themajor water-soluble are oxygen of body are non- life . 44 25.What foodscontainflavonoidsandwhyarethey 25.What foodscontaincarotenoidsandwhatfunction 24.What vitamin-likesubstancemayhelpoverweight 23.Which vitaminisnotconsideredessentialfordogs 22.Which arethesignsofvitaminBdeficiency? 21.What is vitaminKimportant? 20.Why fat-solublevitaministheleasttoxic? 19.Which aretheclinicalsignsofvitaminDdeficiency? 18.What arethesignsofvitaminAtoxicityincats? 17.What general,whatfunctiondovitaminsserve? 16.In are thethreecategoriesofvitamins? 15.What are antioxidants?Nametwodifferenttypes. 14.What purpose doesseleniumserve? 13.What breedsofdogarepronetozincdeficiency 12.Which may causeelectrolyteimbalances? 11.What functiondoelectrolytesserve? 10.What Wheniscalciumdeficiencymostlikelytooccur? 9. Howiscalciumhomeostasismaintained? 8. Whatarethetwomostcommonmineralsandwhy 7. Whatisthedifferencebetweenantagonisticand 6. Whatarethedifferentmechanismsformineral 5. Whatfunctionsdomineralsserve? 4. Whatarethefourmostimportantmicrominerals? 3. Whyistherenodietaryneedforsulphur? 2. Whatarethesevenmacrominerals? 1. Self-assessment questions important? do theyserve? pets loseweight? and cats? and copperstoragedeficitsrespectively? are theyimportant? synergistic interactions? interactions? p22623_gg_hill's_2011_vna_mas_chapter_1_VNA 2005Master05/12/201109:00Page45 Exercise 2 q Photocopy andusetheformbelowtokeeparecordofyouranswers Building yourportfolio uestions below.Keepthisinformationforyourportfolio. .MrsUnhealthycat bringsZippyintothesurgerybecausesheisworriedabout c. b. Whatdietaryadvicewouldyougivetoaclientwhosecatpresentedsignsofsoftor a. Whatdietaryadvicewouldyougivetoaclientwhoisfeedingtheirdogmostlymeat and coatproblemswhatdietaryadvicewouldyougiveher? concludes thatthisisadietaryproblem.Whatcouldbethecauseofskin skin looksunhealthytoo.Thevethasfoundnothingwrongondiagnostictestsand condition ofhiscoat.Hishairseemstobefallingoutandwhatremainsisdull. brittle bones? and offal? Pet details Dietary advice Dietary Pet details advice Dietary advice Dietary Pet details Pet details 45

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ENERGY VNA 1 • CHAPTER 1 Variations inexpectedenergyintake requiredtomaintainoptimalbodyweightindogsandcats. 2 until itfeelsfull. adequate caloriesdespiteeating therefore doesnotreceive meet theirneeds,andthepet have eatenenoughnutrientsto stomachs becomefullbeforethey may developproblems.Their such aslactatingfemalesorkittens This meansthatvulnerablepets foods havealowenergydensity. Some poorqualitysupermarket Let yourclientknow weight lossand/orpoorgrowth. Inadequate energyintakeleadsto and growthabnormalities. Excess energycanleadtoobesity Clinical note

Number of dogs 14 12 15 13 10 11 6 8 3 4 5 7 9 2 1

45 50 55 60 Energy 65 too muchorlittleenergy. Energy intakemustbecontrolledcarefullytoavoidtheofeither per gramaseitherproteinorcarbohydrate. timesasmuchenergy the mostefficientsourceofenergyandsupplies2½ the foodisderivedfromfats,proteinsandcarbohydrates.Dietaryfat All livingorganismsneedenergytofuelthebody.Thecontentof 70 75 80 Percent ofaverageMEintake perkgmetabolicbodyweight. 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120 125 variations. and foodintake.Evenwithinthesamecategory,therearemajorindividual activity levelandthisleadstoawiderangeofdifferentenergyrequirements age, reproductivestatus,breed,environment,gender,healthstatusand Energy requirementsvaryfromindividualtoindividual.Theyalsowith feels satiety. occur betweenthetwo,soanimalfeelshungermorestronglythanit is differentfromthecentrethatcontrolssatiety,andalackofbalancemay energy requirementsbecausethecentreofbrainthatcontrolshunger This istheidealsituationbutasweallknow,animalsmayeatbeyondtheir requirements forallothernutrientsshouldalsohavebeenmet. has consumedthecorrectamountoffoodtomeetitsenergyneedsthen Animals usuallyeattosatisfytheirenergyrequirements.Whenananimal Definitions 130 with hunger. It isoftenusedsynonymously Appetite: 135 140 145 150 the desireforfood. 46

Number of cats 4 6 3 5 7 2 1 50 55 60 65 70 75 80

85 is intermittentlyrelievedbyeating. normally inastateofhungerthat has beensatisfied.Thebodyis of hunger,andmeansthathunger Satiety 90 95 100

105 (satisfaction): theopposite 110 115 120 125 130 135 140 145 150 155 p22623_gg_hill's_2011_vna_mas_chapter_1_VNA 2005Master05/12/201109:01Page47 Schematic ofhowtotalgrossenergyafoodispartitionedintodigestibleenergy,Metabolisableandnetenergy. the formofheatorthroughfaecesandurine. gross energy i The energycontentoffoodultimatelydeterminesthequantitythat Energycontentoffood 2.1 will belostinfaecesandthemoreavailabletopet. the digestibilityoffood.Themoredigestiblefoodis, lessenergy energy is actuallyavailablefortheneedsofpet.Thiscalled convenient toadjustthegrossenergyreflectamountofthat Because petscannotuseallthepotentialenergyinfood,itismore s eateneachday.Thetotalamountofpotentialenergyinthefoodiscalled Interesting fact the heatproduced. burning thefoodandmeasuring determined bycompletely Gross energy Definition Carbohydrate Fat Protein Nutrient THE ENERGYCONTENTOFNUTRIENTS the mouth,sensorsin the perceptionoffood,sensorsin therefore controlappetite,suchas factors affectthesecentres,and neuroendocrine andmetabolic areas ofthehypothalamus.Many centre areplacedintwodifferent The hungerandthesatiety nry(GE) energy Gross (ME). Theamountofmetabolisableenergyavailableisdependent on , butpetscannotuseallthegrossenergy;someofitislostin in foodis Gross energykcal/g E energy (DE) Digestible f aeces nergy lostin 4.2 9.4 5.6 is quitehigh. why thenumberofoverweightpets very complexandmaypartlyexplain that theregulationoffoodintakeis other areasofthebrain.Thismeans in thebloodaswellinputfrom gastrointestinal tract,nutrientlevels Calorie: Definition f1 ofwaterfrom14.5°C of 1g to 15.5°C required toraisethetemperature tract. gastrointestinal and gasesfromthe Energy lostinurine energy (ME) Metabolisable Metabolisable energykcal/g the amountofheat metabolisable 47 3.5 8.7 3.5 dynamic action. increment orspecific of food.Calledheat absorption anduse in thedigestion, Energy lostasheat Net energy(NE) scoop thepoop. any petownerwilltestifyifthey fairly lowdigestibilityindogs,as in thegut.Rawcarrotshavea well acertainfoodisbrokendown Digestibility tellsusabouthow in adog. have anextremelylowdigestibility a highdigestibilityincowmay digest fooddifferently.Whathas Animals ofdifferentspecies Let yourclientknow subtracted fromthegrossenergy. and combustiblegaseshasbeen after energyfromfaeces,urine energy thatisavailabletothepet Metabolisable energy(ME): Definition (NE ( NE m p ) ) for maintenance for ) t there isNEremainingafter P physical performance). l for production(i.e.,growth, actation, reproductionand hat usedformaintenance. roduction occursonlyif the

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ENERGY VNA 1 • CHAPTER 1 Total Carbohydrate Ash Water Fibre Fat Protein Nutrient THE APPROXIMATEENERGYCONTENTOFAFOOD food adjusted. weighed andtheamountof evaluations wherethepetis be followedupbyindividual just astartingpointandshould feeding amounts,thesearestill requirements andtherefore formulas tocalculateenergy manufacturers usemorecomplex Even thoughpetfood Let yourclientknow the dryfoodwillcontainaround10%. water isnotmentioned,assumethat These arethenutrients.Watercan appear onthelabelasmoisture.If 100% 48% 6% 10% 2% 8% 26% label) Amount (asfed)(from in aportionofthefoodwillalwaysbe Because thetotalamountofnutrients nutrients (26+8+2+1 100%, youcancalculate thecontent 100%, of carbohydrate.Youtakethetotal are left (48) arethecarbohydrates. are left(48) (100%) andsubtractalltheother (100%) different nutrientsinthefood. energy. Tobeabletodothatyouneedknowtheproportionsof needs butalsohowmuchenergythefoodcontainsbasedonmetabolisable i In ordertotelltheclientexactlyhowmuchfoodtheyneedfeedtheirpet Calculationofenergyrequirements 2.2 energy contentofafood. from protein,fatandcarbohydrates, (table)youcancalculatetheapproximate When youknowtheaverageamount ofmetabolisableenergythatyouget t isimportantthatyoucancalculatenotjusthowmanykilocaloriesthepet Definition Interesting fact carbohydrate contentcanbe carbohydrates. Fortunatelythe but doesnotmentiondigestible protein, fat,fibre,waterandash label describesthecontentof The the labelincludinganAverage have togivecertaininformationon Fortunately, petfoodmanufacturers in afoodisbylaboratoryanalysis. determine thecontentofnutrients The onlyreallyaccuratewayto 0+6). Those that Average Analysis 48 ×3.5 0 0 0 ×8.7 ×3.5 KcalME/g nutrient metabolisable energy.Weknowthat produce acertainamountofcalories energy contentthatthepetcanuse Because wewanttocalculatethe goftherespectivenutrientswill 1g for energywewanttocalculate on the when burned. carbohydrate in 100g of food. of carbohydrate in100g This givesyouthepercentageof and subtractingthemfrom100%. of protein,fat,fibre,waterandash values byaddingupthepercentage calculated basedontheother the languageoflabels found in food. (Moredetailsonlabelscanbe the of of eachnutrientisin100g Analysis thatdescribeshowmuch 326kcal/100g 168 0 0 0 67 91 KcalME/ Chapter 3 – Speaking – Chapter 3 of thisisgoingtobeprotein.Because Each gramofproteinsupplies eko hti 0goffood,26% We knowthatin100g 100g food, there will be 26g protein. food,therewill be26g 100g makes itveryeasytocalculatethatin and all 26g of themsupply91kcal. of and all26g 0% 0g % gand that 100%= 100g, 1%= 1g 100g of diet ). 3.5kcal p22623_gg_hill's_2011_vna_mas_chapter_1_VNA 2005Master05/12/201109:01Page49 metabolisable energy(ME),seenextpage. depending onitsstatus.Theenergyrequirementsaremostoftenstatedas These arebothhelpfulindetermininghowmuchfoodtofeedapet DailyEnergyRequirement(DER). • RestingEnergyRequirement(RER) • Basic termsare: f Knowledge ofenergyrequirementsisneededtodeterminehowmuchfood Energyrequirements 2.3 eed acatordog. 49 lactation andgrowth.DERis necessary forwork,gestation, activity. Includesactivity dependant onlifestageand expenditure ofanyanimal (DER): Daily EnergyRequirement feeding. RERismeasured recovery afterphysicalactivityand Includes energyexpendedfor thermo normal, fedanimalatrestina (RER): Resting EnergyRequirement Definitions also measured Energy requirementfora neutral environment. Average dailyenergy per day . per day .

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ENERGY VNA 1 • CHAPTER 1 DER: RER: Clinical note 30×(bodyweight inkg)+70 depending onneed. RER×factor whichvaries actual requirementsmayvaryuptothreetimes. point andmustalwaysbefollowedupbyindividualevaluations.Evenwithinonecategory,the 4mnh 3.0×RER months2.0×RER 7–12 Adlibitumfeeding months2.5×RER 4–6 months <4 Growth 2.0×RER Lactation 1.0×RER Gestation Geriatric 1.1×RER 1.0×RER 1–2×RER Obese prone Neutered Adult Intact Adult Feline DER Due tothehighdegreeofindividualvariance,theseshouldbetakenasaguideforstarting CALCULATION OFDAILYENERGYREQUIREMENTS Ad libitum: Definition at alltimesinunlimitedamounts. food isfreelyavailable are roughlyaccurate. body weighttosurfacearea,simpleequationshavebeenformulatedwhich greater DER.InordertodetermineRERandDERwithouttheneedconvert weight andthereforehaverelativelygreaterheatlosssoa to bodyweight.Smallanimalshavealargersurfacearearelativetheir The amountofenergyapetneedsisrelatedtobodysurfacearearatherthan (2.0–6.0×RER) 50 processes inthebody. or sepsis,theDERrisessharplybecauseofdisease However, ifthepethassufferedfromtrauma,surgery environment. TheDERwouldthereforebelower. Pets areoftenlessactiveandsleepmoreinawarm During illness,energyrequirementsvaryconsiderably. Clinical note ek793.0×RER Week 7–9 ek562.5×RER 2.0×RER 1.4×RER Week 5–6 Week 1–4 1.4×RER Gestation Geriatric 1.4×RER 1.6×RER Obese prone Neutered Adult Intact Adult Canine DER 4mnh 3.0×RER months2.0×RER 10–12 months2.5×RER 4–9 months <4 Growth Lactation 4–8×RER p22623_gg_hill's_2011_vna_mas_chapter_1_VNA 2005Master05/12/201109:01Page51 much ofthispetfoodyourclientneedstofeedtheirdogorcatperday. itistimetofindouthow Now youknowthatthefoodintablecontains326kcal/100g From theorytopractice Now let’sworkwithSnarly… 4. Amounttofeed=DER/MEincan 2. DER=558kcal/day 1. 500kcal/can, thecalculationswouldbeasfollows: If Snarlywerefedwithacannedfoodthatcontained what important toallowSnarlyshowyouexactly calculations areonlyastartingpoint.Itis No matterhowcarefullyyoudothem,the energy thatiscorrectforhispreciseneeds. and makesurethatheisgettingtheamountof come backintwoweeks,soyoucanweighSnarly mutt ed=5850=11can =1.1 Amount tofeed=558/500 Make anappointmentwithMrsHealthydogto he needs. Mrs Healthydoghasbroughtinherfour-year-oldintactmale dachshund, Snarly,whoweighs8kg.Howmuchofthe food intableXdoesSnarlyneedperday? 51 1. 3. 2. RER=310kcal • RER=30×(8)+70 • RER=30×(bodyweightinkg)+70 • use theequation: To calculatetherestingenergyrequirementyou Calculate Snarly’srestingenergyrequirement(RER). mutt ed=11 perday tofeed=171g Amount • tofeed=558÷3.26 Amount • thereis3.26kcalMEin1g Therefore, • were326kcalME(metabolisableenergy) There • tofeed:DER/MEpergramoffood Amount • the dailyfeedingamount. of metabolisableenergyinthefoodtodetermine Divide Snarly’senergyrequirementsbytheamount DER=558kcal/day • DER=310kcal×1.8 • DER=RER×factor • Snarly’s uncertaintemperament,heis Despite • by multiplyingRERwithanappropriatefactor. Calculate Snarly’sdailyenergyrequirement(DER) in 100g. an intact,adultdog. DER) couldbe1.8,whichisthefactorusedfor appropriate factorfromthetable(calculationof not reallyaveryactivedog.Thereforean

ENERGY VNA 1 • CHAPTER 1 p22623_gg_hill's_2011_vna_mas_chapter_1_VNA 2005Master05/12/201109:01Page52 VNA 1 • CHAPTER 1 Summary .Using 5. 4. 3. Differentpetsrequiredifferentamountsof energy 2. 1. Summary ofkeypoints each petrequires. food itispossibletogetanideaofhowmuch energy infood. Calories energy apetneeds. RER producing foods. abnormalities. Excess energy and RER DER are usedtomeasuretheamountof and are termsusedtodescribethe DER can leadtoobesityand and calorie information from 52 .Whatmethodisusedtocalculatethe contentof 8. Whatinformationdoyouneedwhen 7. Explainhowbodysurfaceareaisrelatedto the 6. WhatdoDERandRERstandfor? 5. Whydoestheenergyrequirementofpetsvary? 4. Istheregulationoffoodintakecomplexorsimple? 3. Whataretheconsequencesofinadequate 2. Howistheenergycontentoffoodcalculated? 1. Self-assessment questions nutrients infood? when speakingtoapetowner? communicating exactlyhowmuchfoodapetneeds energy requirementofapet. energy intake? p22623_gg_hill's_2011_vna_mas_chapter_1_VNA 2005Master05/12/201109:01Page53 q Photocopy andusetheformbelowtokeeparecordofyouranswers Exercise 1 Building yourportfolio uestions below.Keepthisinformationforyourportfolio. letPtdtisRRDRClreAvc edddyw/dneeded/day needed/day CalorieAdvice DER RER Client/Pet details their owners. might considerpronetoobesityandprovideappropriateadviceoncalorieamountsfor Over thenexttwoweeks,calculateDERandRERforanycatsordogsthatyou 53 Science Plan Amount ofHill’s ™ ih PrescriptionDiet Light ™ Amount ofHill’s ™ ™

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NUTRIENT CONTENT OF FOOD VNA 1 • CHAPTER 1 3 food onamoisture-freebasis. of thenutrientcontent Dry matterbasis: Definition moisture (onlylegallyrequired • (minerals) ash • •fibre•fat protein • (oil)that containthefollowing: average analysisofthenutrients All petfoodlabelsmuststatean Interesting fact basis. energy • matterbasis dry • fedbasis as • of thefollowingways: foods isusuallyexpressedinone The nutrientcontentofdifferent Definition greater than14%). on labelifthecontentis of food The nutrientcontent actually fitintothefood. with theindividualnutrients,it’stimetolookathowthosenutrients Now thatwearefamiliarwiththeenergyrequirementsoffoodandalso an expression different moisturecontentsinthefood. of food.Unfortunately,thevaluesarenotalwaysdirectlycomparabledueto This iswhatthepetownerlooksatwhentheycomparetwodifferenttypes but fornow,letuslookatthebasicnutrientinformationfoundonlabels. labels serious errorscouldbemadeinnutritionalmanagement. calculate nutrientcontentwhencomparingtwodifferentfoodsotherwise same nutrient.Itisimportanttounderstandwhichmethodhasbeenused These threedifferentmeasurementswillgiveveryvaluesforthe get fromthemiscalled%drymatter basisorDMB. This typeofcomparisoniscalled adrymattercomparisonandtheresultwe us theexactcontentofdry nutrientswithoutwatertofogthepicture. Let uslookatacomparisonwhereweremovethemoisture,which willgive based onwhatthelabelssay. When youcomparetwodifferenttypesoffood,yourcomparisonisoften As fedcomparisons 3.1 , willhelpyouunderstandwhattheselabelsstateingreaterdetail, 54 Chapter 3 – Speakingthelanguageof – Chapter 3 p22623_gg_hill's_2011_vna_mas_chapter_1_VNA 2005Master05/12/201109:01Page55 good health. as thecorrectamountofallothernutrientsneededfor balanced, theywillhaveconsumedsufficientenergyaswell eat tosatisfytheirenergyneeds.Assumingthefoodis consumes asetnumberofcalories.Thisisbecauseanimals how muchoftheindividualnutrientspetgetswhenit A moreprecisetypeofcomparisoncomesfromcomparing food wasthoughttohavemoreprotein! the dryfoodhas24%init,buttopetowner Therefore, thecannedfoodhas33.3%proteininitand meansthatthe drymattercontentofproteinis: This • Ifweremovethemoisturethereisstill22gproteinleftin90g • dryfoodthereis22%protein.Thatmeans22g of 100g In • matter dry thedryfoodcontains 10%moisturethenthereis90% If • labelofthedry fooddoesnotstateanymoisture.Wemust The • food onadrymatterbasis: a drymatteranalysistoseehowmuchproteinisinthe means thatthedryproductcontainsmoreprotein.Letusdo 22% proteinonan‘asfed’basis.Toapetownerthis The dryproductthatwewishtocomparewithcontains 33.3% protein. fed’ basis.Thismeantthatinthisproducttherewas ‘as above. Thecannedproductcontained10%proteinonan Let uscompareadryproducttothecanned (in thiscaseprotein)lookslikethis: The equationwejustusedtocalculatethedrymattercontentofanutrient meansthatthedrymattercontentofproteinis: This • proteinpresent,butnowitis Ifweremovethewater,thereisstill10g • protein(10% ofthe100g) 100g.Therefore,thereis10g canis The • ‘asfed’labelstatesthatthecancontains10%protein. The matter. dry • isdrymatter=30g ofthe100g meansthat30% That • (100%–70%)drymatter. meansthatitcontains30% This • moisture. labeltellsusthatthecancontains70% The • m In orderforustodoadrymattercomparison,wemustfirstcalculatehow Drymattercomparison 3.2 c r atrteei ntefo.Ltu oka 0gcanofdogfood: uch drymatterthereisinthefood.Letuslookata100g ––––––×0 =%nutrientonadrymatterbasis –––––––––––– ×100 2÷0×0 =24%. (22÷90)×100 dry matter of proteinand90%drymatter,whichmeans90gmatter therefore assumeavalueandthisisusually10%withdryfood % drymatter % nutrient 33.3%. = (10÷30)×100 drymatter. present inthe30g in thecan. 55 CANNED FOOD 33% 90% 10% FOOD DRY 24%

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NUTRIENT CONTENT OF FOOD VNA 1 • CHAPTER 1 rdc hrfr otis55 proteinper100kcalME. Bthereforecontains5.5g Product • Gramsofproteinper100kcalME=22%25g5.5g • Each25gfoodcontains22%proteinasfed • =25gfoodin100kcalME Gramsoffoodin100kcal=(100÷400)×100 • InproductBthereare400kcalMEper100gfood.Howmanygramsof • Product B Athereforecontains10gproteinper100kcalME. Product • Gramsofprotein per100kcalME=10%of100g10gprotein • Each100gfoodcontains10%proteinasfed • = 100gfoodin100kcalME Gramsoffoodin100kcal=(100÷100)×100 • Ifthereare100kcalMEper100gfood,howmanygramsoffood • Product A This canbecalculatedasfollows: consumed? 100kcal How muchproteinisingestedbythepetforevery • • Consider thefollowingtwoproducts: ofproteinforevery100kcalmetabolisableenergyconsumed. 4g o With thismethod,nutrientsareexpressedinrelationtotheenergycontent Energybasiscomparison 3.3 h od .. gproteinper100kcalME.Thismeansthatthefoodcontains f thefood,e.g.,4g Product B: Product A: 100kcal ME food aretherein100kcal? 100kcal ME in 100kcal? 0ka Epr10 foodcontaining22%proteinasfed. 400kcal MEper100g 0ka Epr10 foodcontaining10%proteinasfed 100kcal MEper100g 56 p22623_gg_hill's_2011_vna_mas_chapter_1_VNA 2005Master05/12/201109:02Page57 or bothofthem. with thepurposeofidentifyingpotentialproblemsone and finally,theywillenableyoutocomparedifferentproducts that nutritionisaboutmorethanjustwhatwrittenonthebag Hill’s productsarethebest.Theycanalsobeusedtoshowclients These calculationsareusefultoolsforhelpingexplaintoclientswhy including minerals. amount ofprotein.Thesameprocesscanbeusedforanynutrient, to eatfarmoreofproductA,butAwillsupplyitwithanexcessive In orderforthepettomeetitsenergyrequirementsitwillnotonlyneed =33g for ProductB:6×5.5 • =60g for ProductA:6×10 • intake willthereforebe: productB.Itsdailyprotein of ofproductAand150g day itwillconsume600g more ofAtoobtainthesamenumbercalories.Ifadogneeds600kcalper Since animalseattosatisfytheirenergyneeds,thepetwillneedconsume 57 examples. Product AandproductBarereal Interesting fact

NUTRIENT CONTENT OF FOOD VNA 1 • CHAPTER 1 p22623_gg_hill's_2011_vna_mas_chapter_1_VNA 2005Master05/12/201109:02Page58 VNA 1 • CHAPTER 1 Summary .The 1. Summary ofkeypoints 5. 4. 3. Thethreewaysare 2. ffood. of Energy basis moisture hasbeencalculatedfor. Dry matterbasis food labels As fedbasis and expressed inthreeways. nutrient content energy basis . refers totheinformationon refers tothe . refers towhatisleftafterthe as fedbasis of differentfoodscanbe energy content , dry matterbasis pet 58 .Howdoestheenergybased(kilocalorie)contentof 3. Howisthedrymattercontentoffoodcalculated? 2. Whoismostlikelytouseanasfedcomparison? 1. Self-assessment questions food affecttheconsumptionofnutrients? p22623_gg_hill's_2011_vna_mas_chapter_1_VNA 2005Master05/12/201109:02Page59 Exercise 4 q Photocopy andusetheformbelowtokeeparecordofyouranswers Building yourportfolio uestions below.Keepthisinformationforyourportfolio. .Howwould youexplain,insimpleterms,theenergybasisofthisfoodcomparedto c. Calculatethedrymattercomparisonofthisproduct. b. Whataretheasfednutrientdetailsofmostpopularpetfoodsoldinyourpractice? a. another similarproduct? 59

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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DOGS AND CATS VNA 1 • CHAPTER 1 4 a vegetariandiet. necessary canevenmanageon Dogs areomnivorousandif Let yourclientknow dogs andcats Differences between that catsanddogsarequitedifferentintheirnutritionalrequirements. As youhavereadthroughthistext,probablypickedup usage ofavarieddiet. developed anatomicandphysiologiccharacteristicsthatpermitdigestion Dogs behaveinaverysimilarway.Theyareopportunisticeatersandhave mushrooms andmelons. diet. Bothcoyotesandwolvesalsoeatplantmattersuchasfruits,berries, therefore partiallydigestedvegetablematerialisanormalpartofthewolf’s are thenaturalprey.Thevisceraconsideredpreferredpartsand consume herbivorefaeces,e.g.,horsedroppings.Forwolves,largerungulates consume droppingsofherbivorousprey.Domesticdogswillalsohappily amphibians andotherspecies.Inaddition,theyhavebeenreportedto Coyotes eatcarrionandhuntrodents,othersmallmammals,birds, predators andscavengersthathunteatwhateverisavailablelocally. Dogs arecloselyrelatedtowolvesandcoyotes.Bothopportunistic 60 p22623_gg_hill's_2011_vna_mas_chapter_1_VNA 2005Master05/12/201109:02Page61 cats. Youcanreadmoreaboutthisinthesectiononproteinand aminoacids. explain whyrequirementsofvariousnutrientsaresodifferent in dogsand predatory behaviourwithhunger. behaviour mayfrustrateownerswhoconfuse gives thecatitsplayfulnature.Unfortunately,this multiple kills,whichoptimisesfoodavailabilityand stop eatingtomakeakill.Thisstrategyallowsfor The predatorydriveissostrongincatsthattheywill throughout thedayandnight. meals small has evolvedtoeat10–20 are alsotaken.Thismeansthatthecat birds,reptiles,frogsandinsects) (e.g., and avarietyofotherprey of theferaldomesticcat’sdiet ormore mice) makeup40% rodents (e.g.,volesand desert-like areas.Small developed indry, that have solitary hunters hand, catsare On theother differences infeedingbehaviourandsubsequentneedsfordifferent nutrients avoid consumingtheplantmaterialsthatarepresentinentrails. These reflects theirpreferenceforanimaltissue.Wheningestingprey,wildcats protein-saving mechanisms.Eveninthewild,feedingbehaviourofcats to areadilyavailableproteinsourceandthereforeneverdevelopedany is usedasenergy.Thisprobablycameaboutbecausecatsalwayshadaccess Because thecatisstrictlycarnivorous,ithasaneedforextraprotein,which tissue only. All ofthesearepresentinanimal acid. arachidonic • pre-formedvitaminA • •taurineThis isduetotheneedfor: to survive. i.e., theyrequireanimaltissue Cats arestrictlycarnivorous, Let yourclientknow 61

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DOGS AND CATS VNA 1 • CHAPTER 1 p22623_gg_hill's_2011_vna_mas_chapter_1_VNA 2005Master05/12/201109:02Page62 VNA 1 • CHAPTER 1 Summary .Dogsare 1. Summary ofkeypoints .Dogscouldevenmanageona 2. .Catsarestrictly 3. .Cats 4. need opportunist eaters protein forenergy. carnivorous . . vegetarian diet . 62 .Howcanadog’senergyneedsbemet? 4. Whydocatsneedanimaltissuetosurvive? 3. Whatarethenaturaleatinghabitsofcats? 2. Towhichotheranimalsaredogscloselyrelated? 1. Self-assessment questions p22623_gg_hill's_2011_vna_mas_chapter_1_VNA 2005Master05/12/201109:02Page63 Exercise 5 q Photocopy andusetheformbelowtokeeparecordofyouranswers Building yourportfolio uestions below.Keepthisinformationforyourportfolio. .ExplaintoMrChatwhyhiscatstopseatinginorderhunt. b. ExplaintoMrsDungwhyherdoglikeseatinghorsedroppings. a. 63

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