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1 Kavango looks the way it does because about less than /4 of a percent of the total average it was moulded by various geological and historical volume of water that enters at Mohembo, and events, many of which were described in Chapters 2 even during years and months with low flows, the Figure 26- and 3. The region’s and animals were likewise amounts removed from the river in Kavango are Underground water is usually shaped by evolutionary processes of long ago, but the relatively small. However, several new and large found at much shallower way in which these organisms live today is also a more irrigation schemes are being developed and planned depths in eastern than direct consequence of three fundamental inputs: (see page 99) and, once implemented, these would raise western Kavango. The scale to energy from the sun, water provided by rain, the river the total amount of water extracted from the river to the map shows the average or from underground, and the soils in supplying a about 136 Mm3 per year, or about 1.4% of all water that depth at which borehole medium in which plants can grow and draw nutrients leaves at Mohembo. This proportion still water is pumped from below and water. These three ingredients -- alone and in appears small but the effects of removing these amounts the surface. The red lines combination -- determine the nature and abundance of of water on the health of the river, especially the indicate the approximate living organisms in the region. Okavango Delta in Botswana, have not been assessed. boundaries of four zones in Solar energy is obviously abundantly available in A good deal of irrigation water would be pumped at the which underground water providing energy for growth and heat to warm start of the growing season in early summer when the flows in different directions, 3 the air and ground. By contrast, water is a severe volume of water in the river is at its lowest. Moreover, as shown by the arrows. problem, especially for anything that lives any the proportion of water extracted during the driest distance from the river. Rainfall is highly seasonal and months in years when flows are unusually low could be unpredictable (see Chapter 4), and the growth of crops substantial. No regulations or quotas control the use of and natural vegetation is often limited by a shortage of river water in , Namibia or Botswana. rainwater. Underground water is beyond the reach of The supply of water is one thing, but having access to most roots, and it is only through the recent use of uncontaminated water is also important for reasons of boreholes and pumps that groundwater can be used for avoiding diseases caused by bacteria and other parasites Figure 27- people and livestock, as described below in this in dirty water (see page 85). Water sources are Most boreholes provide chapter. Soils, too, are a severe problem because they commonly divided into those that are unsafe moderate supplies of water are so infertile and hold little water in most areas. (potentially contaminated water from the river or hand- sufficient for the small This chapter begins with accounts of underground dug wells) and those that are safe (underground or villages. The map shows water and soils as two of the fundamental inputs on borehole and treated river water). In 2000, average yields from boreholes which life in Kavango depends. Then follows approximately 52% of all households used so-called measured in cubic metres of information on the region's natural vegetation and the ‘safe’ sources, a slight improvement from 46% in 1991. water pumped to the surface 4 major impact that repeated bush fires have on the The great majority of homes that use unsafe water are per hour. structure and composition of woodlands. A variety of in rural areas. Thus in 2000, only 40% of the rural aspects concerning animal life in Kavango are population had access to safe water compared to 82% of described with a special focus on the abundance and people in Rundu.2 distribution of larger mammals. A final section Most underground water is provided through considers the region's conservation areas and the use boreholes drilled and supplied with pumps by the that tourism makes of these natural parks. Department of Water Affairs, although a few wealthier farmers have also installed their own boreholes and Figure 28- pumps. Borehole pumps generally draw water using The supply of water Underground water in the People and livestock in Kavango get their water from diesel, wind or electrical (often solar powered) energy, region is usually of good two sources: the river and from boreholes that pump whereas water in hand-dug wells is usually winched to quality, as shown by the values water from under the ground. Various aspects the surface by hand. The main effect of having access to of total dissolved solids (TDS) in concerning the flow of water in the Okavango River are groundwater has been to enable people to settle in milligrams per litre. The purest described in Chapter 5, but what is important here in the inland areas where they would otherwise have been water has low TDS values, and context of water supply is that only a small fraction of unable to live (see page 114). However, underground humans can drink water with the water is used. The total amount of river water now water has also been of value in places close to the river, values of less than 2,000. Water used in Kavango each year is about 22 million cubic especially where it is used to provide safe water to bulk with values above 2,600 should metres (Mm3), of which approximately 74% supplies water supply schemes for schools, hospitals and the be avoided, while even live- agricultural irrigation schemes, 15% is used by rural public at such places as Nkurenkuru, Kahenge, stock should not drink water people for their livestock and domestic needs, and 11% Tondoro, Rupara, Bunya, Mupini, Kayengona, having TDS values above 5,000.5 is for urban use in Rundu.1 The 22 Mm3 amounts to Shambyu and Nyangana.

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Most underground water lies in bodies of water -- zones of movement of underground water (Figure 26). Figure 29- known as aquifers --in the Kalahari sediments (see page The first is in the north-west where water permeates Wind-blown sands (arenosols) cover much of Kavango and are generally not suited to 24). The water is trapped under pressure in tiny spaces south-eastwards from Angola. A second zone is in the crops. Smaller patches of somewhat more fertile soils (anthrosols, fluvisols and between the grains of sand and other sediments. The centre of Kavango, and here water flows radiate out calcisols) are found along the Okavango River, the omurambas and inter-dune valleys.6 aquifers lie at various depths (Figure 26), those in the from the vicinity of Ncamagoro. Flows also spread out eastern half of the region being at the shallowest levels in a third zone in the south-east, while water flows of 10 to 30 metres below the surface. Water in western north into Kavango from the Grootfontein area in the Kavango is usually found below 60 metres, and water in fourth zone. some places has only been found at depths of as much Shallow aquifers in the east are recharged much as 350 metres. The main effect of these different depths more rapidly by good falls of local rain than the deeper is that deeper water is much more expensive to find and aquifers into which water seeps over much longer pump. Other than aquifers in the Kalahari sediments, the periods. Water is also relatively easy to find in the only other underground water bodies are in Damara eastern shallower aquifers, and yields of 5--10 cubic Sequence rocks of the Nosib Group in the area of metres per hour can generally be obtained (Figure 27). Andara and Popa Falls (see page 24). These are adequate to supply the household and The shallow aquifers along the river often consist of livestock needs of small villages. There is, however, a shallow bodies of water trapped in old channels of the good deal of variation in yields, even between Okavango River. Most of the water seeping into those ancient deep channels probably flows in from the south. Indeed, these movements of underground water Water is often transported over from the south mean that the Okavango River gains substantial water from shallow aquifers, rather than the river distances, and water recharging aquifers. Flows of underground water people in Kavango into the river valley occur in three of four separate use many methods of carrying water to their homes.

Soils in the bottoms of omuramba valleys are more clayey (and thus dark) than the pale coloured sands higher up and away from the valley. This is the Ndonga Omuramba.

boreholes close to each other. Most differences are due to three than 1,000 milligrams per litre (Figure 28). Water unsuited for factors: (a) differences in the permeability of the sediments in use has been found in only a few areas, in many of which the which the water is trapped, (b) the thickness of the aquifer (and water was probably contaminated by animal waste, especially the depth to which the borehole penetrates the aquifer), and (c) where cattle troughs or kraals were close to wells drawing water the diameter of the borehole well. from shallow aquifers. Precautions should be taken to guard The majority of boreholes in Kavango provide pure, good against additional contamination of the region's underground quality water with values of total dissolved solids (TDS) of less water resources as the number of people and livestock grow.

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Soils sand and smaller proportions of clay and silt. In some Soil is often taken for granted as the substance that areas the calcium carbonate forms blocks of calcrete. soaks up rainwater and in which grasses, trees and crops The soils are potentially quite fertile but they grow. Other than farmers, many people also fail to generally contain little organic material and iron and recognize how soils vary and how their qualities affect zinc may not be available to plants as a result of the how much water is retained, the depth to which a plant’s high concentrations of calcium. roots may extend, and what nutrients the soil contains A large area of solonetz soils occurs to the west of for plant growth. The combination of these qualities Khaudum. These are not suited to crop growth Figure 30- dictates such important features as what plant species because they are characterized by concentrations of Plant species and structure vary on a local scale can grow and the structure of plant communities. sodium salts at levels that are harmful to many plants. according to elevation and soil types, as shown in these Different kinds of soil are generally characterized by Much of the sodium accumulates in a layer of clay examples of the transition area between the Woodlands of the way in which water, air and mineral and organic below the soil surface. the northern sand plain and Floodplains and open water components are arranged within the soil body. Soils in This account of the five major types of soils should vegetation types (top) and vegetation of the dune crests Kavango are completely dominated by sand (Figure 29), make it clear that soils in Kavango are generally not and valleys in Burkea-Teak woodlands (bottom).7 especially fine wind-blown sands deposited as a fertile. Much of this is due to the predominance of sand mantle across the region during much drier times and comparative scarcity of clays and silt. Water thus long ago. The fine sands, loosely called Kalahari drains away rapidly and the percolating water also sands, are more correctly termed arenosols, and they often carries away nutrients from within the soil. The usually extend to a depth of at least one metre. Other poor fertility of the soils is also a reflection of the arid than sand, which generally makes up more than 70% environment in which relatively little plant material is of the body of the soil, less than 10% of the soil available to decompose into organic nutrients. consists of clay and silt. The sandy texture allows Moreover, frequent fires burn away fresh plant water to drain away rapidly, leaving very little material and humus that could decompose into the soil, moisture at depths to which most plant roots can and cause nitrogen and sulphur in the top soil layers to reach. The porous sand also holds very few nutrients, be released into the atmosphere. Experiments have and the loose structure of sand means that there is shown that crop yields can be boosted substantially by little run-off and water erosion. the addition of nitrogen and phosphorous, but these There are two types of soils along the river. The first need to be applied at specific times and in appropriate and closest to the river are fluvisols, which are amounts to be effective. The fertilizers, particularly sediments deposited during floods. Most of these soils nitrogen, will only be effective in years with adequate are therefore on the floodplains (see Figure 22, page rainfall, however, and poorer farmers will be reluctant 51) where periodic flooding means that most areas of to buy fertilizers if there is a sizeable risk of them not fluvisols cannot be used for crops. The sediments providing any benefit. usually consist of a mix of silt, clay and fine sands. The soils are not infertile but also not very productive. Plant life and types On higher ground within the river valley are so-called Plants are important to Kavango for many reasons: in anthrosols, which are soils that have been modified by providing pastures for livestock, materials for repeated ploughing and crop growth. The body of soil building, weaving and wooden craft, fuel wood, fruits originally consisted mainly of two layers: a top layer and nuts and traditional medicines. These are aspects of arenosols overlying deeper deposits of fluvisol of value to people, but plants are also the most sediments. The fluvisols were probably deposited important components of all natural habitats. There during a much wetter period while the wind-blown would be no animals without plants, and the greater the arenosols were placed there during a later arid phase. diversity of plants in an area, the higher the diversity The two layers have been mixed by repeated of birds, mammals, insects or other groups. For ploughing in many areas because it is on these soils example, wildlife in Mahango is abundant both for that most crops are grown in the region. The reasons of the protection that the reserve offers and anthrosols are, however, generally low in nutrients. for the fact that a diversity of plant life is present to Most other crops are grown on calcisols in the offer animals food and shelter. omuramba and inter-dune valleys. A layer of calcium The topography or relief of the ground and soil carbonate lying at some depth below the surface types are the most important factors to determine the characterizes calcisols, which consist mostly of fine nature of plant communities, and the effect of these is

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clear on both a broad and local scale. For example, the relative Secondly, there are vegetation types associated with uniformity and predominance of broad-leafed, deciduous drainage systems: the Floodplains and open water, Riverine woodlands across the region is largely the result of widespread forest, and the Omatako drainage. Vegetation along many of distribution of wind-blown sands (Figure 29). Examples of the other dry omurambas is similar to that in the Omatako, the more local variation are provided by the diagrams in Figure sides of the valleys being wooded with fairly tall burkea trees 30, which show how small-scale changes in the composition while the valley floors are often grasslands with scattered and structure of plant communities relate to soil types and copses of shrubs. Much of the original vegetation in these relief. These kinds of local and small-scale changes are found drainage systems has been destroyed by the clearing of land throughout the region and they are so prevalent that for crops, especially along the Okavango River. The riverine classifying plant communities into zones or types is often forest flanking the river near Andara and Divundu is the only difficult. Indeed, much of the vegetation is often best forest of its kind remaining along the Okavango, and every characterized as mosaics of various small units. effort should be made to conserve the forest. While the vegetation types shown in Figure 31 are mosaics Thirdly, there are two vegetation types in which there are consisting of many species and communities of plants, there many pans: Camelthorn-Silver terminalia shrubland mosaic are three broad groupings. Firstly, much of the region consists and shrublands of the southern panveld. The soils in these of fairly tall woodland growing on deep Kalahari sands. This areas are often shallow and contain large quantities of calcrete. is true of the Burkea-Teak woodlands, Burkea woodland and In addition to changes in the types of vegetation in shrublands, Woodlands of the northern sand plain, Kalahari Kavango, there is also much variation in the amount of plant woodlands of Caprivi, Eastern drainage vegetation, and cover, especially of trees and shrubs (Figure 32). The fairly Figure 31- Catchment divide vegetation. In many of these areas there are fine resolution provided in this map shows how old dunes are Eleven major vegetation types can be distinguished in Kavango. the remains of old dunes and the vegetation varies more wooded while the inter-dune valleys are more open. The considerably between that on the sandy dunes and the more same is true of plant cover along the dry drainage lines. Many clayey soils in the inter-dune valleys. Thus, tall teak, false of the patches of dense bush are teak woodlands, especially (msivi), burkea, kiaat (mukwe) and mangetti trees those in the Mururani-Katjinakatji area, west of Andara and in often dominate the deeper sands, while lower lying, more the Caprivi Strip. clayey soils are characterized by shrubby vegetation of silver terminalia, camelthorn, hereroense, Acacia fleckii Plant growth and patches of grassland. Much of the Catchment divide Figure 33 provides a perspective on how plant growth and vegetation grows on solonetz soils. production varies from season to season. The 11 maps show an index of total plant growth each season between 1991-1992 Much of inland Kavango looks like this savanna woodland dominated and 2001-2002, and two features stand out very clearly in the by Burkea africana. maps. First, there is a high degree of variation in plant growth from season to season, a reflection of how annual rainfall varies so much. The season of 1994-1995 was by far the worst, and Rundu then received only 308 millimetres. Andara recorded 246 millimetres, the lowest total in 55 years of records for the station. Another bad season with low plant production occurred in 1992-1993. Most of the best seasons have been in recent years: 2001-2002 and the three between 1997-1998 and 1999-2000. The second feature shown by the 11 maps is how much plant growth varies from place to place. Again, this reflects the patchiness of rainfall, some areas receiving good falls and others very little. But the variation in plant growth is also due to certain kinds of vegetation producing more new growth each season than other kinds. In most seasons, the swampy areas in Mahango Game Reserve show up as producing more Figure 32- growth for this reason. And, finally, the maps show how areas Many parts of the region are covered in dense woodland, while other areas that have been cleared of natural vegetation now produce very are more open grasslands or have been cleared of trees, as shown in this little growth. This is best seen in the area around Rundu, map of vegetation cover. where there is less plant growth each season than elsewhere.

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The coming of winter brings out splendid autumn colours as leaves begin to dry. The many uses of plants People in Kavango use natural plant resources in a variety of ways. Many of the uses are essentially domestic in nature, the plant products being used at home and for the immediate Baskets and firewood benefit of members of the household. Other uses involve the are just two of the sale of items to earn cash incomes, and many of the sold many products derived directly or indirectly products are also exported from the region. Perhaps the most from the wealth of important use made of plant products is for wood. Most homes plant life in Kavango. in Kavango are at least partially constructed using timber harvested from local trees such as kiaat, teak, burkea, camelthorn and silver terminalia. Wood was used as a fuel in timber, craft production and sale of firewood should have a approximately 90% of rural homes in 1991, and that permit from the office of the Directorate of Forestry in Rundu. proportion has probably not changed much since then. In fact, Grass is used extensively, most notably for grazing the use of wood fuel has probably increased as a result of the Kavango's herd of about 150,000 cattle. Little information is growing volumes of firewood now sold alongside the major available on the quality and availability of pastures in roads, much of it being exported for use elsewhere. Sleds and Kavango, but reasonable grazing is apparently widely dug-out boats are also made from pieces of wood or tree available away from the comparatively small areas that are trunks. Other major uses of wood are for furniture and craft very heavily stocked (see page 102). Kweek or Cynodon production. Large-scale commercial logging and harvesting of dactylon lawns on the river's floodplains and along the kiaat, false mopane and teak stopped in the early 1990s, but omurambas are a particularly valuable grazing resource. Most some furniture continues to be made from these trees. Until rural houses are thatched with grass and many homes near the some 10 years ago, most wooden craft were small articles sold river have walls of platted reeds. A substantial export along the road between Rundu and Katjinakatji, but an industry of thatching grass (mainly Eragrostis pallens) has increasing export trade both in small items and large statues developed in recent years, much of it going to commercial Figure 33- has developed in recent years. Many of these items are sold in thatching companies in Windhoek, central northern Namibia Windhoek and Okahandja. Large rough blocks of kiaat and and . In the few areas where palms grow in Plant production varies from year to year and place to place, as shown over 11 seasons false mopane wood are also exported for the use of carvers Kavango, their leaves are used to make baskets, both for between 1991/1992 and 2001/2002. The colours are an index of the total volume of new plant elsewhere. In theory, anyone cutting wood for the export of domestic use and for sale in a growing export market. growth during each season, which lasts from July of one year to June of the next.8

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Figure 34- Many areas of Kavango burn every year as shown by the number of times that different places burnt during the past 13 years (bottom). The three small maps show the extent of bush fires in three years: 1997, 2000 and 2001.10

Figure 35- Between one fifth and half of Kavango is burnt each year, as shown by these percentages of the region's total area that were burnt between 1989 and 2002. People cause most of the hundreds of bush fires that ravage Kavango each year. Some fires are set deliberately while others run out of control, often when trees are burnt to clear new fields. Smaller trees can be cleared with an axe, but fires are best to kill tall camelthorns, as shown on the opposite page.

A large variety of trees and shrubs produce nuts and pastures, while others run-away accidentally when fruits that are consumed domestically. For example, a farmers burn small areas to clear land for cultivation or recent survey found that nuts and fruits from between to remove vegetation from waterholes, for example. 35 and 50 different species are eaten in any one area.9 No quantitative studies have been done to assess the Most of these are taken only occasionally but others, effects of fires in the region, but it is clear that frequent especially mangetti, monkey oranges and msivi and widespread burning has several important impacts. provide relatively large quantities of food. Mangetti First, large areas of grazing are lost, especially when nuts are also used on a large scale to brew an alcoholic fires rage over large areas. For example, between 21 drink, kashipembe, and as a source of oil. Studies are and 50% of the region burnt each year from 1989 and now exploring the potential for distilling kashipembe 2001 (Figure 35). The average area burnt over those 13 into a bottled liqueur and for producing oil for the years was 32%, and so farmers must battle to graze cosmetics industry elsewhere in the world. The leaves their animals if an average of about one-third of all of a number of wild spinach plants are regularly pastures are lost to fire each year. Secondly, many consumed, as are water lilies and various mushrooms. young trees are killed and as a result very few young Many plants are also used for medicinal purposes, and trees of valuable timber species are to be found in the same recent study on plant uses found that the some areas. This is particularly true for teak and msivi healing properties of between 20 and 40 different trees. Thirdly, large and valuable timber trees (and species were used in any area. other species) are either killed directly by fires or their trunks are gradually burnt away over several years The burning of Kavango until they die or fall over. Fourth, large areas become Very large areas of Kavango burn year after year, impenetrable thickets of shrubs, especially of silver especially so in eastern Kavango and the Caprivi Strip terminalia and Baphia massaiensis. Fifth, soil fertility (Figure 34). This might be due to the higher rainfalls in is reduced by the loss of nitrogen and sulphur to the the east producing more grass to burn than in the drier atmosphere and the burning away of leaf litter and west. However, fires may also be better controlled in humus that would otherwise decompose into organic the west by the presence of more cattle farmers than in nutrients in the ground. Sixth, livestock, wildlife, the east. The long lines of inter-dune valleys in the west homes and people may be burnt or killed by fierce (Figure 8, page 27) also restrict runaway fires to a fires. Finally, the extent and frequency of burning greater extent than in the east where there are few means that Kavango fires must add significant natural barriers to stop fires from spreading. volumes of ash and carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. The great majority of fires occur during the winter How significant those amounts are is unknown, but the months and most are started by people. Some fires are contribution made by fires in Kavango to global set deliberately to stimulate the growth of new pollution has to be acknowledged.

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With such large ears, kudus are well suited to life in woodlands where sound signals are often more valuable than visual ones.

Wildlife in Kavango The species listed in the table to the left are of course Although large areas of uninhabited woodland cover not the only large mammals: there are reasonable Kavango, there are few large animals in many of those numbers of tsessebe, impala and zebra in Mahango areas. Indeed, most large mammals occur in the Game Park, and then also smaller animals such as region's game reserves, particularly in the Mahango duiker, situtunga, steenbuck and warthog in Mahango Game Reserve and Khaudum Game Park, as shown in and elsewhere. Kavango is also home to six species of the table below and Figure 36. large predators (Figure 37), although they are so secretive that few people are lucky enough to see them. Estimates of the numbers of large mammals in There are also very few of them, as estimates of their Kavango.11 total populations in the region indicate: 20 brown hyaena, 30 cheetah, 40 spotted hyaena, 50 lion, 100 Species Mangetti Khaudum Mahango Caprivi Elsewhere Total wild dog and 300 leopard. Game Game Game Game in Kavango population Although there are many more elephants than any Reserve Park Reserve Park in Kavango other large mammals, these giants come and go. For example, estimates at different times show that the Lechwe 100 100 Figure 36- Figure 37- population in Khaudum Game Park may vary between Most large animals occur in Mahango Game Like other large mammals, most carnivores Reedbuck 150 150 800 and 2,200 elephants. Some of them move south Reserve and Khaudum Game Park, as shown by occur in the eastern parts of Kavango. The Roan 100 50 20 170 into north-eastern Otjozondjupa while others travel the relative densities of elephant, giraffe, maps show the relative densities of leopard, Sable 25 130 20 175 east into Botswana. In fact, all the elephants in eastern kudu and oryx. lion, spotted hyaena and wild dog.12 Hippo 200 200 Kavango form part of a much larger population of Oryx 20 150 50 220 120,000 or more animals that cover an area extending Blue wildebeest 50 150 40 20 50 310 east to Caprivi and the Chobe and Hwange National Giraffe 20 300 20 20 20 380 Parks in Botswana and Zimbabwe, respectively. On Eland 500 500 the other hand, the small number of elephants in the Buffalo 500 100 600 Mangetti area may move west to link up with the large Kudu 200 150 100 500 950 population of Etosha elephants. Elephant 20 1,500 300 200 50 2,070 Several conclusions or inferences can be drawn from the large numbers listed in the table to the left. First, the

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Figure 38- Kavango is home to a more diverse community of plants and animals than most other areas in Namibia. Much of the diversity in Kavango is linked to the variety of habitats along and near the Okavango River. This overall measure of diversity is based on the numbers of species of plants, birds, reptiles, mammals, frogs, termites and scorpions found in different areas of the country.13

One of Kavango's comparative advantages is its ability to offer tourists camping sites in a spectacular environment. Figure 39- Conservation areas cover about 15% of Kavango, but facilities for tourists are not available in most of these areas. Five areas are allocated as hunting concessions. The proposed Bwabwata National Park will consist of Mahango Game Reserve and much of the existing Caprivi Game Park.

numbers tell us that the reserves offer protection to significant populations of these species. Secondly, Figure 40- habitats in these areas are likely to be of reasonable Very few visitors go to quality if so many animals are present (although Khaudum, as shown here by riverine forests in Mahango Game Reserve have been the average number of badly damaged by the large herds of elephants there). visitors' cars recorded at Thirdly, it is these kinds of animals that are attractive to Khaudum camp over tourists, and their relative abundance provides good the past four years. cause for the reserves to draw visitors. Finally, an The graph also shows that abundance of large mammals serves as an indicator that the majority of visits are many other smaller species are likely to be present in between May and August. the same areas. In this respect, Kavango has a much higher diversity of animals and plants than other areas in Namibia (Figure 38). Along with an area near Ngoma in Caprivi, more birds (419 species) have been Figure 41- recorded in Mahango Game Reserve than anywhere Numbers of tourists else in Namibia. crashed following the unrest that Conservation and tourism broke out at the Approximately 15% or 7,508 square kilometres of end of 1999 and Kavango's surface area is allocated to conservation early in 2000. The in five reserves: Khaudum Game Park (3,841 square graph shows the kilometres), Caprivi Game Park (3,002), Mangetti average number of Game Reserve (420), Mahango Game Reserve (245) visitors to Popa and the minute Popa Game Park (0,25 square Game Park each kilometres). Proposals are now being made to adjust month between the boundaries of the Caprivi Game Park so as to cut 1998 and 2002.

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out several areas used for farming and the settlement defined areas in which specific numbers of large of Omega. These proposals would also provide for mammals can be hunted under the supervision of a the establishment of the new Bwabwata National professional hunter. People who hunt the animals pay Park that would incorporate the Mahango Game the hunter an agreed price. Each concession is Reserve (Figure 39). awarded for a different price. The total value of the Each park is managed by resident staff of the five concessions in 2002 amounted to N$2,840,000, Ministry of Environment and Tourism while which was paid into a trust fund to support the accommodation at Popa Game Park and Khaudum and development of parks and community-based natural Sikereti camps is run by a parastatal, Namibia Wildlife resource management projects. The concessions are Resorts. However, both organizations have suffered normally awarded for a three-year period. During the from the loss of experienced staff and difficulties in most recent period, the concessions in Kavango Key notes recruiting competent new people. This has led to a allowed for the hunting each year of the following: 41 variety of problems in the parks. In the unlikely event elephants, 10 leopards, six lions, hyaena, steenbok Less than 0.25% of the total volume that there will be a drastic improvement, there is a and duiker, four buffalo and roan antelope, five sable of Okavango River water is extracted strong argument for handing the management of the in Namibia. parks and resorts to private enterprise. Contracts to Access to underground water has enabled Elephants, crested francolins (opposite), lilacbreasted rollers (above) manage the parks could make it a condition that each and bullfrogs (right top) are just four of the thousands of species that people to settle in many inland areas where area be run according to existing management plans give Kavango such a rich diversity of animal life. they could not otherwise live. stipulating¸ for example, aspects of maintenance, law Most boreholes provide moderate supplies and order, and the provision of water holes. The antelope and eland, and two each of kudu, crocodile, lechwe, of water that is of good quality; water in involvement of private enterprise could also do much reedbuck, impala, wildebeest and oryx. western Kavango is usually much deeper to expand the provision of tourism facilities in the For such a large region there are remarkably few facilities to than that in the east. region and especially in the parks (see below). accommodate tourists (Figure 39). Most hotels, lodges and The wind-blown sands that cover much There are five hunting concessions in Kavango, camp grounds are clustered in and around Rundu, where the of Kavango are generally not suited to although one to the east of Omega extends further majority of visitors are business people, government officials crop cultivation. eastwards into part of Caprivi. The concessions are and people in transit through the region. There is also a group of Natural vegetation is used for many important five resorts south of Divundu. The small number of resorts for purposes: grazing, building materials, fuel tourists is even more remarkable given that such large areas are wood, food such as fruits and nuts, building, allocated for conservation. There are, indeed, only three resorts craft production, and as medicines. in these conservation areas. Curiously, the most popular and Plant growth varies greatly from season to biggest resort is actually in an area (Popa Game Park) that is season, and from place to place as a result of much too small to serve any real purpose for conservation. The variation in rainfall, changing types of only other two resorts are the rudimentary facilities at Khaudum vegetation and human influences. and Sikereti. Numbers of visitors to these two resorts are Between 21 and 50% of Kavango burnt amazingly low, ranging between an average of five and 75 cars each year between 1989 and 2001. The per month at the Khaudum camp (Figure 40). extensive and frequent burning causes many The spate of unrest that broke out in Kavango at the end of environmental problems. 1999 and early in 2000 had a devastating effect on tourism to Most large species of wildlife occur in north- the region. Tourists simply abandoned the whole of north- eastern Kavango, particularly in the Mahango eastern Namibia, and many resorts and hotels had to close for a Game Reserve and Khaudum Game Park. year and longer. The effect of this is most clearly shown by the Kavango has a greater diversity of plants and number of visitors to Popa Game Park (Figure 41). In keeping animals than most other areas in Namibia. with the growing tourism business to Namibia, the number of Approximately 15% of Kavango is allocated visitors had increased year by year, with the number of foreign to conservation areas, but there is a need visitors (from South Africa and elsewhere) to Popa increasing to improve management of these areas. by 4,000 from 1998 to 1999. Then came the great slump in In most areas there are no facilities to 2000, when numbers of foreign visitors dropped by almost accommodate tourists. 10,000 from the 1999 total. Although the number of visitors Hostilities in Kavango at the end of 1999 increased in 2001 and again in 2002, it seems certain that it will and early in 2000 had a devastating effect on take several more years before the confidence and numbers of tourism to the region. visitors return to what they were.

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