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Geological Science Education and Conceptual Change Glenn David

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Geological Science Education and Conceptual Change Glenn David Science and Mathematics Education Centre Geological Science Education and Conceptual Change Glenn David Vallender This thesis is presented for the award of Doctor of Philosophy of Curtin University of Technology June 2010 Declaration To the best of my knowledge and belief this thesis contains no material previously published by any other person except where due acknowledgment has been made. This thesis contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university. ii ABSTRACT Geological science is a fascinating subject of learning. We live with and are surrounded by the results of complex natural phenomena such as plate tectonics, earth system interactions and natural hazards such as volcanoes, earthquakes and tsunamis. We are also one of the products of billions of years of biological evolution. These topics form an essential part of all science curricula and are a vital part of an individual’s scientific literacy, yet the geological sciences struggle for existence in most secondary schools, many tertiary institutions and especially teacher training establishments. A selective overview of the international geological and geoscience curricula is presented. This thesis investigates key issues associated with the teaching and learning of geological science: curriculum and assessment issues, conceptualisations of geological time, biological evolution (within a geological context) and visual spatialisation aspects such as visual penetration ability. Geological science is discussed and differentiated from the generalised label of earth or geoscience and the environmentally oriented Earth Systems Science. The theoretical framework is grounded in constructivist principles and conceptual change theory. Conceptual change in this thesis is viewed as an evolutionary and ecological mechanism of learning within a multidimensional and individually intentional world view. The conceptual status of geological science is investigated from a wide age range of respondents from three different cultural settings: Lebanon, Israel and New Zealand. Data gathering used a modification of pre-validated questionnaires, unstructured respondent interviewing and selective analysis of secondary data. Internal triangulation enhanced reliability issues generated by questionnaire methodology. A case study approach was utilised for discussion of geological science curriculum issues. The history of geological science, conceptualising geological time and student understandings of the fossil record are placed within a conceptual change context. Here, conceptual change theory itself is evolutionary in nature and fits well with an analogous concept of punctuationism. In short, the rise of conceptual change theory from a ‘Piagetian’ stasis over the last 30 years has shown a rapid diversification of iii approach and ‘niche’ since the mid 1980’s. New Zealand is used as a case study for the status of geological science in a national secondary school Science curriculum. Through stratigraphy, the fossil record and rock deformation, geological science uniquely involves ‘Deep Time’. The GeoTSAT questionnaire instrument asks questions about conceptualisation of relative geological time as deduced from correlation of stratigraphic columns and Steno’s laws of superposition. In essence all age groups from age 13 to 40 years are cognitively able to correlate strata but all groups also demonstrate the same kinds of misconceptions and difficulties. Aspects of diachronic thinking are applied to the interpretation of responses to the GeoTSAT questionnaire. Developing manageable teaching techniques in teacher training institutions that are relevant to the geological sciences for conceptualising scalar dimensions of time, mass and distance are important challenges for educators. Visual spatialisation of deformed rock strata is a key skill in interpreting a geological history. The GeoTSAT questionnaire asks respondents to complete block diagrams of simple geological structures. All age groups again have the same kinds of difficulties in mental rotation and other spatialisation skills such as visual penetration ability. Visual penetration ability is further investigated with the use of a ‘hands on 3-D model. The GeoVAT instrument asks questions about the nature of fossils, the relative timing of geological and fossil events in Earths history and the links of fossil organisms with their life environments. The challenge for educators is to find ways of pedagogically strengthening the contextual links of learning about extant life with extinct life and the importance of the fossil record in the training of biology teachers. Improving the connections between the geological sciences, biology and environments is a key challenge for educators. The thesis concludes with a summary of findings, limitations and future directions for teaching and learning geological science in school curricula. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This thesis would not have happened without the love and encouragement of my parents who instilled a love of learning and a desire to understand the world. Dad, who was a philosopher, great listener, practical man and encourager who had not only the ability and vision to provide opportunities, but also allowed his two children to follow their own paths. Mum was always there with that quiet loving support that is too easily taken for granted. Thank you Mum. Leaving your families to live in a far away country so that your children could have a better opportunity in life was a worthwhile and courageous sacrifice. Thank you both and I love you heaps. And Dad, I hope you have now found your very own universal space/time string. To Elaine, thank you for putting up with years of my ‘oddball’ study that must seem to have gone on forever and ever, and for making me think about how others might read and understand this stuff when I probably should have been digging the garden or painting the roof or doing something else. This thesis is also for you. I love you for you being you and your enormous gift for giving your talents to the world through music and Girl Guides. My life with you has been enriched beyond words. To Professor David Treagust at SMEC, thank you for sharing your wisdom and allowing me to ramble on and guiding me to find direction in a conceptual swimming pool throughout this journey. This thesis would not have got there without you and I hope that the conceptual vitality of the geological sciences becomes a more important place in the teaching of teachers and that more research is conducted into this exciting and relatively untouched field. To my colleagues and friends over the last 37 years and especially questionnaire co- ordinators, your comments and discussions about science teaching and learning have often, more than you think, redirected and shaken my thinking: thank you. Lastly, I would like to thank those students and teachers who have contributed their thinking in supplying the data. In amongst the ‘saboteurs’ there is revealed a conceptual flower bed which helps provide a small window into how we all think about essential concepts of geological science and how we can teach and learn better. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract iii Acknowledgements v Table of Contents vi List of Tables xi List of Figures xiv CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND OUTLINE Pa ge 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Geological time 2 1.3 Evolution 3 1.4 Conceptual Change 4 1.5 Significance 5 1.6 Purpose of Research 6 1.7 Research Problems 6 1.8 Research Questions 7 1.9 Towards Defining Geological Science 8 1.10 Thesis Overview 12 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW: GEOLOGICAL TIME AND GEOSPATIALISATION 2.1 Introduction 16 2.2 Geological Time 16 2.3 Geospatialisation 18 2.4 Development of Conceptions of Time 20 2.5 Thinking About Scale 28 2.6 Conceptual Development of Geospatialisation 32 2.7 Visual Penetration Ability (VPA) 38 2.8 Diachronic Thinking and Spatialisation 40 2.9 Chapter Summary 43 CHAPTER 3: INTERNATIONAL GEOSCIENCE CURRICULA: A SELECTIVE OVERVIEW 3.1 Introduction 44 3.2 Earth Systems Science 46 3.3 Traditional Geology: The Canadian Experience 59 3.4 International Comparisons 61 3.5 The IGEO Global Curricula Surveys 66 3.6 Are There National Standards? 67 3.7 Comparison of USA and New Zealand Curricula 69 3.8 International Geoscience Curricula Prognosis 73 3.9 Chapter Summary 76 vi CHAPTER 4: ASPECTS OF CONCEPTUAL CHANGE 4.1 Introduction 79 4.2 Conceptualising Concepts 81 4.3 The Geoscience Concept Inventory 93 4.4 Conceptual Change and Punctuationism 96 4.5 Conceptual Change and Geological Time 102 4.6 Conceptual Ecologies 105 4.7 Conceptual Change and the Fossil Record 109 4.8 Conceptual Change and the Teacher 112 4.9 Chapter Summary 116 CHAPTER 5: METHODOLOGY 5.1 Introduction 117 5.2 The Research Problem 117 5.3 Methodology 119 5.4 Methods 120 5.5 Data Collection 122 5.6 GeoTSAT Validation 123 5.7 Data Analysis 125 5.8 GeoVAT Validation 126 5.9 Trustworthiness and Limitations 127 5.10 Ethical Issues 128 5.11 Chapter Summary 129 CHAPTER 6: ABOUT TIME AND SCALE 6.1 Introduction 131 6.2 An Illustrative Study for Scales of Time, Size and Mass 131 6.2.1 New Zealand Thirteen Year old Student Responses 133 6.2.2 New Zealand Sixteen Year old Student Responses 136 6.3 Summary of Illustrative Scales Study 138 6.3 Replicating ‘Boundaries of Size’ Scales 138 6.3.1 Response of Year 12 Students to ‘Boundaries of Size/ Scale 139 6.4 Looking at Scales of Mass 139 6.4.1 Discussion of Responses of Year nine Students 140 6.5 A Multi-Variate Cluster Analysis of Scales of Size Responses
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