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YOF o z n ( Sedimentary processes during the Late Quaterîary across the Kimberley Shelf, Northwest Australia. Kriton Glenn B.Sc. with Honours in Geology 1997 Australian National University Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Geology and Geophysics THE UNIVERSITY OF ADELAIDE Department of Geology and Geophysics February 2004 TABLE OF CONTENTS Table of contents ll Abstract. xi Certification... .. xiii Acknowledgments. xiv Dedication. XV List of Acronyms.. .... xvi Chapter 1. Introduction 1.1 Setting 1 1.2 The Sahul Shell . 1 1.3 Thesis aim... 8 1.4 Bathymetric nomenclature... 9 I .5 Large-scale bathyrnetric features. l0 1.6 Shelf terraces. 11 Chapter 2. Mapping...... .13 2.1.1 Previous Maritime Mapping History...... ..13 2.1.2 Marine geological mapping. ..11 2.7.3 Onshore geological mapping ...... .18 2.1.4 Industrial mapping t9 2.7.5 Mapping regional hydrocarbon seeps 27 2.1.6 Mapping the regional bathymetry.. 2l 2.2 Regional Structural Geology ...... 22 2.2.7 Margin Scale Basins. 22 2.2.2 Carbonate Reef Development.. ...... 24 2.2.3Tectonic setting: rates of subsidence.. 29 2.3 Oceanography.. .. 32 2.3. I Regional Oceanography. 32 2,3.2 Changes in Sea lævel. .........38 2.3.3 Oceanic Flow and Tectonics. ..........41 2.3.4 Tides .. ..........43 2.3.5 Sea surface currents. .......... 43 2.4 Climate. .. .......45 2.4.1 Climate Introduction. ..........45 11 2.4.2 Present Day Conditions ......, , 46 2.4.3 Cyclones... ...... ., ,49 2.4.4 Cyclone frequency. ,........49 2.4.5 Two examples of severe tropical cyclones 51 2.4.6 Atmospheric circulation 52 2.4.7 Climate change of the Late Pleistocene - Holocene 53 2.5 Water Balance Fluvial inputs. 58 2.5.1 Regional river flows. 58 2.5.2 Landsat Thermatic Mapper images. 60 2.6 Terrestrial inputs 64 2.6.1 Fluvial derived sediments. 64 2.6.2 Sediment Yield 66 2.7 Yegetation since the Last Glacial Maximum. 69 2.7.1 Changes in vegetation distribution 69 Chapter 3. Surface morphology and surficial sediments of the study area...J2 3.1 Surface Morphology...... ...12 3.2 Prcvious work. ,...76 3.3 Regional sediment facies of the Sahul Shelf. ,... 81 3.3.1 The shaved shelf. ....81 3.4 Sediments.... ...82 3.4.1 Setting: Energy levels. ....82 3 .4.2 Preservation of Skeletal Components . ....83 3.5 Introduction to the surficial sediments of this study 81 3.5.1 Methods; Laboratory Sampling Protocol..... 8l 3.5.1. 1 Digital Imagery. 81 3.5.1.2 Colour. 87 3.5.1.3 Sub-Sampling.... .......88 3.5.1.4. Sediment Description .......89 3.5.1.5 Microscopic Examination......, ,... .. 89 3.5.1.6 Recording observations.. ..... ...... .89 3.5.1.7 Descriptions...... ... ....90 3.4.1.8 Carbonate percentage analysis.. .......91 3.5.1.9 Grain size analysis..... ., ,... 92 3.5.1.10 Accelerator mass spectrometry dating 92 3.5.1.11 Carbon and oxygen isotope analysis...... 92 lll 3.6 Images and descriptions of the Kimberley Shelf surficial sediments...'94 3.7 Accelerator mass spectrometry dates. "" " "" 108 3.8 Terrestrial sediment contribution. ""'' 108 3.9 Results...... ....112 3.10 Sedimenttexture. ....:..' """"' 115 3.11 Total Organic Carbon. ' ' 116 Chapter 4 Sediment Core Observations and Supporting Data' .......t23 4.1 Introduction. ......123 4.2 Accelerator Mass Spectrometry Dating. ......123 4.2.1Method.... .. ...t23 4.2.2 Accelerator mass spectrometry results 4.3 Total Organic Carbon values of the sediment cores. 4.3.1 Method.... 4.3.2 T otal Organic Carbon Results. 4.4 Core Sediment Colour. 4.4.1 Method.... 4.4.2 Observations. 4.5 Core Sediment Character. 4.5.1 Methods... 4.5.2Wet sieve. 4.6 Sediment Summary...... 4.6.1 Summaly... 4.6.2 lnterpretation. 4.1 Core observations and supporting Data 4.7 .l Preface ... 4.7 .2 Core descriPtions...... 4.7.2.1 GravitY Core 001 4.1 .2.1.1 InterPretation... 4.7.2.2 GravitY Core 002 4.1.2.2.1 DescriPtion 4.7.2.3 GravitY Core 003 4.7 .2.3.1 InterPretation.. 4.1.2.4 GravitY Core 004. 4.7 .2.4.7 InterPretation .... 1V 4.7.2.5 Gravity Core 005 .....141 4.1 .2.5.1 Interpretation. ,....\47 4.7.2.6 Gravity Core 007. ..153 4.1 .2.6.7 Interpretation.... .. ... 153 4.7.2.7 Gravity Core 008. .....156 4.7 .2.7 .7 Interpretation.. .. ... 156 4.7.2.8 Gravity Core 10. ....158 4.1 .2.8.1 Interpretation.. ... 159 4.7.2.9 Gravity Core 015. .....r63 4.1 .2.9.1 Interpretation... .....164 Chapter 5 Bathyrnetric and Sub bottom profiles of the Kimberley Shelf. 166 5.1 Introduction. 166 r67 5.2 Bathymetry Methods... - 5.3 Bathymetric Results... .. 167 5.4 Sub-bottom Profiling Equipment and methods. t7t 5.5 General observations and Interpretation of the seismic sections. 176 5.5.1 Line 101... 176 5.5.2 Line207 '. 177 5.5.3 Line 301 ....:.. '.. 179 181 5.5.4 Line 401. 5.5.5 Seismic Summary ..... 782 5.6 The Kimberley Shelf-slope transect. 183 5.7 The Holocene inner shelf sedimentprism """"" 183 5.7 .l The near-shore area. r83 5.7.2 The 75 m-deep, mid-shelf terrace' 184 5.1.3 The 95 m-deep, outer mid-shelf terrace 184 186 5 .7 .3.1 Model for the Penguin Deeps barrier bar formation'''''''' " 5.7.4 The 112 m-deep outer shelf terrace. t87 5.8 Possible relict shorefaces. 188 5.8.1 Relict shoreface A. .... 188 5.8.2 Relict shoreface B. .... 189 5.9 Origins of Continental Shelf Terraces 191 5.9.1 The origins of a single, regional continental shelf surface.. 191 5.9.2 Continental margin terraces' r92 5.10 Evidence for recent glacio-eustasy... """""194 5.1 1 The terraces of the Sahul Shelf. " " " " " 195 5.11.1 The Sahul and Kimberley Shelf terraces. """"'195 5.11.2 A model for the submergent terraces on a subsiding shelf.. 198 5.11.3 Formation of a primary highstand platform. "' 198 5.11.4 Formation of succeeding regressive or lowstand platforms .. 199 5.1 1.5 Subaerial modification of pre-existing terraces ....... 200 5.11.6 Formation of subsequent highstand terrace. "' 200 5.17.7 Submarine modification of pre-existing terraces 201 5 . 1 1 . 8 The continuing cycle of terrace formation and modifi cation.2l2 5.12 Sea level at the Last Glacial Maximum (MIS 2). """'205 5.13 Discussion .........207 6 Summary. "209 7 Conclusions. ......214 References.. 216 List of figures Figure 1.1 Study Location .2 a Figure 1.2 Carbonate sediment on the Australian continental shelves... J Figure 1.3 The Sahul shelf, the range of bioherms on the shelf edge.... 6 7 Figure 1.4 Present day bathymelry.. Figure 2.1 Coronelli's 1696 map of the'Top End'Australia. """"'14 Figure 2.2The mapping the north of Australia, shoals and reeß' " " 14 Figure 2.3 Regional hydrocarbon exploration wells. ""' 20 Figure 2.4The Bonaparte and Browse Basins. .'.'."""" 22 Figure 2.5 The Bathymetric expression showing the major features. ....... ' 25 Figure 2.6 a,b,c. The model for the development of Bonaparte Shelf. ....... 26 Figure 2.7 Depo-centres and sediment pathways at times of lower SL.......29 Figure 2.8 Regional perspective of the Global Conveyor Belt.. ...... 32 Figure 2.9 The track of the Indonesian Throughflow.. ..... ... 33 Figure 2J0 and2.11. Regional Sea Surface Temperatures... 34 VI Figure 2.l2Themain Indonesian Throughflow gateways' ""' 35 Figure 2.13The Indonesian Throughflow Gateways... ''' "'"' 36 Figure 2.14 The main conduit between the islands of Sawu and Roti. .. .... 36 Figure 2.l5 Sea tævel change over the past 25000 years ' " " " ' 38 Figure2.16sealevelat -724m 70m andpresentday"' """" 40 Figure 2.77 Tectonic movements at 20 Ma moves to the north. ...... 4l Figure 2.18 Tectonics at 8 Ma. " " "" 42 Figure 2.19 Present day tectonics...' """"" 42 Figure 2.20Tidalregime of Troughton Island, Australia' """' 43 Figure 2.21 Prcvailing Surface Currents of the Bonaparte Shelf. ....44 Figure 2.22 Location map with Troughton Island andKupang..... .........45 Figure 2.23Rainfall of Troughton Island and Kupang (Indonesia).. ......46 Figure 2.24 Temperature of Troughton Island. """""' 41 Figure 2.25 The mean relative humidity, Troughton Island. ..... .. .. 48 Figure 2.26. MeanDaily Wind. ""' 48 Figure 2.27 Cyclone Thelma, category 5 over the Timor sea.. ......49 Figure 2.28. The occurrences of cyclones in the Australian region.......... 50 Figare 2.29 Tropical cyclone tracks in the Australian region, 1 970-80. 5 1 Figure 2.30 Trackof Tropical cyclone Thelma 6 - ll Dec 1 998. ...... .. 52 Figure 2.3l.Trackof tropical Cyclone Vance. ""'52 Figure 2.32Modernseasonalwindshifts. """""53 Figure 2.33TheTorres Strait, Australian. ''''''""' 54 Figure 2.34 Depositional settings, (a) At high SL and (b) at low SL.... ....56 Figure 2.35 Fluvial inputs to the study region...... " " ""' 59 Figure 2.36 Landsat TM, sediment plumes along the eastern Kimberley" ' 62 Figure 2.37 LandsatTMBand, I ..... ""'62 Figure 2.38 Landsat TM Band, 2...... ""'63 Figure 2.39 LandsatTMBand,3...... ""' 63 Figure 2.40 The Ord River Mouth. " " " " " 64 Figure 2.41 Onshore Geology of Northwest Australia ""65 Figve 2.42 The drainage basins and restricted lagoon during the LGM... 69 Figure 2.43 Yegetation during the LGM. " " " " "' 70 72 Figure 3. I . The regional bath¡rrnetry Australia's Northwest shelf Figure 3.2The seismic, gravity core and sediment sample sites.... .14 vlr Figure 3.3 Aplanviewof the'PenguinDeeps' """""75 Figure 3.4 The Penguin Fan. A, viewing from the west.- """"""75 B, Viewing from the east... """""15 Figure 3.5 Reefs, banks and shoals of the sahul shelf.
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