• Vol. 25, No.2 nternatlona April 2001 etln• Mission Legacies in Earthen Vessels his issue of the INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY a missionary crossed the final border to meet his Lord." At the T RESEARCH marks the beginningof the twenty-fifthyear of last reunion, all the weaknesses of earthen vessels will be forgot­ the Mission Legacies series. The first in the series, "HenryVenn's ten. In the meantime, the legacies of Sundkler and Costas (to use Legacy," appeared in April 1977,writtenby Contributing Editor Escobar's words) stand as "a vibrant and continuous challenge Wilbert R.Shenk. To date, includingthe presentissue, 123legacy for all of us." essays have appeared. A few years ago Orbis Books published a Otherfeatures in this issue refer one wayor another to every collection of 75 of these as MissionLegacies: Biographical Studies of region of the globe. As a result of two millennia of checkered Leaders oftheModern Missionary Movement(1994);the volume has history and earthen-vessel ministries, the word of hope for met with such appreciation that it is now in its fifth printing. broken humanity has reached the far corners. Praise God for the Academic journals are not known for sustained interest in legacies of earthen vessels. biography, and in that regard the BULLETIN is something of an exception. Missiology must in the very nature of things focus on the messengers engaged in Christ's mission. By placing two legacy articles as theopeningfeatures of this issue,we emphasize On Page the personal element in mission. 50 The Legacy of Orlando Costas The Good News of God's forgiveness, reconciliation, and Samuel Escobar hope came to the world by way of incarnation; Jesus, the divine son, was clothed in an earthen vessel, "yet without sin," as the 58 The Legacy of Bengt Sundkler writer to the Hebrews reminds us (4:15).Those who have heard Eric J. Sharpe his call to mission know the crucialimportance of incarnation, no 64 The Current State of Religious Freedom less so for the Lord's messengers than for the Lord himself. And PaulMarshall they too arrive in earthen vessels, but with all-too-human flaws and cracks. The Apostle reasoned, "We have this treasure in clay 66 Cultural Encounter: Korean Protestantism and jars, so that it may be made clear that this extraordinary power Other Religious Traditions belongs to God and does not come from us" (2 Cor. 4:7). James Huntley Grayson Afriend ofOrlandoCostas, whoselegacy-writtenby Samuel 72 Evangelism and Proselytism in Russia: Escobar-follows in these pages, once observed that Rose, Synonyms or Antonyms? Orlando's wife, "steadied him, carried out research, typed and Mark Elliott retyped his manuscripts, handled all of his correspondence, managed the office, kept track of his busy schedule, endured his 75 United Societyfor thePropagationof the Gospel, explosive temper and Latin machismo." A little "clay" is evident 1701-2000: Chronicling Three Centuries of in that affectionate and candid vignette. Eric Sharpe, the author Mission of the second legacy piece, writes of the saintly Bengt Sundkler, Daniel O'Connor "Everyone knew that he was impulsive, that he could be erratic 80 My Pilgrimage in Mission and bad-tempered, and that the black dog of depression some­ Harry W. Williams times ran him into a corner." More "clay." BengtSundklerdiedin 1995,at the age of eighty-five. (Sharpe, 82 Noteworthy his legacy biographer, former student, and colleague, himself 86 Book Reviews died last year-see "Noteworthy" in the January IBMR.) Or­ 94 Dissertations lando Costas was taken in 1987 in mid-career, age forty-five. Writes Escobar, "The man who had crossed so many borders as 96 Book Notes of issionaryResearch The Legacy of Orlando Costas Samuel Escobar

rlando Costas left the church universal an invaluable emphasis on the transforming power of the Gospel that he O legacy by his short but intense missionary life (1942­ experienced that night. This experience is probably the origin of 87). He lived passionately every stage of his missionary pilgrim­ his deeply held commitment to the centrality of evangelism for age in contrasting worlds: the United States and Latin America, the life of the church. The church and its evangelizing task was the academic world and the Hispanic ghetto in North America. the theme of his first book in 1971,2and it was also the central He consecrated his mind to the demanding tasks of missiological thrust of his last and posthumous book Liberating News: A Theol­ scholarship with imagination and creativity. He conceived and ogy of Contextual Eoangelization? developed lasting missionary institutions, and he discipled a The year after his conversion Costas found himself as a generation of activists and thinkers in Christian mission. In most student in the well-known center of American fundamentalism, of his writings Costas engaged in what Latin American theolo­ Bob Jones University in South Carolina. He credited his time gians have called "reflectionon praxis." This continuous conver­ there for the discovery of evangelism and the importance of sation with himself and dialogue with his interlocutors provide preaching. Through the example of a Puerto Rican student significant milestones through which we can trace his mission­ colleague he developed "a passionate concern for the communi­ ary involvement and evaluate his missiologicallegacy. cation of the Gospel." But he also recalled a disturbing experi­ In an autobiographical piece written for the Lausanne-spon­ ence: "I came face to face with Anglo-Saxon culture in its worst sored Consultation on Gospel and Culture, held in 1978 at form ... the puritanical value system ... the shameless defense Willowbank, Bermuda, Costas outlined what he called his three and justification of racism ... and the triumphalistic belief in the conversions. The first took place in 1957 during the BillyGraham divine (manifest) destiny of the United States."! He also became New York Crusade, when he crossed the frontier of saving faith aware of the Latin American world and of what he called "my in Jesus Christ, coming out of a restless and turbulent youth. The hidden Latin American identity." second was the rediscovery of his Hispanic American cultural Back in Connecticut and New York, at the age of nineteen, roots and a renewed awareness of the importance of the church, Costasbecamepastorof a smallstorefrontchurchof theDisciples which took him out of Bob Jones University into a pastoral of Christ. He was an enthusiastic evangelist and a gifted musi­ ministry and university studies in Puerto Rico. The third was his cian whose voice had been professionally trained, buthe became "conversionto theworld," whenas a studentin TrinityEvangeli­ convinced that he needed biblical and theological training, for cal Divinity School, Deerfield, Illinois, ministry with a Spanish­ which he enrolled at Nyack Missionary College. While doing speaking congregation in Milwaukee got him involved in social practical work at an Evangelical Free Church in Brooklyn, he activism on behalf of his parishioners. His missiological work met-and married-Rose Feliciano. Their marriage formed a was an effort to incorporate every aspect of these conversions decisive partnership. Costas's friend Guillermo Cook had this to into a holistic perspective that can well be described by the title say, "Certainly Orlando could not have functioned as he did of one of his books, TheIntegrityofMission. He did not view these without his lifelong lover, companion and executive secretary, conversions as accomplished facts; rather he sought to grow in Rose Feliciano Costas. She steadied him, carried out research, depth in each one of them, incorporating his new experiences typed and retyped his manuscripts, handled all of his correspon­ and reflections into a deeper understanding of his vocation. dence, managed the office, kept track of his busy schedule, endured his explosive temper and Latin machismo-and some­ Stages in a Missionary Pilgrimage how found time to be an efficient wife and the mother of two lovely daughters, Annette and Dannette.:" Orlando Enrique Costas was born in Puerto Rico, June 15, 1942, During a summer evangelistic tour of Puerto Rico, Costas within the God-fearing Methodist family of Ventura Enrique became convinced that in order to minister to Latino people he Costas and Rosaline Rivera. He was twelve when his father needed to work and study in a Latino country. Thus he returned immigrated to the United States, and Orlando experienced the to his native Puerto Rico with Rose and their first daughter to be traumatic uprooting of thousands of Puerto Ricans who have a student at the Inter American University and a pastor of the moved from the beautiful landscapes of the "island of enchant­ Yauco BaptistChurch, wherehe wasordainedFebruary13, 1965. ment" to theHispanicghettoesof largeU.S.cities. His conversion Out of that formative experience he recalls the development of to Christ came in the middle of the identity crisis and rebellious­ twoof the mostimportantconvictionsthatshapedhis missiology. ness that so many Hispanic young people experience. Twenty First, he says, "I discovered the church as an institution;that is, as years later Costas recalled, "That night something strange oc­ a complex systemof distinctivebeliefs, values, rites, symbols and curred in my life ... something unique did happen on June 8, relationships which maintain a line of continuity with the past 1957, in Madison Square Garden, and has been happening ever and through which the Gospel is communicated and lived." since."! His sensitivity to the painful transition experienced by Second, he declares, "These studies led me to rediscover my youth of ethnic minorities in U.S. society is matched by his Puerto Rican identity, to affirm my Latin American cultural heritage, to begin to question the political hegemony of the United States in Latin America and to consciously break with its Samuel Escobar succeeded Orlando E.Costas astheThornley B.Wood Professor culture.:" In one of his books he recalls that at this stage he ofMissiology atEastern Baptist Theological Seminary. Presently heshares that traveled to the Dominican Republic and experienced firsthand position with a ministry based in Lima, Peru, as Theological Consultant for the 1965-66 crisis, when U.S. marines invaded that country to Baptist International Ministries, American Baptist Churches. support a military coup against an elected president that the

50 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH State Department disliked. "I had a chance to see for myself how International Bulletin a powerful nation quenched the hopes and aspirations of a of Missionary Research peoplewhohavebeendominatedin one wayor anotherthrough­ out their history by oligarchies and foreign powers." He became Established 1950 by R. Pierce Beaver as Occasional Bulletin from the aware that it was not only the United States but a bloc of nations Missionary Research Library. Named Occasional Bulletin of Missionary "who have a similar history of colonialization, and who have Research 1977. Renamed lNrERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH become extremely rich, partly as the result of their business and 1981. Published quarterly in January, April, July, and October by economicdeals withthe oligarchiesthatcontrolthese countries." Overseas Ministries Study Center A most disturbing awareness was added: "The sad thing about 490 Prospect Street, New Haven, Connecticut 06511, U.S.A. this is that these countries have also been largely responsible for Tel: (203) 624-6672 • Fax: (203) 865-2857 the expansion of Christianity in the Third World."? E-mail: [email protected]. Web: http://www.OMSC.org After Puerto Rico the Costas family moved back to the Editor: Contributing Editors: United States, and from 1966 to 1969 Orlando studied at Trinity Jonathan J.Bonk Catalino G. Arevalo.S], C. Rene Padilla Evangelical Divinity School, and later at Garrett Theological David B.Barrett James M. Phillips Seminary, Evanston, Illinois, and at Winona Lake (Indiana) Associate Editor: Stephen B.Bevans,S.V.D. Dana L. Robert School of Theology. During this period of his life he was called to RobertT. Coote Samuel Escobar Lamin Sanneh pastor an inner-city congregation in Milwaukee made up of Paul G. Hiebert Wilbert R.Shenk Mexican Americans and Puerto Ricans. While serving the Iglesia Assistant Editor: Jan A. B.Jongeneel BrianStanley Evangelica Bautista, Costas was asked by the Spanish-speaking DanielJ. Nicholas Sebastian Karotemprel, S.D.B. Charles R. Taber community of Milwaukee to represent them before the local David A. Kerr Tite Tienou commission that administered funds provided by President Senior Contributing Editor Graham Kings Ruth A. Tucker Lyndon Johnson'S War on Poverty. "I immediately discovered Gerald H. Anderson Anne-Marie Kool Desmond Tutu Gary B.McGee Andrew F. Walls that I was in a loaded political situation. The Latin community Mary Motte, EM.M. AnastasiosYannouIatos was a minority among a minority. Not only the white majority but also the blacks were consciously marginating our people Books for review and correspondence regarding editorial matters should be from the programs and social benefits of the War on Poverty." addressed to the editors. Manuscripts unaccompanied by a self-addressed, Thus the young pastor and theology student discovered-as stamped envelope (or international postal coupons) will not be returned. many African-American and Latino pastors before and after Subscriptions: $23 for one year, $41 for two years, and $57 for three years, him-that his ministry had to include community activism and postpaid worldwide. Airmail delivery is $16 per year extra. Foreign sub­ organizing. "In this political praxis I never lost my Christian and scribers must pay in U.S. funds only. Use check drawn on a U.S. bank, pastoral identity. On the contrary, this process led me to reflect Visa, MasterCard, or International Money Order in U.S. funds. Individual critically on my ministry and on the nature and mission of the copies are $7.00; bulk rates upon request. Correspondence regarding sub­ church." In this wayhis conversionto Christandthento the Latin scriptions and address changes should be sent to: lNrERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH, P.O. Box 3000, Denville, New Jersey 07834, U.S.A. culture became "complemented by a conversion to the world, especially the worldof the forgotten and exploited:" Advertising: Ruth E. Taylor Mission to Latin America 11 Graffam Road, South Portland, Maine 04106, U.S.A. Telephone: (207) 799-4387 In February 1970 Orlando, Rose, and their daughters arrived in Articles appearing in this journal are abstracted and indexed in: Costa Rica as a missionary family with the Latin America Mis­ sion. He was commissioned to teach in Biblical Seminary, San Bibliografia Missionaria IBR (International Bibliography of Book ReviewIndex Book Reviews) Jose, and to work with the Evangelism in Depth (IINDEF) team. Christian Periodical Index IBZ (International Bibliography of Bythat timethe maincomponentsof Costas'smissiologywerein Guideto People in Periodical Literature Periodical Literature) place. This is evident in his first book published in Spanish in Guideto Social Science and Religion in Missionalia March 1971, a little over a year after his arrival in San [ose.?The Periodical Literature Religious andTheological Abstracts book outlines the evangelistic mission of the church in four

Religion IndexOne: Periodicals IIdimensions":biblical, theological, historical, and practical. This Index, abstracts, and full text of this journal are available on databases fourfold approachbecamecharacteristicofCostas'smissiological provided by ATLAS, EBSCO, H. W. Wilson Company, The Gale Group, and reflection. Two chapters in the final section explore the meaning University Microfilms. Back issues may be seen on the ATLAS website, of the mission of the church in a post-Christian age, a theme http://purl.org/CERTR/ATLAS/Phase1.html. Also consultInfoTrac data­ emphasized eleven years later in one of his most quoted books." base at many academic and public libraries. For more information, contact In a period of intense evangelistic and educational activity be­ your online service. tween 1970 and 1974, Costas had a chance to develop his Opinions expressed in the lNrERNATIONAL BULLETIN are those of the authors missiology in depth, as he responded with action and reflection and not necessarily of the Overseas Ministries Study Center. to the demands of the Latin American context. The list of positions Costas held duringthe 1970sreflects the Copyright© 2001by Overseas Ministries StudyCenter. All rights reserved. versatility of his gifts but also the heavy demands of missionary Second-class postage paid at New Haven, Connecticut. life in one of the crucial decades of missiological creativity in the POSTMASTER: Send address changes to INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF twentieth century, not only in Latin America but also around the MISSIONARY RESEARCH, P.O. Box 3000, Denville, New Jersey 07834, U.S.A. world. He lived intensely this decade as witness or participantin the flourishing of liberation theologies, the foundation and de­ ISSN 0272-6122 velopment of the Latin American Theological Fraternity, the launching and growth of the Lausanne movement, the develop-

April 2001 51 ment of the church growth movement, and the return of evange­ I started to put in writing some of my developing missiological lism to the agenda of boththe World Councilof Churches and the insights." Intentionally, then, the book TheChurch andItsMission Roman Catholic Church. At the seminary in Costa Rica he was was addressed to the evangelical missionary community in the successively or simultaneously professor of communications United States. "But it was situated in the experience of a Puerto and missiology, academic dean and coordinator of studies, and Rican Christian who, having been helped by the Anglo-Ameri­ chairof the Departmentof Religious Communication. Beginning can church earlier in his life, now felt constrained to minister in 1972 he became active in the Latin American Theological prophetically to it." l S Fraternity (LATF), and in 1977 he was elected to its Executive Research, reflection, and publishing in both Spanish and Committee. He becameone of the primemoversof CLADE II,the English were important aims of an institution that Costas de­ Second LatinAmericanCongresson Evangelism (1979)calledby signed and founded in 1973, the Latin American Center for the LATF. He wrote in 1984, "My theological reflection has been Pastoral Studies (CELEP).According to Guillermo Cook, Costas linked to the itinerary followed by the Fraternity."!' At IINDEF was asked by several Latin American students and faculty of he was secretary of theological studies, later on secretary of Biblical Seminary to create the evangelical equivalent of the research and communications, and then secretary of studies and Catholic Instituto de Pastoral Latinoamericana, which Cook publications. described as "a think tank to which a number of the early Costas's intense activism is reflected in a vast amount of liberation theologians belonged.v'" Through CELEP, Costas written material: articles, reports, interviews, and chapters of started two periodicals, one in Spanish (Pastoralia), the other in books. One of the important ministries that he practiced was to English (Occasional Essays, later Latin American Pastoral Issues), encourage his colleagues to write and publish. After two years in which became sources of information about missiological devel­ Costa Rica he edited a volume in Spanish about the theology of opmentsin LatinAmerica and the world. Costas directed CELEP evangelism, with contributions from eightof his colleagues." He for six years." had imposed on himself a discipline that many of his colleagues Within the volatile social and theological ferment of that envied. He tried to write everyone of his sermons, lectures, or decade, Biblical Seminary became the focus of a bitter contro­ presentations, later on adaptingthemfor publication. In this way versy at the center of which was liberation theology. Costas's reading of the situation in his autobiographical notes identified three groups that were at odds with each other. One identified wholeheartedly with the new theology, one was open to interact Costas wrote out every one critically with it, and one was diametrically opposed to it. Costas of his sermons and lectures says that he was part of the second group, but he felt that the and later adapted them for social andecclesiasticalcontextpushedtoward polarization,and it was increasingly impossible to take a middle-of-the-road posi­ publication. tion. Finally there was a painfulbreak with the seminary, though he says that the reasons for his leaving were more administrative and personal than theological. It was also a bitter disappoint­ he kept a continuous reflection on praxis, relating his new ment: "The dream we had of making the Seminary an Evangeli­ insights with the ideas he had expressed earlier. A course on cal institution committed to the Latin American context and preaching that he taught in 1970 was published in 1973, and it independentfrom Americanmissionary power centers hadbeen continues to be one of the few textbooks on preaching written frustrated (at least for me)."l 8 originally in Spanish that is at the same time practical and theologically informed." His first book in English appeared in Amsterdam and Back to Latin America 1974 and is based on the course "World Mission of the Church" that he taught in January 1973 at Gordon-Conwell Theological At the end of his first missionary term in Costa Rica, Costas and Seminary." The book was saluted enthusiastically in a foreword his family moved to the Netherlands, where he pursued doctoral by Paul Rees from World Vision: "What makes this book arrest­ studies in missiology at the Free University of Amsterdamunder ing and timely is that it springs from the informed mind and the the famous Dutch missiologistJohannes Verkuyl. Here he wrote aroused conscience not of a European or a North American but his doctoral thesis Theology oftheCrossroads in Contemporary Latin of a Latin." Peter Wagner, of Fuller Seminary School of World AmericaP which is a massive survey of missiological develop­ Mission, stated that the book was "a substantial work on ments in mainline Protestantism in the period 1969-74. His trips missiology," and he warned readers, "Parts of it will rub some through Latin America during his first missionary term in Costa evangelicals againsttheirgrain. Parts of it will irritate ecumenists Rica and his insatiable curiosity had enabled him to become to the core.... Costas's material is not missiological Pablum, it is familiar with the vast amount of literature generated within strong meat and Olust be read and studied as such. II mainline Protestantism, especially in the ecumenical world. The Costas believed that to publish was a way of carrying on an thesis is a good source of historical and bibliographical informa­ ecumenical and global dialogue, involving the submitting of tion for anyone interested in understanding events, personali­ one's ideas to the purifying process of criticism and evaluation ties, and movements from Latin America that had a decisive from others. His ideas were being developed within an atmo­ influence in shapingthe agenda of Protestant ecumenismworld­ sphere of confrontation, debate, and turmoil. Costas recalled, wide. Like other writings, his thesis reflects Costas's commit­ "N 0 sooner had we begun to take a few steps toward the ment to take seriously the thinking of other theologians and development of a Latin American theology and a contextual missiologists, even if he might be critical of them. missiologicalreflectionthanwe beganto feel the heatfrom North From Amsterdam Costas's family moved to Birmingham, America, particularly the United States. Since I was one of the England, where Orlando carried on research and taught as a mostvocal of the San Jose LAM-relatedtheologians, Ibeganto be William Paton Fellow at the well-known missionary training quoted and misquoted.... I decided to take the bullby the horns. center in Selly Oak Colleges.

52 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH For his second missionary term in Costa Rica (1976-79) mands of the gospel; and if we can foster in them a 'spirituality Costas was commissioned by the United Church Board for for combat' we shall have been indeed faithful to the whole World Ministries. He recalled with a measure of pride and joy Gospel and sensitive to the fullness of the world to which God thathe andRose werecommissionedin the sameCongregational has sent US."24 Church of Salem, Massachusetts, where Adoniram Judson had At Eastern, Costas found a community that had been mov­ beencommissioned 163years earlier. In this newperiodCostas's ing toward the recovery of an evangelical legacy of holistic missionary work focused on the direction of CELEP, and he mission. The seminary had a theological tradition that included traveled extensively for short-term teaching and lecturing as­ openly evangelical theologians such as Bernard Ramm and signmentsall overLatinAmerica. He wasalso activein the board Culbert Rutenber. Ronald Sider, activist theologian and founder ofthe LatinAmericanTheologicalFraternity. At this pointhe had of Evangelicals for Social Action, became one of Costas's col­ been able to systematize his understanding of the mission of the leagues. Sider had written the foreword to TheIntegrity of Mis­ church, and between 1975and 1978he completed TheIntegrityof sion. The student body at Eastern has a significant African­ Mission, which waspublished in 1979simultaneouslyin English American presence, and the seminary was committed to ethnic andSpanish."The introductiongivesan ideaof the audiencesfor pluralism and integration also at the faculty level. Besides thriv­ whom the material was originally prepared: missionary and ing in his teaching activity, Costas established links with the pastoral conferences of several mainline denominations in the Hispanic communities in the northeastern region of the United United States. Costas states that he intended "to provide a States, and as a result of his initiative Eastern created a depart­ popular interpretation of mission combining my evangelistic, ment of Hispanic ministries, offering courses and conferences in theological, pastoral, ethical and liturgical interests with a holis­ Spanish. An important collection of books in Spanish and about tic view of mission and a contextual biblical methodology.?" the Hispanic world was developed intentionally in the library and named after Santiago Soto Fontanez, a well-known Ameri­ Back to the Hispanic Margin can Baptist from Puerto Rico who had done missionary work in New York. For theological education with a special emphasis on During his second term in Costa Rica, Costas was in constant laypeople from minorities, Costas designed the Eastern School demandas a speakerandteachernotonlythroughLatinAmerica for Christian Ministry. He became the founder of a section of the but also in other parts of the world. Invitations from Hispanic Latin American Theological Fraternity in the United States, churches in the United States provided an opportunity to expe­ organized a consultation about preaching and the Hispanic rience againthe difficultbutfertile transitionsthatthesegrowing tradition, and edited the resulting book." evangelical communities were experiencing. "During that pe­ During this period Costas published what probably has riod," he recalls, "it became clear to me that I had an important been his most influential book in North America, ChristOutside ministry to fulfill as a minority, Hispanic missiologist."22He felt theGate, reprinted six times between1982and 1992.This volume there was a need to interpret the Christian mission "from the is a collection of articles, lectures, and reports Costas had pro­ periphery," from the perspective of those Christians from ethnic duced in the transitional period betweenhis second termin Latin minorities in North America who had not been the main actors America and the beginning of his teaching in North America. of the missionary enterprise--Asians, blacks, Hispanics, and Though each of its eleven chapters was prepared for different Native Americans. moments and audiences in conferences and consultations, there His return was made possible in the fall of 1980 by an are some constantmissiological motifs that inform the reflection: invitation from Eastern Baptist Theological Seminary in Wynnewood, Pennsylvania, to become the Thornley B. Wood Professor of Missions. Costas interpreted his missionary work in Latin America as a time in which he had been developing his Costas reflected powerfully perspective from the Latin American periphery. His return to on the incarnation as the North America did not mean a change of locus or perspective, "I key for a contextual came back ... not to be one more professional in the growing American 'missiological market' but rather to continue to do missionary practice. missiology from the periphery-this time the periphery of the American metropolis."23 In his installation address at Eastern, February 20, 1980, contextualization and incarnation, captivity and liberation, ecu­ Costas reflected about the seminary's motto "The whole Gospel menical and evangelical crosscurrents, church growth and evan­ for the whole world," inverting the terms of the famous phrase gelization as multidimensional phenomena. The book opens to "The whole world for the whole Gospel." He stressed his with a forceful Christological reflection about the incarnation as contextual concern in order to take seriously the conflictive a key for a contextual missionary practice. It ends with a sermon world in which mission was to take place in the 1980s,involving thatexpoundsHebrews13:12,wherewe are invitedto meetJesus its culture, institutions, and structures. At the same time, he "outside the gate" and bear the suffering he bore. affirmed his evangelical conviction that had been deepened and Costas was convinced of the need to incorporate in his enriched with a holistic thrust during his Latin American mis­ reflection the fruit of the workdoneby his colleagues in the Third sionaryexperience. His wordswerean agendaofwhateducation World,or, as he preferredto say, the Two-ThirdsWorld. His trips for mission should be: "If we can enable Christian women and and studies had convinced him that if nonwhite, non-Western men to see the billions who have yet to hear the good news of theologians were going to be heard by the North Atlantic salvation, to commit their lives to their integral evangelization, missiological establishment, they needed to talk among them­ and to acquire the necessary analytical tools and communication selves and theologize together. From his leadership position in skills to facilitate such a task; if we can enable them to have the Latin American Theological Fraternity, Costas became a prophetic courage and confront social institutions with the de- moving force behind two conferences of evangelical mission

April 2001 53 theologians from Africa, Asia, and Latin America in 1982 and handmaid of mission, but mission is not always missiological. 1984. Thus the International Fellowship of Mission Theologians Mission becomes missiological when it is accompanied by a from the Two Thirds World (INFEMIT) was formed and has process of critical reflection."30 This emphasis on practice had continued to foster dialogue, education, and publications. His deep roots in Protestant missiology in Latin America, especially commitment to a North-South dialogue got him involved also in in the writings of John A. Mackay, who emphasized committed the consultation "Conflict and Context: Hermeneutics in the action "on the road" as the locus of Christian discipleship and Americas," sponsored by the TheologicalStudentsFellowshipof theology, contrasting it with idle contemplation "from the bal­ InterVarsity in the United States and by the Latin American cony." Theological Fraternity." Costas also developed some analytic Every stage in the formation of Costas's thought and every tools that guided the research and projects of several Doctor of note of his missiology were nurtured by the particular mission­ Ministry students at Eastern." ary situation in which he was involved. A preacher by gift and In 1984 Costas was invited to take the position of dean and vocation, his thinking was structured by a homiletical order that the Adoniram Judson Chair of Missiology at Andover Newton also expressed his systematic bent. His method involved inte­ Theological Seminary, Newton Centre, Massachusetts. He ex­ grating approaches from several theological disciplines. His pected to use his administrative position for the development of works show first a way of reading the biblical text, taking projects and institutions that would express his missiological seriously input from biblical scholarship but bringing to the text convictions,justas he haddoneat Eastern. He wasalso optimistic questions posedby the practiceof Christians. In the secondplace, about summarizing his missiology in a three-part book about he presents a way of reading the history of the church, paying contextual evangelization. He took with him the manuscript of special attention to the lessons that can be derived from it. Third, the first volume when, in February 1987, he and Rose traveled to like liberation theologians, Costas applied social analysis to the Israel for what was to be a three-month sabbatical. After a few description and evaluation of the missionary enterprise. How­ weeks he did not feel well. A medical examination showed that ever, he used classic theological categories to provide a structure he was affected by terminal cancer, and they returned to the to his understanding and exposition of missiological lessons. UnitedStates. With the strength and persistence that had charac­ With his own personal brand of eclecticism he felt free to take terized their missionary life, Orlando and Rose began a battle elements from diverse Christian traditions. Finally, Costas had a thatwouldlast onlya few months. Afteran operationhe wasable worldview and a stance that were increasingly shaped by his to fulfill a dream, to speak at the 1987 biennial meeting of beinga memberof an ethnic minority. Ifwe follow Costas's work American Baptists, his own denomination. Orlando was able to attentively, we will see how this method developed and was bring his message of hope and faith in the resurrection when he coming to fruition in his posthumous book Liberating News. spoke about glorifying God by death or by life. His theme was partnership, and he reflected on the fact that his sickness had Galilee and Macedonia allowed him to experience the partnership and solidarity in prayerandconcernfrom hundredsofbrothersandsistersaround A sustained creative engagement with the biblical text is at the the world. On November 5, 1987, at the age of forty-five, the man heart of Liberating News. Each chapter expounds a Bible passage who had crossed so many borders as a missionary crossed the in search for images and paradigms that allow Costas to develop final border to meet his Lord. a theology of evangelization from what he calls a "radical evan­ gelical tradition" characterized by "a stream of evangelical the­ A Missiological Legacy ology and spirituality with a burning passion for world evange­ lization." This reference to theology, spirituality, and evangelis­ In spiteof his shortlife Costasleft a valuablemissiologicallegacy. tic passion represents a departure from the traditional Anglo­ It was valuable partly because he was a prolific writer but also, Saxon evangelical emphasis on orthodox doctrine. This shift is as several colleagues and scholars have observed, because he confirmed when Costas refers to his four theological principles: was consistent in his reflection about his pilgrimage and about "Scripture as a rule of faith and practice, salvation by grace the missiological agenda that we must pursue, especially in the through faith, conversion as a distinct experience of faith and a Americas."Plutarco Bonilla summarized well the fivefold stance landmark of Christian identity, and the demonstration of the that was the trademark of Costas's missiology. His was a new life through piety and moral discipline." By the explicit missiology that was done from the ground of commitment to the reference to truth and life, to theology and piety, to doctrine and church; it made sense because it started with commitment to missionary practice, Costas is underlining what evangelicals Jesus Christ; it was grounded in the human reality in which the from Asia, Africa, and Latin America, as well as from black and church was immersed; it was carried on within the frame of Hispanic churches in the United States, have emphasized: "Tak­ ecumenicity; and it was done from a stance of commitment to ing its missiological concern and theological principles to their those to whom Jesus Christ himself was committed." In what roots and ultimate consequences/?' follows I outline some aspects of Orlando Costas's legacy that in His Latin American pilgrimage had made Costas aware of my opinion are suggestive guidelines for missiological work in the historical and social conditioning of the missionary enter­ this new century. prise. In one of the most forceful chapters in Christ Outside the ByvocationandpracticeCostaswasessentiallya missiologist Gate, he denounced the perennial alliance between the mission­ whose activity set the agenda for his writings. He defined his ary enterprise and Western imperialism. "It was not by accident discipline with a passionate note: "Missiology has to do with the that mission work took an entrepreneurial shape. It occurred witnessingengagementof Christiansin the concretesituationsof because .the modern missionary movement is the child of the life. It is a critical reflection that takes place in their praxis of world of free enterprise."32 He went on to say that the missionary mission. It is an analytical interpretation, evaluation, and projec­ movement had been an instrument for legitimating and prepar­ tion of the meaning, effectiveness, obstacles, and possibilities of ing the way for agents of liberal economics or politics. That the communication of the Gospel to the world. Missiology is the relationship explained why mission societies adopted entrepre­

54 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH neurial strategies. Later in his career, however, as seen for disciplined reflection and his administrative gifts, this ecumeni­ instance in Liberating News, the tone of denunciation moved cal stance was also his valuable contribution to the Latin Ameri­ toward a more nuanced appreciation of the historical and can Theological Fraternity. When we look at the sources of his missiological significanceof "worldforma tive" missionarymove­ thought beginning with his first book in 1971, we find all kinds ments such as those of Wesley, Carey, and the Moravians. of Catholic and Protestant thinkers. In his search for biblical light about the historical facts of Being a Hispanic theologian raised in the United States was mission, Costas takes us to a creative reading of the Gospel of an advantage for Costas; it explains in part his ecumenical spirit Mark, in which he finds "the evangelistic legacy of [esus." and vocation. On the one hand, he did not have that deep sense Focusing on the many references to Galilee as a starting point for of being part of a religious minority discriminated against by mission, Costas concludes "that Galilee is a 'key' not only to Catholics, which is part of the experience of evangelical thinkers understanding Mark but also to recovering and interpreting in Latin America. On the other hand, his way of understanding Jesus' evangelistic legacy. I see in Mark a model of contextual the Hispanic heritage was a polemical one because he had an evangelization from the periphery." He believed he had found a acute sense of being part of a Hispanic minority within a pre­ hermeneutical key that allowed him to understand better what dominant Anglo-Saxon culture. As a Puerto Rican who grew mission will be in the twenty-first century, when it will be based painfully into an awareness of his Latin heritage, he had come to in the churches of the poor and the periphery of the nations. perceive insensitive conservative Protestantism as part of the Instead of a mission based in Jerusalem, the center of power that oppressive structure under which that minority lives. I think this can easily co-opt the missionary enterprise, Costas visualized a awareness explains the promptness with which Costas adopted Galilean model: "But if we take Galilee as a serious evangelistic some of the categories of liberation theologies and their persis­ context,ourpraxiswill neverbe alienating, dull, staticor without tent anti-U.S. rhetoric. It is an experience that historian Justo L. challenge. For we will be forced to ask, Where is our base, whois Gonzalez has described aptly." The other advantage Costas had our target audience and what is the scope of our evangelistic as a Hispanicfrom NorthAmericawasto be an AmericanBaptist, praxis? These are the types of questions that help us recover the a member of a pluralist denomination in which there is room for prophetic, liberating, holistic and global apostolic legacy in the a truly contextual theological position. tradition of Jesus, our Messiah and Lord, Savior and Teacher.T" Besides his fertile reflection and writing, Costas's legacy is The socioreligious analysis of the United States as a mission also evident in the work of his disciples. In spite of the hurried field was also one of the issues that Costas pursued after his pace of his trips, his administrative duties, and his missiological return from Latin America. The changing ethnocultural pan­ involvements, he spared time to give guidance and encourage­ orama of the nation is described critically in Christ Outside the ment, especially to many young theologians who saw in him a Gate, where he placed under his missiologicallens the crisis of mentor and a teacher. His advice and academic counsel were church and theology in mainline Protestantism. One of his chap­ accompanied by efforts to create opportunities for the younger ter titles is especially apt: "A New Macedonia: The United States generation in missiological debates and publishing ventures. In as a Mission Field for Third World Christians."?' More than a that regard his passing left a deep vacuum in the Hispanic world simplistic denunciation of the plight of minorities, here Costas of the northeastern region of the United States. offers an appraisal of the tremendous missionary possibilities of I have been able to trace Costas's influence in a variety of incomingminoritiesfor a trueconversionof AmericanChristian­ persons who acknowledge their debt to their teacher. Rev. Luis ity to Jesus Christ. Costas hears a Macedonian call coming from Cortes, whom Costas invited to work with himat Eastern Baptist the critical American situation and sets a missionary agenda for Seminary, has developed Hispanic Clergy-Nueva Esperanza, a Third World Christians in North America: they can serve as a well-respected institution in Pennsylvania and New Jersey. Its mirror for the critical self-understanding of American churches; work of advocacy, job-training, nonformal theological educa­ they can offer models of authentic contextualization; they can tion, and evangelismserves the growingHispaniccommunityas provide meaningful paradigms of dynamic, liberating church an expression of the "integrity of mission" that Costas champi­ leadership in contrast with the highly clericalized American oned. In Argentina, Dr. Norberto Saracco, who was Costas's church; and they can offer a partnership for radical discipleship. student in Costa Rica, leads FIET, a church-based theological formation-by-extension program that embodies the ideals of Missiology Within a New Ecumenicity what Costas tried to do in CELEP. Guillermo Cook wrote, "Probably the greatest gift that Orlando had was that of disciple­ His missionaryexperienceandhis participationin Evangelismin ship. He poured himself into the lives of others and, more often Depth gave Costas an acute awareness of the deep divisions that thannot, causedtheircreativityto bloom." Cookrecalledhis own separate Christians in Latin America. He tried to develop a experience: "Orlando recognized some theological instincts in a bridge-building ministry fostering and provoking dialogue be­ discouraged and poorly equipped missionary (which my North tween Protestants related to the World Council of Churches, American leaders had failed to detect) and encouraged, nudged, evangelicals, and Pentecostals. Costas was active in CLAI, the and bullied me into advanced studies. And in the process he WCC-related ecumenical movement in Latin America, and also opened me up to a whole new way of understanding and in the World Evangelical Fellowship. He was one of the practicing theology-from the perspective of marginalized evangelicals who participated in the Evangelical-Roman Catho­ people." The result was Cook's book The Expectation of the Poor, lic Dialogue on Mission (ERCDOM, 1977-84).35 He could not a classic study about the Christian base communities." always convince all his Latin American colleagues that they More than a decade after his departure, the missionary should cross the borders he crossed, but all sectors acknowl­ legacy of Orlando Costas is a vibrant and continuous challenge edged the authenticityof his commitmentto havefellowship and for all of us at the beginning of a new century. It is a legacy that partnership with whoever shared his pressing sense of mission­ illustrates well the decisive paradigm shift that missiology re­ ary obligation. This commitment accounts for the recognition of quires of the new generation. his missiological work in a wide diversity of circles. Besides his

April 2001 55 Notes------­ 1. Orlando Costas, "Conversion as a Complex Experience," in Downto 19. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1976. Earth: Studies in Christianity and Culture, ed. John R. W. Stott and 20. Compromiso y misi6n: Una reflexi6n sobre la misi6nde la iglesia en este Robert T. Coote (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1980), p. 176. mundo de incertidumbre en que vivimos (San Jose: Editorial Caribe, 2. La iglesia y su mision evangelizadora (Buenos Aires: Editorial La 1979); TheIntegrityofMission: TheInnerLifeandOutreach oftheChurch Aurora, 1971). (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1979). The Spanish version has an 3. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1989.A good part of this book had introductory chapter that does not appear in the English version. appeared earlier in Spanish, Evangelizaci6n contextual: Fundamentos 21. "Teologo en la encrucijada," p. 32. teo16gicos y pastorales (San Jose, Costa Rica: Seminario Bfblico 22. ChristOutsidethe Gate, p. xiii. Latinoamericano, 1986).Rose Costas, Orlando'swidow, tells us that 23. Ibid., p. xiv. close to the end of his life he scribbled a note to himself on a piece of 24. Ibid., p. 172. paper, "The practice of evangelization has been the passion of my 25. Predicaci6n eoangelica y teologia hispana (San Diego: Publicaciones de ministerial career" (Rose L. Feliciano Costas, Preface to Liberating las Americas, 1982). News,p. ix). 26. See "Report," in Conflict andContext: Hermeneutics in theAmericas, ed. 4. "Conversion," p. 178. MarkL.BransonandC.Rene Padilla(GrandRapids,Mich.:Eerdmans, 5. Guillermo Cook, Editorial, Latin American Pastoral Issues 16, no. 1 1985). In an appendix to "Report," Costas offers an account of the (January 1989): 3. other conferences mentioned in this paragraph: "Evangelical 6. "Conversion," p. 180. Theology in the Two Thirds World," pp. 311-23. 7. Orlando E. Costas, TheChurch and Its Mission: A Shattering Critique 27. See,for instance, "A HolisticConceptofChurchGrowth," in Exploring from theThirdWorld (Wheaton, Ill.: Tyndale House, 1974),pp. 12-13. Church Growth, ed. WilbertR.Shenk(Grand Rapids,Mich.:Eerdmans, 8. "Conversion," p. 181. 1983), pp. 95-107. 9. See note 2. 28. Carmelo Alvarez from Puerto Rico and Plutarco Bonilla from Costa 10. ChristOutsidetheGate: MissionBeyond Christendom (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Rica offer an excellent analysis of the main motifs and directions of Orbis Books, 1982). Orlando'smissiologyin "In Memoriam:OrlandoE.Costas," Pastoralia 11. Orlando E. Costas, "Teologo en la encrucijada," in Hacia una teologia 10, nos. 20/21 (July-December 1988). eoangelica latinoamericana, ed. C. Rene Padilla (Miami: Editorial 29. Plutarco Bonilla, "Presentacion" (Introduction), Compromisoymisi6n. Caribe, 1984), p. 25. 30. "Missiologyin Contemporary Latin America: A Survey," Missiology 12. Orlando Costas, comp.,Hacia unateologia delaevangelizaci6n (Buenos 5, no. 1 (January 1977): 90. Aires: La Aurora, 1973). 31. Liberating News, p. 10. 13. Comunicaci6n por medio de la predicaci6n (Miami: Editorial Caribe, 32. "Captivity and Liberation in the Modern Missionary Movement," 1973). This volume was reprinted in 1978, 1982, and 1984. ChristOutsidethe Gate, pp. 58-70. 14. TheChurch and Its Mission. 33. Liberating News, pp. 49, 70. 15. ChristOutsidethe Gate, p. xiii. 34. ChristOutsidethe Gate, pp. 71-85. 16. GuillermoCook, "CELEPin HistoricalPerspective," Occasional Essays 35. See John Stott and Basil Meeking, The Evangelical-Roman Catholic 12, no. 2 (December 1985): 10. Dialogue on Mission (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1988). 17. Costas wrote, "It was from this platform that I carried on my 36. Justo L. Gonzalez, Manana: Christian Theology from a Hispanic missiological reflection during my second period of service in Costa Perspective (Nashville: Abingdon, 1990), pp. 21-30. Rica (1976-1980)." "Teologo en la encrucijada," p. 29. 37. Guillermo Cook, The Expectation of the Poor: Latin American Base 18. Ibid., p. 31. Ecclesial Communities inProtestant Perspective (Maryknoll, N.Y.:Orbis Books, 1985).

Bibliography Selected Works by Orlando Costas 1986 Evangelizaci6n contextual. Fundamentos teo16gicos y pastorals. San 1971 La iglesia y su misi6n evangelizadora. Buenos Aires: Editorial La Jose, Costa Rica: Seminario Bfblico Latinoamericano. Aurora. 1989 Liberating News. A Theology of Contextual Evangelization. Grand 1973 (comp.) Hacia unateologia delaevangelizaci6n. Buenos Aires: Editorial Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans. La Aurora. 1973 Comunicaci6n pormedio de la predicaci6n. Miami: Editorial Caribe. The most complete catalog of Costas's written and oral production is Reprinted 1978, 1982, 1984. found in Raul Fernandez Calienes, "Bibliography of the Writings of 1974 The Church and Its Mission: A Shattering Critique from the Third Orlando E. Costas," Missiology 17, no. 1 (1989): 87-105. Two extensive World. Wheaton, Ill.: Tyndale House. autobiographical essays from Costas are "Conversion as a Complex 1975 El Protestantismo en America Latina hoy: Ensayos del Camino. San Experience," in DowntoEarth: Studiesin Christianity andCulture, ed. John Jose, Costa Rica: Publicaciones IINDEF. R. W. Stott and Robert T. Coote (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1980); 1976 Theology of the Crossroads in Contemporary Latin America. and "Te6logo en la encrucijada," in Hacia una teologia eoangelica Amsterdam: Rodopi. latinoamericana, ed. C. Rene Padilla (Miami: Editorial Caribe, 1984). 1979 Compromiso y misi6n: Unareflexi6n sobre lamisi6ndelaiglesia eneste Tributes and notes with valuable biographical material are found in mundodeincertidumbre enquevivimos. San]ose, CostaRica:Editorial Today's Ministry:A Report from AndoverNewton5,no. 2 (Winter 1988);and Caribe. "In Memoriam: Orlando E. Costas," Pastoralia 10, nos. 20/21 (July­ 1979 The Integrity of Mission: The Inner Lifeand Outreach of the Church. December 1988).For an extensive evaluation of Costas's missiology, see San Francisco: Harper & Row. Antonio Barro, "Orlando Enrique Costas: Mission Theologian on the 1982 Christ Outside the Gate: Mission Beyond Christendom. Maryknoll, Way and at the Crossroads" (Ph.D. diss., Pasadena, Calif., Fuller N.Y.: Orbis Books. 6th printing, 1992. Theological Seminary, 1993).

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Regnum Books International • 129 Mobilization Drive • Waynesboro, GA 30830-2047 phone 706.554.5827· fax 706.554.7444· www.RegnumBooks.com The Legacy of Bengt Sundkler Eric J. Sharpe

hen Bengt Sundkler died in Uppsala, Sweden, on to carry off prizes and to assume a leadership role in the local W April 5, 1995, at the age of eighty-five, he left behind student Christian movement. It had been decided by this stage twoincomplete manuscripts. Onewas his long-promised bookA that he would study theology at the University of Uppsala, with History of the Church in Africa (since completed by Christopher a view to a career in the ministry of the Church of Sweden. What Steed and published in 2000 by Cambridge University Press). else the future might hold, he had not the slightest idea. The other was to have been an autobiography. Although not yet ready for publication, the text-partly written at the very end of Student in Uppsala his life, partly compiled by a close friend from articles, letters, diaries, and personal reflections-is both informative and mov­ Early in 1929 we find Sundkler already well established in ing.' Especially in his last years, the only thing Bengt Sundkler Uppsala (he may have arrived in the previous fall) and deeply really wanted to do was to write. He wrote constantly, almost immersed in biblical studies. The book that influenced him the always with a fountain pen in a none-too-legible longhand on most,he afterwardwrote, hadbeentheDaneJohannesPedersen's small sheets of notepaper. Another indispensable item of equip­ massive and masterly Israel (2 vols., 1920; in English 1926; 2nd ment was the 3 x 5 inch index card, of which he must have filled ed., 1934).Then came a wholly unexpected invitation to lodge in many hundreds of thousands during the course of his writing the home of Professor Anton Fridrichsen (1888-1953), Norwe­ career. gian by birth, professor of New Testament exegesis in Uppsala In a letter written in 1982 Sundkler confessed that to him since 1928. writing was a therapeutic process not unlike prayer. But citizen These days, the name of Fridrichsen is barely known to non­ of the world and accomplished linguist as he was (how many Scandinavians, and there is little enough that can be done here to European and African languages he read and spoke with ease explain his position in the ''biblical theology" movement.' This and fluency no one now will ever know), his mother tongue was much, however, must be said: Fridrichsen had left Norway Swedish, and it wasin Swedishhe expressed himselfbest. All his disillusioned with meaningless squabbles between ultraconser­ professionallife he was somewhatat the mercy of translators and vative and ultraliberal factions, neither of which understood the tidiers-upwherehis English texts wereconcerned;in one case the other'sposition, each of which, trying to avoid error, had simply processalmostspoiledan importantbookaltogether. In Swedish fallen into the opposite error. Fridrichsen's way was to empha­ he was,like his mentorNathanSoderblom,clear, crisp,andlucid. size the centrality of the church in the New Testament, together with the centrality of mission as a function of the church, and not Sundkler, the Family Name merely the concern of a few enthusiasts," In reading about these early Uppsala years, one has to keep Bengt GustafMalcolm Sundkler was born on May 7, 1909,in the constantlyremindingoneselfthatBengtSundklerwasstill a very little town of Vindeln, in the north of Sweden, not far from the young man in the early 1930s, immature, impulsive, and unsure Gulfof Bothnia. Hisfather, GustafFredrikSundkler(1881-1958), of his future. But it had been decided that having graduated, he owned an all-purpose store; his mother, Lilly, nee Bergman should go spend a year studying in France (Strasbourg and (1883-1963), came of a large and cultured family. The family Paris). News of this decision reached Archbishop Nathan name "Sundkler" sounds slightly odd to most Swedes, and it Soderblom, and Sundkler, then twenty-one, was called in for an sounded odder in the years before Swedish surnames could be interview. This was in March 1931, and although noone could more or less freely invented. "Sundkler" is actually a swedicized have known it at the time, Soderblom had only a very few more form of the Scottish family name "Sinclair," Sinclairs from Scot­ months to live (he died in July 1931). Soderblom's idea was that land having been members of the Swedish nobility since the Sundkler should study ecclesiastical law, with a view to a teach­ 1770s.But there hadbeenirregularliaisons along the way. Bengt ing post in that field. Fortunately for missiology, the subject Sundkler's father was in fact the illegitimate son of Count Carl provedunappealing.Onhis returnto Uppsala, Sundklerbecame Gustaf Sinclair, and in 1919, greatly daring, he had changed his Fridrichsen's personal assistant and, with the older man's sup­ family's name to something like Sinclair, namely, Sundkler,? port, launched into a lifetime of publishing. His first book-his Also in 1919 the family moved to the coastal town of Umea, "only best-seller," he wryly called it-was on infant baptism in where Bengt attended high school and developed a passion for the New Testament," Then came "Jesus et les patens," of which the history of literature in general, and Scandinavianliterature in more in a moment. First, though, a brief word about "the forgot­ particular. The family home hadbeenin a district in which pietist ten revival." revivalism had taken firm root, though the family had held fast to its links with the Lutheran Church. Bengt in these early years The Oxford Groups gained an instinctive understanding of "vernacular religion," • the intense, deeply felt faith of the ordinary people of Sweden­ For a couple of years in the mid-1930s, Sundkler was deeply and in due course, of Africa.' This gifted young man soon began involved in, and indeed a leader of, the Oxford Group movement (subsequently Moral Re-Armament) in Uppsala,? The move­ Thelate Eric]. Sharpe (1933-2000), whoreceived his doctorate underBengt ment had been founded in 1921 by an American Lutheran Sundkler, wasproiessor ofcomparative religion andreligious studies invarious minister, Frank Buchman (1878-1961), as a program of world institutionsin North America, England, Sweden, andfrom 1977 until retire­ renewal based on individual commitment to four absolutes­ ment in 1996, at the University of Sydney,Australia. absolute honesty, purity, unselfishness, and love. It believed in

58 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH the confession of sins publicly and the bearing of testimony to Into Africa one's "change," that is, conversion, also in the reality of "guid­ ance"-divine instruction communicated individually. It was Bengt Sundkler did not remain, as he might well have remained, Oxford policy to meet not in churches but in "house parties" in in his ownJerusalem, moving the world by the power of his pen. an entirely informal milieu. Intense one-to-one contacts between Before 1937 was out he had married (on September 18) and set the "changed" and the merely curious replaced the normal sail with his new bride for South Africa. Concerning Ingeborg Christian pattern of worship. Sundkler, nee Moren (1907--69), much might be written. Born in In later years, many of those who had been involved in the Johannesburg, beautiful and gifted, she was really happy onlyin movementin the 1930stended to be reluctant to admitit, oftenas Africa; in Swedenshe oftenfelt isolated and neglected. Had there much for political and cultural as for religious reasons. On the been children of the marriage, things might have been different; political front, Buchman's people were passionately anti-Com­ unfortunately there were not. munistin the 1930s,anti-Naziin the 1940s(nowheremoreso than That the Sundklers found themselves in Natal was not the in occupied Norway and Denmark), anti-Communist again in result of a classic missionary call of the "rescue the perishing" the cold waryears. BuchmanhimselfmanyScandinaviansfound kind. "In my case," wrote Bengt later, "the call was presented to unimpressive; his American helpers they regarded with little or me by a mission secretary, representing the Church, suggesting no respect," William Temple put his finger on a theological weak that I take on an international task where I was needed.T" The spot when he pointed out that "the Groups" simply could not be task was meant to be theological education, the field Zululand. substituted for the church, since they had no place for "worship But routine pastoral work, first in the coal-mining town of in the sense of adoration" and left no room for "the social Dundee, in northern Natal, and then in Ceza, northern Zululand reference of the Gospel."? But that the Oxford Group movement (aso-calledreserve), washis first priorityuntil1941,whenhe was served in the Scandinavia of the 1930s as something between an finally able for a few weeks to teachat the Rorke's Drift Theologi­ emetic and a tonic is beyond question. cal Seminary as a replacement for a teacher who had been bitten Bengt Sundkler, for his part, slipped out of the movement at by a green mamba! He lost no opportunity to develop and refine the timeof his missionarycandidatureandin lateryears hadlittle his knowledge of the Zulu language, in which he became excep­ to say about it.lo tionally proficient. He was given an honorific Zulu military title, Phondolwendlovu, "elephant-tusk," of which he was always im­ Early Publications mensely proud." In 1938/39 Sundkler published his first "Africa book," a All his life Sundkler was a productive, indeed a compulsive, sixty-eight-page account of life in a Zulu Christian congregation, writer. His earliest published production, written under the Makitika, a Ceza outstationwhere the Sundklers had spentsome benevolentshadowof AntonFridrichsen,washis workon infant time in the course of their language studies in 1938. Entitled En baptism. Then in 1937 appeared the two works that marked the Ijushtird (A light-center, or beacon), this little book centers on the end of his academic apprenticeship, one huge, the other tiny. The encounter between Christian mission and African traditional massive tome was his doctoral dissertation, "Svenska Missionssallskapet, 1835-1876," 614 pages long and a master­ piece of oldstyle historiography in all its Griindlichkeit. It was Sundkler'sministryexhibited remarkably plain in point of style, being written in the kind of Swedish of which Nathan Soderblom had been a master: short evangelistic zeal, social sentences,no labyrinthinesyntaxor chainsofsubordinateclauses. concern, and a deep love of Being an "inhouse" study, it was not in any sense aimed at a worldreadership. It wasfar otherwith "Jesus et les patens" (Jesus the liturgical and doctrinal and the Gentiles), an essay less than 40 pages in length, first traditions of the church. published in a Strasbourg journal in 1936 and reprinted in Uppsala in 1937,though still in French. Why no one has thought to publish an English translation remains something of a mys­ religion, seen against the background of a rapidly changing tery.11 Herewe havean outstandingessayin the biblical theology Africa. "What I most of all wanted during my time in Makitika," of mission, centered on the question of the relationship between he wrote, "was to get as realistic a picture as possible of our "particularism" and "universalism" in the mission of Jesus and Christians and our congregation there, their everyday lives and the early church: Was the opening of "a door of faith for the everyday problems. These everyday problems are not roaring Gentiles" (Acts 14:27)more or less an accident, or was it intended lions and slinking leopards. But they are problems of adaptation from the first? And could such a shift in focus take place without in a difficult situation."ls Here we have the first preliminary serious consequences for the future? That these questions, be­ sketch of a work that was to occupy him for the rest of his active queathed to the world by the young radicals of the history-of­ life, and the methodology that was to sustain it-observant, religions school, still have not been settled, is a sign of their realistic, personal, historically and not least sociologically fo­ continuing importance. And at a time when conservative theolo­ cused. To this list we must add "theologically." Sundkler had by gians were playing by one set of rules, liberals by another, and this time outgrown "Oxford" and its house-parties and was historians, exegetes, sociologists, and anthropologists by others settling firmly into a theological position later sometimes called again, to publish an article like this was a bold venture-though High-Church pietism (hochkirchlicher Pietismus), in which evan­ what is youth for, if not to take risks? Sundkler's suggestion was gelistic zeal and social concernwere accompanied by a deep love that the particularism-versus-universalism question might find of the church and its liturgical and doctrinal traditions." One a resolution in the idea of the omphalos-the navel or center of might also speak in this connection of Luthero-Catholicism, as a the earth, first used of Delphi, but here applied to Jerusalem. parallel to Anglo-Catholicism, with which it indeed enjoyed "From there, remaining there, you can move the world.?" close connections.

April 2001 59 Bantu Prophets were only two applicants, Sundkler and an old friend from the Oxford Group days, Hans Cnattingius. Sadly, their friendship Sundkler's international reputation as an Africanist was secured cameto anendat thispoint. EventuallySundklerwaselected,but bythe publicationin 1948of BantuProphets in SouthAfrica(2d ed., thecontroversysurroundingtheappointment(in May1949)was 1961), his first substantial book in English. In his memoirs he of suchbitterness as to render the next few years far less comfort­ afterward recorded how in the late 1920s he had come across a able than they might otherwise have been. Be that as it may, the doctoral dissertation about radical pietists in the north of Swe­ years of Sundkler's Uppsala professorship, from 1949 to his den. In Zululand he was literally surrounded by radical pietists, official retirement in 1974, were a time of immense-one is charismatics, each group usually led by a prophet or a prophet­ almost tempted to say frantic-productivity on three major ess. In the end he opted for the name "Zionists" for these people. fronts and innumerable minor fronts. Most had once been members of mainstream mission churches To take the major fronts first: there was a vast amount left to buthad opted out. Why? A clue was provided at a Lenten service dowithrespectto Africa. BantuProphets havingfinally appeared, in 1940;an elderlyZululadyleft earlyand afterward came to the over the nextfew years his research turned in a partly different young pastor to apologize: "You announced hymn number 154. direction, until the publication of TheChristian Ministry in Africa But that hymn is so strong that when I begin to sing it, I start to (1960), Bara Bukoba (in Swedish, 1974, in English, 1980), and Zulu Zion (a sequel to Bantu Prophets, 1976). Finally there was the massiveHistoryoftheChurch in Africa,completed byChristopher In 1947, amazingly, Sundkler Steed. In 1947, amazingly, Sundklertook up a new topic, unrelated took up the topic of the to Africa. The Church of South India had finally come into being, church in India, and the book after many years of intricate negotiations: why not write the history of those negotiations and describe the personalities in­ remains one of his best. volved in them? Perhaps undertaken with half an eye to an Uppsala academic future, Church of South India: The Movement Towards Union, 1900-1947 did not finally appear in print until qaqazela (shake) with my whole body. But here we are not 1954, mainly perhaps because Sundkler was not able to visit allowed to shake." Sundkler'swiseresponsewasto apologizefor India until 1950-51. The outcome was a book of 457 pages that his church's woodenness and lack of sensitivity: "Marne-my remains one of his best; later he was to call it "theologically my Mother-this church house is not my building. It belongs to God most ambitious work," and its subject "the most important and to you. If you must shake, do so here. You are free."17 This church union project in the Third World in the 20th century/""It was the beginning of the long road that led, eight years later, to is hard to say how widely it was read, or by whom: one suspects his pioneering study Bantu Prophets and, later still, to its sequel, not as widely as it ought to have been, which is a great pity, Zulu Zion (1976). considering its thoroughness and candor. First, though, there was practical missionary work to be At the end of 1947 Sundkler had accepted a post as research done, this time in what was still Tanganyika, more precisely secretary of the International Missionary Council (IMC), in suc­ Bukoba in the north of the country, on the western shore of Lake cession to Charles W. Ranson. He was to occupy the position for Victoria. German missionaries previously working in the area less than two years (1947-49), but it had the effect of introducing had been interned at the outbreak of war; the Church of Sweden him to leaders of ecumenical opinion, and them to him. In 1946 Mission hadbeenasked to provide assistance, and theSundklers Ranson had published a hard-hittingbook, TheChristian Minister volunteered. There were two new languages to be learned­ in India, which had identified theological education in India as Swahili and Luhaya-Luhaya a Bantu language like Zulu but littleshortof a disaster, whilestatingbluntly, "Thereis no taskon quite different phonetically, Swahili the lingua franca of the which the future well-being of the Church in India so greatly region. There was traveling, administration, negotiation, and depends."?" Theological education was as important in Africa as observation. Again a by-product was a book, Ung kyrka i in India, and eventually, in 1960, Sundkler supplied ample proof Tanganyika (Youngchurchin Tanganyika; writtenin 1943butnot of its importance in his Christian Ministry in Africa, based on published until 1948). In his memoirs many years later Sundkler immense missionary experience and several periods of field­ wrote that, at the time, this was "the first mission book with a work between 1953 and 1957. Africa, however, was changing, vision of an African churchin its relation to the colonial, national and doing so at bewildering speed. and local situation." BengtBukoba Return to Europe On July 30, 1961, Sundkler was consecrated bishop of the Evan­ The Sundklersleft Africa at the endof thewar, mainlyfor reasons gelical Church of North Western Tanganyika. He served for no having to do with Ingeborg's health, and settled in Uppsala. In more than three and a half years before his African successor, the springof 1946 Bengtwentto England, to theSelly Oaklibrary Josiah Kibira, was appointed. During these years he did not give in Birmingham, to complete his BantuProphets book, which was uphis Uppsala professorship,knowingtheAfricanarrangement published in 1948. to be only a temporary one. As the law required, he came home One is tempted to draw a curtain over the next few months for a few hectic weeks each year to fulfill his minimum teaching in his life. Old-style professorial elections in Sweden, like their obligations: it was not unknown for him to fall asleep in the political equivalents, were sometimes fought fairly, sometimes course of his higher seminars. But he enjoyed being a bishop. In not. After Knut B. Westman retired from the chair of "Church accordance with Swedish custom, he published an episcopal history, especiallymissions," thechairhadbeendeclared vacant, letter, Ebarua y'Askofu (1961) in Swahili and English, and though restyled "Church history with mission history."!" There anglophile as he was, delighted in signing himself t Bengt

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Box 40129, Pasadena, CA 91114 Ret ail $2-r.-99 Disc ou n t $15.25 "Whol esal e $14.99 1-800-MISSION [email protected] 'Orde r three or more of the same title and pay whol esale Bukoba and dressing on solemn occasions in Anglican style." and it was far from complete at the time of his death; but thanks Not that he was taking his ease in an equatorial Zion; once more to Christopher Steed, this fitting tribute to the life and work of a he was the working missionary, doing what he had always done great missiologist is now available. best-meeting and talking to people, traveling, observing, and taking notes. Why had an African church chosen a Westerner as The Missiologist their bishop just then? Certainly not as an extension of an outworn colonialism (for which Swedes in the early 1960s had a There remains to say a few words about Sundkler's last years as profound loathing). This period in Bukoba may perhaps be seen a teacher of missiology.f The present writer left Uppsala in the as similar to that of a pilot aboard a soundly built but untried summer of 1965, after which time our contacts were irregular, vessel on its way to an uncertain voyage on the high seas. When though not before the appearance of my English translation of the time came-asit didverysoon-theexpatriatebishopsimply Sundkler's textbook Missionens Vtirld (1963) as The World of handed things over to the crew. Mission (1965). Thereafter Sundkler was immersed in research­ Sundkler's ecumenical commitments (which very few in ing and writing his Nathan Soderblom biography. Thirty years Uppsalaeitherunderstoodor appreciated) grewsteadilyin these on, it is apparent that the year 1968 marked a watershed in years. Most significant of the many meetings he attended, by this ecumenical and missionary affairs, as in politics and so much timeas vice presidentof the IMC, wasthe 1961GeneralAssembly else. The words "mission" and "missionary" fell so totally out of of the World Council of Churches in New Delhi, where he favor as to be almost banned from polite conversation in some succumbed to a bout of severe food poisoning, though notbefore quarters. The danger was now that they were coming to be so far he was able to sumup fifty years of IMC work at the council's last identified with a discredited colonial past that the missionary conference. record was either ignored altogether or distorted beyond all recognition. Now all the talk was of dialogue, liberation, Return to Uppsala contextualization, empowerment. Very early in the 1960s, Sundkler was saying to his graduate students that it was now or Too soon Sundkler was back again in Uppsala, "out of the swing never, as far as the writing of responsible missionary history was of the sea" but, workaholic as he was, writing as frantically as concerned. How right he was none of us quite realized at the ever. After New Delhi 1961,the WCC had chosen Uppsala as the time; if fair history were notwritten, unfair history certainly soon venue of its next general assembly, in 1968. Why not seize the would be. Hence the sense of urgency with which he labored on, opportunityto celebrate the life and work of Archbishop Nathan even after the devastating blow of Ingeborg's death from cancer Soderblom, one of the founders of the ecumenical movement in in November 1969. the 1920s, but sadly neglected since (especially in an ungrateful What manner of man was Bengt Sundkler? Others know far Sweden)? Sundkler's Soderblom study was in part vintage better than I, but everyone knew that he was impulsive, that he Sundkler, in part (though only a small part) hurried, but, com­ could be erratic and bad-tempered, and that the black dog of pared with other ponderous ecumenical biographies, fresh and depression sometimes ran him into a corner. His capacity for aboveall personal.Therefollowed a smallervolumeofSoderblom sustained work was phenomenal. On one occasion toward the essays in Swedish, which is even better in some ways. It was in end of his life he called himself "God'slittle sleepwalker," and on Sundkler's mind to embark on a full-scale Soderblom biography another, he wrote in his diary, "I am carried by angels, softly, in Swedish, which however, was not to be. In any case, there had softly. They are so kind to me." Over and over again, in my to be a final rounding-off and summing-up in one volume of mind'seye, the imagesof NathanSoderblomandBengtSundkler almost half a century of work on the history of Christianity in merge into one (their photographs look down on me as I write), Africa. and I remember Soderblom's epitaph: "Whenye shall have done At first he was in two minds about whether to assemble a all those things which are commanded you, say, We are unprof­ team of historians to tackle it, or whether to go for a solo itable servants: we have done that which was our duty to do" performance. In the end, Roland Oliver advised him against the (Luke 17:10). team approach: "That kind of thing will not work. One person But it was BengtSundkler the Zulus called Phondolwendlovu. should write it. I suggest that you do it." Many were afraid that How good to be remembered like that! like Stephen Neill in similar circumstances, he had left it too late,

Notes------­ 1. I should like to record my gratitude to ChristopherSteed and Marja­ Fridrichsen et al., The Root of the Vine: Essays in Biblical Theology Liisa Swantz for letting me see various versions of the text (though (London: Dacre Press, 1953). I have not quoted extensively from them). Two Festschriften were 5. See Sundkler, "Anton Fridrichsen och missionen," Svensk published, in 1969 and 1984, the second of which contains more Missionstidskrift (SMT) 42 (1954): 11-15, reprinted, with an biographical information than the first. Both include fairly full introduction and five short Fridrichsen essays, in Den nedbrutna Sundkler bibliographies. skiljemuren (The broken-down dividing wall [a ref. to Eph. 2:14]) 2. The fascinating storywas told in full byC. o.S.Nylenin the Swedish (Uppsala: Lindblad, 1954). genealogical journal SliiktochHiivd1, no. 2 (1966): 49-56. 6. Huru gammaltiirbarndopets sakrament? (How old is the sacrament of 3. In his autobiography Sundkler makes particular mention of having infant baptism?) (Uppsala, 1933). read a doctoral dissertation that dealt with radical Pietism in 7. On the movement in Scandinavia during these years, see Anders eighteenth-century Sweden. It was Emanuel Linderholm's "Sven [arlert, The Oxford Group, Group Revivalism, and the Churches in Rosenoch Havd insatsi frihetstidens radikala pietism" (1911).In the Northern Europe, 1930-45 (Lund: Lund Univ. Press, 1995). See also interwar years Linderholm gained a certain notoriety as an extreme Sharpe, Karl LudvigReichelt (Hong Kong: Tao Fong Shan, 1984), pp. but wholly unoriginal liberal. 195-202. 4. There is little by or about Fridrichsen in English. See, however, 8. Sven Stolpe, Stormens iirMemoarer (Years of storm: Memoirs), vol. 2

62 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH (Stockholm: Askild & Karnekull, 1975), pp. 71ff, 174ff. Stolpe, an 16. Dieter Voll, Hochkirchlicher Pietismus (Munich: Kaiser, 1960). outstanding Swedish writer, literary historian, and lay theologian, 17. This account is from the autobiography. There is a slightly different was impressed by the energy of the movement but found Buchman version of the same episode in Zulu Zion, p. 7. and his coworkers painfully naive. 18. Westman was a fine, conscientious scholar who had for a time been 9. F.A. Iremonger, William Temple, Archbishop ofCanterbury: HisLifeand an educational missionary in China and an assistant to Soderblom. Letters (London: Oxford Univ. Press, 1948), pp. 489-90. But he was too diffident to make the mark he deserved. He died in 10. There is a touch of bitterness in references in the manuscript 1967.See Sundkler's memoirin SvenskMissionstidskrifi, 1970/72,pp. biography. 45-76. 11. But see David J. Bosch, "'Jesus and the Gentlles'- a Review After 19. Manuscript biography, p. 145. Thirty Years," in TheChurch Crossing Frontiers, ed. Peter Beyerhaus 20. Ranson, TheChristian Ministerin India(London: Lutterworth Press, and Carl F. Hallencreutz (Uppsala, 1969), pp. 3-19. But even Bosch 1947), p. 274. devotes only three pages directly to Sundkler's essay. 21. See Marja-Liisa Swantz, "t Bengt Bukoba," in "Daring in Orderto 12. On the importance of Jerusalem to the early church, see Birger Know," pp. 35-44; andSundkler,Bara Bukoba (1974/1980), throughout. Gerhardsson, MemoryandManuscript (Uppsala, 1961;2d ed., Grand 22. I have not thought it proper to comment in any detail on Sundkler's Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1998), pp. 214-20; with reference to style as an academic supervisor. The list of publications in the series Sundkler's essay, p. 214, n. 1. See Acts 8:1, 26ff. Studia Missionalia Upsaliensia between 1956 and his retirement 13. Quotation from ms. autobiography. includes twenty-six titles on a wide variety of subjects, a fair 14. Movinglyexplainedby Axel-IvarBerghund,"Servantof the Frontier proportion of them academic dissertations, written to a greater or Church," in Beyerhaus and Hallencreutz, pp. 161-70; and "Bengt lesser extentunderSundkler's supervision. Sundkler, however, was Sundkler, Prophet Among Prophets," in "Daringin Orderto Know," not the type of professorwho was intenton creatinga "school" made ed. Carl F. Hallencreutz (Uppsala, 1984), pp. 24-34. Berglund, it up of copies of himself; he enthused his students, but it was my should be added, has a lifetime of knowledge of Zululand and the impression that he did not really train them beyond a certain point. Zulu language. (I have taken a liberty in changing Berglund's At an academic dinnerin 1965I dared to applyto hima text from Job, "Horn-of-an-elephant" to "Elephant-tusk"; if this is wrong, I "Yet man is born unto trouble as the sparks fly upward." If the mark apologize.) of a good supervisor is the capacity to strike sparks, then Bengt 15. Sundkler, En ljushiird (Stockholm, 1939), p. 67. Sundkler was one of the best.

Selected Bibliography

Major Works by Sundkler (first published in Swedish; an asterisk 1959 "Response and Resistance to the Gospel in a ZuluCongregation." denotes not subsequently translated) In Basileia: Tribute to Walter Freytag. Stuttgart: Evang. Missions­ *1937 Svenska Missionssiillskapet, 1835-1876. Missionstankens genombrott verlag. och tidigare historia i Sverige (The Swedish Missionary Society, 1960 "Bantu Messiah and White Christ." Frontier 3:15-23. 1835-1876. The breakthroughandearlierhistoryof the missionary 1960 The Christian Ministry in Africa. Uppsala: Swedish Institute of idea in Sweden). Stockholm: Svenska Kyrkans Diakonistyrelses Missionary Research. Bokforlag (SKDB).Sundkler's dissertation. 1961 BantuProphets inSouthAfrica,2d rev. and expoed. London: Oxford *1939 Enljushiird. Makitika i Zululand(A beacon. Makitika in Zululand). Univ. Press for the International African Institute. Stockholm: SKDB. 1965 The World of Mission. Translated from the Swedish by Eric J. *1948 Ungkyrka iTanganyika (Youngchurchin Tanganyika). Stockholm: Sharpe. London: Lutterworth. SKDB. 1968 Nathan Siiderblom: His Lifeand Work. London: Lutterworth. *1952 Missionsforskningens arbetsuppgifter (The tasks of missionary 1976 Zulu Zion and Some Swazi Zionists. Lund: Gleerups; London: research). Uppsala: Lindblad. Oxford Univ. Press. 1963 Missionens viirld. Missionskunskap ochmissionshistoria (The world 1980 Bara Bukoba. Church and Communityin Tanzania. Translated from of mission. Missiologyandmissionhistory). Stockholm:Norsteds. the Swedish by Eric J. Sharpe. London: C. Hurst. 1974 Bara Bukoba. Kyrka ochmiljoi Tanzania (Bara Bukoba. Church and 2000 A History of the Church in Africa. With Christopher Steed. milieu in Tanzania). Stockholm: Verbum. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press. *1975 Nathan Stiderblom och hans moten (Nathan Soderblom and his meetings). Stockholm: Gummessons. Festschriften 1969 PeterBeyerhausandCarlF.Hallencreutz,eds. TheChurch Crossing Major Works by Sundkler (other than in Swedish) Frontiers: Essays ontheNatureofMissioninHonourofBengt Sundkler. 1937 "Jesus et les patens." In Contributions al'etudedelapensee missionaire Studia Missionalia Upsaliensia 11. Lund: Glerrup. Essays by dans leNouveau Testament, ed. Sundkler and Fridrichsen. Uppsala: David J. Bosch, Stephen Neill, Monica Wilson, John V. Taylor, NT Seminar. Philip Potter, Lesslie Newbigin, and others. 1948 BantuProphets in South Africa. London: Lutterworth. 1984 Carl F. Hallencreutz, ed., "Daring in Order to Know": Studies in 1954 Church of South India: The Movement Towards Union, 1900-1947. Bengt Sundkler's Contribution as Africanistand Missionary Scholar. London: Lutterworth. Studia Missionalia Upsaliensia 39. Uppsala.

April 2001 63 The Current State of Religious Freedom Paul Marshall

uring the late 1990s and into the new millennium, the for thinking that religious freedom is an exclusively Western D overall situation of religious freedom in the world has concern or achievement. deteriorated. It is particularly bad in the larger Asian countries Some Westerners and Third World leaders in China and such as China, India, Pakistan, and Indonesia and in other large­ Vietnam emphasize "economic rights," "Asian values," and population countries such as Nigeria. Western Europe has also "cultural relativism" and denigrate civil rights, such as religious become less religiously free because of widespread concern over freedom, as qu asiluxuries that need be advanced, if at all, only "cults." Some areas, such as Latin America, have improved . when more basic needs such as food and shelter have been Others such as Africa , the former Soviet Union, and the Middle achieved. Proponents of these views should be chall enged with East have remained fairly stable, the latter two at a low level of the fact that several Asian countries, such as South Korea and religious freedom, and the last having one of the poorest records Taiwan, which have a background of poverty and exploitation, of the world. and with Confucian traditions as strong as China and Vietnam, Another important feature is the increasing religious ele­ both value and successfully defend religious freedom, and that ment in conflict. The fighting between Israel and the Palestinians desperately poor African countries can do the same. Religious reflects much more religious rhetoric, identification, and claims freedom is desired throughout the world and has been achieved than did the intifada of the late 1980s, and more than the overtly throughout the world. It is a moral travesty of the highest order secular/ nationalist struggles of the 1960s and 1970s. Similar to pretend that becau se people are hungry and cold it is legiti­ tendencies have been manifest in Kashmir, Nigeria, and Indone­ mate to repress and persecute them as well. sia. Regional Variations The Spread of Religious Freedom While high levels of religious freedom occur in every area, there Religious freedom and religious persecution affect all religious are still large regional variations. The Western European and groups. A variety of groups-Christians and animists in Sudan, North Atlantic area countries covered in this survey all score Baha'is in Iran, Ahmadiyas in Pakistan, Buddhists in Tibet, and from 1 to 3 and thus show a high level of religious freedom. (This Falun Gong in China-are now perhaps the most intensely survey covers seventy-five countries, which contain approxi­ persecuted, while Christians as a group are the most widely mately 90 percent of the world's population. Following Freedom persecuted. But there is no religious group in the world that does House practice, I will call countries with a score of 1-3 "free,"

Figure 1. Religious Freedom by Area D free D partly free not free

There is a deterioration of Religious FormerSoviet NorthAfrica WesternEurope Asia Sub-Saharan Latin America Freedom Union and andWest Asia andNorth Africa religious freedom and an Rating Eastern Europe Atlantic increased religious rhetoric Estonia Finland Ireland in regional conflicts. Netherlands Norway United States lithuania Austria Japan Botswana Brazil notsuffer to somedegreebecause of its beliefs.Religions, whether Poland Sweden SouthKorea Namibia UnitedKingdom •Taiwan South Africa large, such as Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, or Buddhism, or Israel Spain Mongolia Zimbabwe small, such as Baha'i, Jehovah's Witness, or Judaism, all experi­ Belgium Philippines ence some degree of repression. In many cases restrictions come France from people who are members of the same general religious Germany group but who are part of a different subgroup. Thus non­ Orthodox Christians in Russia, Greece, and Armenia suffer discrimination from the Orthodox, while Shi'ite Muslims in Pakistan and Afghanistan suffer persecution and even death from some of the dominant Sunni groups. Religious freedom is also not confined to anyone area or continent. There are relatively free countries in every continent (seefigure 1).SouthKorea,Taiwan.japan,SouthAfrica, Botswana, and Namibia are freer than France and Belgium. Latin America also has relatively high scores. There are absolutely no grounds

PaulMarshall is Senior Fellow at the Center for Religious Freedom, Freedom House, Washington, D.C. He is the General Editor of Religious Freedom in the World: A Global Report on Freedom and Persecution (Nashville: Broadman & Holman, 2000), from which this article is adapted.

64 I NTERN ATIONAL B ULLETIN O F MISSIONARY R ESEARCH 4-5 "partly free," and 6-7 "no t free.") The countries of Latin Figure 2. Religiou s Freedom by Religious Background America also score well; all thoselisted are "free," exceptColom­ Religious Catholic Protestant Orthodox Mixed Hindu Buddhism Islam Other Mixed bia, Mexico, and Cuba. A similar pattern occurs in sub-Saharan Freedom Christian and related Muslim! Africa, where several countries score "free"; Nigeria ("5") and Rating religions Christian Tanzania ("4" ) score "partly free." In the African case, however, 1 Ireland Estonia we cover relatively few countries, and it is probable that other Finland Netherlands countries (such as war-tom Angola , Congo, Liberia, or Sierra NOIway Leone) would not rate wel l. Yet, given the fact that several UnitedStates African countries are "free," one must conclude that there is Austria Botswana nothing endemic to the continent preventing other countries Brazil Namibia Lithuania SouthAfrica from doing as well. Poland Sweden The countries of eastern Europeand the former Soviet Un ion United Kingdom cover a very wide spread, from Estonia,rated a 1, to Turkmenistan, Argentina Zimbabwe Romania Germany Mongolia rated a 7. There are countries at each level, with those bordering Belgium Ukraine Latvia Chile the Baltic (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland), as well as EI Salvador Hungary, Romania, and Ukrain e, rated "free." Most countries France Guatemala (ten out of nineteen) are at the int ermedi ate levels of 4 and 5. Hungary Other Freedom Hou se surveys indicate that these countries are Philippines in transition, cannot remain at an intermedi ate level, and are Spain likely to move to high er or lower levels. Colombia Tanzania Mexico Asian countries also show a wide spread, though with more countries at the "partly free" and "no t free" levels. East Asian countries (Taiwan, South Korea, Japan, and the Philippines, as well as Mongolia) score best for religiou s freedom. The poorest scores are registered by Communist powers (China, Tibet, North Korea, and Vietnam) and East Timor, where chaos rul es. The only other "not free" countries sur veyed are Burm a and Bhutan. The area from northern Africa through the eastern Mediter­ ranean to East Asia exhibits a nearly complete range of scores. Israel (excluding the occupied territories) scores a 3, Leban on and Greece and Morocco a 4, and Egypt and Turkey a 5.The other countries score 6 (Mauritania, Pakistan) or 7 (Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Iran). These find ings (as well as those for other areas) are consistent with the general area find ings for all political rights and civil liberties contained in Freed om House's general survey "F reed om in the World 2000" (avail ab le a t http/ / survey that can be rated as religiously "free" (i.e., scoring 1-3), www.freedomhouse.org/survey /2000, which also explains the tw enty-nin e are traditionally Christian. Conversely only one of criteria for assign ing the scores 1-7). the forty-two traditiona lly Christian countries surveyed (Cuba) registers on the "not free" end of the scale. Within Christianity, Religious Variations Protestantism tends to score better than Catholicism, and both score better-than Orthodoxy. There is similar variation in the religious background of religious The other religiously "free " countries survey ed are Israel freedom. This is obviously a complex matt er, since current and four countries of largely Buddhist background-Japan, regimes may reflect comparatively little of a country's religious Mongo lia, South Korea, and Taiwan. This find ing suggests that back ground. China , Tibet, and Vietnam all have a largely Bud ­ a Buddhist tradition also has had a tendency to produce rela­ dhist background, but current religious repression comes at the tively high religiou s freed om .The Buddhist countries withmark­ hand of Communist regim es, which profess to be atheis tic mate­ edly poor scores reflect the Communis t regimes in China, Tibet, rialists. Turkey has an Islamic background, but the present No rth Korea, and Vietnam. If these four are excluded, the re­ govern ment is an aggressively secular one that represses peace­ maining countries, excep t Bhutan and Burma, score relatively ful Muslim expression. Similarly, largely Cath olic East Timor well. These patt erns are also cong ruent with the findings of had, until the fall of1999,been under Indonesian occupation, and "Freedom in the World ." There is, how ever, some difference the current lack of religious freed om reflects the damage and with respect to Hindu countries . Whereas both Ind ia and Nepal chaos left in the aftermath of Indonesian military withdrawal have relatively free elections, the y have tended to score lower on rather than explicit faults in the current administration. A survey civil liberti es generally and, in this survey, score even lower on taken thirty years ago would have found many trad itionally religiou s freedom In Nepal the difference is not great, but in Christian countries in eastern Europ e and the former Soviet Ind ia the difference reflects the upsu rge in India within recent Union "not free," since they were rul ed by Communists. Never­ yea rs of a militant and intolerant Hinduism, coupled with vio­ theless the overall patt erns can be revealing (see figure 2). lent attacks on religious minorit ies, especially Christians . Historically Christian countries tend to score well in reli­ The religious areas with the largest current restrictions on gious freed om, with an average rating of 3. This result parallels religious freed om are the Islam ic countries. This finding parallels other FreedomHouse findings, which indicate that traditionally probl ems wi th democracy and civil liberties, but the negative Christian countries have tended to score well on political rights trend with respect to religion is eve n stronge r. No traditionally and civil liberties. Of the thirty-four countries covered in the Islamiccountry surveyed is religiously "free," while halfof those

April 2001 65 surveyed are "not free." Four countries (Iran, Saudi Arabia, increasing. Moreover, with. the collapse of Communism, any Sudan, and Turkmenistan) score a 7, the lowest category for regime looking for an alternative to "Westernization," "global­ religious freedom. This situation may ultimately show some ization," or "capitalism" is now more likely to look to religious improvement,since Indonesia,the countrywithby far the world's traditions as a source of legitimacy or national unity. Many of largest Muslim population, appeared to become freer following these regimes are now also governed by leaders who, unlike its 1999 election, and Nigeria, which is about half Muslim, may earlier elite generations under colonialism, have not been ex­ also be establishing itself as a democracy. In both these cases, posed to Western education. however, the transition to democracy is coupled withlarge-scale These trends suggest four other conclusions. First, that reli­ regional religious violence (in northern Nigeria and in Ambonin gious repression in the world is likely to increase. Second, that Indonesia) that has been exacerbated by a minority of Islamic attention to and action on religious freedom has been compara­ radicals. tively weak. Third, that the important role of religion in conflicts It is clear from this survey, as well as State Department and in politicalorders hasbeencomparativelyneglected. Fourth, reports and other surveys, that violations of religious freedom that both of these situations are now beginning to change, a worldwide are massive, widespread, and, in the last five years, change we hope this present survey will accelerate.

Cultural Encounter: Korean Protestantism and Other Religions Traditions James Huntley Grayson

he emplantation of Christianity in Korea over the last a numerical level, as a feature of the host culture and society. In T two centuries, and particularly of Protestantism from the third stage, the newreligion has become a majorfeature of the the late 1800s, has resulted in the creation of a Christian commu­ culture and society and enters into a stage of contention with nity that accounts for about a quarter of the population of the other religious traditions that may lead either to a state of Republic of Korea. Missionary and local Christian involvement preeminence over the other traditions or a state of complemen­ in the creation of schools, hospitals, the independence move­ tary equilibrium.' ment, the movement for democracy, fair treatment for workers, Research on Protestant church history in Korea has demon­ equality for women, and other important social and political strated that Protestantism achieved a state of penetration in issues is well known and is widely discussed. This involvement Korean cultureby the middle of the twentieth century. It reached in contemporary affairs attests to the dynamism and vigor of the point where it had become a dynamic religious force within Christianity as a significant element in Korean society. modern Korean culture, and it has now entered into a stage of One aspect of this engagement with Korean culture has growth and contention with the other religious traditions of receivedlittle attention,namely,the impactthatProtestantChris­ Korea.' tianity has had on the other religious traditions of Korea, includ­ The influence Protestantism has exercised on the other reli­ ing Roman Catholicism. I propose to examine the formal and gious traditions of Korea is threefold: (1) competitive stimula­ informal influence Protestantism has had on these other reli­ tion, (2) emulation and modeling, and (3) the acceptance or gious traditions, an impact that would not have been possible utilization of distinctly Christian religious concepts. By competi­ apartfrom thesuccessfulemplantationof ProtestantChristianity tive stimulation, I refer to the rapid numerical growth of Protes­ in Korean culture. tant Christianity acting as a stimulus to the other religious The process of transmitting a religion from an alien culture groups to create proselytization movements to increase the size to a new cultural context requires a three-stage process of devel­ of their own membership. By emulation and modeling, I refer to opment if it is to become truly emplanted in the soil of the new the usebyleaders in non-Protestant religious groups of the forms culture: (1) contact and explication, (2) penetration, and (3) of Protestant worship, activities, and evangelistic movements in expansion. In the first stage, exponents of the new religion are their own religious practice and proselytization. The third form principally concerned with the primary explication of the tenets of Protestant influence on other Korean religious traditions of their faith in terms that are comprehensible in the cultural refers to the extent to which particularly Christian or indeed norms of the receptor culture. In the second stage, it is recognized Protestant theological concepts have been adopted. This influ­ that the new religion has become established, at however small ence maybe evidenced at a purelyformal and superficial level or at a deep, inner level resulting in the restructuring or reformulat­ ing of beliefs. Of the three forms of influence, the third type James H. Grayson, formerly a missionary with the UnitedMethodist Mission in Korea (1971-87), is Director oftheCentre forKorean Studies, School ofEast represents the most profound level of cultural impact. Although Asian Studies, University of Sheffield, England. This essay is based upon a all three of these forms of religious influence may be shown to paper presented ataconference heldatUnionTheological Seminary, NewYork, have affected non-Protestant religious traditions, not all tradi­ September 26-27, 1997, andhosted underthejointauspices ofUnionTheologi­ tions have been influenced by Protestantism in all three ways.' calSeminary and the Korea Society.

66 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH Protestant Impact on Roman Catholicism have given many Catholics the sense that it was all right to be Christian and to want to express and share their faith. At the Having begun in the late eighteenth century, the history of sametime, the SecondVaticanCouncil dramatically changed the Roman Catholicismin Korea is considerably longer than Protes­ Tridentine Catholic view of the world, especially the church's tant history. For nearly half of its history the Roman Catholic view of other Christian denominations and other religions. The Church suffered severe government repression as a socially and views of the Second Council led to a greater ecumenicity and a politically subversive body. The severity and duration of the desire to be involved with other Christian groups. These two suppressionhadtwointerrelatedeffects. Beginningwiththe first factors came together to create an ethos that made significant major suppressionof CatholicChristiansin 1800,the characterof national evangelism an acceptable and desirable goal. the church changed from being principally the religious practice Concurrently, the nation began its race to become one of the of certain members of the elite sector of society to being a majorindustrialstates of the world, changingfrom an essentially religious movement among the poorest and most rejected mem­ rural nation to one that is urban, from an agricultural nation to bers of the late Choson era (1392-1910). Second, the suppression one that is industrial. This change meant massive dislocation of created a ghetto mentality among the membership, a deeply ingrained sense of the need to hide or cover up adherence to this proscribed religion. Consequently, many early Catholics liter­ ally hid themselves by fleeing to remote mountainous parts of Finally, during the period the peninsula or disguised their true class status and religious of strong Protestant growth, beliefs by becoming members of one of the despised orders of society.' the Catholic Church began The first seventy-five years of Catholic history, dominated to show percentage growth. by repression and the fear of persecution, influenced the devel­ I opment of the church well into the middle of the twentieth These facts, believe, are century. When, in the late nineteenth century, the Christian closely related. community was finally freed of the fear of governmental sup­ pression, the Roman Catholic Church in Korea did engage in missions and evangelism, but significant numerical growth did the population from a rural to an urban setting and impoverish­ not take place until the late 1950s and the early 1960s. From the ment of large parts of the population. The dispossessed urban 1890sonward, records show both a steady increase in the mem­ proletariat provided a major field for national evangelismfor the bership of or adherence to the church and the absence of any RomanCatholicChurch,as it didalso for the Protestantchurches. significant periods of decline in membership. Nevertheless, the I would only point out in passing that, to the shame of many of proportional representation within the national population re­ the Protestant churches, the Catholic Church has never lost the mained constant at 0.5 to 0.6 percent from 1914 to the late 1950s. memory of its origins anlong the dispossessed members of These figures contrastwith those for Protestants during the same society and has made evangelism and ministry among the poor period, which, while giving evidence of at least two periods of a primary focus of the work of the church," disaffection, show that Protestantism tripled its proportional From my perspective, the influence of Protestantism on representation within the national population, from 1.2 percent Catholicism has been principally at the level of competitive to 3.7 percent. By the end of the 1960s, this figure had nearly stimulation-the sense that if members of one branch of Chris­ doubled, to 6.0 percent. To use my terms of analysis, the Protes­ tianity could openly and vigorously work to expand their mem­ tant community in Korea had achieved a position of penetration bership, Catholics could too. One might also argue that develop­ within Korean culture and society sometime in the early 1950s, ments in style of worship-instrumental and vocal music, alter­ from which point it begana very significant period of percentage natives to the traditional emphasis on the Mass, more deliberate growth within the national population that lasted well into the approaches to evangelism-owemore to Protestant models than 1980s.It was duringthis periodof remarkable Protestant growth Catholic origins. Nonetheless, the principal Protestant influence that the Roman Catholic Church for the first time began to show on Roman Catholicism has been stimulus through example, the both numerical and percentage growth. In my view, these two breaking down of the ghetto mentality that in turn has led to the facts are closely related." significant and ongoing growth of the church. One factor that I believe hindered the growth of the Roman Catholic Church was its ghetto mentality. By the 1960s three Protestant Impact on Buddhism factors had come together to break down this ghetto mentality and create within the Catholic community fervor for evangelism Buddhism, established in the Korean peninsula in the era of the that continues today. In fact, recent statistics show the Roman Three Kingdoms (fourth to seventh centuries), had by the end of CatholicChurchin Korea growing at a somewhatfaster rate than the Choson period begun to atrophy. This decline was due Protestantism as a whole. The three factors are (1) the visibility largely to the general policy of suppression and control of Bud­ and acceptability of Protestant Christianity, (2) the effect of the dhism implemented from the beginning of the dynasty in order teachings of the Second Vatican Council, and (3) the onset of to eliminate heterodox teachings and to create a thoroughly rapid urbanization and industrialization. Confucian state and society. At several points during the long The significantly increased size of the Protestant Christian history of the Choson state, there were outright attempts to community in the 1950s, Protestantism's clear relationship to eradicate Buddhism entirely. The effect of five hundred years of patriotic issues, and the dominance of Protestant Christians on anti-Buddhist policy was the general decline in the standards of the politicalscene (howeverone evaluatestheircharacterand the monastic discipline and knowledge of Buddhist teachings, and effect of their work) made Christianity not only distinctly visible the effective elimination of intellectual leadership from within in the nation but acceptable in a positive sense. This factor must the Buddhistcommunity. Whereasunder the Koryo period (918­

April 2001 67 1392) the leadership of the Buddhist community came from the ated with the nationalistic and modernizing monk Manhae elite sectorof society,in theChosonperiodBuddhistmonkswere (1879-1944), were funded by the Japanese colonial government," grouped together with butchers and prostitutes in the untouch­ The factor of the support of the colonial government alone able class. Sympatheticforeign observers of Korean Buddhismat would not, and cannot, explain the sustained revival of Bud­ the end of the nineteenth and at the beginning of the twentieth dhism in Korea. This revival is the result principally of two centuries felt that its situation was so dire that Buddhism would factors internal to Korean Buddhism: the revival of orthodox disappear at some point in the not too distant future? monastic Buddhism and the appearance of lay movements. The Buddhism, however, has not disappeared from Korea. The purification and revival of monastic discipline, practice, and the most recent census statistics show that at least 30 percent of the intellectual study of Buddhist doctrines can be attributed in part Korean population claims adherence to Buddhism or one of its to the efforts of the monk Kyongho (1849-1912). However, syncretistic sects. Anyone acquainted with Buddhism in Japan although one can talk at great length about what he did to revive and Korea will be familiar with the fact that in Korea traditional Buddhist monastic life, and however important monastic life is monastic Buddhism is more vigorous and active than its Japa­ to an understanding of traditional Buddhism, I believe the re­ nese counterpart. What factors are to account for this volte-face vival of Buddhism in Korea is principally due to the emergence of lay movements beginning from the second decade of the twentieth century. The influence of Protestant Christianity is to The example of the work of be found here particularly. One of the major differences between the Protestant and Roman Catholic forms of Christianity is the the Protestant laity seems emphasis placed on the work of the laity in administering the to have inspired Buddhist churches and in carrying out the ministry of the church. Protes­ tant churches are essentially lay-run institutions. However im­ leaders in the twentieth portantthe ministers are in the scheme of things, deacons, elders, century. and others in lay leadership play an essential role in the life and ministry of the church. In addition, parachurchinstitutions, such as the Young Men's Christian Association, have grown up to in the condition of Buddhism in Korea? Although the dramatic provide Christian fellowship and promote evangelism. and rapid growthof Christianityin Korea has become the subject It was the idea of the laity that seems to have most inspired of much academic and popular discourse, the reversal in the the Korean Buddhists early in the last century. From the second fortunes of Korean Buddhism has gone practically unobserved decade onward, the history of Buddhism in Korea is filled with by the academic world. the creation of various Buddhist youth movements and lay In the recent century of Buddhism in Korea, I see three groups and the holding of Buddhist lay conferences. These principal factors at work: (1) assistance from the Japanese colo­ developments testify to the emergence of an organized lay nial government (1910-45), represented by the Government­ Buddhist community that existed separately from the monastic General of Chosen; (2) an indigenous reform movement for the communities thatformerly werecenters of Buddhistpractice and revival of monastic Buddhism; and (3) the development and life. As lay Christians focused Christian life in contemporary growth of lay Buddhism and lay Buddhist movements. society, so too did the participation of the Buddhist laity shift the The Japanese colonial regime was clearly worried about the focus of Buddhist life from the confines of the monastery to numbers of Protestant Christians involved in patriotic and na­ contemporary society. With the stabilization and regularization tionalistic movements and by the continued growth of the Prot­ of institutional monastic Buddhism, early twentieth-century estant Christian community. It became a policy of the colonial Korean Buddhists must have sensed an element of competition government to promote Buddhism as a countervailing force to with the rapidly developing new religion, Protestant Christian­ the growth of Protestantism and Christianity in general. Various ity. This sense of competition would have been a stimulus that measures were undertaken, including the institutional reorgani­ caused them consciously or unconsciously to model their pro­ zation of the Buddhist "church" to regularize and standardize gramfor thead vance of Buddhismalong the lines of the two most bureaucratic procedures. Aside from the proclaimed purpose of distinctive features of Protestant Christianity-the idea of the regularizing organized Buddhism, these institutional reforms laity and lay movements." had the twofold effect of makingit easier for the regime to control The extent to which monastic and lay Buddhism has been the Buddhist community and making it comparable to Bud­ influenced by Protestantism is striking. The development of the dhism in Japan, thus creating greater homogeneity throughout laity as the principalbearers of Buddhismis an obvious example, the empire. To ensure that the Buddhist community had finan­ but specific examples of influence on religious practice can also cial and capital security vis-a-vis Protestant Christianity, the be described. The use of hymns with tunes borrowed from colonial government gave large tracts of lands to the monaster­ Protestantism, prayers used in daily life, for instance at meal­ ies, ensuring that these communities remained wealthy down to times, may be cited, along with youth and high school student the present day. These two factors alone, institutional reorgani­ associations that meet under the tutelage of a monk at precisely zation and the donation of significant tracts of land, regenerated the time on a Saturday afternoon when local Christian youth institutional Buddhism so that it was able to reclaim a physical meetings are held. Protestant Christian models continue to pro­ state it had not possessed possibly since the fifteenth century. vide a source of inspiration for the Buddhist leadership, perhaps Japanese colonial support of Buddhism was not only at the the most notable of which was the creation of the Buddhist institutionalor organizationallevel. Manyof theBuddhistmove­ Broadcasting System in the early 1990s along the lines of the ments and institutions that were prominent in the push for the Christian Broadcasting System established in the 1950s. Thus, modernization of the religion had the overt or covert financial not only was the movement for a modernized Buddhism stimu­ support of the colonial regime. For example, many of the Bud­ lated by the presence of a strong laity and vigorous lay move­ dhist magazines and journals of that era, including those associ­ ments within Protestant Christianity, but also many of the very

68 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH SCHOOL OF INTERCULTURA L STUD IES

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Programs • BA or Minor in Intercu ltural Studi es • MA in Intercultural Stu dies • Mi nor or Certificate in TESOL • MA in Intercultural Studies with an • SIL/Wycliffe linguistics program emphas is in Internation al Business • MA in TESOL • D'Miss Doctorate of Missiology • MA in Applied Ling uistics • PhD in Intercultural Education forms of modernized Buddhist religious practice and evange­ in Seoul, built in the 1890s: the congregation sat cross-legged on lism can also be shown to have been derived from or modeled on the floor, the celebrants sat in chairs. Further Christian, if not Protestant Christian practice." Protestant, influence can be seen in the architectural form of the central "church" of a break-off of the Ch'ondo-gyo movement, Protestant Impact on the New Religions the Sich'on-gyosect (Religion of servingheaven),whichis closely modeled on the Roman Catholic cathedral in the Myong-dong The first modern syncretistic religion in Korea is Ch'ondo-gyo area, Seoul." (Teaching of the heavenly way), which was founded in the 1860s Ch'ondo-gyo ritual usage follows a Christian, and particu­ as the result of a vision that the founder, Ch'oe Che-u (1824-64), larlya Protestant, pattern. Services are now held on Sundays, use had of the Ruler of Heaven. It became an important nationalistic hymns often set to music drawn from Protestant hymnals, have and nativistic movement before the collapse of the Choson state periods of private prayer, and include an exposition of the and during the Japanese colonial period. Originally called Ch'ondo-gyo scripture, the Tonggyong taejon (Great compen­ Tonghak (Eastern learning), from its inception the religion con­ dium of Eastern scriptures). As is obvious from the list of ritual tained certain elements of belief and practice borrowed from features given above, Ch'ondo-gyo possesses both a canonical Christianity. It is not surprising that nativistic types of syncretis­ scripture and a book of hymns that are used for the purpose of tic movements should emerge promising a revival in national worship and study. This multidimensional Protestant influence fortunes at a time of national crisis. Internal corruption and the exerted itself, despite the possession by Ch'ondo-gyo and other threat of invasion by foreign powers made nineteenth-century sectariangroups of a highly nationalisticand nativistic system of Korea a fertile ground for nativistic movements. For the intelli­ beliefs. IS gentsia of the time, among whom Ch'oe Che-u must be counted, This influence on the formal, overt aspects of the new reli­ growth of the proscribed religion Roman Catholicismmust have gions of Korea does not seem to have been translated into been seen to be an aspect of foreign imperial power and a threat significant influence on the doctrines, teachings, and beliefs of to the Confucian traditions of the nation. When Ch'oe was these new sects. Chungsan-gyo,whichdeveloped at the veryend brought before a magistrate to explain his heterodox (by Confu­ of the last century, is an amalgam of many different religious cian standards) teaching, he defended himself by saying that traditions and is markedly different in one respect from many of what he taught was not sohak (Western learning = Roman Ca­ the new religious movements of the past century. Unlike most of tholicism) but tonghak (Eastern learning). Thus, from the begin­ the new religions, in which the founder claims to have had a ning of the modern era, new religious movements in Korea vision of a celestial being, the founder of Chungsan-gyo, Kang consciously or unconsciously compared and contrasted them­ Ilsun (1871-1909), claimed that he himself was the Ruler of the selves with the emergent Christian movement. Even at this early Nine Heavens, the supreme being. This concept parallels an stage in the development of Christianity, an element of borrow­ essential Christian teaching, the incarnation of Christ, and may ing by Tonghak from Christianity can be demonstrated. Al­ reflect either Catholic or Protestant teaching on the subject. The though the greatbeing who revealed himselfto Ch'oe Che-u was idea of incarnation propounded in Chungsan-gyo is linked to a usually called Sangje, a usage deriving from ancient China (Chi­ messianic idea that Kang had descended to earth to restore the nese Shang-ti, Ruler on high), the divine being was also some­ affairs of the world and to restore Korea to its rightful position in times called Ch'onju (Chinese T'ien-chu, Ruler of heaven), the the world. Although this doctrinal element is probably derived Roman Catholic term for God in China and Korea. Although not from Christianity, it is not described in Christian theological a major influence on the doctrinal teaching of the sect, the terms but is expressed in nativistic terms. Thus, in the early adoption of this term shows that the influence of Christianity on Tonghak in its early stages was not just negative stimulation." The effect of Protestantism on Tonghak/Ch'ondo-gyo was From the beginning of the even greater, as illustrated by its influence on both the architec­ ture of the sect and its religious practice. In Chosen-no riujishukyo modern era new religious (The pseudo-religions of Korea), a survey of popular religion in movements in Korea have Korea published by the Government-General in 1935,the archi­ tecture of the Ch'ondo-gyo places of worship shows a strong borrowed variously from similarity to Protestant churches of the same period. The central Protestant churches. ecclesiastical building of Ch'ondo-gyo, although built in a [apanized version of baroque architecture, resembles a Protes­ tant church in both its architectural elevations and its interior stages of the growth of these new religions, Christian influence layout. The plan for the main room in the central hall is laid out was at the level of the adoption of formal elements without like a Korean Protestant church, including a large raised and taking on the major theological views of Christianity." recessed area at the back where the principal celebrant or cer­ The Chosen-no riuji shukyo divides the new religions of the emonialleader would conduct the ritual.'? The sect's"church" in first third of the twentieth century into six types: the Tonghak P'yongyang in northern Korea is even more clearly modeled on tradition, the Chungsan tradition, the Buddhist tradition, the Protestant lines. The exterior of the building with its sharp Confucian tradition, cultic traditions worshiping a particular rectangular shape is indistinguishable from the provincial Prot­ spirit, and a miscellaneous group. In the 1930stherewereno new estant churches of the time. The picture of the interior showing religious movements that claimed to be a Christian denomina­ the congregation seated on the floor also demonstrates another tion or that had a significant number of beliefs that were closely feature that betrays missionary influence-the leaders of the patterned after Protestant Christianity." By the 1950s, when ritual are seated on Western-style chairs and speak from a Protestant Christianity had become a substantial religious force podium." This usage of ritual space is identical to that of early within Korean society, this situation had changed dramatically. Protestantchurches suchas Chong-dongFirst MethodistChurch The new religions that emerged or became strong after the

70 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH liberation of Korea from Japanese rule were "Christian" new Protestant Contention with Other Traditions religions. In fact, these groups so closely resemble orthodox Christian groups that in theological terms they must be called It is my view that Protestantism during the first two-thirds of the heresies. Typical among these many groups are the Chondo­ twentieth century was the most dynamic force within the reli­ gwan Church (known in English as the Olive Tree Church) and gious culture of Korea, evidenced both by the rapid numerical the Unification Church. The founders of both groups had at one growth in church membership and by the extent to which it time been members of a Presbyterian church. The founder of the influenced the development of the preexistent religious tradi­ Chondo-gwan movement, Pak Taeson, a former elder in a Pres­ tions and of new religious movements of the nation. This influ­ byterian church in Seoul, claimed that his hands had the power ence may have been at the level of competitive stimulation to to heal through massaging the head of a diseased person. The cause the other traditions to grow or revive, as was the case with movement claims to be a Christian church, and its buildings Roman Catholicism and Buddhism; at the level of providing a resemble Protestant churches and are easily distinguished be­ model for outreach and religious practice, as was the case with cause of the large red crosses used to adorn the tower over the Buddhism and Ch'ondo-gyo; or at the level of providing reli­ entrance to the building. The form of worship, the terms used to gious concepts, as is the case with the contemporary new reli­ talk about their beliefs, and the beliefs themselves are all Chris­ gions. tian. Although it does seem to have a strong basis in Korean folk Protestantism in Korea has now entered into the third phase religion, with an emphasis on magical healing, all of the formal of the process of emplantation-contention with other religious structures of the group are modeled on Christian patterns." traditions. Buddhism, in my view, will prove to be the principal Similarity to a Christian denomination becomes even stron­ rival in this cultural encounter, both because of the ecumenical ger when we examine the Unification Church. It not only claims rapprochement of the principal Christian traditions (except for to be a church, it claims to be thefulfillment of Christ's ministry on the mostfundamentalist Protestantbodies) andbecause the new earth. The full name of the sect is the Holy Spirit Association for syncretistic religions tend to follow Protestant practice. Since the late 1980sand early 1990s,there has beena noticeable increase in the tensions between Protestantism and Buddhism. There have Itappears thatProtestantism been accusations of Christian harassment of Buddhist ceremo­ nies and the destruction of Buddhist religious buildings. What­ may lose much of its former ever the truth of these accusations, they point to the fact of dynamism to influence increased tensions between Christianity perceived as a mono­ lithic religious institution and Buddhism as a similar monolithic other religious movements entity. Further examples of the perceived competition between of Korea. these two groups maybe seenin the extent to which the principal Buddhist order, the Chogye-jong, and other groups have en­ gaged in extensive programs of local "evangelism" and have the Unification of World Christianity, which indicates that the conductedwell-plannedprogramsofoverseasmissionsto spread sect claims to be the means by which the unfinished work of the teachings of Buddhism in both North America and Europe. Christianity will be brought to completion. The central teaching It is also seen in the creation of such institutions as the Buddhist of the sect is thatChristwas unable to fulfill his ministryon earth, BroadcastingSystemto increaseBuddhistknowledge amongthe namely, the spiritual and physical salvation of humankind. In­ laity and extend the membership of the Buddhist community. stead, his early death provided only spiritual salvation. Physical Based uponhistoricalprecedent,the modelfor emplantation salvation would come from another One, the Lord of the Second would predict that there are three possible outcomes for this Advent. This group not only claims to be a Christian denomina­ process of contention: tion; it claims to be the true fulfillment of all Christian groups." A key difference between orthodox Christian churches and 1. significantextension of the membership of Protestant groups, these Christian-derived syncretistic groups is in the Christology so that Protestantism achieves a state of numerical and spiri­ of the sects. Otherwise, it is not immediately apparent that these tual dominance over the religious culture of the nation; or two sects are not authentically Christian. In more recent years, 2. a stateof numericalandspiritualequilibriumbetweenProtes­ other new religious groups, also Christian in nature, have tantism and Buddhism, where both reach the greatest extent emerged. In 1992 there were several eschatological sects that of their numerical expansion; or proclaimed the end of the world on a specified date. The leader 3. loss of momentumby Protestantism, whichbegins a period of of one of these groups, the Tami MissionaryChurch,urged all his numerical (if not spiritual) decline, resulting in a stabilized followers to gather together in the church to await the end. He position of subordination to Buddhism and its related sects. collected large sums of money and was arrested when he at­ tempted to leave Korea." Other than the fact that such groups It is hard to judge what the ultimate historical outcome will have been created in Korea, they are in no way different from be, but it is worth noting that Buddhism is vigorously pursuing similar sects that emerged during the same period in North a policy similar to church growth and that since the late 1980s Americaor Europe. Thus,by the endof the twentieth century, the Protestantism has ceased to grow in percentage terms within the influence of Protestant Christianity on the creation of new reli­ national population. This may be an indication that Protestant­ gions was not simply as a stimulus or model; Protestantism ism has reached the upper limit of its growth potential. On the actually provided substantial elements of the theology of these other hand, Roman Catholicism continues to grow. What lies sects as well. Influence at the level of belief, the most substantive ahead is unclear, but it would appear the Protestantism may lose form of influence, illustrates that Protestantism has become fully much of its former dynamism to influence the other religious emplanted in the cultural soil of Korea. traditions and movements of Korea.

April 2001 71 Notes 1. A thorough discussion of the theory of emplantation is found in my 9. The importance of lay movements in modern Buddhism is book Early Buddhism and Christianity in Korea: A Study. in the emphasizedby Robert E.Buswell,[r., in "MonasticLay Associations Emplantation of Religion (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1985). The theory is in Contemporary Korean Buddhism: A Study of the Puril Hoe," in outlined in chap. 1. Lancaster and Payne, pp. 101-26. In particular, Buswell stresses the 2. Ibid, pp. 136-40. importance of the Christian model as being the source for the 3. The ideas presented in this article were first developed in a paper Buddhistlay associations,for whichthereis no precedentin Buddhist entitled "The Interaction of Buddhism, Christianity, and the New history. See pp. 116-18. Religions," presented at a seminar held at the School of African and 10. These commentson Buddhistaccommodationare basedon numerous Oriental Studies, University of London, February 11, 1988. It was personal experiences and observations. Buswell, "Monastic Lay elaborated and published as "The Impact of Korean Protestant Associations," pp.117-18,describesmodernBuddhistlay songs that Christianity on Buddhism and the New Religions," Papers of the are based upon Christian hymnody. BritishAssociation forKorean Studies1 (1991):57-73; seeespeciallypp. 11. Frits Vos, Die Religionen Koreas (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1977), pp. 58-62. The present article reflects my further thinking on the degree 189-202, and Grayson, Korea, pp. 234-35. and type of impact Protestant Christianity has had on the religious 12. These comments are based upon personal observations. For a culture of Korea. photograph, see Government-General of Chosen, Chosen-no riuji 4. Don Baker of the University of British Columbia discusses the issue shukyo (Seoul, 1935), photograph 1. of Catholic isolation from mainstream nineteenth-century Korean 13. Ibid., photographs 2 and 3. society in "From Pottery to Politics: The Transformation of Korean 14. Ibid., photograph 8. Catholicism," in Religion andSociety in Contemporary Korea, ed. Lewis 15. Clark, Religions ofOld Korea, pp. 155-60; Grayson, Korea, pp. 237-39. R. Lancaster and Richard K. Payne (Berkeley, Calif.: Univ. of 16. Kang-o Lee, "Jingsan-gyo: Its History, Doctrines, and Ritual California, Institute of East Asian Studies, 1997),pp. 127-68. On pp. Practices," Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society, Korea Branch 43 135-36 he concludes that the effect of these severe persecutions was (1967):28-35; Grayson, Korea, pp. 241-45. to create a siege or ghetto mentality. Previously I have used the term 17. Government-General of Chosen, Chosen-no riuji shukyo,pp. 1-10. "ghetto mentality" (Grayson, EarlyBuddhism, p. 98; Grayson, Korea: 18. Felix Moos, "Leadership and Organization in the Olive Tree A Religious History[Oxford: ClarendonPress, 1989],p. 208)to describe Movement," Transactions of theRoyalAsiaticSociety, Korea Branch 43 the inward-lookingattitudeof the earlyKoreanCatholiccommunity (1967):11-27; Vos, DieReligionen Koreas, p. 211; Grayson, Korea, pp. that was the result of their suffering and persecution. 245-47. 5. Grayson, EarlyBuddhism, p. 126. 19. Ch'oi Syn-duk, "Korea's T'ong-il Movement," Transactions of the 6. DonBaker attributes the radical changein the attitudeof the Catholic RoyalAsiaticSociety, Korea Branch 43 (1967):167-89; Grayson, Korea, Church from the 1960s to the 1990s to the ad vocacy of social pp.247-50. involvement enunciated at the Second Vatican Council, the 20. During1992severalpseudochurchespredictedthe imminentreturn Koreanization of churchleadership, and the urbanizationof the laity of Christ. For instance, the Daverra Church predicted the end for (Baker, "From Pottery to Politics," pp. 159-64). I concur with those October 10; the Tami Missionary Church, October 28. The leader of observationsbutwouldaddto thosefactors the exampleandstimulus the latter group was in his late forties; the Daverra Church was led of the large and active Protestant community. by an eighteen-year-old high school dropout. The history of the last 7. A description of the policies pursued by the Choson government months of these groups may be traced in Korea Newsreview 21, no. 34 may be found in Grayson, Korea, pp. 151-54, 172-76, 221. A (August 22, 1992): 11; no. 35 (August 29, 1992): 10-11; no. 38 contemporary, early twentieth-century comment may be found in (September 19, 1992):32;no. 40 (October 3, 1992):11;no. 42 (October Charles Allen Clark, Religions of Old Korea (1932; reprint, Seoul: 17, 1992): 11; no. 43 (October 24, 1992): 11; and no. 45 (November 7, Christian Literature Society of Korea, 1962), pp. 41-43. 1992): 8-9. An op-ed comment appears in no. 46 (November 14, 8. Grayson, Korea, pp. 221-26. 1992): 33.

Evangelism and Proselytism in Russia: Synonyms or Antonyms? Mark Elliott

issionary faiths suchas ChristianityandIslamstrongly 3. The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights M enjoin their adherents to witness to their convictions (1966); and for the purpose of converting nonbelievers.' In this propagation 4. The Declaration on theEliminationof All Forms of Intolerance they are both aided and restricted by modern human rights and Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief (1981).2 covenants, namely, The 1966 V.N. InternationalCovenant, for example, protects 1. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948); one's right to "impart information and ideas of all kinds, regard­ 2. The EuropeanConventionfor the Protectionof HumanRights less of frontiers.:? But international human rights accords also and Fundamental Freedoms (1950); have set limits on the expression and propagation of beliefs where they infringe on "the right of individuals to hold a belief Mark Elliott is Director of the Beeson Global Center, Sanford University, of their choice without impairment/" These covenants circum­ Birmingham, Alabama, andcoeditor of theEast-West Church and Ministry scribe proselytism, the act of converting an individual from one Report. faith or church to another, by specifically disallowing coercion,

72 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH material inducement, violation of privacy, and preachments to in need, not just to participants in the missionaries' own pro­ captive audiences." grams.... Free soup kitchens or food parcels should be targeted The first important U.N. examination of change of religion, to all who are hungry, not just those willing to sit through Arcot Krishnaswami's Study of Discrimination in the Matter of Protestant sermons.?" Sad to say, this writer attended a church Religious Rights and Practices (1954), differentiates between the in Moscow in July 2000 in which elderly women were provided freedom to manifest a religious belief and the sometimes con­ ticketsfor a free mealin exchangefor theirpresencein the service. tending freedom to maintain a religious belief," Similarly, Natan Increasingly the xenophobic Russian Orthodox Church sees Lerner, an Israeli scholar of international law, identifies this not only such manipulative charity but all Western Protestant "tension between the right to try to convince others in matters compassionate ministries and communications as illegitimate concerning religion ... and the desire to protect identification material inducements. Moscow Patriarchate Department of Ex- witha particularreligionagainstanyintrusion." He argues, "The determination of what is legitimate, and what is illegitimate, withinthe parameters of that tensionis of greatimportancein the world today."? Orthodox leaders contend that Some parties will insist on the existence of a legitimate right Catholics, Protestants, and to unfettered religious expression for the purpose of persuasion cults expand byproselytizing and conversion. Others, conversely, will insist on the right to be free of all unwanted religious proclamation, not just that which the Orthodox community. is coercive, invasive, or manipulative. In such cases of rigid single-mindedness, no meeting of minds is possible, and juxta­ posing advocates of such uncompromising positions produces ternal Relations representative Alexander Dvorkin, whose U.S. diatribe instead of dialogue. But if one concedes both a right to citizenship serves as a rather odd accoutrement for a staunch free religious expression and the legitimacy of restrictions upon Russian nationalist, deplores all manner of Western Christian abuses of religious expression, thenthereis abasis for discussion. ministry in the former SovietUnion, including "thefurnishing of humanitarian aid, English lessons, education, and employment Continuing Issue of "Rice Christians" ... the use of television, newspapers, and other mass media to propagate the faith and the organization of loud and insensitive The 1944 Hollywood production The Keys of the Kingdom re­ crusading carnivals.v'" In 1996 Metropolitan Kyrill of Smolensk counted the story of a Catholic missionary priest from Scotland, and Kaliningrad bitterly complained to a World Council of played by Gregory Peck, who arrived at his station in China only Churches Conference on World Mission and Evangelism meet­ to discover pseudo-Christians who had been bribed with rice to ing in Brazil about the "hordes of missionaries" in Russia who join Catholic ranks." The issue over "rice Christians" is still with "came from abroad with dollars" in a "crusade ... against the us. According to the Russian Orthodox Church, Catholics, Prot­ Russian Church," preaching on radio and television "in order to estants, and cults are expanding their ranks in the former Soviet buy people." Metropolitan Kyrill contended, "This work is not Unionby preciselythis means. The issueof inadmissiblematerial Christianmission,itisspiritualcolonialism."l4Similarly,through­ inducements in evangelism and missions, what Natan Lerner out the 1990s Patriarch Alexis II decried the "massive influx" of calls "evangelisticmalpractice," deserves serious consideration." "well-organized and well-financed" missions of "foreign pros­ Keston Institute director Lawrence Uzzell states categorically, elytizing faiths,"ls "zealots" in search of "new markets."l6 "Missionaries should not buy converts. Giving a provincial Russian a free Bibleas an inducementto attenda religious lecture Objecting to Missionary Presence or worship service is the equivalent of paying an American fifty dollars or so for that purpose." And "offering brand-new con­ Undoubtedly, it is hard to draw a clear, precise line between verts or prospective converts ... a free trip to America ... can legitimate expressionsof Christiancompassion,on the one hand, easily become just a holiday, shopping opportunity, or spring­ and material enticements offered to effect what must be superfi­ board for permanent emigration.... Conditioned by Madison cial conversions, on the other. But such points of discernment do Avenue, American missionaries too easily forget thatJesus said, not concern the Russian Orthodox Church because, as Emory 'Take up thy cross and follow me,' not 'Take advantage of our legal scholar John Witte notes, "The Patriarch is not only com­ new special offer.i'"? plaining about improper methods of evangelism-the bribery, At the same time, Christian proclamation without concrete blackmail, coercion, and material inducements used by some acts of compassion for the poor, the destitute, and the suffering groups; the garish carnivals, billboards, and media blitzes used rings hollow. Longtime mission researcher and mission practi­ by others. The Patriarch is also complaining about the improper tioner Anita Deyneka has written guidelines for evangelical presence of missionaries/"? Patriarchs and archbishops of four­ missionaries in Russia that underscore the need to "proclaimthe teenOrthodoxchurches, includingAlexis II,whometin Istanbul Gospel in word and deed." She quotes veteran missionary Paul in March 1992, signed a joint message castigating new Catholic Semenchuk, who explains, "The former Soviet Union is in such and Protestant initiatives in eastern Europe. The assembled severe economic circumstances that it seems 'sinful' to go and Orthodox hierarchs expressed consternation that Catholics and work there without providing some sort of practical assistance." Protestants were treating their territories as terra missionis (mis­ To avoid any hint of manipulation, Deyneka recommends, "Hu­ sionary lands), whereas, they noted, "in these countries the manitarian aid as a part of the Christian mission should be given Gospel has already been preached for many centuries.?" without coercion to convert to any religious confession."!' In the The Orthodox position derives in part from long historical same vein Lawrence Uzzell explains, "There is nothing inher­ conditioning that in the Byzantine and Russian Empires meant ently wrong with giving away goods or services free of charge. state preferments for established Orthodox churches and an But missionaries should make such items available to all who are absenceof religious pluralism. In addition, definitionsfor "Chris-

April 2001 73 tian" and "Christian nation" figure prominently in disparate andan offense. Ifeverybodyreallyleft everybodyelse alone,says Eastern and Western understandings of what constitutes Marty, "it would be a more comfortable but probably comatose proselytism. First, Orthodox understand their community to world/?" consist of all those baptized in the faith, regardless of the adult As noted, many Orthodox Christians believe that Protes­ profession or practice of the baptized. Indeed, since "Russian" tants have no place in Russia. In particular, they see recent and "Orthodox" are taken as synonyms by conservative church­ missionary activity from abroad as an unwelcome intrusion into men and nationalists, evangelism conducted by Westerners a spirituallandscape nourishedby a thousandyears of Byzantine among any Russians is regarded as proselytism. Finally, since Christianity. Western missionaries working in countries with Russian culture is permeated with Orthodox influence and the long-standingOrthodoxtraditionsdefinitelyneedto applythem­ established church historically thought of the motherland as selvesto a studyof historyand culture in orderto understand this Holy Russia, Russian territory in toto is perceived to be off limits legacy. However, even as evangelicals come to appreciate Ortho­ for non-Orthodox, seventy-plus years of Communism notwith­ doxy, the exceptional achievements of Russian culture, and the standing. remarkable perseverance of a long-suffering people, theyshould What should we make of the argument that the witness of not feel constrained to abstain from, or feel apologetic for, one Christian confession in a territory already the home of sharing the good news in Russia." another Christian confession is illegitimate? If onewere to accept Evangelical ministries are motivated by a desire to support the view that a majority Christian confession by rights should a movementof some three millionindigenous Protestants whose have territorial prerogatives, then, for example: origins in the Russian Empire now date back well over a cen­ tury." Also, evangelicals by definition seek to evangelize nonbe­ 1. SaintsCyril and Methodius should not havebeguntheir work lievers, and a June 1996 survey revealed that as many as 67 in Moravia, where missionaries from Rome were already in percentof Russian menand 38 percentof Russian women do not evidence; identify themselves as religious believers.P Thus evangelicals 2. OrthodoxconversionsamongEstonianandLatvianLutherans have ample room to minister to millions of Russians who are in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries should not have spiritually adrift, without ever engaging in proselytizing." occurred; and In closing, two distinct and seemingly antithetical proposi­ 3. Orthodoxwho havebeeninterlopers in everyU.S.stateexcept tions deserve consideration, one legal, and one theological. Le­ Alaska, should not have mailed unsolicited packets of infor­ gally, freedom of conscience, to be genuine, must concede the mation on Orthodoxy to Episcopalian priests across the coun­ possibility of culturally insensitive, even patently obnoxious try." propagation, as long as it falls short of the aforementioned coercion, material inducement, invasion of privacy, and preach­ Thus, proselytism and legitimate proclamation of the Gos­ ments to captive audiences. Thus in 1993 a European Commis­ pel can be contentious in the West as well as in the East. Consider sion on Human Rights court ruled in favor of Minos Kokkinakis, a volume of essays edited by Martin Marty and Frederick a Jehovah's Witness on the island of Crete, againsta Greeklawon Greenspahn entitled PushingtheFaith: Proselytism and Civility in proselytism, avowing that "freedom of religion and conscience a Pluralistic World. In his closing remarks, after a succession of entails accepting proselytism even where it is not respectable.?" chaptersawashwithbroadcondemnationsnot onlyofproselytism Theologically, however, legal scholar John Witte makes the but of practically every conception of evangelism, Marty con­ telling point that a Christian must keep in balance the imperative cludes that if the arguments of his contributors were taken to of the Great Commission (Matt. 28:19-20) and the imperative of their logical conclusion, it would be a rare occasion when it was restraint and respect for others implied in the Golden Rule (Matt. ever proper to share any personal spiritual reflection outside 7:12).26 Thus, paradoxically, genuine champions of religious church walls. The politically correct Western Christian today liberty must defend professions of faith they consider false and seems determined to make an idol of tolerance, defined in such ingracious, and genuine followers of Christ must champion a wayas to make almost everyprofession of conviction an affront witness that is winsome and gracious. Notes------­ 1. The present study draws heavily upon and reacts to findings in two Lerner, "Proselytism, Change of Religion, and International Human major studies on proselytism in the former Soviet Union produced Rights," Emory International Law Review 12 (Winter 1998): 497-98, by the grantproject "The Problem and Promise of Proselytismin the 500,519,542. Russia has ratified the 1950 and 1966 conventions. New Democratic World Order" (1996-99), funded by the Pew 3. Lerner, "Proselytism," p. 485. Charitable Trust and directed by Prof. John Witte,[r., director of the 4. Ibid., quotingDonna].Sullivan, "AdvancingtheFreedomof Religion Emory UniversityLaw and Religion Program. In additionto the two or BeliefThroughtheUNDeclarationontheEliminationof Religious volumes on the former Soviet Union, other studies derived from the Intolerance and Discrimination," American Journal of International project are Pluralism, Proselytism, andNationalism in Eastern Europe, a Law82 (1988): 487. theme issue of the Journal of Ecumenical Studies 36 (Winter-Spring, 5. Lerner, "Proselytism," pp. 482-83,486,495-96,526-27,559. 1999); Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na'im, ed., Proselytism and Communal 6. Ibid., p. 504. Debate over change of religion is "part of the larger Self-Determination inAfrica(Maryknoll,N.Y.: OrbisBooks, 1999);and controversy between the universal character of modern human

Paul E. Sigmund, ed., Religious Freedom and Evangelization in Latin rightsand I culturalrelativism.' Spokespersonsfor culturalrelativism America: TheChallenge ofReligious Pluralism (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis argue that human rights law is strictly a Western institution and, Books, 1999. therefore, not applicable to other cultures or societies. Accordingly, 2. On the four declarations cited, see T. Jeremy Gunn, "The Law of the these spokespersons contend that particular cultures or religions Russian Federation on the Freedom of Conscience and Religious haveto be protectedagainstexternalintrusionslikelyto disadvantage Associations from a Human Rights Perspective," in Proselytism and indigenous cultural or religious identity. This approach, however, Orthodoxy in Russia: The New Warfor Souls, ed. John Witte, [r., and clashes with the view expressedby most scholars, which stresses the Michael Bourdeaux (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis, 1999), p. 241; Natan universal validity of human rights." Ibid., pp. 478-79.

74 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH 7. Ibid., p. 482. , This paragraph originally appeared in Mark Elliott and Sharyl 8. For a plot summary, see www.tvguide.com/movies/database/ Corrado, "The Protestant Missionary Presence in the Former Soviet ShowMovie.asp?MI=2992. Union," Religion, State,and Society 24, no. 4 (1997):342-43. 9. Lerner, "Proselytism," p. 495. 21. This paragraph originally appeared in Kent Hill and Mark Elliott, 10. LawrenceUzzell, "Guidelinesfor AmericanMissionariesin Russia," "AreEvangelicalsInterlopers?" East-WestChurch andMinistryReport in Witte and Bourdeaux, pp. 326, 327. See also Harold J. Berman, 1 (Summer 1993):3. "Freedom of Religion in Russia," in Witte and Bourdeaux, p. 279. 22. Mark Elliott and Robert Richardson, "Growing Protestant Diversity 11. Anita Deyneka, "Guidelines for Foregin Missionaries in the Former in the Former Soviet Union," in RussianPluralism: Now Irreversible? Soviet Union," in Witte and Bourdeaux, pp. 335-36. ed. Uri Ra'anan, Keith Armes, and Kate Martin (New York: St. 12. Uzzell, "Guidelines," pp. 326-27. Martin's Press, 1992), p. 204. 13. John Witte, [r., "Introduction," in Witte andBourdeaux,p. 7.See also 23. Susan Goodrich Lehmann, "Religious Revival in Russia: Significant Joel A. Nichols, "Mission, Evangelism, and Proselytism in or Superficial?" (paper presented at the Kennan Institute for Christianity: Mainline Conceptions as Reflected in Church Advanced RussianStudies, Washington, D.C., October21,1996),fig. Documents," EmoryInternational LawReview12 (Winter 1998):639­ 6. An earlier 1992survey found a comparable 69 percent of Russian 40,642. men and 46 percent of Russian women who did not identify 14. Metropolitan Kyrill of Smolensk and Kaliningrad, "Gospel and themselves as believers. Mark Rhodes, "Religious Believers in Culture," in Witte and Bourdeaux, pp. 73, 75. Russia," Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty Research Report, no. 1 (April 15. Witte, "Introduction," p. 7. 3, 1992):61. In contrast, in the post-Second World War era perhaps 16. Nichols, "Mission," p. 649. as few as 10 to 15 percent of the population was religious. William 17. Witte, "Introduction," p. 22. See also Nichols, "Mission," p. 651. Fletcher, Soviet Believers (Lawrence, Kans.: Regents Press of Kansas, 18. Nichols, "Mission," p. 635. 1981), p. 67. 19. These reflections originally appeared in Mark Elliott, "East of the 24. Nichols, "Mission," p. 646. The arguments in this paragraph have Old Iron Curtain: Can Christians Coexist?" East-West Church and been adapted from Elliott and Corrado, "Protestant," pp. 341-42. Ministry Report 2 (Fall 1994):16. 25. Lerner, "Proselytism," p. 552. 20. Martin Marty, "Conclusion," in Pushing the Faith: Proselytism and 26. Witte, "Introduction," p. 24.See also Nichols, "Mission," pp. 565-66. Civility in a Pluralistic World (New York: Crossroad, 1988), p. 158.

United Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, 1701-2000: Chronicling Three Centuries of Mission Daniel O'Connor

new history of the United Society for the Propagation waswithrecruitingandsendingmissionaries,clergy, andschool­ A of the Gospel was published in October 2000,in time to teachers, and with the associated funding. mark the tercentenary in 2001. This article is a first reflection on The classic High Church Anglicanism represented by SPG's how, with only just over two years at our disposal, the writing of founders and early leaders gave the society its own distinctive this book-Three Centuries of Mission: The United Society for the understanding of its missionary vocation, entailing an episco­ Propagation of the Gospel, 1701-2000-was addressed.' pally governed church working in close collaboration with, and The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel (SPG) was supportedby, the colonialpower, anda parochialsystemwithan founded by royal charter in 1701,the oldest and indeed the only orderedliturgicaland sacramentallife and systematic education mission agency formally established by the Church of England, and catechesis. The society's name consciously echoed the Ro­ approved by Convocation, approved and supported by Parlia­ man Catholic Propaganda Fide of 1622 and pointed to the Euro­ ment, its charter giving all diocesan bishops ex officio member­ pean colonial rivalry intensifying during this period. ship and requiring that it report itself annually to the lord chancellor. While the archbishop of Canterbury and the English, Missionary Thrust in Colonial America Irish, and Welsh bishops have been closely involved in the society's work through most of its first three centuries, the A problem relating particularly to the eighteenth-century part of guiding personality in its foundation was Thomas Bray, a parish the history arises from an evangelical missiographythatseems to priest and the bishop of London's commissary for Maryland. be obliged to say that nothing of significance happened before Two years previously, in 1699,he was instrumentalin setting up WilliamCarey dawneduponthe British mission scene at the end a lessformallyconstitutedSocietyfor PromotingChristianKnowl­ of the eighteenthcentury, andthatSPG musttherefore havebeen edge(SPCK),largelyconcernedwithprovidingeducation,books, merely some sort of colonial-church society. Several misconcep­ and libraries for English and American parishes. SPG's concern tions, theological as well as historical, are wrapped up in this notion. Suffice it to say by wayof examplethat the preciserecords preserved in the SPG missionaries' twice yearly returns, the Daniel O'Connor is an Honorary Research Fellow at the Centre fortheStudy ofChristianity in theNon-Western World, UniversityofEdinburgh, Scotland, Notitiaparochialis, make it clear that as many nonwhites, Native and Canon Emeritus of Wakefield Cathedral, England. He served with the Americans, and slaves were brought to Christian faith in the Cambridge Mission to Delhi, India,andwasprincipal ofUnitedSociety forthe eighteenth century through the SPG's mission to North America Propagation of the Gospel's College of the Ascension and chair of the Depart­ as were reported a century later by the many evangelical mis­ ment ofMissionat SellyOak,Birmingham, England. sions from Britain. At the same time, the work undertaken

April 2001 75 among the colonists, laying the foundations of the Episcopal (about 8 percent of them indigenous), Pascoe clearly intended to Church of the U.S.A., was certainly seen as a missionary en­ demonstrate a church gradually taking root throughout and deavor, what we would now call reevangelization. Hence, the beyond Britain's imperial possessions. The invisibility on the title "Three Centuries of Mission," not "a century building a whole of the several thousands of indigenous teachers, cat­ colonial church followed by two of mission." An analysis of a echists, lay readers, and Bible women funded by the society sermonby Bray entitled "ApostolicCharity" and preachedat the reflects his firmly clerical view of the church and obscures vital ordination of a group of missionaries provided me an opportu­ aspects of this rooting. nityto explicatehis thoroughlyintegratedand carefullyworked­ The subsequent major history, H. P. Thompson's Into All out theology of mission. Lands (1951;760pages covering the period 1701to 1950,butwith Thoughthe societycontinued to function amongindigenous an emphasis on the fifty years since Pascoe), does not help in this peoples and beyond the imperial frontiers, the nineteenth cen­ last regard.'Muchless fully documented,thoughwitha smoother tury saw its reevangelization of colonial settlers prosecuted on a narrative flow, it indicates that Thompson was determined to much expanded scale. Besides sending missionaries, the society mentioneverysociety missionaryfrom Britainafter1901butwas increasingly concerned itself with funding, not least to resource less interested than Pascoe in indigenous participants in the bishops and endow dioceses. This means that a history of the history. By basing his account largely on the society's published society has to take in a good deal more than the work of the annual reports, he provides a double guarantee of an official missionaries it recruited. At the same time, the huge British and interpretation, for the annual report was a London-edited selec­ tion of what the missionaries chose to put in their formal reports. The sense of the changing context of mission evident in Wiberforce said the SPG Thompson, writing after World War II and Indian indepen­ dence, found an even more central place in a spirited "concise functioned within British history" by Margaret Dewey in 1975, The Messengers, the most # godless colonialism" as 'Ian recent of a long series of popularaccounts of the society," Increas­ ingly global tumult as the context for mission, about which we Angel of Mercy." were all so much more aware through the looming communica­ tions explosion, pointed to a further complexity in any subse­ quent history of the society. European colonial migrations brought great exploitation and An added complication was the merger referred to above, of suffering to colonized peoples and filled the missionary task SPG and UMCA, in 1965. The latter had its own three-volume, among them with contradictions. Bishop Samuel Wilberforce in 1,100-page history covering the century up to the merger," The the mid-nineteenthcenturycame to the conclusion,nevertheless, two bodies had to some extent related, if uneasily, from 1857,so that the society was functioning within this "godless coloniza­ there was a case for some treatment of UMCA prior to 1965,the tion" as "an Angel of Mercy." perspective being one of convergent streams of mission history The late eighteenth century on also saw a fragmentation of merging in response to new African realities. Church of England missionary efforts, first with the formation of The society's decision in 1997 was to publish a new history the Church Missionary Society (CMS) in 1799under evangelical covering the three hundred years, but with an emphasis on the influence, later with the Universities' Mission to Central Africa most recent half-century. A considerably shorter book than (UMCA) in1857,andothersmallerbodiesreflectingthe concerns Thompson's provided its own imperatives, so that, for example, of the Oxford Movement. This last half century has seen some alongside a very abbreviated summary of the society's history amalgamations, most notably that of SPG and UMCA, creating run accounts of a selection of interesting and exemplary indi­ the United Society for the Propagation of the Gospel (USPG) in viduals and developments. While the summary keptone more or 1965. It is a complex story, both as the domestic context and less at the level of the annual reports, the selection necessitated constitution of the society changed and as missionary ambitions periodic dives into otherlevels of the vastdata representedby the expanded within and beyond British colonial and imperial re­ society's archives. Thus, for example, the disastrous venture in gions, and later, during and after decolonization. the modern period known as the Anglican-Methodist Project in The first historicalaccountwas published in 1730,writtenby Latin America in the 1970s, and the impressive advocacy role in the secretary at that time, David Humphreys, and covering the regard to the anti-apartheid strugglein 1980sSouthAfrica, could first three decades, in the Caribbean in a small way, but chiefly in be described and evaluated only after a careful plunge into these North America among native Americans, slaves, and settlers, deeper layers of data. and hopeful that the "mighty English Empire . . . should be The two years allowed for the writing provided added Christian."? Further accounts followed. Most notable of these imperatives, not least the sharing of the writing with others, and was C. F. Pascoe's Two Hundred Years of the S.P.G., published in this factor provided what was to me an essential additional 1901, running to 1,800 closely printed pages and perhaps one dimension to the project, a pluralism of perspectives, referred to millionwords,expandinghis slightlyearlierdigestofthe society's below. records.' Pascoe worked for SPG in London for fifty-seven years, An interesting feature was the role of the advisory group and his account is the fruit of many years of painstaking study. established by the society to oversee the project. Brian Stanley In all sorts of ways it is a production of its times, admiring of describes how his commission in 1985 to produce an official empire, liable to overlook the contribution of laypeople and volume for the Baptist Missionary Society entailed the submis­ women--easy to disparage today, but impressive in its mastery sion of each chapter that he wrote to a working group appointed of detail and a moving product of devotion and dedication. by the BMS, and how relieved he was that his "worst fears of Listing some 115 languages used by the society's missionaries, ideological censorship were not realised."? In my case, the advi­ detailing their many hundreds of publications in these, and sory group chose the more risky path (more risky for them, naming the more than 3,300 ordained missionaries by this time liberating for me) of giving initial advice and then leaving me to

76 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH ASBURY THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY

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hri stianity's World Mission would be less intimidating and Prepare for a more manageable if everyone spoke the same language, fol­ C lowed the same customs and viewed life the same way. That lifetime of idyllic world, however, is not the world Christ calls us to engage. The real wo rld features at least a dozen major cultural families and more than 2,000 religions, 6,000 languages and 30,000 distinct Effective Ministry, societies and cultures. There are also an unknown (and shifting) number of sub-cultures, counter-cultures and peoples with their own ANYWHERE! distinct name, history and identity. Furthermore, secularization has transformed Western nations into "mission fields" once again. Several fields of knowledge prepare the effective missionary to DEGREE PROGRAMS "exegete" the biblical text and people's cultural context. These lit­ M.A. and Th.M .. in Wo rld Mission and eratures are as necessary, and as sophisticated, as the literatures EvangeLism. Do ctor of Ministry. Doctor that prepare physicians to make sense of an epidemic, or of MissioLogy, and Doctor of Philosophy astronomers of a galaxy. Asbury's ESJ School will prepare you to in IntercuLturaLStudies. George Hunter Dean. Church Growth, understand the historical, cultural and religious contextof the field Communication, Leadership of mission to which Christ has called you, and to serve, communi­ cate and help grow the indigenous Church in that context. So if you are interested in making sense of a piece of the world, and in helping its people make sense of the Christian gospel, call the admissions office today at 1-800-2-ASBURY or Darrell Whiteman Ron Crandall Eunice Irwin e-mail us at [email protected]. Assoc. Dean, Anthropology, Evangelism. Small Primal Religions, J ndigenous Christionity Churches. Chu rch Planting Contextual Th eology ASBURY THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY

KENTUCKY CAMPUS: 204 N. Lexington Avenue, Wilmore, KY 40390-1199 Terry Muck Howard Snyder Matt Zahniser World Religions, History of Mission, Cross-Cultural f LORIDA CAMPUS: 8401 Valencia Co Llege Lane. Orlando. FL32825 Buddhism & Christianity Theology of Mission Oisdpleship VIRTUAL CAMPUS: www.asburyseminary.edu/e xlfexl.html it, though I had the good fortune of an association with the Nevertheless, some account of USPG's institutional evolu­ society going back some thirty-five years, and I was free to turn tion during the past half century, with its dramatically changing to individual members of the group throughout the writing context embodied in decolonization, in the development of First, process, which I periodically did, in particular to members with Second, and Third Worlds, and of what Samuel Wilberforce special knowledge of the society during recent decades and with would surely have called "a godless globalization," is not with­ academic and non-Western perspectives. out interest. Similarly, the changing religious and mission scene, the coming of the Third Church, and the decline of the Second, Fourteen Diverse Perspectives which brought a call for the conversion of England at the begin­ ning of this period, is vividly mirrored in the society's activities Very important, however, was the group's agreeing to my re­ and passivities throughout it. The cluster of fourteen essayists' quest to include in the second halfof the booka series of fourteen perspectives add their own correctives to any lingering miscon­ essays by women and men able to bring fresh and diverse ceptions about a metanarrative. If there is one in this project, it is perspectives on the society," Thus, for example, for the eigh­ not so much that of a society for the propagation of the Gospel as teenth century, it was possible to include an account of SPG's of the propagation of the Gospel itself, with all its complexities, work among the Mohawk by a Native American historian, compromises, and ambiguities during the period of the Euro­ Owanah Anderson, who has previously pulled no punches pean colonial adventure and with few less of these conditionali­ about "America's holocaust," and a study of the society's han­ ties where new understandings of that Gospel have been emerg­ dling of the extraordinary issue of its slave plantations in Barba­ ing subsequently. dos by a West Indian church historian, Noel Titus. There was the opportunity also for a much more thorough account and evalu­ Enriched by Contemporary Research ation than hitherto of the place and role of women, for example in DeborahKirkwood's studyof the experience and contribution In conclusion, Ioffer a coupleof observations relating to myown, of the wives of male missionaries, and Rosemary Fitzgerald's of first halfof the book. One relates to the growing body of research pioneering women's medical workin and around Delhiin North available around the world that has helped to fill out, modify, India. and enrichthe picture, which has openedup hitherto unexplored An irony of the history is that a secretary of the society avenues of great significance. Some of these studies are already particularly supportive of the role of women in its work, H. H. established classics in the field, like Raboteau on slave religion, Montgomery, was also one of those most enthusiastic to capital­ for example, or Bengt Sundkler on church union in SouthIndia." ize on the imperialist fervor of late nineteenth- and early twenti­ Others are much less widely known as yet. Some of this research eth-century Britain, as is made clear in Steven Maughan's essay. has been done by members of the churches that USPG helped to Several essayists look at successes and failures in indigenization. create-for example, a fine study by Jeong-ku Lee of "Architec­ Thus, Vincent Kumaradoss's account of the ways in which turalAnglicanism" in Korea, or the researches of Kortright Davis Nadar women and men in the nineteenth century effectively and Sehon Goodridge on SPG in the colonial Caribbean. But appropriated the Gospel in Tirunelveli, in South India, and Sara some is also available from beyond the society circle, like Profes­ Sohmer's exploration of the characteristicallyAnglican theology sor Takako Shirai's recent research on the crucial creative role of that encouraged the mission in Melanesia to "christianize with­ SPG missionaries in relation to Fukuzawa in Japan during the out civilizing." In contrast, colonial attitudes (as in much CMS Meiji era, the studiesby R.F.Young andA. Amaladassof the SPG work) gradually got the upper hand in central Africa, stifling missionary W. H. Mill and his achievements as a Sanskritist at indigenous development, as Jerome Moriyama demonstrates in Bishop's College, Calcutta, and Terence Ranger's account of the his essay on UMCA in the later nineteenth century. Two other adaptations made by the UMCA missionary Vincent Lucas and essays on the church in Africa give some indication of the his Africancolleagues,ReubenNamaloweand KolumbaMsigala, establishmentof local churches, notwithouta strugglein the case to the (male) initiatory rites of the Makua and Yao peoples of of the "spikyhigh church" in Ghana, studied by John Pobee, but, Masasi. Not all of this research is particularly edifying, of course, in the case of Zambia in Musonda Mwamba's essay, to the point like Modupe Labode's strictures on SPG's women missionaries where the society is a valued but essentially marginal friend to a in South Africa, but it all makes for a much more full-bodied church that has found its place and mission within the nation. history." The 1990s saw the society assisting in funding fresh Most of these essays were entirely new, researched and research by numerous younger, non-Western scholars, whose written for the occasion, a few rescued from relatively obscure findings will be vital to any future overview. journals and rewritten to support our overall interest, one a case This point relates, of course, to the matter of postcolonial of "literary implosion," whereby John Calam contracted a sub­ reflection on the colonial period. An official history of a mission­ stantialbook into a little space, but the aim was to ensure that the ary society is a very different exercise from an ideological study society's part in the now highly contentious modern missionary of mission. It is written from within the circle of faith, but if it is movement was examined from a variety of angles. to have any wider credibility and interest, it must take account of Other recent histories of British missionary societies-Brian ideology as well as theology and be aware of the prevailing Stanley's History of the BaptistMissionary Society, 1792-1992 and ideologies, both those that have shaped the historical context in The Church Mission Society and World Christianity, 1799-1999, which the agency worked and that often had a profound influ­ edited by Kevin Ward and Stanley-have recognized that the ence on missionitself, and those that drive the strong antimission day of large institutional chronicles is past," Clearly, the shrink­ currents in much current writing. All mission from Europe, with ing in-house readership for that sort of thing, the growing veryslightexception, has approached its taskin close association recognitionof missionhistoryas a valid academic discipline, and with ideas about a civilizing mission. And yet several recent the strongly emerging independence and integrity of Anglican British accounts of other missionary enterprises in the past two Provinces, our version of "local" churches, all call for a different hundred years have, by their silences or explicit disavowals, sort of project. sought (absurdly) to suggest that these enterprises were largely

78 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH innocentof the great colonial offense, as ifrhetoric could displace the sangha out of the ashram. It also encourages us to look for inescapable material realities. Such a posture would have been such new "missionary heroines and heroes" as some of the quite impossible in the case ofSPG, with its origins so manifestly womenwhoseoftenstriking andcreativeendeavors wereburied in an ancient regime that saw church and state as two aspects of in their own separate journal, the Mustard Seed, hardly ever a single national community. But that very identification invites mentioned in the society's own official publications; or the a recognition of the complexity of the colonial encounter, which recently reinstated "heretic," J.W. Colenso, first encouragedinto some postcolonial study misses, not least as that ancient symbio­ his theological reconsiderations by his equally independently sis was breaking down in the nineteenth and early twentieth minded wife, Frances; or that interesting cluster of "atheists of empire," Roland Allen, Charles Andrews, Arthur Cripps, and others, hardly mentioned in the 1951 history, as well as some of English missionaries in the the more significant "awkward" local Christians associated with the society, such as Krishna Mohan Banerji in Bengal or Cecil Christa Seva Sangha Majaliwa in central Africa. Ashram, like self-regarding Around the middle of the twentieth century, the society was seriously asking itself whether it should not at that time wind young cuckoos, tipped the down, and it has continued to ask the question at intervals since original Indian members then. It is fortunately not a question that a historian is obliged to answer.Certainly,the societyhas madeseriousefforts to reorient out of the nest! itself, and it conducts a much more modest operation than it did in earlier times. But it is striking that support from within the muchdiminishedChurchof Englandhas beenrelativelystrongly century. At the same time, post-Edward Said, we do have to read sustained, even more significantly that a church leader of the the texts with an eye for their gaps, absences and ellipses, silences stature of Desmond Tutu should have gone out of his way to and closures. This attention will sometimes turn a familiar story affirm the society's role in his own church's struggle in the 1980s, on its head, like, for example, that of the admired pioneer and that the society had a creative initiatory role in the 1990s in Christian ashram, the Christa Seva Sangha in western India, the movement for debt cancellation known as Jubilee 2000. where a careful reading of the evidence indicates that a group of Meanwhile, the darkening nightmare of globalization, and the English missionaries, like self-regarding young cuckoos, for­ attendant desecration of the created world, call for all the angels mallyandconstitutionallytippedthe originalIndianmembersof of mercy that are to be found.

Notes------­ 1. Published by Continuum of London and New York. Her Hands to God': The Order of Ethiopia and the Church of the 2. D.Humphreys,An Historical AccountoftheIncorporated SPG(London: Province of Southern Africa, 1899-1999"; M. T. S. Mwamba, "The Joseph Downing, 1730). Evolving Roleofthe Church: TheCase ofDemocratizationinZambia"; 3. C. F. Pascoe, Two Hundred Years of the S.P.G.: An Historical Account, and J. Pobee, "The Anglican Church in Ghana and SPG." 1701-1900,2 vols. (London: SPG, 1901). 9. B. Stanley, The History of the Baptist Missionary Society, 1792-1992 4. H. P. Thompson, Into All Lands: The History of the SPG, 1701-1950 (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1992);K. Ward and B. Stanley, eds., The (London: SPCK, 1951). Church Mission Society and World Christianity, 1799-1999 (Grand 5. M. Dewey, TheMessengers: A Concise Historyof the USPG (London: Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans; Richmond, Surrey, U.K.: Curzon Press, Mowbrays, 1975). 2000).

6. A. E.M. Anderson-Morshead, TheHistoryoftheUMCA, vol. 1,1859­ 10. A.J.Raboteau, Slave Religion: The"Invisible Institution II intheAntebellum 1909(London: UMCA, 1909);A. G. Blood, vol. 2,1907-1932 (London: South(New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1978);B.Sundkler, TheChurch UMCA, 1957);A. G. Blood, vol. 3,1933-1957 (London: UMCA, 1962). of South India: The Movement Towards Union, 1900-1947 (London: 7. B.Stanley, "Some Problems in Writing a Missionary Society History Lutterworth Press, 1954). Today: The Exampleofthe BaptistMissionarySociety," inMissionary 11. J.-K.Lee, "ArchitecturalAnglicanism: A MissiologicalInterpretation Encounters: Sources andIssues, ed. R.A. Bickers andR.Seton (London: of Kanghwa Church and Seoul Anglican Cathedral" (Ph.D. thesis, Curzon Press, 1996), p. 41. Univ. of Birmingham, 1998);K. Davis, Cross and Crown in Barbados: 8. The fourteen writers andtopics are O. Anderson, "AnglicanMission Caribbean Political Religion in the LateNineteenth Century (Frankfurt: Among the Mohawk" (Canada); N. Titus, "Concurrence Without PeterLang, 1983);S.S.Goodridge,FacingtheChallengeofEmancipation: Compliance: SPG and the Barbadian Plantations, 1710-1834"; J. A Study of the Ministry of William Hart Coleridge, First Bishop of Calam, "Parsons and Pedagogues: The SPG Adventure in American Barbados, 1824-1842 (Bridgetown: Cedar Press, 1981); T. Shirai, Education";V. Kumaradoss, "The SPGandthe ImpactofConversion Yukichi Fukuzawa and the Missionaries: The Untold History of Anglo­ in Nineteenth-Century Tirunelveli" (South India); G. Shaw, Japanese Relations, 1874-1901 (in Japanese) (Tokyo, 1999); A. "Supportinga ColonialBishop andPatriot: WilliamGrantBroughton Amaladass, S. J. Young and R. F. Young, The Indian Christiad: A and the Society" (Australia); S. Sohmer, "Anglican Tradition and Concise AnthologyofDidactic andDevotional Literature in Early Church Mission:Sources forMission Methodologyinthe Nineteenth-Century Sanskrit (Anand: Gujarat Sahitya Prakash, 1995); T. Ranger, Pacific" (Melanesia); D. Kirkwood, "Wives of MissionariesWorking "MissionaryAdaptationofAfrican Religious Institutions:The Masasi with the Society"; J. Moriyama, "Building a Home-Grown Church" Case," in TheHistorical Study ofAfricanReligion, with Special Reference (central Africa); R. Fitzgerald, "From Medicine Chest to Mission toEastandCentral Africa, ed. T. Ranger and I. N. Kimambo (London: Hospitals: The Early History of the Delhi Medical Mission for Heinemann Educational, 1972);M. Labode, "From Heathen Kraal to Women and Children" (North India); S.Maughan, "An Archbishop Christian Home: Anglican Mission Education of African Christian for Greater Britain: Bishop Montgomery, Missionary Imperialism, Girls, 1850-1900," in Women and Missions: Past and Present, ed. F. and SPG, 1897-1917"; M. Steele, "Arthur Shearly Cripps" Bowie, D. Kirkwood, and S. Ardener (Providence, R.I.: Berg (Mashonaland): M. M. Goedhals, "'Ethiopia Shall Soon Stretch Out Publishers, 1993).

April 2001 79 My Pilgrimage in Mission Harry W Williams

hat a generation was mine-born on the eve of World in Nagercoil nearIndia'ssouthernmosttip, wheretherewere350 W War I, involved in World War II, living to experience beds and as many places in the chapel. The sides were open, and the twilight of colonial empires and the subsequent transforma­ the curious could stand in the roadway and watch and listen. tion ofnations. Iservedas a medicalmissionarywitha careerthat Sparrows rested in the thatched roof. At any time one could see spannedWorldWarII,the warin Vietnam,andbeyond.The field a non-Christian villager kneeling before the baby and placing an of medicine saw its own transformation, with the advent of egg or a chapati in the straw. antibiotics, intensive care, transplants (from skin to hearts), and In 1913, the year of my birth, the Salvation Army was only a vast specialization, especially in surgery. All of this progress thirty-fiveyearsold. In the 1920s,whenIwasa schoolboy,loyalty increased the cost of the maintenanceof major hospitals, creating to the Army and a flamboyant evangelism conditioned all my an impossible burden for most of the churches in the non­ activities. While at grammar school I had little time for extracur­ Western world that had inherited them. ricular social events. The Citadel program was always full. It might be thought that the unpredictable nature of worship, the The Salvation Army and a London Citadel absence of the sketchiest liturgy, would repel a sensitive boy, often charged with being a bookworm. But I found the services My paternalgrandfather, Henry, wasbornin Bath in 1859,son of exciting. Leaders were not confined to pulpit or lectern but took a master coachbuilder of a firm that made the landaus of Beau the liberty to stride the platform to dramatically reinforce their Brummel's day. He was apprenticed to his father, but growing message. Unrehearsed testimony was invited from the congre­ impatient with his lot, he walked the hundred or more miles to gation. I have vivid memories of some of the worthies, who sat in London. He found Christ at the famous Regency Church of All a group well forward, jumping to their feet and striding to the Souls, Langham Place. Had he remained a communicant of this rostrum to contribute in their own idiom. fashionable church, I no doubt would have become a Church The two main worship services were a contrast. In the Missionary Society doctor. But he heard the blare of trumpets morning, the Holiness meeting attracted some from other and a booming drum around the corner in Oxford Street, where churches. It was devotional in style, with biblical exposition and the Salvation Army of 1882had converted a skating rink into an an emphasis on individual dedication to Christ. To the preachers all-purpose mission hall. He followed the band and was soon a of that generation, the Old Testament patriarchs and prophets sergeant, preaching in the West End with his own platoon. were their familiars-lively role models. The evening meeting These were exciting days of rapid growth and intense oppo­ was geared to the unconverted. It was preceded by a meeting sition. Left lying in a gutter blinded by bleach thrown by some held at the largest open space at the center of the London suburb, roughs, he was rescued by Alice Page, herself a sergeant with a where a crowd of severalhundredwould gather. The crowd then posse of six young women. Six months later he and Alice were followed the forty-strong brass band along HighStreet, blocking married. Thus my father, Harry Stephen Williams, their eldest the thoroughfare to traffic. There were knowledgeable com­ son, grewupin the evangelicalclimateof the SalvationArmy. He ments on the flying arabesques that the bass drummer's sticks joined the ranks. He was not a public speaker, but he gave all the wove above his huge drum. Many unaccustomed to church or hours when not at his office in the city to the furthering of the chapel crowded in, filling the hall to overflowing. Army's cause. In this constantly challenging environment, a visiting of­

It is germane to mystoryto dwell on the Citadel, thatfamous ficer-cadet put me on the spot: IIAre you converted?" He got no Salvation Army center in London's West End. At the opening of immediate response, for I was affronted. He was a stranger and the new millennium it still sends its soldiers to the main thor­ did not realize that my father was a pillar of the corps! But I can oughfares, markets, and fashionable squares. It is also the head­ still recall the week that followed-a week in which I felt alien­ quartersfor the volunteerswhosharesteamingsoupandfriendly ated from God, devoid of prayer. On the following Sunday I greetings with those sleeping on the streets. The several Indian capitulated and was born of the Spirit. I was a babe that grew in hospitals where I was later to serve as chief medical officer­ spiritual awareness. Bythe time I was seventeen, I was confident from the Himalayas to Cape Comorin-were run on the same that I must be a disciple in the mold of St. Luke, a doctor with a theological premise, to wit, that the love of God in Christ mustbe message. How the medical component would work out I left expressed in terms relevant to the needs of, and intelligible to the with God. I was prepared to wait, sure that the way would open. understanding of, the poorest of the poor. That way proved to be an intriguing blend of strenuous At Christmas, in the cold of the Punjab at the MacRobert personal effort coupled with a profound faith that it would be of Hospital, Dhariwal, the outpatient hall featured a stable com­ the Lord's doing rather than by my skill or enterprise. I had plete with life-size baby and his parents, the animals, the shep­ plenty of role models. The Salvation Army of my youth was full herds, and wise men, witha paintedbackdrop of the [udeanhills. of those who had walked a similar path. FrederickBooth-Tucker, We repeated the nativity scene at the Catherine Booth Hospital who had landed in Bombay to pioneer the Army's work in the 1880s,was still around in my teens. I heard him preach, his open Commissioner Harry W. Williams, G.B.E., F.R.C.S.E., F.I.C.S, served the Bible (frequently rebound in Indian village leather) balanced on Salvation Army asan officer forforty-sixyears. For thirty years heandhiswife the palmof his hand. Ilearned thatwhatChristhad promised,he were in medical mission workin India. Hespecialized in reconstructive surgery would fulfill. for the physically handicapped, in which he was one of the pioneers in its In today's Salvation Army, provided that one accepts the application to leprosy. For a furtherten years heandhis wifewere engaged in spartan terms and conditions, one can workas an employee or as international administration. a missionaryfor a shortbut fixed span. In 1933there wasbutone

80 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH course: I must become a Salvation Army officer. After I had to give quality care that attracted patients from a wide area. jumped that hurdle, I was reminded in writing that an officer's Income from donations and grants from development agencies life was one of a discipline that left no choice of appointments or maintained and expanded buildings and equipment as the pro­ type of service. I even knew that there could be no guarantee that gram diversified. My wife claims that we were never free from my assignment would be a medical one! I also knew that an the sound of donkeys, whose panniers were laden with bricks officer was permitted to marry only another officer. Salvation and cement. There was constant adaptation to meet the changing Army officer personnel are severally and unitedly under orders. medical needs of the country. In many areas, such as the treat­ Nevertheless, I did marry, and from the beginning I received ment of tuberculosis and leprosy, the missions pioneered, and challenging medical assignments. . government followed. In 1953Isoughttraininginplastic surgeryunderSirArchibald Medical Service in India McIndoe. At his famous center in East Grinstead, England, he had remade the hands and faces of burned airmen of World War My wife, Eileen Neeve, was born in Plymouth, England, a few II. I became a member of the British Association of Plastic days my junior, daughter of Salvation Army officers. Our first Surgeons. Both in Poona in 1943 and then with Sir Herbert appointment, in 1939, was to Moradabad, a walled Mogul city in Seddon at the Royal National Orthopedic Hospital in London, I the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh. In accordance with worked at orthopedics. These skills combined in the develop- WilliamBooth'sadviceto the pioneershe sentto India-"get into an Indian skin"-I lost my name on arrival in India but was allowed to choose my new one. HenceforthI was Bashir Masih­ In 1953 I sought training in Witness to the Lord. I became the assistant to an experienced surgeon. The BritishRajstill had eightyears to run; the patternof plastic surgery under Sir life was still authoritarian. A small group of competent, dedi­ ArchibaldMcIndoe,whohad cated officers from the various imperial services ruled with acceptance as far as the majority was concerned, although the remade the hands and faces Congress Party was soon to launch its Quit India campaign. In of burned airmen of WWII. 1941 the Salvation Army had agreed to use the hospital for the care of Indian military casualties. By 1943 the pattern became an all-out takeover, the hospital becoming the nucleus for a 2,000­ ment of reconstructive surgery. Commencing with congenital bed military general hospital. defects and the victims of accident, the program moved to the In 1943 I was drafted into the IndianMedicalService, and we surgicalrehabilitationof poliomyelitisandfinally to an extensive moved as a family to Poona, where I was to be assigned as a involvement in leprosy. For facial deformities and the paralyses surgeon in the military hospital. Each department of the hospital of hands and feet, adequate follow-up required the development was commanded by an officer who had been a consultant. We of workshops to provide specialized footwear and artificial were virtuallya medical college, and the eighteen months I spent limbs. there brought invaluable experience. Our eldest child-Ann, When we arrived in India in 1939, an estimated 20 percent born in 1941 at Moradabad-died in Poona from an anesthetic of all beds in the country were in the hands of Christian agencies. mishap and is buried there. Her grave is marked by a brass plate The field of nursing, outside the major presidency hospitals, was engraved by a Moradabad merchant who remembered her from entirely occupied by Christians. We inherited or opened nursing our first years in Moradabad; he used to walk to the Salvation schools in each of the four Salvation Army hospitals to which I Army hospital with an orange tucked into the back pocket of his was assigned. Initially these schools were supervised by a mis­ achkan for the doctor's charming child. sion board in each province, which set the syllabus and con­ Fleur (1943) and Jennifer (1945) were each born in separate ducted examinations, issuing diplomas that were registered by provinces of India. For nine months of the year they were at the state. Oneby one these elements were taken overby the state, boardingschools in the hills of Northor SouthIndia. For the three usually unchanged. I lectured, examined, and, in Nagercoil, coolest months they entered fully into the life of the hospital served as the president of the board, signing hundreds of diplo­ community. They still remember a little Urdu and love curries. mas every year. Eventually we had to leave them in England for higher educa­ The Christian Medical Association of India (CMAI) was a tion. In the tight discipline of the day, we were not granted leave large and influential body, in close touch with missionary societ­ for their weddings or for our parents' funerals. ies and government. It proved an ideal umbrella for controlling In 1944 I was technically put on the unemployed list to and developing paramedicaleducation, which was springingup permit me to take over the Salvation Army MacRobert Hospital in various parts of the country. Increasingly, hospitals had spe­ (1944-52) at Dhariwal in the Punjab, where our responsibilities cialist staff and facilities, which made such developments desir­ included medical care of the 1,500 employees of the woolen mills able. At Anand we opened the first school of physiotherapy. All that produced cloth for military uniforms and standard-issue of these disciplines were brought under the CMAI, which con­ blankets. In our seven years on this alluvial northern plain ducted the examinationsand issueddiplomas. Later at Nagercoil, (including the traumatic carnage that marked the first months of with the development of specialty surgery, we ran postgraduate independence in 1947), in sight of Himalayan snows, we devel­ courses for nurses in these subjects, as well as CMAI courses in oped a pattern that was to be followed for the next twenty years, radiography and laboratory technology. as we moved to the Salvation Army hospital in Anand, Gujarat (1954-59), and finally to the Catherine Booth Hospital (1960-69) Reconstructive Surgery for Leprosy Victims at Nagercoil, Tamil Nadu, on the southern tip of India. Since all expatriate staff received a living allowance on the While staying with an old friend of medical college days, I was samescale, and all fees wentinto the hospitalfunds, we wereable spurred to attempt to repair the facial deformities of leprosy. I

April 2001 81 applied to the civil surgeon of the city of Ahmadabad for patients Recently I visited the Catherine Booth Hospital at Nagercoil. This that might profit from reconstructive surgery. He directed me to hospital run by the Salvation Army has nearly 400 beds. From a fort from the Mogul era that he had handed over to a group of outside it looks small, housed in modest buildings in a limited Frenchnunsto care for patientshe directedto them. Iwasgreeted area. Surprisingly the hospital is one of the best in the country, eagerly by ravaged faces. The patients desperately hoped I with experts attending patients, and the cleanliness is something that every hospital should emulate. This only shows that the lack would make new noses. I chose ten and converted a ward for of finances or limited resources need not stand in the way of their nursing. The staff placed a bowl of disinfectant at the door, having a good hospital. reminding me to dip my hands after visits. There was no refusal by the nurses to treat the patients. His wife had been a patient, along with tea planters, civil It was quite other, eight years later, when I set aside a whole servants, poor cultivators, and leprosy cripples. There was such block for the care of such patients in Nagercoil. Here the disease a stream of young patients, physically handicapped from all was known and feared by all. I had a staff revolt-a strike. For a causes, that we first of all provided physiotherapy, then occupa­ week the expatriate nurses did extra duty. Then in the Sunday tional therapy, and finally a chain of vocational training centers, morning meeting a nurse came forward and knelt in tears. She where we taught a livelihood to men and women reactivated by broke the strike. Henceforthit was a joy to workwiththe staff and reconstructive surgery. The skills ranged from the traditional with the model patients, whose reactivated fingers were begin­ ones of weaving, tailoring, and embroidery to secretarial skills ning to trace the Word of Life. It took longer for private patients and printing for women and metalwork of all kinds for men. to realize they were not at risk. Eventually we ran a factory for the manufacture of hospital During the years that the Catherine Booth Hospital in furniture and equipment, as well as three vocational training Nagercoil was modernizing, Madras University sent a team to centers. inspect. The outcome was the recognition of the hospital for the India was an old mission field when we wentthere. Denomi­ training of junior doctors who wished to take higher qualifica­ national rivalries and one-upmanship were still current. After tions. The Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh gave similar the disastrous riots in the Punjab at independence in 1947, approval. mission resources were pooled; relief operations settled into Many of the mission hospitals commanded widespread permanent cooperation. Ludhiana Christian Medical College approval and support. In 1968 Shri V. V. Giri, soon to become became a joint venture, and eventually the Punjab government president of India, chaired a conference of state ministers of participated. In the days of the Raj, both the Salvation Army and health, at which he said: the LondonMissionarySocietyhadopenedmedicalschoolswith Noteworthy Personalia Died. Karl Miiller,82,Catholicmissiologist, February28, Died.MarcelloZago, 68,Secretaryof the Congregationfor the 2001. A member of the Society of the Divine Word, Muller Evangelization of Peoples, March 1, 2001, after a long illness. ended his career as director of the SVD Missiological Institute A member of the Oblates of Mary Immaculate, Zago went at St. Augustin, near Bonn, Germany, retiring in 1992. In immediately following his ordination in 1959 to Laos and addition to teaching missiology, church history, and theology Cambodia, where he remained as a missionary for fifteen over a period of forty years, he served as secretary of studies years. He was recognized as an expert in missions, Buddhism, and formation at the SVD generalate in Rome (1962-67) and and the place of dialogue in missions. From 1986 to 1998 he was vice superior general of the SVD (1967-77). He was one of served as superior general of the Oblates of Mary Immaculate, the organizers of the International Association for Mission and during these years his congregation founded missions in Studies. thirteen new countries. His article "Missions and Interreli­ Died. John V. Taylor, 86, former general secretary of the gious Dialogue" appeared in the July 1998 issue of the INTER­ ChurchMissionSociety, January31,2001,in Oxford, England. NATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH. A former Anglican missionary in Uganda, Taylor authored Died. Peter Deyneka, jr., 69, president of Peter Deyneka several notable books, including The Primal Vision: Christian Russian Ministries, Wheaton, Illinois, missionary statesman, Presence amid African Religion (1963) and Enough Is Enough and former president of Slavic Gospel Association, December (1975), an early call to ecological responsibility. 23, after a six-month battle with lymphoma. He founded Died. Kenneth L. Pike, 88, president of the Summer Russian Ministries in 1997 in response to the changes and Institute of Linguistics, Dallas, Texas, 1942-1979, December ministry opportunities arising from the collapse of the Soviet 31, 2000, following a brief illness. Pike's contributions to the Union. Deyneka was also chairman of the CoMission II Part­ field of linguistics and his commitment to minority peoples nership Council. around the world brought him a nomination for the Nobel Died. Kurien Thomas, 79, founder and director of the Peace Prize. His autobiographical "MyPilgrimagein Mission" Itarsi Native Missionary Outreach, Itarsi, India, October 19, appearedinthe October1997issueofthe lNTERNATIONAL BULLETIN 2000,following a heartattack. Froma singlechurchin Madhya OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH. Pradeshstate in 1948,his ministry grew to include some 1,200 Died. Johannes Verkuyl, 93,Dutch missiologist, January congregations served by 900 pastors. Thomas also started 27, 2001, in retirement near Amsterdam. A missionary in CentralIndia BibleCollege,CentralIndiaTheologicalCollege, Indonesia (1939-62), Verkuylwas appointed generalsecretary and wrote twenty-five books. of the Netherlands Missionary Council in 1963. He became

82 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH the recognition of Travancore State. There was a 30 percent rehabilitative surgery there, as well as clinics in a huge refugee Christian populationin this state and a keen interestin providing camp run by the Salvation Army. rural medical services. A similar school was opened by the In 1969 the Army appointed me to senior administration, American Presbyterian Church in Maharashtra. first in India, then New Zealand and Australia, and finally to After 1947 the united resources of Western missions could serve as international secretary at the headquarters in London. support only one modern college, and Vellore in Tamil Nadu Each appointment involved an integrated commitment to evan­ was chosen. But subsequently the government found that it gelism and community service, including medical programs, could support another training center at Ludhiana. The govern­ with an added dimension of training Salvation Army officers ment also stepped in at Maharashtra. I served on the pioneer and soldiers. In New Zealand we became painfully aware that governing body of Ludhiana and subsequently on the central small was no longer beautiful. I had to close six excellent mater­ committee and executive committee of Vellore. Both the hospital nity hospitals. But a new field was opening. An old program in and the medical college won recognition as among the best in the the treatment of alcoholism was expanded into a multifaceted country. Many were committed to serve in church hospitals on one that included other addictions, and it won government graduation. financial support. In Australia the Bridge Program for addicts grew, again commanding government support. I found myself From Vietnam to International Administration on two statuary committees, the Commonwealth Medical Re­ In the 1960s we were caught up in the war in Vietnam and search Council and the newly formed Health Board of New responded to an appeal from the CMAI to provide twenty-five South Wales. beds for children requiring plastic surgery because of war inju­ In Australia the command included Papua New Guinea. ries. But the South Vietnamese government was not prepared to Here was a growing church and social work geared to the special let the young patients leave the country. A New York organiza­ needs of a population recently emerged from the Stone Age. tion, the Children's Medical Relief, appealed for consultants to Medical work demanded a new approach, small hospitals in give' three-months service in rotation, and a state-of-the-art hos­ scattered mountain situations requiring hours in a Jeep from the pital was built in Saigon. The government seconded doctors and nearest mission station. In fact, we had to use a helicopter to skim nurses for training and invited us to visit hospitals throughout over the dense jungle. We were training indigenous officers but the country to choose patients suitable for special treatment. I could not cope with the demands for instruction by Christian also helped with the three hundred leprosy patients in the huge pastors in isolated villages. We invited villages to choosea young Cholon Isolation Hospital. We commenced a weekly session of man who would serve them after a program of training that

professor of missiology in 1968 at the Free University, from TheEvangelicalMissiologicalSociety will hold itsannual which he retired in 1978.His best known work is Contemporary meeting September 21-22, 2001, in Orlando, Florida, in Missiology: An Introduction (1978). He was a founding member conjunction with the Godsmission.commUNITY mission of the International Association for Mission Studies. His "My leadership conference. Presenters will include program Pilgrimage in Mission" appeared in the October 1986issue of committee chairperson Jonathan J. Bonk, Executive Director the INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH. of the Overseas Ministries Study Center and editor of this journal; Luis Bush, International Director of the AD2000 & Announcing Beyond Movement; and Todd M. Johnson, Director of the The American Society of Missiology will hold its annual World Evangelization Research Center, Richmond, Virginia. meeting June 15-17, 2001, at Techny, Illinois, near Chicago. For more information view www.missiology.org/EMS. The topic will be "Missionaries for the Twenty-first Century: The World Evangelical Fellowship will hold its eleventh Their Recruitment andTraining, Ministry andRoles,Care and General Assembly May 4-10,2001,in Kuala Lumpur,Malaysia. Attrition." Anastasios Yannoulatos, Archbishop of Tiranna, The speakers will include Clive Calver, President of World Durres, and All Albania, will deliver the keynote address, and Relief, Joel Edwards, General Director of the Evangelical James J.Stamoolis, chairman of the Theological Commission, Alliance of the United Kingdom, Bertil Ekstrom, Director for World Evangelical Fellowship, will deliver the ASM InterAct for Latin America, and Catherine Rae Ross, Director presidentialaddress. TheAssociationof Professorsof Mission of the School of Global Mission, Auckland, New Zealand. For will hold its annualmeetingJune 14-15 in conjunctionwiththe details contact WEF, Wheaton, Illinois, USA, (630) 638-0440; ASMmeeting. For details on either meeting contact Judy Bos, WEF, Singapore, (65)339-7900, or visit www.wefga.org. 101 E. 13th St., Holland, Michigan 49423, (616)392-8555, fax Corrections: In "Fifteen Outstanding Books of 2000 for (616) 392-7717, [email protected]. Mission Studies" (January 2001 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF "Godsmission.commUNITY" is the theme of a major MISSIONARY RESEARCH), the full title of the volume edited by conference on global mission being coordinated by the Billy Siewert and Welliver is Mission Handbook: u.s. and Canadian Graham Center, Wheaton College. Some 1,500 leaders from Christian Ministries Overseas 2001-2003. The correct name of sixteen mission networks are expected to convene in Orlando, the editorof K.H. Ting's LoveNeverFails isJanice Wickeri. Love Florida, September 20-23, 2001. For information contact the Never Fails is available from Foundation for Theological Billy Graham Center at Wheaton College, (630) 752-5918, or Education, 313 Glengarry Court, Holland, MI 49423 ($30 visit www.godsmission.com/mUNITY. postpaid).

April 2001 83 included not only the Christian faith but rudimentary medical a simple initiative of the Medical Missionary Association of subjects, which enabled him to use a very limited pharmaco­ London in collecting, sorting, and distributing second-hand poeia, which we supplied. We brought these young pastorsback medical instruments to mission hospitals. It now deals with all for refresher courses at regular intervals. Each village donated forms of medical equipment from bedpans to complete hospi­ land for a meeting hall and a pastor's house as well as an tals. ECHO can supply medicines of a basic pharmacopoeia at allotmenton whichhe could growhis basicfood. These construc­ incredibly low prices. tions of bamboo and thatch sprang up over a wide area. During the same period, I was elected to a five-year term on Young men were being convicted of crimes that were con­ the Central Committee of the World Council of Churches, which sidered serious in the eyes of the Western authorities but that gave me an experience that confirmed for me the oneness of the from their cultural perspective were but peccadilloes. At the spirit but the diversity of gifts. Ecumenism has continued to government's request we opened a remote colony where educa­ expand on this understanding of a rich diversity of worship and tion and practical skills replaced a prison sentence. A dispensary administration. designed for the settlement catered to all the neighboring vil­ lages. Education also had to be tailored to a country where tribes Some Personal Reflections in adjacent valleys were scarcely beyond the bitter enmity of cannibal days, a country without railways and with but one road Long years among Hindus, Buddhists, Muslims, Christians, and into the mountains from the northern side. Mission Aviation animists have taught me that monolithic religious disciplines are Fellowship flew us from tli.e coast, landing on a grass runway. inherently intolerant. Only as minorities are they in any sense During the six years at international headquarters, I also open. Animism is the exception. All over the world, such people held the post of internationalmedical advisor. As other refer­ have heard the Gospel gladly and responded. Then again, Hin­ ences in this article reveal, the cost of medical programs was duism, ancient and amorphous, has always been able to admit rising inexorably. Even nationalhealthserviceswerebeingforced new "prophets" to its pantheon without change in its frame­ to make painful decisions. It was time to further projects of a work. The Dravidian gods of southern India havebeenlost in the more homespun nature in the Third World. In some African religion of the Aryan invader from the north. Gandhi was happy countries I watched expatriate nurses managing health centers, to include Christ alongside Vishnu and Shiva and to meditate in where hundreds attended the daily outpatientsession, receiving Christian ashrams. clever teaching on public health and hygiene as they waited, This immersion in an alien brew helped to clarify my Chris­ followed by practicaldemonstration on diet as well as laboratory tian faith. I could learn something from all but hold to Christ as investigations. A dozen local aides were being trained in the the unique self-revelation of God. It confirmed me in the funda­ process. At one Zambianhospital, a village of rondavels (African mental, emotional relationship of discipleship to a living Lord as huts) provided accommodation for mothers eager to learn how the vital requirement of Christianity. If the great variety of to feed and care for the family. Such centers have been spread Christian denominations were to merge, the superficial differ­ widely not only in rural settings but also in urban areas. ences could be accepted as reflecting what the infinite variety of personality and culture requires for an individual believer to be Lessons from India for Africa happy in the worship of God. Throughout the years I have written for the Salvation Army In the later years of my service with the Army, I related lessons and various medicaljournals. Two books were published during from one area to the needs of another, as when the expertise of these years, TheMiracle ofMedicine Hill (1970)and Booth-Tucker: one of the vocational training centers in India came to the aid of William Booth's FirstGentleman (1980).Retirement has not meant a new scheme in Ghana. My career ended with a series of a cessation of purpose. An autobiography I Couldn't Call My Life seminars in every continent at which nationals of adjacent coun­ My Own (1990)was followed by a trilogy of novels (The General tries learned how to develop projects to expand their own Has Decided, The Sons of Want, and The Chota Sahib [1994-99]), missionary endeavors, using capital from Western sources. The covering three generations of Christian medical service in India. U.S. Agency for International Development approved a grant During the years spent at Salvation Army international that permitted an international team of missionary experts in headquarters, I was able to find the staff and funds to open a education, agriculture, medicine, and organization to travel to primaryhealthand communitycenterin a shantytownsuburb of every part of the non-Western world. In these exploits my wife Cochabamba, Bolivia's second city. It developed into a small lectured on opportunities for women in church and society. hospital specializing in obstetrics and pediatrics. The need for a The six years spent as an international secretary for the community medical program was obvious, and in 1991, at the Army's London headquarters held a variety of responsibilities age of seventy-eight, I went to live in the hospital. The links I both in Army administration and in the universal church. I was made in the community and a turnaround in administration and a member of two councils that elected generals, and I chaired the funding have meant that a health service is now spreading to Advisory Council to the general, a body of senior officers that other areas with a mobile clinic and a training program for considers changes in appointments, new developments, and paramedics. responses to a changing world. On the wider front in the United On one or two occasions in the last twenty years I have Kingdom, I enjoyed the fellowship of the medical committee of visited"old battlefields." The intensity of affection and the utter the British Conference of Missionary Studies. One lasting pro­ irrelevance of race have taken me by surprise. The missionary duction of those years was Heralds ofHealth: TheSaga ofChristian urge is now two-way; the cutting edge has shifted from the First Medical Initiatives (ed, Stanley G. Browne [London: Christian to the Third World. But the oneness of all Christians must MedicalFellowship, 1985]),whichrecords two thousand years of constantly be demonstrated, within denominations as well as Christian contribution to the development of medicine. Another between them. My pilgrimage is not over, but I have found lasting contribution to world health has been made by ECHO, a fulfillment and contentment. I quote: "I couldn't call my life my medicalsupplyagency, of whichIwas a director. It evolvedfrom own; but what a life He gave."

84 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH ITE MISSIONS.VIDEQS Lesslie Newbigin Stephen Neill HM f: IS VlNTAGE LESSLIE NEWBlGIN In two of his last public addresses before his In four lectures given in March, 1984 at the Overseas (I 1JM.I " 'S) death in 1998, delivered at Samford University Ministries Study Center, Stephen Neill speaks on ("The Gospel as Public Truth " and "The "How My Mind Has Changed about Missions." Missionary Mandate"), Bishop Newbigin articu­ Bishop Neill was one of the great missionary states­ lated his compelling vision for the Church and man of the twentieth century. He served as a the Chris tian Gospel in the modern world. It missionary in India for twenty years, an Associate was a vision that had distinguished Newbigin as General Secretary of the World Council of Churches, one of the most incisive and insightful religious and Professor ofMissions at the University of leaders of the 20th century. 90 minutes Hamburg, Germany. 266 minutes on two tapes #4318 ..... $19.99 1JI'(1 #4325 . . .. . $29.99 First Fruits The Good Seed This is the true story of the extraordinary devotion A remarkable case study of how a remote tribe was of young people and their role at a critical point transformed by the Gospel. Marianna Slocum and in the history ofworld missions. In the 1730s a Florence Gerdel went to Mexico to bring the community of Moravian refugees finds a home on Tzeltal Indian tribe the Scriptures in their own lan­ the estate of Count Zinzendorf in Germany. See guage. At first they experienced heartbreak and how the first two young men who went as mis­ much opposition. Then a mighty movement of the sionaries to the slaves on St. Thoma s were willing Spirit of God occurred, affecting the whole society. to become slaves themselves, if they had to, in This film shows the life-changing results of their order to proclaim the Gospel. 70 minutes mission. 30 minutes

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Mama Luka Comes Home Beyond the Next Mountain Doctor Helen Roseveare, affectionately called A powerful drama originally made for Mama Luka, pioneered vital medical work in the theatrical release. At the close of the 19th centu ­ rain forests of the Belgian Congo-now Zaire. After ry, the British branded the Hmar people of Independence in 1964, the country was ravaged by northeast Ind ia as "the worst headhunters," a the Simba Rebellion. Helen, caught up in the hor­ label well deserved at the time. But in 1910, a ror of the revolution, was beaten, raped and single copy of the Gospel ofJohn reached their imprisoned by the rebels. Mama LUM Comes Home village and introduced them to a revolutionary vividly tells her story of forgiveness and faithful­ "new life in Chri st." This is the story of the per­ ness to those she came to serve. 60 minutes sonal pilgrimage of one tribesman's son, Rochunga Pudaite. 97 minutes #4066 . .. . . $19.99 #4316 . . . .. $19.99

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Organization , if Mail to: Address Vision Video City State_Zip PJ,O.·Box 540 papz':f i( TO Country Phone Worcester, PA 194 90 81*1 Shipping c ha r~e SHIPPING C HARGES (see chart at le ) Phone: Fax E-mail Number Reg. to U.S. Foreign SUBTOTAL 1'5800-521-022 of items & Canada Shipments Method of Payment: Mention source "IBM~04o i" PA & MI residents 1 I item $3.95 $5.95 add 6% sales tax * o Check enclosed payable to Vision Video \ 2 items $4.95 $6.95 TOTAL o Credit card 3 3 items $5.95 $7.95 4+ items $6.95 $8.95 * If tax exempt, please provide a o Visa o Mastercard o Discover Foreign shipments: Charges mentioned copy ofthe certificate. om above are for Surface Mail. Air Mailrates Our Guarantee: If, for any reason, aproduct DODD DODD DODD DODD are available upon request. Videos are available inPAL format. does not meet your fu ll expectations, return it Please note on the order form ifyou need a touswithin30days,and wewill exchangeit .com video in PAL. or give youafu ll refu nd. Signature Exp. date Book Reviews

Good Citizens: British Missionaries and Imperial States, 1870 to 1918.

ByJames G.Greenlee andCharlesM. Johnston. Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's Univ. Press, 1999. Pp. xxi, 274. $49.95. Congregational Missions and the Making of an Imperial Culture in Nineteenth-Century England.

By Susan Thorne. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford Univ. Press, 1999. Pp. ix, 247. $49.50.

These two books address important and acknowledgment that women composed imperialism and, more specifically, the clearly distinctive aspects of British about half of the field force of most British missionary movement. missions in the nineteenth and early missionary organizations at the turn of Unfortunately, the disjointed twentieth centuries. James Greenlee and the century (p. 263). By contrast, Thorne structures of imperial regimes and Charles Johnston seek to explain how undertakes a discursive interpretation of missions are replicated in the weak policy makers in British missionary archival sources, arguing that missionary organizationofbothofthesestudies. They societiesrespondedto the Europeanpower propaganda and organizations reflect do not, furthermore, address theology in politics that limited or forestalled Britain's own social tensions based upon any depth, overlooking the specific evangelicalexpansionoverseasafter 1870. class and gender oppression (p, 98). In religious principles that prompted Susan Thorne attempts to demonstrate examiningthese issues, Thomeilluminates thousands of British men and women to that missions produced and mediated a the grassroots organizations that undertake or support missionary work. complex relationship between British supported British missions, as well as the While the authors have chosen to distance society, the British Empire, and European seldom-studied relations between British themselves from theological discussions imperialism more broadly. Thorne is missions overseas and at home. in order to augment and, in the case of especially interested in how British ideas There is common ground to be found Thorne, critique the main body of about race informed ideas about class, in these books. Each focuses primarily missionary scholarship, these books and howmissionaryorganizationshelped upon England, and there is a shared would have been enhanced by the to promote middle-class identity and emphasis upon Congregationalists. integration of theology into their analyses solidarity within Britain itself. In a related Thorne dwells exclusively upon the of politics and economics. For relevant vein, Thorne also makes an intriguing LondonMissionarySociety (LMS),which examples of such integrative approaches claim that the increasing role of women in was an eminentlyCongregational mission, to theology, see David Bebbington's British missions after the 1860s helped to even though it was officially Nonconformist Conscience (London, 1982) create a new dichotomy between race and nondenominational. Greenlee and or G. R. Searle's MoralityandtheMarket in class in late Victorian Britain. Johnston survey the policies of several Victorian Britain (Oxford, 1998). While the discussions of these two missions, but they highlight the LMS and -Kevin Grant books are sometimes complementary, the particularly the Reverend Ralph authorsgenerallyworkat cross-purposes, Thompson. Both books successfully KevinGrantisanAssistantProfessor intheHistory exposing the roots of contentious debates represent the factional nature of British Department, Hamilton College, Clinton,NewYork. that have spread in recent years from the interdisciplinary field of imperial studies into the field of missiology. These debates focus upon methods of textual analysis and the definition of "politics" as a historicalcategory. GreenleeandJohnston Three Centuries of Mission: The choose to ask traditionalpolitical questions United Society for the Propagation about institutionalpolicies and then draw of the Gospel, 1701-2000. upon archival sources to reveal the objectives of policy makers and the By Daniel O'Connor andOthers. London and circumstances thatultimatelydetermined New York: Continuum 2000. Pp. xvi, 448; policy options, (pp. xi-xii). Significantly, illus. $66; £40; paperback $32.95; £19.99. this traditional political perspective excludes women, who rarely occupied Not to be pigeonholed as an institutional Church in the English colonies. American positions as policy makers in missionary history, this volume is a multi-layered independence and the development of societies. Moreover, the authorsassertthat essay on the relationships of mission, the British Empire in the nineteenth gender "had little impact on whatever Western empires, and American, African, century transformed it into a missionary passed for the official missionary mind as and Asian Christianity. The Society for society in the modern sense, but always it confronted expansive imperial states the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign with a particular consciousness of the around the globe" (p. xiii), a claim that is Parts was established by royal charter in church'sestablishedandofficialcharacter. arguably difficult to reconcile with their 1699to maintain and extend the Anglican Its charter status underlined this. The

86 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH society's etho s wa s usually that of High because the results ofthe author's research to regul ate the activities of missionaries Church Anglicanism, and Anglican are both original and fascinating in their wh o were involving themselves in the evangelicals tended to support the more conclusion s, a nd th e not es an d nat ion al struggle associated wi th the voluntarist Church Missionary Society, bibliography reveal the enormous range Congress Party and Gandhi in the 1920s often with different missiological and of material consulte d. and 1930s. Missionaries were required to ecclesiological emphases. Further, the Jeyakumar shows how the British show active su p port of th e British Anglican Church was the established cunnin gl y d evel oped th e u se of gove rnment if they were to be allowed to church only of England, not of Great mem oranda aim ed at res tricting th e remain in India. Jeyakumar also shows Britain, the imperial power. After World activities of foreign nationals employed how the British attempted at times to hold War II came decolonization and other by missi on agencies, whom they feared mi ssionaries and missi on agencies revolutionary changes, and new might wo rk for Germa ny. These same responsible for the political attitudes and ecumenical developments. A worldwide memoranda became the instru ment used actions ofthose Indians employed by them. Anglican communion emerged in which the Church of England was dwarfed by churches arising from its mission work. Whil e C. F. Pascoe's century-old historyof the SPG was almost unreadable, no one will say tha t of this volume.Almost half of Dan iel O'Connor's ma sterly account is a thought-provoking study of the vitalperiodsince 1947.The fort y pages on the eighteenth century establish that the society's workwithNative Americans and African slaves was more significant than some of us thought. Throughout the cultural, political, and theological context is considered. We see, for instance, how a >T.'HE WOR LDWIDE impact of Christianity is a direct result of peop le who society historically aligned with imperial have played key, roles in the missionary ente rprise. T his unique reference thinking could produce the most vocally wo.rkdocuments the global history of Christian missions with biographical anti-imperial missionaries-Roland Allen, ~hic les on e. F. Andrews, A. S. Cripps. the most outs tand ing missionaries from the past 2,000 years.

After O'Connor' s ou tli ne come -», fourteendetailed essays by coauthors who , .~Wqtt e ri by 350 experts from 45 countries, examine critical issues from each of the three centuries, and developments in '· the Biographical Dictionary,contains more than North America, Barbados, East, West and 2,400 original, signed. biographies tha t por ­ South Africa, Ind ia, Melanesia, and tray leading mission;lry figures from Roman Australia. This is not a book to be left to .Catholic, 9rthod6x; Anglican, Protestant, Anglicans.Anyone seriously interested in the missiona ry movement from the West Pentecostal, independent,'and indige nous should explore it. churches. Arranged in a convenient A-Z -Andrew F. Walls form at, the articles provide biographi cal infor mation for each missionary covered as AndrewF. Walls,aContributing Editor,isHonorary '.. ." :". .-'-:; Professor, University of Edinburgh, and Guest \yelFas discussion of their writings, public Professor of Ecumen ics and Mission , Princeton .a c ~i eveme nts , and contributions to contem ­ Theological Seminary. porary mission issues.

f An ?utStanding reference work. . . . Broadly concei ved and well execute d, it 'makes a significant contri but ion to the srudy of Christian mission and the 'h i s t~ ry o(religions.'>" . - Religious Studies Review Christians and the National Movement: The Memoranda of "Here is a veritable treasur e trove of missions history.. . . Every library in the 1919 and the National Movement, English-speaking worl d with a credible claim to offer ing general facilities for with Special Reference to ~ Protestant Christians in Tamil historical research ought to have this volume. .. . It has set a new standard." Nadu,1919-39. - F.vallgelical 1\1issions f2.!!arterly

By D. Arthur Jeyakumar. Calcutta: Punthi Pustak. 1999. Pp. 282. Rs 500.

This book is the doctoral thesis of a South Indian historian on the faculty of the Tamilnadu Th eological Seminar y. It appears to have been published unedited, which would explain its repetitiveness and heavy academic style. This is a pity,

April 2001 87 [eyakumar recounts the stories of a small British, who were exempt from the earlier Relevant Patterns of Christian but significant number of missionaries memoranda. He ends by challenging Witness in India: People as Agents who took courageous positions and stood others to a further study of how Indian of Mission. beside Tamil Christians who were Christians have behaved toward th e state prepared to speak up on national since 1947, particularly in the period of the EditedbyJesudasM.Athyal.Thiruoalla ,India: questions. He identifies 103 such Tamils Indira Gandhi emergency. Such a study Christhava Sahithya Samithy and Mission­ in the Who Is Who of Freedom Fighters of would add further evidence to what is Evangelism Study Project, 2000. Pp. 269. Tamilnadu. In his conclusion the author found in this book, namely, that not all Paperback Rs 125. also shows howregulations similar to these Indian Christians have been apolitical as memoranda have been used by the has often been thought. This book is the product of a nationwide government of independent India to - Andrew Wingate study on the crucial issue of Christian restrict th e activities of missionaries witness in a pluralistic context. The wishing to enter India. The difference is Andrew Wingateis Principal, UnitedCollegeofthe materialcomes outof twentyconsultations that these regulations now apply to the Ascension, Birmingham, England. and workshops, for which Athyal was the coordinator. Relevant Patternsis a peculiar volume in that Athyal is named as editor, but none of the contributors are named. The project was initiated by the Thiruvalla Ecumenical Charitable Trust, founded by M.M.Thomas; it was jointlysponsored by the National Christian Council of India, the Christian Conference of Asia , and others. The workshops produced sixty­ six papers and five consolidated reports, now reflected in this volume. Relevant Patterns provides social analysis of the national and regional Rooy Suh Schroeder contexts, offers a rereadingof history from a liberation perspective, and weaves ecological responsibility into 2001-2002 Senior Mission Scholars missionization. In the introductiona claim The Overseas Ministries Study Center welcomes into residence for is made that the study has evolved "from the fa11200 1semester Senior Mission Scholars Sidney H. Rooy and Charles the crucial mission issue of Christian R. Taber. Dr. Rooy is Professor Emeritus of Church History at the Instituto witness in the pluralisticcontextof India." Superior Evangelico de Estudios Teol6gicos, Buenos Aires, Argentina. A But nowhere in the course of the study is native of Oskaloosa, Iowa, he now lives in Costa Rica and is adjunct Profes­ the nature of the "pluralistic context" sor of Church History at Seminario Biblico Latinoamericano, San Jose. Dr. explained. More work needs to be done here with special reference to cultural Rooy is coauthor ofLet My People Live: Faith and Struggle in Latin America. pluralism, religious pluralism, and Dr. Taber is Professor Emeritus, Emmanuel School of Religion, Johnson ideological pluralism. City, Tennessee. He was formerly a missionary in West Africa and a Bible The material focuses primarily on translation consultant with the United Bible Societies. Taber is a Contribut­ mission to the Dalits rather than mission ing Editor ofthe International Bulletin ofMissionary Research and a former to high-caste Hindus and the Muslims. editor of Practical Anthropology and Gospel in Context. There seems also to be an implicit In the spring semester of 2002 OMSC's Senior Mission Scholars will assumption that the church is in mission be Jung Woon Suh and Edward H. Schroeder. Dr. Suh, a former mission­ because of the Great Commission, when ary to Indonesia, is recently retired President and Professor of Theology of in facttheGrea t Commissionand the Grea t Mission at Presbyterian College and Theological Seminary, Seoul, South Command-ment only serve as constant reminders of the missionary nature and Korea. Dr. Sub is also President of the Korean Association of Accredited calling of the church. The contributions Theological Schools,Chairperson of theTheologicalCommissionof the Korean fail to adequately reflect the paradigm National Council ofChurches, and President ofthe Korean Society for Mis­ shiftin missionfrom kingdom to koinonia. sion Studies. He is the author of Spirituality and Theology in Mission: An This is unfortunate,since withits emphasis Asian Perspective (2000) and Church and Mission (1988). Dr. Schroeder, on "identity in community," koinonia is a an ordained Lutheran pastor, has been a professor of theology since 1957, much-neededparadigmin today's context beginning at Valparaiso University in Indiana, and later at Concordia Semi­ of oppression and fragmentation. Finally, nary, St. Louis, Missouri. For ten years beginning in 1983 he directed The the booksuffers from both an overly severe Crossings Community, an interdenominational, international organization criticism of church traditionalism and offering a program for laity in mission to secular culture. institutionalism and an insufficiently qualified eulogizing of missionaries and In addition to providing leadership in OMSC's Study Program, the their work in the colonial era . Senior Mission Scholars are available to OMSC residents for counsel -Regunta Yesurathnam regarding their own mission research interests. Overseas Ministries Study Center Regunta Yesurathnam is an ordained minister of theChurchof SouthIndiaand ProfessorofTheology 490 Prospect St., New Haven, CT 06511 USA and Dean for External Studies at the Andhra OIVIsc (203) 624-6672 (203) 865-2857 Fax Christian TheologicalCollege, Hyderabad, India . www.OMSC.org [email protected]

88 INTERNATIONAL B ULLETIN OF MISSIONARY R ESEARCH The Lutherans in Mission: Essays Stu dies. It is thus an important book, but miss iona ry-or iented focus that "prevails in Honor of Won Yong Ji. it is not easy read ing. overwhelm ingly in the existing Gauri Vishwa na tha n, professor of anthropological and historical literatu re Eugene W. Bunkowske, serieseditor, AlanD. English and compara tiv e literature at on con versions which is p rimarily Scott, assisting editor. Fort Wayne, Ind.: Columbia University, br ings to the study concern ed with how conversion tak es Lutheran Society forMissiology,2000. Pp. x, of conversion a perspective very different place, whether or not they are successful, 187. from th ose one norm all y enco u nters. and what further kinds of chan ges were Viewing conve rsion as one of the most triggered in the culture by ways of a chain This second vo lu me in th e Lu theran "des tabilizing activities" and "unsettling reaction from the orig inal Society for Missiology Book Series is a political events in the life ofa socie ty" (pp. 'transformation .:"(p.42) Instead, she looks tribute to Won Yong ji, since 1979 professor xi, xvi), she sets her case studies wit hin at the wa ys in which conversion exposes of systematic th eology at Co ncord ia national,colonial, andeven global contexts contradictions in prevailing nation al and Seminary, St. Louis, and founding editor rather than the merely local. In doing so, cultural ideologies, civ il law , officia l of the society's journal, Missio Apostolica . Vish wanathan challenges what she calls a schema, sys tems of religiou s belief, and While the editor calls th e vo lume a Festschrift, it actually is a collection of pr eviou sly publi shed essays that, a note on the back cover informs us, Professor [i "has found most helpful in teaching and promoting discussion of the mission of The Sixth Bound Volume of the church." As such, one could imagine the volume serving as the reading list for one of' ]i's courses. The three pap ers in pa rt MISSIONARY GOLD 1, "Martin Luther and Missio n," argue INTERNATIONALBUllETIN OFM ISSIONARYREsFARCH, 1997-2000 that there is a theology of mission implicit 299 Contri butors • 325 Book Reviews • //9 Doctoral Dissertati ons in Luther's writings. Part2, 'The Lutherans andMission," provides a historical context for underst anding mi ssions fro m th e ere is more gold for every theological library and exploring scholar per specti ve of th e Lu the ra n Church­ H of mission studies-with all 16 issues of 1997- 2000- bound in red buck­ Missouri Synod. Part 3, "Theology and ram, with vellum finish and embossed in gold letteri ng. It matc hes the ear­ Mission," p resen ts the biblical and lier bound volumes of the International Buffetin theol ogical basis for m issions, w ith ofM issionary Research (all of which are sold out). particular emphasis on iden tifyi ng a . r---__ At your fingertips, in one uniquely Lutheran missiology. Finally, volume: T he Annual Sta­ part 4, "Mission and Ministry in Action," tistical Ta ble of G loba l includes papers th at present a bro ad, Missi on, th e Ed it o rs ' ecumenical perspective for understanding annual selection of Fifteen contemporary missiological thou ght and O utstanding Books, and pr actice. the four-year cum ulative in­ As a Festschrift, the volume wo uld dex. Here is an essential vol­ have benefited from more information ume for your personal or in­ about the honoree, such as a vita and stitutional libra ry. bibli ography of his wo rk, as we ll as more informa tion about the vario us au tho rs.As an antho logy of previously publish ed Special price: $63.95 until December 31, 200 1 ($68 .95 works, the volume willhave limited ap peal after 12/31/01). Limited edition of 350 volum es. Each volum e IS num­ beyond the audie nce for w hich it was bered and signed personally by the editors. compiled-the schoo ls and congregatio ns of the Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod. -PauI F.Stue hrenberg Send me __ bound volume(s) of the International Buffetin ofMissionary Paul F. Stuehrenberg is Librarian , Yale Divinity Research, 1997- 2000, at $63. 95 . O rders out side the U.S.A. add $7. 00 per School, New Haven, Connecticut. volume for postage and handling. Payment must accompany all orders. Pay in U.S. dollars on ly, by check drawn on a U.S. bank, Int ernational Mo ney Order, or V1SNMasterCard. Allow 5 weeks for delivery within U.S. o Enclosed is my check in the amount of $_ _ made out to "IBMR." o Charge$__ to my VISAor MasterCard: Outside the Fold: Conversion, Card # Expires _ Modernity, and Belief Signature _

NAM E _ ByGauriVishwanathan .Princeton:Princeton Univ.Press,1998. Pp.xX,332.$65; pa perback ADDRESS _ $18.95. Mail to: Overseas Mi nistr ies Study Cente r This book has wo n awards from th e Publications Office American Comparative Litera ture 490 Prospect St., New Haven, CT 06511 Associ ation, the Modern Languages Visit usat www.OMSC.org Association,and the Associ ation for Asia n

April 2001 89 political agendas by which peoples are comes across . Conversion of individuals A New Meeting of the Religions: defined and classified. It is in relating and ofgroupsisan act of cultural criticism . Interrelipious Relationships and specific conversions to these larger Whether her approach can be applied to Theological Questioning. contexts that the originality of her work less famous and well-documented cases lies. or not, she offers an importantsupplement By E. Luther Copeland. Waco, Tex.: Baylor The focus of the bookis on the British­ to the missionary-oriented focus. Univ. Press, 1999. Pp. ix, 179. $26.95. Indian colonial nexus. Her case studies -John C. B. Webster include John Henry Newman, a number Faiths in Conflict? Christian of civil cases involving Christian converts John C. B. Webster is a historian and diaconal Integrity in a Multicultural World. in India, Pandita Ramabai, the census of worker of the Worldwide Ministries Divisionof the India, Annie Besant, and B.R. Ambedkar. Presbyterian Church (USA). He has spent many By Vinoth Ramachandra. Leicester: Inter­ Thecase studiesare well chosen.Although years studying and living in India. Varsity Press, 1999. Pp. 192. £8.99. the Ambedkar chapter is weak, her point Religion is a significant factor in violent conflicts, but the religious situation in many countries is increasingly complex. These books face the questions raised by such developments. Copeland is a Southern Baptist professorof Christianmission who served as a missionary in Japan. He intends "to Doane Missionary Scholarships demonstrate that one can affirm the Christian mission internationally and 2002-2003 interculturallywithout diminishing either the importance of good interreligious The Overseas Ministries Study Center announces the Doane Missionary relationships or the recognition of the Scholarships for 2002-2003. Two $3,000 scholarships will be awarded on a worth of the major religions" (p. vii). competitive basis to missionaries who apply for residence for eight months Copeland addresses the subject of to a year with the intention ofearning the OMSC Certificate in Mission Studies. interreligious relations in broad strokes, The Certificate requires participation in fourteen or more ofthe weekly mission but he provides a good survey of the issues and an introduction to the key seminars at OMSC and the writing ofa final paper reflecting on the awardee's theologians who have addressed them. missionary experience in light of the studies undertaken at OMSC. He helpfully identifies fourteen questions Applicants must meet the following requirements: and offers a brief statement of his own response to each one, but readers seeking • Completion of at least one term in cross-cultural ministry a persuasive case for a perspective on the • Endorsement by mission agency or church issues will need to read further in the • Commitment to return to their place of ministry bibliography that is provided. • Residence at OMSC for eight months to a year Copeland suggests the following • Enrollment in OMSC Certificate in Mission Studies program categories for the various perspectives on the religions, but he does not consider The OMSC Certificate program allows time for family responsibilities and them mutually exclusive: negativism, some deputation. Families with children are welcome . OMSC's Doane Hall dialecticism, confessionalism, Chris­ tocentric pluralism, theocentric pluralism, and Great Commission Hall (below) offer fully furnished apartments ranging soteriocentric pluralism, paradoxical up to three bedrooms. Applications should be submitted as far in advance pluralism, nonrelativistic pluralism, and as possible . As an alternative to application for the 2002-2003 academic preeschatological agnosticism. Copeland year, applicants may apply for the 2003 calendar year, so long as the Certifi­ himself is sympathetic to the cate program requirement for participation in at least fourteen seminars is nonrelativistic pluralism of Jacques Dupuis but is most positive to proposals met. Scholarship award will be distributed on a monthly basis after recipient in the dialectical, confessional, and is in residence. Application deadline: January 1,2002. For further informa­ preeschatological categories. His critique tion contact Jonathan 1.Bonk, Director, at: primarily indicates the inadequacy of negativism at one pole and relativistic forms of pluralism at the other. Copeland helpfully offers a rationale Overseas Ministries for Christian mission and describes the Study Center spiritin which it shouldbe conducted.His 490 Prospect St. proposal regarding the manner in which Christians should relate to other religions New Haven, CT 06511 USA through dialogue and cooperation is particularly worthwhile. Tel: (203) 624-6672 Ramachandra's focus is more narrow Fax: (203) 865-2857 and his proposal more groundbreaking, [email protected] even iconoclastic, in his analysis of common assumptions regarding the www.OMSC.org conflict between faiths . He is regional secretary for the International Fellowship of Evangelical Students and lives in Sri

90 INTERNATIONAL B ULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH

------Lanka, siteof seriousconflict. Hecritiques divine. But this story does not cancel all religions. Here, as elsewhere in the book, both the West's perception of Islam and other stories of the divine-human Ramachandra'sanalysisis provocativebut the rhetoric of Islamic movements and encounter.Rather,it "enablesus to discern generally persuasive. offers a way forward for peaceful signs of God's new order, inaugurated in Takentogether, thesetwobooksoffer relationships between Christians and Jesus, in all human struggles against fear, hopethatreligionneednotbe an inevitable Muslims. greed, violence, sickness, oppression and source of conflict. They present a call to Whereas Islam is frequently viewed injustice" (p. 117). Christians to live graciously among by the West as involving unavoidable Ramachandra's general proposal for adherents of the various religions of the conflict, Hinduism is assumed to be a way forward in the quest for world with an openness to what God is tolerantandpluralistic,butRamachandra interreligious harmony is what he calls doing even in the midst of the religions. presents a quite different picture, arguing "constitutional secularism," as -Terrance Tiessen that fruitful dialogue requires a more distinguished from social or cultural accurate understanding of the situation. secularism (p. 147). It is a strictly political Terrance Tiessen, Professor ofSystematic Theology, GiventhatbothMuslimsandHindushave use of the term to describe the efforts of Providence Theological Seminary, Otterburne, had a significant interest in Jesus, the state to deal impartially with all the Manitoba, Canada, was a missionary in the Ramachandra offers a portrait of this religious communitieswithin it, while not Philippines with SEND International (1970-86), enigmaticfigure in his Jewishcontextwith assuming either official atheism or teaching at Asian Theological Seminary. a clear testimony to his uniqueness as relativism in regard to the truth claims of

What Is Mission? Theological God, understood from a kingdom of God Explorations. perspective. He is correct in his strong emphasis throughout the work that the By J. Andrew Kirk. Minneapolis: Fortress church is missionary by definition (p. 30) Press; andLondon: Darton Longman & Todd, and thus that "there can be no theology 1999. Pp.viii,302.Paperback $19.95/£12.95. without mission ... no theology which is not missionary" (p. 11). Evangelicals may Author of numerous books on mission, provocative chapter is called "Sharing in be dissatisfied with Kirk's somewhat Andrew Kirk is dean and head of the Partnership." Here Kirk gives the reader apologetic approach to evangelism (pp. School of Mission and World Christianity muchfood for thought, thoughit is offered 57-74). Readers in church growth circles at Selly Oak Colleges, Birmingham, in small, bite-size morsels, almost in an may be disheartened to see that Kirk England. Kirk explains his purpose as "an outline form. One would wish Kirk had ignores the movement's theoretical attempt to present the crucial material on expanded this chapter to include a developments after the early 1980s, theology of mission in a convenient form discussion of the goal of mission erroneously reducing church growth ... intended to guide the student through partnerships in our new reality of the theory to issues of the homogeneous unit someof the relevant discussion on a fairly world church, the majority of whose principle and people groups (p, 221). widerangeofissues" (p.l).Inconversation members are now in the South and East. This book will make a helpful text for with David Bosch's Transforming Mission, Kirk defines mission perhaps too students who wish to think deeply and Kirk neverthelessinteracts primarilywith broadlyas "whatthe Christiancommunity creativelyaboutthe missionof the church. missiological reflection within the is sent to do" (p. 24). He defines theology We are all in Andrew Kirk's debt for this ecumenical movement. of mission as "a means of validating, clear, concise, broad, challenging, and The book is divided in three unequal correcting and establishing on better stimulating work. parts. In part 1, "Laying Foundations," foundations the motives and actions of -Charles Van Engen Kirk draws heavily from his earlier work, those wanting to be part of the answer to The Mission of Theology, and from the prayer, 'Your kingdom come, your Charles VanEngen istheArthurF.Glasser Professor perspectives flowing from the 1989 San will be done on earth as in heaven'" (p. of the Biblical Theology of Mission at Fuller Antonio gathering of the WCC's 21). Theological Seminary's School of World Mission, Commission on World Mission and Readers willbe encouragedbyKirk's Pasadena, California. Evangelism under the theme "Mission in emphasis on the mission of the triune Christ's Way." Part 2, "Contemporary Issuesin Mission," is theheartof thebook, where Kirk answers the question in the book's title. Part 3 is a single chapter that outlines briefly some of the directions of Transfigured Night: Mission and mission in the future as Kirk sees them. Culture in Zimbabwe's Vigil Whatis mission? Kirk givesa fivefold Movement. answer. Mission is: (1) "announcing the Good News in culturally authentic ways; By Titus Leonard Presler. Pretoria: Univ. of (2) struggling to right the wrongs caused South Africa Press, 1999. Pp. xxv, 349. by economic malfunction, environmental Paperback $29.50. degradationandconflict; (3)engagingwith peopleof differentbeliefs; (4)establishing Transfigured Night is a rainbowlike case Honde Valley of eastern Zimbabwe near new communities of disciples; and (5) study of vitality and diversity in African the Mozambique border. He observed seekingthe unityof Christiansandhuman Christianity. After seven years as an numerousall-nightvigils, conductedsixty­ communities" (pp. 233-34). Manyreaders Anglican priest and missioner, Presler five individual and group interviews, may disagree with the choice of issues engaged in field research (1991-95) at the solicited essay responses on "Christianity Kirk has chosento highlight. Anadditional Eastern Highlands Tea Estates in the and tradition," and drew from archival

April 2001 91 Live and Learn at the sources. Presler focuses on the pungwe,an indigenous means of revival. Each of the Overseas Ministries all-night vigil by which the Shona people three African-initiated churches studied "synthesize traditional religion and gaveto the pungwea distinctiveexpression. Study Center Christian gospel to meet Shona longings In concludingchaptersPreslerrelates -,,,,. ..,,,~ ...'. for spiritual encounters, communal his findings to missiological theory, solidarity, and liberative empowerment" includingthatof RobinHortonon African (p. 14). With insight he analyzes the place conversion and of Robert Hefner on the of the vigils in Shona spirit religion and interactive function of ritual. Inter­ their adaptation by guerrillas for mass pretation of the dynamics of contextual­ mobilization during Zimbabwe's war of ization would have been strengthened by Fully furnished apartments liberationin the 1970s.Since independence use of Charles Kraft's concept of dynamic Cross-cultural mission seminars in 1980 the vigils proliferated. The study equivalenceand of Paul Hiebert's "fourth Certificate in Mission Studies details their continuing.functions in self" interpretation of indigenous Senior Mission Scholars traditional religion and their flowering in theologizing. Stimulating international community the renewal of both mission-founded and Transfigured Night puts flesh on the Three-minute walk to African-initiated churches. Letting bare bones of David Barrett's statistics on Day Missions Library at Yale participantsspeakfor themselves, the text the explosive growth of Africanchurches. containsrich detailsthatengagethe reader. -Norman E. Thomas Presler argues convincingly that the Write for Study Program details pungwe is an authentic Shona ritual. Norman E. Thomas is the recently retired Heisal and an Application for Residence. Guerrillafighters did notintroduceit from Professor ofEvangelization andChurch Renewal at Inquire about competitive Chinaor Tanzaniaor Mozambique;rather, United Theological Seminary, Dayton, Ohio. He scholarships for missionaries. they adapted it from traditional religious served for fifteen years as a United Methodist and church practices. Similarly, leaders of missionary in Zimbabwe and Zambia; his

mission-founded churches found a dissertation wasentitled/IChristianity, Politics and catalyst in revivalist- American Meth­ theManyika"(theManyikaaretheShona groupin Publishers of the International odism,butin thevigils they discovered an Presler's study). Bulletin ofMissionary Research 490 Prospect St. New Haven, CT 06511 USA [email protected] www.OMSC.org (203) 624-6672 Faith in the City: Fifty Years of the World Council of Churches in a Secularized Western Context: Amsterdam, 1948-1998.

Edited by Martien E. Brinkman and Hugo Check out Vlug. Zoetermeer, Netherlands: Meinema, ~ 1998. Pp. 105.Paperback $7.95. One of several volumes published as finds the question, "What could be the on the World Wide Web! preparatory study material for the Eighth contributionof the ecumenicalmovement Assembly of the World Council of to the credibility of the Christian faith in http://www.OMSC.org Churches, held in Harare, Zimbabwe, in thesecularizedcities of WesternEurope?" December 1998, this volume contains (Brinkman, p. 9). The chapters contain papers presented at the First Harare excellent overviews of the relationship of v Register for weekly Preparation Conference held at the Free the olderecumenicalchurches to the cities mission seminars University in Amsterdam, Netherlands, of western Europe. on September 19, 1998, gathered under The book left this reviewer with four Preview the next issue of t/ the theme "Faith in the City." Chapters impressions. First, the presenters voice a INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN are by Martien Brinkman (of the deep and appropriate concern over the Interuniversity Institute for Missiology decline of the older churches in western t/ Browse through Special and Ecumenics [lIMO]), Ineke Bakker Europe and their impact in the cities-a Book Features (Council of Churches in the Netherlands), matter with immense implications for the t/ Learn about scholarships Konrad Raiser (general secretary, WCC), future of the World Council of Churches Anton Houtepen (director of the lIMO and older forms of ecumenism. The t/ Meet Senior Mission and professor of ecumenics at Utrecht shrinking impact of the "missionary Scholars University), Anton Wessels (professor of structures of the congregation" (J. C. musicology at the Vrije Universiteit), Hoekendijk's program of the 1960s that Margot Kassmann (general secretary of affirmed the radical secularization of the Overseas Ministries the German Evangelical Kirchentag), and church in the city) parallels the decline of Study Center Nico Gille (Amsterdam Council of the olderChristianfaith communitiesand 490 Prospect Street Churches). a reduction of the church's presence even New Haven, CT 06511 Both the title of the book and the in crucial social services. presentations reflect a double meaning: Is Second, there is hope for the inner Tel (203) 624-6672 therehopefor the innercities of secularized cities and there is a vibrant Christian faith Fax (203) 865-2857 Western Europe? and, Is there still a community there-only it is predomi­ E-mail [email protected] faithful community remaining in those nantly found among the strong churches cities? Woven in all the presentations one made up of recent non-European

92 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH immigrants. The final chapter, written by Finally, the stateofthe olderchurches OMSC Nico Gille, is a case study of Christian in Amsterdamand westernEuropeshould Program Director presence in Bijlmermeer, a poor sparka reexaminationof the initialcharter OMSC seeks a missiologically multiethnic suburb of Amsterdam. There ofthe WorldCouncilofChurches,founded "Christianityflourishes," writesGille, "as in Amsterdam, fifty years before this informed Christian with strong nowhere else in Amsterdam" (p. 96).One consultation. It was affirmed then that the academic background and proven could add that such vibrant presence is church's primary calling to mission and editorial record, capable of working found mostly in the newer, evangelistic, unity is so that the world may believe that across ecclesiastical boundaries, to Pentecostal, and charismatic forms of the Jesus is the Christ (John 17:21). administer and facilitate its study church. -Charles Van Engen program, participate in community Third, it seems that the organizations life, foster relationships with and people represented by the writers in Charles VanEngen istheArthurF.Glasser Professor educational institutions, churches, this volume have not yet taken seriously of the Biblical Theology of Mission at Fuller and mission-oriented groups, assist enough the bankruptcy of modernity in Theological Seminary's School of World Mission, in publishing the International the West and the negative impact of Pasadena, California. Bulletin of Missionary Research, secularization-both on the church itself and carry out research on global and on the church's presence in the cities Christianity with special emphasis of western Europe. on Western and non-Western mission. The Program Director should possess an earned doctorate and be an energetic team player. The positionbegins in June of2002. Cameroon on a Clear Day.

By Helga Bender Henry. Pasadena, Calif.: Send resume with references to: William Carey Library, 1999. Pp. xiv, 194. Dr. Jonathan 1. Bonk, Director Paperback $12.95. [email protected] OVERSEAS MINISTRIES The author, Helga Bender Henry, was touched one another and who influenced, STUDY CENTER born in1915,the youngestofsixmissionary her father, Carl Bender. References to 490 Prospect St. children. She has taught in Christian Rauschenbusch, Strong, Finney, Moody, New Haven, CT 06511 USA education at several seminaries and has Pierson, Mott, and others light up the Deadline: August 31, 2001 been a spokesperson for World Vision. narrative. Fifth, Henry writes as an Her husband,Carl F.H. Henry,has written outsider while having all the love and the foreword. Eighty-four years after her respect of an insider-daughter. She refers the United States, Bender returned to birth, Mrs. Henry takes us back to mission to her father as Bender and does not use Cameroon, where he died in 1935. in the early twentieth century. the personalpronoun,even whenspeaking This is not just a missionary story. It is Cameroon onaClear Dayis an unusual about herself. an account tha t needs to be taken seriously book for several reasons. First, while it is Carl Benderimmigratedto the United as respectable scholarship and as a careful a 1999 publication, it projects a message States from Germany and received his presentation of mission history. and style that recalls earlier missionary mission education at Rochester Seminary. -Dean S. Gilliland accounts. Second, Henry writes with In Cameroon Bender demonstrated objectivity and care for data. Memoirs of sensitivityto African culturewhiledealing Dean S. Gilliland is Senior Professor of this kind are often clouded with withGermancolonialism. The missionary Contextualized Theology andAfrican Studies, School sentimentality and idealism. Third, the family theme runs throughout the book. of World Mission, Fuller Theological Seminary, story reveals much about the mentality The torturous effects of World War I are Pasadena, California. Hewasamissionary toNigeria and theology that prevailed in this dealt with, and a missionary conference for twenty-two years with the United Methodist important mission period. Fourth, this is a (1914)gives insight into mission thinking Board of Global Ministries. revisitation with great personalities who of the era. After eleven years as pastor in

Answering Jewish Objections to Jewish community, yet as one who is Jesus: General and Historical thoroughly conversant with Christian Objections. theology. His scholarship is well documented and his style is personable By Michael L. Brown. Grand Rapids, Mich.: and conversational, whichmakes the book Baker Books, 2000.Pp.xxvii, 270. Paperback accessible to a wide audience. $15.99. In the first section Brown handles objections like "A person is either Jewish The history of disputation literature breakthrough book from Michael L. or Christian . . . belief in Jesus and between Judaism and Christianity is a Brown, the first of three volumes planned Jewishness in any form are incompatible." checkered and sordid one. Christian on the subject.Unlike muchofthe literature The historical section deals with more polemics have added much heat and little of the past, this book is both irenic and thorny issues such as the problem of light to the disagreements that stand persuasive. Brown, a Jewish believer in Christian anti-semitism. The most helpful between these two great faiths. Jesus, isable to addresscontroversialissues section is the one dealing with the painful Into this sensitiveterritory comes this as one who is an insider, a member of the issues surrounding the Holocaust. The

April 2001 93 author provides an excellent summary of well as for Christians seeking to be bett er various Jewish views on the Holocaust prepared to give reasoned answers to their and then provides a sensitive andbalanced Jewish friends. Bybecomingpartofthe past. consideration fr om a Ch ris tia n -David Brickner We'd like to congratula te this publication persp ective; this is some of the best wr iting David Brickner is Executive Director of Jews for for choosing to be accessible with . I have seen on this topic. What the book lacks is a cogent effort Jesus, San Fra ncisco, California. He has served on Bell & Howell Informatio n and Learning. to address issu es from a post-modern the staffofJews for Jesus for twenty-three years, as It is available in one or more outlook, with its pervasive relativism . the leader of the Liberated Wailing Wall, Chief of ofthe followin g formats: Nevertheless, this first volume isa valuable Station in theChicagoand NewYorkbranches,and tool for Jewi sh people see king answers as Director of Recruitment. • Online, via the ProQuestO information service • Microform • Electronically, on CD-ROM and/or magnetic tape Dissertation Notices

Chan, Daniel T. Mutu ri, Samuel. BELLOHOWELL "Quest for Certainty: The Life and "A History of the Anglican Church in Informationand Thought of Chang Lit-Sen." the Kiambu District of Kenya, 1900­ learning ThD. Boston: Boston Univ., 2000. 1990:' Church, Henry. Th.D. Boston: Boston Univ., 2000. UMf "The Impact of Theological Education Ngimbi, Kibutu . Microform& Print upon Church Growth in the Free "Les Nouvelles Eglises Independentes Methodist Church in Malawi and Africaines (NAIC). Un phenomena For mo re information , call Zimbabwe." ecclesial observe au Congo/Kinshasa et 1-800-521-0600, ext 2888 (US) Ph.D. Heoerlee-Leuoen, Belgium: or 01-734-761-4700 (In ternational) au pres de ses extensions en Europe Evangelical Theological Fa culty, 2000. www.bellhowell.infoleaming.com occidentale." Farhadian , Charles E. PhD. Heoerlee-Leuuen, Belgium : "Raising the Morning Star: A Social Evangelical Theological Fa culty, 2000. and Ethnographic History of Urban Reeves, Virgil L. Dani Christians in New Order "The Changing World of Faith Mis­ Indonesia." sions. A History of the Un evangelized PhD. Boston: Boston Unio., 2000. Fields Mission in France and Its Garneau, James F. Predecessors: The Thonon Evangelistic "'Commandos for Christ': The Founda­ Mission and the Alpine Mission to The American Theological Library tion of the Missionary Society of St. France:' Association and the editors of the James the Apostle and the 'American­ INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MIS­ PhD. Heoerlee-Leuoen, Belgium: ism' of the 1950s and 1960s:' SIONARY RESEARCH (IBMR) are Evangelical Theological Faculty , 2000. PhD. Washington, D.C.: Catholic Univ. of pleased to announce that the A merica, 2000. Sundberg, Carl. ATLAS website for archival "Conversion and Contextual Concep­ reference and research is now Grenstedt, Staffan. tions of Christ: A Missiological Study operational. ATLAS is the first "Ambaricho and Shonkolla. From Among Young Converts in Brazzaville, major digital journal project Local Independent Church to the Republic of Congo:' created for religion scholars, and Evangelical Mainstream in Ethiopia: PhD. Lund, Sweden: Lund Univ., 2000. the JBMRwas one of the first fifty The Origins of the Mekane Yesus journals to be included in the Church in Kambata Hadiya." Wang, Zhongxin. project. Current JBMRsubscribers ThD. Uppsala, Sweden: Department of "The History of Chinese Churches in may review back issues on line Theology, Uppsala Unio., 2000. Boston, 1876-1994." without additional cost. If you are Th.D. Boston: Boston Univ., 2000. interested in this service, e-mail [un , Ho u« "An Evangelical Response to Religious Yao, Xiyi. the editors at [email protected] "The Fundamentalist Movement and ask to be assigned a Pluralism and Fundamentalism in Among Protestant Missionaries in password. For journals other Asia, with Special Reference to than JBMRand for further details Indonesia, Japan, and South Korea:' China, 1920-1937." about the ATLAS project, visit Ph.D. Lampeter, Wales: Univ. of Wales, Th.D. Boston, Mass.: Boston Unio., 2000. http://purl.org/CERTR/ATLAS or 2000. contact May, Grace Ying. "Watchman Nee and the Breaking of Chuck Slagle Bread: The Theological and Spiritual ATLA Sales and Marketing (888) 665-ATLA (2852) Forces That Influenced the Emergence [email protected] of an Indigenous Chinese Ecclesiology." Th.D. Boston: Boston Unio., 2000.

94 INTERNATIONAL B ULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH fo. aIlfetlme''ofmlss''on ' September i 0-14; 200 r , , How '.to Develop Chu~ch and Mis.sion .Archives. Martha , Lund Smalley, Yale Diviriity School Research Services Isibrar­ ian, helps missionaries and church leaders preserve essential records. Eight sessions. $95 "

Wi Septemberl8-2l . , ". Keylssuesfor Missiops in the NewMillennium.iDr. Gerald H. ~derson~ former OMSC director, explores majorissues facmg the missionary community, including theuni9.ueness of Jesus Christ and the role of interreligious dialogue. C~ sponsored by Wycliffe Bible Translators. Four morningses­ sions. $75 September 24-28 Nurturing and Educating Transcultural Kids.' David Pol­ lo~k ~?d Janet Blomberg of Interaction help youhelp your children meet the .challenges they face asthird-culture per­ sons. Cosponsored by Mission Society for United Method­ tional Ministries, InterVarsity MissionslUrbana, and Menno-, nite Board ofMissions. Eight sessions. $95 " / ists. Eight sessions. $95 October 1-5 October 29-November 2 Preaching the Story ofJesusin Mbsion Conte'l!s: Dr.David Doing Oral History: Helping Christians Tell Their Own L. Rambo, Christian & Missionary Alliance, draws on the Story. Dr. Jean-Paul Wiest and Dr. Donna Bonner, Maryknoll GospelofJohn and theBookofActs to illumin.atethe.power Center for Mission Research and Study, share skills and tech­ ofstorytelling for effective communication ofthe Gospel. Co­ niques for documenting church and mission history. Cospon­ sored by United ChurchlDisciples ofChrist Common Global";;!f/! sponsored by Presbyterian Church (USA) Worldwide Ministries.Eight sessions."$95 . Ministries Board. Eight sessions. $95 October 15-19 November 5-9 The Eternal Word and Cultural Relativity. Dr.Charles R. Latin American Missions: Theological Foundations. Dr.. Taber, OMSC .Senior Mission Scholar and Professor Emeri­ Sidney Rooy, OMSC Senior Mission Scholar and Professor tus ofWorld Mission and Evangelism, Emmanuel'School of Emeritus, I11stituto SuperiorEvangelicc de EstudiosTeo16gicos, ~ueno.s Aires, ~pplies key lessons from the evangelical renewaH;' Religion, Johnson City, Tenn., examines the tension between ~atin divine absolutes and humanlimitations as it appliesto effec­ III Amenca . Cosponsored by Christ for the City Inter- ' national, and Latin America Mission. Eight sessions. $95 ti,:e c.ommUD:ication ofthe Gospel. Cosponsored b~Maryknoll Mission Institute andMoravian ChurchWorldMission. Eight November 12-16 " sessions. $95 Ethnic Conflict and the Gospel of Peace in Eastern Eu­ October 22-26 rope. Dr. Peter Kuzmic, Evangelical Seminary, Osijek, Croatia, Gordo~-Conwell Shaping 21st Century Christianity: Life Stories of Lead­ and Seminary, demonstrates the .power/of ers .from AfriCa,.Asia, ,an d Latin America."Andrew F. the Gospel III the context of social, political, and ethnic ten­ Walls, Edinburgh University, employs biography to reveal sion, Cosponsored by Mennonite Central Committee, World the increasingly non-Western character of the world Chris­ Evangelical Fellowship, World Relief Corporation.rafid tian community. Cosponsored by American Baptist Intenia- World Vision International. Eight sessions. $95 November 26-30 Contextualizing Theology for Mission in Asia. Dr. Enoch Wan, Professor ofAnthropology and Mission, Reformed Theo­ Overseas Ministries Study Center logical Seminary, Jackson, Miss., focuses on China as a case stud~ in contextualizing the Gospel. Cosponsored by Calvary 490 Prospect St., New Haven, CT 06511 Baptist Church (New Haven). Eight sessions. $95 (203) 624-6672 Fax (203) 865-2857 December 3-7 [email protected] Advancing Mission on the Information Superhighway. Dr. Register at www.OMSC.org Scott Moreau, Wheaton College Graduate School, shows how. to get the most out ofthe worldwide web for mission research.

Cosponsored by Billy Graham Center. Eight sessions. $95 ¢ Book Notes In Corning Burce, Jerome E. Proclaiming the Scandal: Reflections on Postmodem Ministry. Issues Harrisburg, Pa.: Trinity Press International, 2000.Pp. x, 123. Paperback. $12. Conley, Joseph F. Christian Mission and Islamic Drumbeats That Changed the World: A History of the Regions Beyond Mission­ Studies: Beyond Antithesis ary Union and the West Indies Mission, 1873-1999. DavidA. Kerr Pasadena, Calif.: William Carey Library, 2000.Pp. 557. Paperback. $16.99. Kenneth Cragg in Perspective: A Hedlund, Roger. Comparison with Temple Gairdner Quest for Identity: India's Churches of Indigenous Origin, the "Little Tradition" and Wilfred Cantwell Smith in Indian Christianity. James A. Tebbe Chennai, India: Mylapore Institute for Indigenous Studies,2000. Pp. xxi, 304.$15. Looking for a Shortcut to Language Hedlund, Roger, ed. Preparation: Radical Evangelicals, Christianity Is Indian: The Emergence of an Indigenous Community. Missions, and the Gift of Tongues Chennai, India: Mylapore Institute for Indigenous Studies,2000. Pp. xiv, 458. $15. GaryB. McGee Heim,S. Mark. The Depth of the Riches: A Trinitarian Theology of Religious Ends. The Church in a Troubled Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 2001. Pp. xi, 312. $35. Continent: A Review Essay of Bengt Sundkler's A History of the Jacques, Genevieve. Church in Africa BeyondImpunity:An EcumenicalApproachto Truth,Justice,andReconciliation. LaminSanneh Geneva: WCC Publications, 2000.Pp. x, 61. Paperback. $6.50. Kessler, Diane, and Michael Kinnamon. The Lesslie NewbiginiKonrad Councils of Churches and the Ecumenical Vision. Raiser Dialogue on Mission Michael Goheen Geneva: WCCPublications, 2000. Pp. x, 86. Paperback. $7.50. LaDue, William J. Rediscovering Caribbean Christian The Chair of Saint Peter: A History of the Papacy. Identity Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1999. Pp. viii, 374. Paperback. $24. Carlos F. Cardoza Legrand, Lucien. African Initiated Churches and The Bible on Culture: Belonging or Dissenting? European Typologies Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 2000. Pp. 190.Paperback. $25. Allen Anderson Malek, Roman, and Arnold Zingerle, eds. In our Series on the Legacy of Martino Martini S.J. (1614-1661) und die Chinamission im 17. Iahrhundert. Outstanding Missionary Figures of SanktAugustin, Germany: Institut MonumentaSerica, 2000. Pp.260.Paperback. DM 65. the Nineteenth and Twentieth Mercado, Leonardo N. Centuries, articles about From Pagans to Partners: The Change in Catholic Attitudes Towards Traditional Norman Anderson Religion. Thomas Barclay Manila: Logos Publications, 2000. Pp. vii, 134. Paperback. No price given. Rowland V. Bingham Pollock, DavidC.,and Ruth E. Van Reken. Helene de Chappotin Shoki Coe The Third Culture Kid Experience: Growing Up Among Worlds. Francois E. Daubanton Yarmouth, Maine: Intercultural Press, 1999. Pp. xvi, 333. Paperback. $19.95. James Gilmour Rickett,Daniel. Robert Reid Kalley Building Strategic Relations: A Practical Guide to Partnering with Non-Western Hannah Kilham Missions. George Leslie Mackay Spokane, Wash.: Partners International, 2000. Pp. iii, 74. Paperback. $10.95. William Milne Snaitang, O. L., ed. Lesslie Newbigin Churches of Indigenous Origins in North East India. M. D.Opara Chennai, India: Mylapore Institute forIndigenous Studies, 2000. Pp.201. Paperback. $9. Constance E. Padwick Taylor, Michael. Julius Richter PovertyandChristianity:Reflections at the InterfaceBetweenFaithandExperience. Elizabeth Russell London: SCM Press, 2000. Pp. 135. Paperback. £10.95. Johannes Schutte, S.V.D. William Shellabear van derBent,Ans J. BakhtSingh WilhelmAdolfVisser'tHooft: 1900-1985,Fishermanof the EcumenicalMovement. Edwin W. Smith Geneva: WCC Publications, 2000.Pp. 68. Paperback. $4.95. James Stephen Visser't Hooft, W.A. Isabella Thoburn Teachers and the Teaching Authorities: The Magistri and the Magisterium. M.M. Thomas Geneva: WCCPublications, 2000.Pp.ix, 88. Paperback. $7.95. William Cameron Townsend