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Appendix I – Study Site Vegetation Types

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Appendix I – Study Site Vegetation Types 1 Appendix I – Study site vegetation types 2 Table 1. Study area divided into main vegetation categories defined by tree, shrub and grass species occurring in the categories. Area Vegetation category Trees and shrubs Grasses and plants Floodplain Floodplain grassland and Jackal berry (Diospyros mespiliformis), water berry Swamp savanna grass (Miscanthus Riverine woodland (Syzyginum spp.), sausage tree (Kigelia africana), Junceus), mat sedge (Schoenoplectus leadwood (Combretum imberbe), large fever-berry corymbosus), African bristlegrass (Croton megalobotrys), marula (Sclerocarya birrea), (Setaria sphacelata), drop seed large-fruited bushwillow (Combretum zeyheri), red (Sporobolus fimbriatus), couch grass star apple (Diospyros lycioides), magic guarri (Euclea (Cynodon dactylon), phuka (Urochloa divinorum), brown ivory (Acacia erubescens), brachyuran/trichopus), false signal grass knobbly combretum (Combretum mossambicense), (Brachiaria deflexa), torpedograss white bauhinia (Bauhinia petersiana), kalahari currant (Panicum repens) (Commiphera rhus), rough leaved raisin (Grewia flavescens), shepard’s tree (Boscia albitrunca), russet bushwillow (Combretum hereroense), sickle-leaved albizia (Albizia harveyi), confetti tree (Gynmosporia senegalensis), sourplum spp. (Ximenia americana, caffra), raintree (Philenoptera violacea), buffalo thorn (Ziziphus mucronata), peeling bark (Ochna pulchra) Dry bush Silver terminalia sandveld Silver terminalia (Terminalia sericea), sand camwood For all dry bush categories: (Baphia massaiensis), mopane, acacia species, rain Couch grass (Cynodon dactylon), phuka tree (Philenoptera violacea), white bauhinia (Bauhinia (Urochloa brachyuran/trichopus), false petersiana), kalahari current (Commiphera rhus), signal grass (Brachiaria deflexa), rough leaved raisin (Grewia flavescens), shepard’s torpedograss (Panicum repens), silky tree (Boscia albitrunca), marula (Sclerocarya birrea), bushman grass (Stipagrostis uniplumus), large-fruited bushwillow (Combretum zeyheri), russet lovegrasses (Eragrostis porosa, bushwillow (Combretum hereroense), confetti tree Eragrostis rotifer, Eragrostis (Gynmosporia senegalensis), sickle bush lehmaniana) (Dichrostachys cinerea), raintree (Philenoptera violacea), Camel thorn (Acacia erioloba), knobthorn (Acacia nigrescens), peeling bark (Ochna pulchra) Mopane woodland Mopane (Colophospermum mopane), sand camwood (Baphia massaiensis) Mixed mopane woodland Mopane (Colophospermum mopane)* Acacia woodland Camel thorn (Acacia erioloba), knobthorn (Acacia nigrescens), flame thorn (Senegalia ataxacantha), buffalo thorn (Ziziphus mucronata)* False mopane, Zambezi False mopane (Guibourtia coleosperma), Zambezi teak and wild syringa teak (Baikiaea plurijuga), wild syringa (Burkea woodland africana), peeling bark (Ochna pulchra), sand camwood (Baphia massaiensis) Agricultural Crops Millet (Pennisetum glaucum/ Eleusine fields coracana), sorghum (Sorghum vulgare) and maize (Zea mays), beans (Vigna aconitifolia/ Phaseolus vulgaris), groundnuts (Arachis hypogaea), watermelon (Citrullus lanatus), pumpkin (Cucurbita spp.) 3 * This category additionally includes the species of category ‘Silver terminalia sandveld’ in limited amounts. 4 Appendix II – Functions and deficiencies of micronutrients in mammals 5 Nutrients in which elephants are potentially deficient are sodium (Na), phosphorus (P), 6 nitrogen (N), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg) and calcium (Ca) (Pretorius et al., 2012). In a 7 worldwide study of nutrient deficiencies in grazers, elements that appeared to be limiting in 8 southern Africa were Mg, P, Na, cupper (Cu), iodine (I), manganese (Mn) and selenium (Se) 9 (Mcdowell et al., 1977). However, since Mn deficiencies mainly occur in poultry this 10 element is to our knowledge not studied in relation to herbivores (McDowell, 2003). A study 11 of the Serengeti National Park showed that in savanna grasslands, herbivores are particularly 12 prone to deficiencies in Mg, Na and P (McNaughton, 1988). 13 2.1 Sodium 14 Sodium (Na) deficiencies are common in many parts of the world, especially in tropical areas 15 in Africa. This deficiency causes lower osmotic pressure and dehydration of the body, 16 resulting in poor growth, and a reduction in the utilization of protein and energy that is 17 digested (McDonald et al. 2011). The occurrence of this deficiency is likely in the case of 18 rapidly growing (young) animals that feed on forage low in Na, which is the case for most 19 tropical forage. Other factors contributing to deficiency are the loss of sodium chloride 20 (NaCl) due to sweating, lactating, and high levels of potassium (K), like in fertilized pastures, 21 since K excess worsens Na deficiency (McDowell, 2003). It is unclear what exactly are the 22 sodium requirements of elephants, yet, there is sufficient evidence that salt craving or sodium 23 carving occurs in elephants and influences their behaviour (Holdø, Dudley and McDowell, 24 2002; Rode et al., 2006). There is evidence for a naturally occurring deficiency in sodium 25 levels in the diet of grazers, especially when lactation requires elevated sodium levels 26 (Mcdowell et al., 1977; Jachmann and Bell, 1985). Consequently a well-known example of 27 nutrient deficiency in elephants is sodium drive or craving, which could be leading elephants 5 28 to consume crops to fulfil their sodium requirements (Sukumar, 1990; Rode et al., 2006). In 29 general, crops have relatively high sodium concentrations compared to natural forage, which 30 in light of expected deficiencies makes crop consumption highly attractive (Sukumar, 1990). 31 Other known sodium sources are surface water bodies, and as elephants depend more on 32 these water sources in the dry season, the demand to receive sodium through other sources - 33 such as foraging- is less in this season (Weir, 1969; Pretorius et al., 2012). 34 Weir (1972) discovered that there is a close correlation between the level of sodium 35 concentration of a particular water source, and the number of elephants that make use of this 36 source. At the same time, other sodium sources, such as ‘salt licks’ were ignored in these 37 areas with sodium rich water. Moreover, the use of salt licks was not due to other (Weir, 38 1972). Chamaillé-Jammes however point out that this study took place in a period of low 39 elephant population density. Therefore, they re-analysed the relationship between elephant 40 number and sodium concentrations in waterholes over the period of Weir’s study and added 41 new data periods until 2005. This study showed that indeed, the relationship was highly 42 significant during Weir’s study period in the early 1960’s, yet this was not true for the 43 subsequent periods, thus elephants did not favour the sodium rich water sources over others. 44 Unfortunately it remains unclear what could motivate this change in water source selection 45 (Chamaillé-Jammes, Fritz and Holdo, 2007). 46 Holdø et al. (2002) also re-examined the hypotheses of Weir (1972) that sodium drive in 47 elephants determined their distributions, in addition to that they analysed the Na content of 48 natural forage. Their conclusion is that during the dry season elephants in the Kalahari 49 supplement their Na intake with ‘mineral licks’, as concentrations in vegetation are low. This 50 means that the Na licks appear to affect their movement and habitat use. Even though salt 51 licks also contain above average levels of Ca and Mg, it is unlikely that salt lick use could be 52 attributed to that (Holdø, Dudley and McDowell, 2002). This co-occurring is associated with 6 53 the positive connection between the concentrations of sodium and magnesium, and in turn 54 between magnesium and calcium (Jachmann and Bell, 1985). The use of the licks increases 55 the amount of Ca and Mg that is secreted in faeces, which makes it unattractive to elephants 56 deficient in these minerals. Opposite, the faeces of elephants that made use of the licks 57 appeared to have low Na concentrations, which suggests that if these elephants are indeed 58 deficient in Na, their gut is capable of electrolyte absorption to reduce Na loss (Holdø, 59 Dudley and McDowell, 2002). 60 2.2 Potassium 61 Besides its occurrence in many studies analysing elephant nutrition, deficiencies in K levels 62 tend to be rare in grazers since most plants have high K contents (McDonald et al., 2011). 63 Still this element often returns in studies of elephant nutrition, probably since it is one of the 64 essential macro elements (Weir, 1972; Jachmann and Bell, 1985; Rode et al., 2006; Ihwagi et 65 al., 2011; Pretorius et al., 2012). Together with sodium, chlorine and bicarbonate ions it plays 66 important roles in osmotic regulations of the body fluids, nerve and muscle system and 67 metabolism (McDonald et al., 2011). Even though this element occurs in bark and salt licks 68 that are used by elephants, it is probably not the main motivator to consume them (Weir, 69 1969; Holdø, Dudley and McDowell, 2002; Ihwagi et al., 2011). 70 2.3 Magnesium 71 Deficiencies in magnesium are uncommon in animals and humans (McDowell, 2003). 72 Nevertheless, the by elephants often utilized salt licks contain elevated levels of magnesium 73 concentration (Weir, 1969; Klaus, Klaus-Hügi and Schmid, 1998; Holdø, Dudley and 74 McDowell, 2002). It is also often included in studies, without justification (Jachmann and 75 Bell, 1985; Sukumar, 1990; Wang et al., 2007; Ihwagi et al., 2011; Pretorius et al., 2012). 76 This has probably to do with the close association is has with calcium
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