Billy Budd 45 homosexual activist Edward Carpenter, a friend and admirer of walt "I've sighted a sail in the storm I...] She has a land Whitman,wholivedtogetherwithhisyoungerworking-classpartner George Merrill . Caxpenter was to have an important influence on E.M. of her own where she'Il anchor forever'': The Forster,whoidentifiedthefiiendshipwithCarpenterandMerrillashaving British Melville Revival, Bi.//}7 Bwdd, and E.M. providedthecreativeimpulsewhichpromptedhimtobegintowritehjs Forster's Visions of a Queer Utopia homosexuale#tw!.ch/"#grroma#Afa#rJ.cein1913.Inhispublications, Caipenterpromotedanidealisedviewofhomosexuality,citingMelville's

HannaRochlitz Omoo and Typee .in loldus (190Z) aLnd The Intermediate Sex (\908) to illustrate male friendship-customs in the Polynesian societies. He also The British Melville revival constitutes something of a unique propagatedademocraticsocialisminspiritedwithhisidealof"Love,the BelovedRepublic"-thismotto,takenfromSwinbume'spoem"Hertha", phenomenoninliteraryhistory.Thevarioustributariesthatwereeventually resurfacesinForster's1938essay"What1believe",andappearsinscribed tounleashthefreshetwaveoftheAmericanauthor'sposthumousfame onaribbonwombyanudeForsterinacontemporarypaintingbyPaul and popularity have been extensively surveyed by Hayford, Parker and Caqmuswhichbearsthatessay'sname(Martinandpiggford2). Tanselle(1988).Onejmportantwellspringwaslocatedinlatenineteenth- centuryLondon.Melvillewasstilllivingatthistime,buthadpassedinto Another ardent admirer ofMelville's work was D.H. Lawrence - obscurityinhishomecountry.AcrosstheAtlantic,however,anincreasing himselfprofoundlyinfluencedbyCarpenter-whoseSrwcJz.esj.#C/as".c number of people were becoming interested in his work; and their 4merj.ccr#£J./erc!/wre(1923)containstwochaptersdevotedtoMelville. enthusiasmwasnotdoomed-toperishinisolation.Agoodproportionof Lawrence and Forster had a difficult personal relationship, but this did them were artists and social idealis`ts, connected with various Socialist notpreventForster'spraisingLawrenceas"theonlypropheticnovelist orgahisationsincludingtheworkingmen'smovement-amongthemDante writingtoday"inhiscambridgelecturesinl927(subsequentlypublished Gabriel Rossetti, the Fabian Socialist Henry S. Salt, and William Morris. as Aspects a//fee N?ve/), and commending the insightfulness of his Manyofthemwerelivingonthebordersofsocialandsexualconvention, studiesofthatearlierprophet,HermanMelville(Forster,Aspec/s99). Further devotees of Melville with whom Forster was connected included andbetweenthemthereexistedfar-flungnetworksofacquaintanceship,` T.E. Lawrence "of Arabia", who praised A4ody-Dj.c4 as a "Titanic" exchange of ideas and mutual influence. Melville's writings, with their book"distinguishedbygreatnessofspirit"(qtd.inHayford,Parkerand celebrationsofcomradeshipamongmenofvariouscultures,appealedto Tanselle 751, n.64); the dramatist G. 8. Shaw, and the writer Edward them, particularly A4lody-D7.ck which "by style and subject-matter [. . .] GarnettwhohadcorrespondedwithMelville;aswellasseveralmembers couldnurtureaclass-bridgingphilanthropicidealismnotwithoutanelement oftheBloomsburycircle,especiallyVirginiaWoolf,LeonardWoolf,who of seductive eroticism" (Hayford, Parker and Tanselle 742). This novel remainedacloselifelongfriendofForster's,andLyttonStrachey,with acquired an extraordinary status among British Melville enthusiasts, to whom friendship was rather more tenuous, however. the point where, in the decades before 1920, it seems to have assumed a talismanic function in the covert testing for a shared literary sensibility The 1920s saw a more widespread revival of public interest in the works of Herman Melville. At the forefront of this development was (I-Iayford, Parker and Tansel le 745f.). John Middleton Murry, husband of Katherine Mansfield and friend of OneoftheseearlyEnglishMelvilleenthusiastswastheauthorand the Lawrences. Muny published most of his articles on Melville in the 46 PERSPECTIVES Billy Budd 47

IVo/jo# o#c74/fee#¢ec4m, for which Forster was writing in 1924. That Forster, had been its librettist, the opera would have turned out quite sameyearofl924alsosawthepublicationofMelville'slateunfinished differently (Furbank 282). Britten took the hint, and the idea for ajoint novellaBz./fyB"ddintheLondonconstableeditionofMelville'scollected operaprojectwasbbm.ThesubjecttheyeventuallychosewasMelville's works. Murry's reviews subsequently played an important role in the Bi.//yB#dd,whichBrittenhadfirstencounteredthroughForster'sAspects canonisationofBj.//};B"d#asMelville'sliteraryandspiritualtestament a//¢e IVove/ (Mitchell, Reed and cooke 4 I 1, n.5); and the edition they (Parker55-60).Inl927,ForsterdiscussedBi.//yJ}#c7dinhiscambridge usedwasthel946editionbytheirmutualfriendwilliamplomer(Crozier lectures, citing it as an example for the proplietic quality in literature. 12, and source-internal evidence).

Alsointhe1920s,ayoiingergenerationofhomosexualauthorsbegan I have, as I hope, succeeded in conveying some idea of the close theirengagementwithMelville.Forster'sfriendsamongtlieseincluded connections that the British Melville reception had with the multi~ severalwriterswhowere,orwouldeventilallybecome,closelycormected generational network of queer British artists and intellectuals. A with the composer Benjamin Britten. Among them was the author and considerable number of these knew E.M. Forster; and many looked to editorWilliamP]omer,whotaughtA4ody-D/.ckatanEnglishlanguage him as a friend and mentor. In this context, A4¢#r/.ce holds a position of school in Tokyo in Japan in 1927 (Plomer 222). He was also to produce central importance. Because of its homosexual content, Forster never the first separate-volume edition ofBz./dy B#cJJ in I 946, and later became attempted to publish the novel during his lifetime. Instead, he would over Britten's librettist for G/or7.¢#cr (1953) and the three Church Parables. the years lend the manuscript to many of his trusted friends to read. To Anotlier Melville enthusiast was W.H. Auden, whose poem "Herman this network of friends, A4:¢"ri.ce represented a touchstone ofForster's Melville"(1939)containsintertextualreferencestoB!.//yB#c}d,andwho "true" artistic and personal vision. For even though Forster grew to be a analysed"ThepassionofBillyBudd"in71foeE#cfea/ec7F/ood(1950). well-known public persona in Britain, not least because of his regular Auden was a close friend not only of Forster's but also of Britten's, broadcasting work for the BBC's Radio Three, which he started in 1931, whoseearlypoliticalandaestheticdeveldpmentheinfluencedgreatly.In heneverpubliclycameouta.shomosexual;itwasonlythepublicationof 1937Brittenwrotetheincidentalmusicfor7lfoe,4sce#/a/F6,aplayby A4oorz.ce in 1971, the year after his death, that finally made the issue of Auden and Christopher Isherwood, another friend ofForster's. It was his sexual orientation an "officia]" aspect ofE.M Forster. during the production of this play that Forster first met Britten, upon TheeponymousheroofA4a#ri.ce,asuburbanmiddle-classEveryman, whose career he was to have a momentous influence a few years later: firstfallsinlovewithclive,acambridgeHellenist.Theirchastelyplatonic in1941,BrittenwaslivingintheUnitedStates,togetherwithhispartner, relationship breaks up after three years, however, because Clive, the tenor Peter Pears, and was considering to emigrate there, as Auden succumbing to the heteronormative pressure exerted by a homophobic and Isherwood had already done. It was the reading of an article by society whose views he has intemalised to a high degree, abandons Forster -on the 18th century Suffolk poet George Crabbe - that made Maurice in pursuit ofa heterosexual lifestyle. Maurice has to struggle thesuffolk-bomcomposerrealisethathemustretumtoEnglandoritchell, with numerous problems, such as the hostile or indifferent reactions of Reedandcooke362,n.9).Furthermore,Forster'sartidledirectedBritten's doctors, his own ambiguous feelings about his homosexuality, and his interesttowardsCrabbe,anditwasCrabbe'spoem"TheBorough"that ownclassprejudice,beforeheeventuallyestablishesaloverelationship yieldedthematerialforhisfirstsuccessfulopera,Pe/crGrj."cs(1943). that also includes physical fulfilment with a young working-class man When,inl948,BritteninvitedForstertogivealectureatthefirstAldeburch namedAlec.MauriceandAlecwill-sothen`ovel.'shappyendingpromises Festival,ForstertalkedaboutPe/erGr;.wes,playfullyhintingthatifhe, -spend the rest of their lives together, even though this means they will 48 PERSPECTIVES Billy Budd 49 be living outside society. utopia, with the novel's textual reality serving its author as a place of

ThehappyendingisprecededbyadramaticclimaxasAlec,whois psychologicalretreatandasourceofemotionalcomfort.Autobiographical evidencecertainlyindicatesthatForsterwasinthehabitofrevisitinghis to emigrate to the Argentina, decides at the last moment to remain in texts, and of re-engaging with his fictional characters on an emotional EnglandwithMaurice.Maurice,whohasgonetoSouthamptonDocks level (cf. Beauman 223 and Forster, Commo7?p/crce 203f.). toseehimoff,experiencesaprivatetriumphoflovewhenAlecfailsto It has been convincingly argued that in A4cr"rj.ce, Forster can turn up and the boat sails without him: ultimately be seen to reject the Greek model of a platonic homosexual [Maurice] watched the steamer move I. . .] she was heroic, relationshipiredominantamongvictorianhomosexualintellectuals-in she vias canying away deatll. I...] She was off at last, a favour of a Carpenterian model in which carnality also has its place sacrifice, a splendour [. . .]. For a loiig time he gazed after her, then turned to England. His journey was nearly over. (Martin, Rahman). The fact that it is a working-class man ivith whom Maurice achieves his successful relationship is no accident; it points to He was bound for his new hoine. [. . .] He knew what the call was, and what his answer must be. They must live theinfluenceofEdwardCarpenternotonlyasapoliticalidealistbutalso outside class, without relations or money; they must work asarolemodel.ThereisnodoubtthattheCaxpenter/Merrillrelationship, and stick to each other till death. But England belonged to conducted in the seclusion ofa remote and beautiful Derbyshire valley - them. That, besides companionship, was their reward. Her an early twentieth century version of the greenwood if ever there was air and sky were theirs [. . .]. (Forster, A4lcz"rj.ce 207) one-,servedasoneofthemajorinspirationsforForster'sutopianvision For some time during the early years of its existence, the text of ofa lasting male/male relationship (cf. Leavitt xxix). A4a"rj.ce also featured an epilogue in which Maurice and Alec are It was a more sustained kind of inspiration that Forster experienced encounteredafewyearson,livingasimplelifeaswoodcutters-apair inhiscollaborationwithBenjaminBrittenandwiththewriterandprnducer ofoutlawsinthegreenwood,reminiscentofthe"masculineutopia"of Eric Crozier, cal led in to help Forster with the technical side of his work Robin Hood and his Merry Men (Leavitt xxiii). Forster later discarded on the libretto for Bj.//y B#dd. In October 1948, the 69-year-old Forster thisepilogue,partlybecausethehistoricalupheavalsoftwoworldwars hadbeengoingthroughaphaseofdeepdepression,duringwhichhehad meant that England was no longer a place where it was possible to feared that he might be losing his faith in personal relationships, and had disappear quietly into obscurity in a remote rural area. Nevertheless, moreover been feeling apprehensive about what he perceived as a Forsteralwaysremaineddeeplycommittedtohisutopianvision,explaining dwindlingofhiscreativeenergies(Furbank282).Workingtogetherwith in 1 960: BrittenandCroziertoadaptMelville'stexthelpedtorekindleForster's A happy ending was imperative. I shouldn't have bothered spirits as well as his creative enthusiasm; and for the three years that to write otherwise. I was determined that in fiction anyway were to pass until the opera's premiere at Covent Garden on 1 December two men should fall in love and remain in it for the ever 1951, Bj.//)/ B#dd was a project that continued to occupy and stimulate and ever that fiction allows, and in this sense Maurice and him:hesoughtadviceahouttechnicaldetailsfromvariousfriends,hegot Alec still roam the greenwood. (Forster, Ma#r!.ce 216) to hear the music in its progressive stages of completion -he also had a IwouldgosofarastoproposethatA4:a#rj.c.e,whichaccompanied ratherharshdisagieementwithBrittenatonepoint,whichwasresolved Forsterforalmostfiftyyears,andtowhichheperiodicallyretumedfor with Crozier's help (Mitchell, Reed and Cook 618ff., n.I). Working as revisions,mayhaveheldahighlypersonalfunctionasakindofprivate Britten'slibrettistalsomeantthatForsterspentaconsiderableamountof` Billy Budd 51 sO PERSPECTIVES toexpress,cautiouslybutneverthelesspublicly,someofhismostcentral timeinthecongenialandproductiveatmosphereofBritten'sandPears' ideas about personal relationships between men; while his conviction seasidehomeinAldeburgh;theoveralltimeForsterspenttherebetween that Melville had himself been homosexual ¢orster, Commo#p/c!ce 17) 1948 and 1951 amounts to over three months. may have endowed the project with a special poignancy. At the same ThestoryofB!./dyBwcJdisthestoryofayoungsailorimpressedinto time, the librettistic treatment of a firmly canonised text -which 87.//y theBritishnavyin1797.Hisbeautyandhisinnocenceprovokethehatred B#cJd had become by the late 1940s -provided a comparatively safe of the ship's sinister master-at-arms, John Claggai.t. Claggart secretly vehicleforcovertdiscoursesabouthomosexualityinaworkthatwould plots to destroy Billy: he denounces him to the captain of the ship as a be subjected to intense public scrutiny. mutineer. Captain Vere, however, silspects Claggart ol'` liarboiiring Thus, the fact that Claggart's envy and hatred of Billy are linked to dishonest intentions and decides to confi.ont him with Billy. Claggart desire of some kind is actually made quite explicit, yet the opera-makers repeatshisallegations,butBilly,thoughinnocent,isiiilabletospeakupin would have been able to refer back to Melville as the source of this self-defence because ofa speech impediment -he stammers. Since he cannot answer him back, he strikes Claggart on the forellead; particular discourse, especially since his text strives to contain the homoerotic potential it raises within a moral paradigm. Furthermore, the unfortunately, the blow kills him. Captain Vere summons a drumhead subversivenatureofclaggart'sdarkpassionswouldhavebeenlesslikely courttotryBilly,andthecourtultimatelyretumstheverdictof"guilty". to cause offence because their disruptive qual ity could to a large extent In Melville's novella, Captain Vere's role in the trial is somewhat beabsorbedbythegemeconventionssurroundingthetraditionaloperatic ambiguous;inForster'slibretto,theseambiguitieshavebeenalmosttotally villain,whoismoreoverdulypuiiisliedforhisevilwaysbydeath.Forster removed, although they can be seen to persist in the leitmotif.structures himself appears to have sympathised with Claggart's predicament, ofBritten's music (Whittal, Rupprecht). In both texts it is Vere himself who informs Billy of the verdict, whereupon Billy is duly executed the particularly perhaps with the desperate loneliness ofa man who feels himself an exi le from society. Claggart's desolate ponderings -"what followingday.,TheinterviewbetweenBillyandVereisnotrepresented hope remains if love can escape? [f love still lives and grows strong directly,however;Melville'snarratormerelyspeculatesonwhatmight where I cannot enter, what hope is there in my own dark world for me?" have taken place between them : (Act 1 sc.3, Forster and Crozier 191) -appear to be prefigured in a diary there is no telling the sacrament - seldom if in any case entry made during Forster's phase of depression in 1948: "I feel scared. revealed to the gadding world [-] wherever [...] two of If human beings have failed ine, what is left?" (qtd. In Furbank 282). great Nature's- nobler order embrace. There is privacy at Writing to Britten about Claggart's central monologue, which he termed the time, inviolable to the survivor, and holy oblivion, the his"mostimportantpieceofwriting"inthewholelibretto,Forsterinsisted sequel to each diviner magnanimity, providentially covers all at last. (Melville, Bz./ly 82tdd 1946,102) that it was supposed to express "pc7ss;.o# ~ love constricted, perverted, poisoned, but nevertheless #owj.#g down its agonising channel; a sexual The Brittenfforster opera maintains that privacy, for the interview discharge gone evil" (Lago and Furbank 242). Upon closer inspection, takes place off-stage while the curtain and the lights remain up. At this Forster's operatic villain is revealed as a tortured and tragic figure, a moment, only the music contains information that will, by the end of the opera, allow the audience to speculate on the nature ofBilly's and Vere's victim of homophobic self-hatred which he projects onto Billy whom he communion (cf. Hindley 1994, Whittall, and Rupprecht). dare not love.

AdaptingMelvillefortheoperaticstagegaveForstertheopporfunity- Besides this reclaiming of what can be regarded as a fairly strong Billy Budd SB 52 PERSPECTIVES homoerotic undercurrent in the parent text, the relationship between reading at the Aldeburgh Festival; Herz (1988) has written about the Captain Vere and Billy was also subtly strengthened (cf. Hindley 1989), effectsofForster'sengagementwithBz.//y82!ddonthegenesisof"The Other Boat", the short story he subsequently developed from this producing a characteristic Forsterian constellation of middle-class intellectual and working-class "saviour" which partially reverses the fragment. He also prepared the collection of his essays and reviews dynamics between the two men, and in which Vere clearly suffers the whichwaspublishedinNovember1951asrwoCheers/orDemocrac}i. remorse of conscience denied to him in Melvi lle's text. With the end of AndinJanuary1952,aboutainonthafterthe87.//y824ddpremiere,Forster, World War 11 little more than six years in the I)i`sl. I)ositively connoted encouragedbychristopherlsheivood,recommencedoncemoretorevise A4¢wrz.ce.Hemadesomequitesubstantialadditionsatthistime,notably images ofma]e homosocial bonding in the flrmcd l`()rccs woiild still have been sufficiently present in the pub] ic conscioiisilcss ft)r the I.clationship's thatofinsertinganentirenewchapter(Gardnerxlff.)inwhichAlecand implied homoeroticism to blend with socially salictioiicd iiai.ratives of Mauriceareshownwakingtogetherasloversinahotelroom,andwhich heroic officers and equally heroic loyal subaltcriis. Yet even though Vere explicitly celebrates the physical intimacy between the two men. is forced by martial law to seiiteiice Billy to death -and Llie set.ics of Fascinatingly,Maurice'sthoughtsaboutAleccanbeseentoincorporate libretto drafts held by the Britten-Pears Library demonstratesjust how textual echoes from the libretto of BJ./ly Bc/dd. Contemplating Alec, Mauricemuses:"Scudderhadprovedhonestandkind.Hewaslovelyto painstakinglythecollaboratorsensuredthatintheiropera,thelawshould unambiguously be seen to force him -the private bond between. Bi l[y bewith,atreasure,acharmer,afindinathousand,thelonged-fordream" and himself lets Vere experience temporary salvation and grants both (Forster, A4¢cfri.ce 198). The phrase "a find in a thousand" appears very men the knowledge that love transcends death. Although the closeted prominentlyinAct1,sc.1ofB/.//};83/cJdJasClaggartrecognisesBilly's interview is presented as a textual and dramatic blank, both men uniqueattractivenesswhichistoprovefataltothemboth,describinghim afterwardsdescribetheeffectsoftheircommunion,usingalmostidentical to a superior officer as "a find in a thousand, your honour, a beauty, a words-theseareBilly's: jewel, the pearl of great price" (Forster and crozier 1 86). If the different respective positioning of the phrase "a find in a thousand" is discounted, But I've sighted a sail in the storm, the far-shining sail the remaining three descriptors in these two sentences can moreover be that's not fate, and I'm contented. I've seen where she's seen to share the same metric organisation: bound for. She has a land of her own where she'll anchor forever". (Act 2, sc.3, Forster and Crozier 204) a treasure, a charmer [...], the longed-for dream.

In an unpublished note on the libretto, Forster made it quite clear [...], a beauty, ajewel, thepearl ofgreatprice. thatthis"far-shiningsailthat'snotfate"isinfact`1hesailoflove"(Hindley Also dating from this time, there are a few minor revisions which 1989, 365). And shortly after the opera's premiere, he wrote to Britten: likewise seem to point to a possible influence of Forster's recent `1his opera is my Nunc Dimittis, in that it dismisses me peacefully and engagementwithMelville'snovella.TheBritishMuseumchapter,inwhich convinces me I have achieved" (Lago and Furbank, 246) - the AlecattemptstoblackmailMaurice,hadforyearsfeaturedthefollowing achievement consisting in what -was to have been the last artistic description ofAlec: "He looked handsome as he spoke, except for the reiterationofForster'sbeliefinthesalutarynatureofpersonalrelationships pupilsofhiseyes,which-wereevil"(Gardner285).Forsterchangedthis to be published during his lifetime. to "He looked handsome as he threatened -including the pupils of his CollaboratingwithBrittenhelpedForsterovercomehiscreativecrisis: eyes,whichwereevil"(Forster;Mawri.cel93,myemphasis).Between in 1951, he revised a portion of his abandoned novel .4#cfJ.c Salmmer for these two different versions lies Forster's encounter with Melville's 54 PERSPECTIVES Billy Budd 55

Claggart,whosedarklyattractiveappearance-echoingtheconventions In this article I have endeavoured to trace some of the connections surroundingthehero-villainofGothicRomance-includesapairofeyes between a network of queer writers and artists, which was also closely "approachingadeeperviolet,thesoftestofshades"(Melville70)thathe linkedwiththeBritishMelvillereception,andForster'sartisticimagination. uses to threaten the hapless Billy, at which point they turn a "muddy One line of influence could be seen to run all the way from Carpenter's purple",theirdevastating"mesmeric"powerbetrayingapredatoryinpulse reception of Melville's depictions of male friendship to the genesis of thatiscomparedto`thehungrylurchofthetorpedo-fish"(83).Itseems A4lcr"rJ.ce in 1913, which enabled Forster to express his vision of a not implausible that Forster, who acknowledged an awareness of the homosexualutopia,albeitinatexthewouldnotpublishduringhislifetime. sensual aspects of violence that also emerges in many of his fictional Several decades later, he was enabled through his collaboration with works, should have been prompted to rethink his representation ofAlec Britten to express, and publish, at least apart of his utopian`vision in his inwhatamountstoacourtshiptussleagainstthebackgroundofwhathe interpretation ofMelvi lle's Bj.//)/ B#cJd; and his engagement with, and had,inhislibrettisticadaptation,,effectivelyinterpretedasthesignsofa assimilation of, Melville's characters can be seen to have in turn reflected kindred aggressive desire in Claggart. back on A4c}"rz.ce again.

There is yet another small but interesting revision which Forster Works Cited made in the passage from the Southampton Docks chapter already referred to above: "For a long time [Maurice] gazed after [the ship], then Beauman, Nicola. A4orgr#.. A Bj.ogrqpAy o/E.A4: For£/er. London: Hodder & tuned to England. [ .... ] He was bound for his new home." In the early Stoughton,1993. versions of Mcror!.ce, the last sentence ran "He was going to his new Crozier, Erie. "The Writing of B;.//y Berddr'. 7lfie Ope;.c! g#c7;./edy iv/3 (Autumn home" (Gardner 305, my emphasis). When this passage was revised in L986): 11-27. Forster, Edward Morgan. 4spc>c/6. o//Ae IVove/. 1927. Ed. Oliver Stallybrass. the 1950s, "bound for" was substituted for "going to". This alteration in London: Edward Arnold,1974. suchcloseproximitytothedescription9ftheheroicshipthatsailsout,a -. A4ctzii.f.cc. 1971. Ed. Philip Gardner. London: Deutsch, 1999 "sacrifice" and a "splendour", "carrying away death" is certainly ~. Co/77J72o#p/czce Book. 1978. Ed. Plii I ip Gardner. Stanford: Stanford University suggestive. One might speculate that the image of the ship may have Press,1987 remindedForsterofBilly'sandvere'sspeeches(in,respectively,Act2, Forster, Edward Morgan, .and Erie Crozier. Libretto for Bj.//y 82jd#.. 4# Opercr j." Two Ac/s.`Revised Version ]961. Printed in: 7l/ie Opercr§ o/Be#/.armj." sc.3 and the Epilogue) about `the far-shining sail that's not fate" but Brj.//e„. Ed. David Herbert. London: Herbert Press,1979: 181 -205 . love: both men have "seen where she's bound for". Furbank, P.N. E.M. Forster: A Life. Vlolume Two: Polycrates ' Ring. Londor\.. Seeker & Warburg, 1978. FollowingMelville,theoperanegatesthepossibilityofenduringmale/ Gardner, Philip. Editor's Introduction to At/c]z6ri.ce, by E.M. Forster. London: male relationships in /for.s world. In returning to A4cr"ri.ce, Forster Deutsch,1999: vii-liv. reaffirmed his positive vision in which "two men can defy the world" -. Textual Notes to .Wcr#rr.ce, by E.M. Forster. London: Deutsch, 1999: 225- ¢orster,Mc7"rj.ce114),andinwhieh,eventhoughtheymustliveoutside 322. society,Englandshall"belong[...]tothem".hthishappy€ndversionof Martin, Robert K. "Edward Carpenter and the Double Structure of Wc7w;.i.ce". Joul.nal Of l]omosexuality 8 (1983).. 3546. a homosexual utopian vision, it is Maurice who is "bound for his new Martin, Robert K., and George Piggford. "Introduction: Queer, Forster?", in: the home"; and this time, the land where love will "anchor forevef' is in fact same, eds.: g#e;rFo;.I/er. Chicago: University of chicago Press,1997: I - England, and lies within the realms of the material rather than the 28. metaphysical. Hay ford, Harrison, Hershel Parker, and G. Thomas Tanselle. "Historical Note", in: the same, eds.: A4ody-D7.ck, by Herman Melville. Evanston and Cliicago: se PERSPECTIVES

NorthwestemUniversityPressandTheNewberryLibrary,1988:58i-762. Herz, Judith Scherer. 7lfre S¢or/ Jvflrr¢fives a/E.M. Fora/er. London: Macmillan, 1988. mndley,Clifford."LoveandSalvationinBritten'sBj./dyBwdd".Mws7.c&£e//erg 70.3 (1989): 363-381. ~. "Britten's B!..'/y B€cdd: The `Interview Chords' Again", in: M#s!.ca/ 92#r/edy,78(1994):99-126. Lago, Mary, and P.N. Furbank, eds. Se/ec/ed LCJ//cJt.`5 a/.E. M Fo;.a/er /yo/.2/. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press, 1985. Leavitt, David. Introduction to A4a!i;.j.c.cJ, by E.M. Forster. London: Penguin, 2cO5:xi-mvhi. Martin, Robert K. "Edward Carpenter and the Donble structure of Maurice", JournalofHomosexuality8(198T)..3S-46. Martin, Robert K. and George Piggferd. "Introduction : Queer, Forster?", in the same,eds-g#ccrFors/er,Chicago:UniversityofchicagoPress,1997,1- 28. Melville, Herman. B;.//y B"dd, Fore/apm¢#. 1924. Ed. William Plomer. London: Leinann,1946. Mitchell, Donald, Philip Reed, and Mervyn Cooke, eds. Le//era/ror# ai Li/e. Selected Letters Of Benjamin Britten. Volttme Three 1946-51. Be;rkeley.. University ofcalifomia Press, 2004. Parker,Hershel.Re¢d;.#gBillyBudd.Evanston:NorthwestemUniversityPress, 1990. Plomer, Williain. Doz€b/e 4J.vex. London: Cape, 1943 . Rahman,Tariq."EdwardCarpenterandE.M.Forster".Dzlrfe¢mC/#iversi.fyJo#rwai/ 79(1986):56-69. Rupprecht, Philip. Bri.//e# :q "!Is;.cfl/ £a#g"age. Cambridge etc.: Cambridge University Press, 2001. Whittall, Amold. " `Twisted relations' : Method and meaning in Britten's Bi.//y Buddi..CambridgeoperaJournal2.2(\990)..\4S-111.