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Home , Animal ethics, Animal Justice Project, Bruce Friedrich

H I G H S C HOO L B I O ET H I C S P RO J E C T OF ANIMAL USE IN RESEARCH

OVERVIEW PROCEDURES AND ACTIVITIES

This module urges students to think about how we This unit uses a student-centered and interactive use animals in our everyday lives and in biomedical approach to teaching. Activities are designed to research, and to evaluate philosophical and ethical allow for a maximum degree of student issues surrounding animal use. Animals are participation and collaboration. Each activity is obviously living, breathing, complex beings like marked as an individual-, partner-, or group humans, but at the same time, they differ from us in activity, or as a teacher-directed class discussion. many ways, and we treat animals very differently than we treat other humans. In what fundamental The following icons are used to designate the ways do animals differ from humans? What justifies different types of activities: our differential treatment of animals? Do animals deserve the same level of and respect as humans? If so, why? Or are they so significantly different that we should treat them with a different code of ethics? Students will explore these and other questions from a variety of religious and philosophical perspectives.

CONTENTS

1. Introduction to Topic 2. Animal Use, Cases, and Controversies 3. Do Animals Have Moral Status or ? 4. The Modern Philosophical Debate About Animal Use in Research 1. INTRODUCTION TO TOPIC

5. Rules and Regulations A note on terminology: Emphasize to students

6. Alternatives to Animal Use in Biomedical that human beings are animals, but for purposes Research of this lesson, the term “animals” will be used to

7. References and Additional Resources refer specifically to non-human animals.

LEARNING OUTCOMES Students will answer the following questions to 1. Understand the ethical issues surrounding killing gauge their pre-existing knowledge of the or inflicting pain on animals for human benefit topic: 2. Review and evaluate philosophical and ethical arguments concerning the value, rights, or

welfare of animals • Have you ever conducted experiments in

3. Assess possible shortcomings and challenges of science class using living animals? • current regulations of research on animals and Have you ever dissected an animal in science class? consider changes

DC 06/24/2020 • Do you own a pet? Do you think it/he/she Share the following quotations with your students: experiences pain in the same way we do? • What do you think is the main difference PETA: “Lobsters are known to live more than 145 between animals and humans? years in the ocean and can travel more than 100 • Do animals have emotions? miles per year. Lobsters have sophisticated nervous • Do you think animals do or should have rights systems and experience pain and . In their the way humans do? natural ocean homes, they have been observed walking claw-in claw, the old leading the young.”

2. ANIMAL USE, CASES AND CONTROVERSIES John Mackey, Whole Foods’ co-founder and chief executive: “We place as much emphasis on the Below are various options for teacher-directed importance of humane treatment and quality of life activities to spur class discussion of animal use in for all animals as we do on the expectations for

our society and controversial cases. quality and flavor.” , a spokesman for PETA: “The ways that lobsters are treated would warrant felony charges if they were dogs or cats.”

Tony Blankley, Washington Times Op-ed, June 21. 2006: “Invertebrates, such as lobsters and snails (which are also delicious) conveniently (for those of us who love to eat lobsters and snails also feel sympathy for animals) have simple nervous systems made up of chain ganglia — groups of neurons connected by nerve fibers. According to Professor Craig W. Stevens of Oklahoma State University in Tulsa, the chain ganglia network is so

1. Look at the picture above. Write down the first 3-5 simple it doesn’t require a brain.” words that come to mind.

2. Share and compare your notes with a partner. Ask students: Are the statements in the How did your response differ from that of your quotations above for, or against the sale and partner? Divide words into two categories: positive, cooking of live lobsters? negative. Which of the two categories has more items? What prompted your negative reactions? For: (e.g. disgust, pity, compassion, hunger, etc.) • Lobsters have simple nervous systems that 3. Mention to the class that the Whole Foods don’t require a brain, so they don’t feel pain. supermarket chain stopped selling live lobsters in 2006. Any idea why? Against: • Lobsters have complex nervous systems and are capable of experiencing pain and suffering. • The treatment of lobsters would warrant felony [charges for] cruelty to animals if they were dogs or cats.

DC 06/24/2020 Discussion Questions: Compare your assumptions with a partner. What • How can the obvious contradiction between criteria, or assumptions determined your the descriptions of the nervous system of decision? (e g. animals’ behavior indicates pain, lobsters be resolved? What are the definitions assumptions about nervous system, intuition, degree of “simple” and “complex” in these statements? of similarity to humans, etc.)

• Are there ways to determine whether animals Collect and discuss the students’ findings. What are can experience pain based on the make-up these decisions based on? Record and organize and structure of their brains? principles used to make their decisions on the board, • Is it possible (at all) to determine with certainty e.g. behavior indicating pain, human reactions to whether animals (human or nonhuman) can pain, which class of animals they belong to, level of experience pain? intelligence, structure/make-up of brain/nervous system. • If so, should our knowledge about pain influence the way we treat our animals? Discussion Questions: • One of the arguments above compares the treatment of lobsters to that of dogs and cats. • Based on what we know so far, do you believe it Is this argument convincing? Why or why not? is possible to determine whether or not an • If the lobster in the picture above were instead animal experiences pain, and to what degree? a cat or a chimpanzee, would you feel

differently? How and why? • Should the ability to experience pain be our main criterion in determining how we should treat animals?

• If so, is it always wrong to inflict suffering on those animals that definitely experience pain?

Let’s assume the ability to experience pain could, and should, be used in determining the way we treat animals. Where should we draw Let’s take a step back for a moment and look at the

the line? different ways in which animals are used in our society. What are some examples? (E.g. sports, Consider the following list of animals: chimpanzee, food, pets, research, agriculture, etc.). clam, elephant, octopus, mouse, dog, your pet, goldfish, cow, corals, fly, dolphin, canary, shark, horse, rat, spider. Break students up into small groups of three to five. Each group will research one of the following At the top of the next column, divide these animals areas in which animals are used by humans. into three categories to the best of your ability: Based on our previous discussions about pain and animals that can feel pain, animals that cannot feel the status of animals, consider whether the use of pain, and animals you aren’t sure about. animals in the category you research is:

Feels Pain Does not feel pain Not sure 1) Always justified, 2) Never justified, or 3) Sometimes justified. Provide reasons for your decision.

DC 06/24/2020 Categories: 3. DO ANIMALS HAVE MORAL STATUS OR VALUE? 1. Raising and killing animals to serve as food for us. As we have seen in the first segment of this 2. Killing animals that are a direct threat or module, one approach to the question of how nuisance to us (e.g. sharks, mosquitoes, rats, animals should (and, more importantly, shouldn’t) deer in urban areas, etc.). be treated is to look at whether animals 3. Using animals in research that could help experience pain as we do. The problem with protect us from disease, pain, suffering, relying on pain as the only criterion is that it may premature death, etc.. not be easy (or possible) to determine whether 4. Using animals to make our lives more animals experience pain at all, and to what pleasurable (e.g. to make fur products or test degree. perfumes and beauty products). 5. Using animals in sports/entertainment Furthermore, there may be cases in which we (horseback riding, , dog-, bull-, cock- consider it ethically permissible to inflict at least fighting, circus, etc.). some level of discomfort, pain, or even death on 6. Using animals to work or perform tasks for us (some) animals. (agriculture, seeing-eye dogs, police dogs, dogs in the military, etc.). Perhaps there is another way to determine how we should treat animals. Namely by determining the value or moral status of animals, which may

Groups will present their findings. As they listen, then allow us to formulate principles that could be

students should identify and record the reasons/ used as a guide to our treatment of animals. principles that were used to decide which of these uses of animals are justified or not (e.g. degree of When we talk about something having “value,”

benefit to humans, necessity, nature, suffering, what exactly do we mean? To do this, we must etc.) distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic value.

Further Questions for Discussion: Intrinsic Vs. Extrinsic Value

Intrinsic Value and : • If in some cases, it is permissible to kill or inflict some level of discomfort or pain on • Something just is valuable; non-derivatively animals, what justifies such treatment? . • If pain is not the main criterion, are there other • The value is an internal property of something, criteria that could be used to determine how we defines its existence.

should treat animals? • Something has if it is valuable

• Should we determine varying degrees of “in itself,” “for its own sake,” “as such” or “in its

discomfort, pain, or suffering? own right”. • Finally, does our treatment of animals (and our justification for inflicting pain and suffering) depend on the purpose and benefit for us? Extrinsic Value:

• Instrumental goods. • Good for something else, i.e. “is a means to an end”.

DC 06/24/2020 Hebrew Scripture/Old Testament “Six days thou shalt do thy work, and on the seventh day thou shalt rest: that thine ox and thine ass may rest, and the son of thy handmaid, and the stranger, Based on the definitions above, students should may be refreshed.” (Exodus) decide on at least three things they believe have “intrinsic” value. (e g. democracy, freedom, “You shall not muzzle an ox when it is treading out , life, beauty, art, the earth/ environment, the .” (Deut. 25:4) nature, etc.). “Be fruitful, and multiply, and replenish the earth, and Collect and discuss students’ findings. What subdue it: and have dominion over the fish of the gives these items “intrinsic” value? In other sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over every words, what makes them good “as such” or “in living thing that moveth upon the earth.” (Genesis) themselves”? (E.g. the line in the declaration of independence: “We hold these truths to be self- “For the fate of the sons of men and the fate of evident...” shows the need for basic principles beasts is tine same. As one dies so dies the other; that we can all agree upon and that cannot, or indeed, they all have the same breath and there is should not, be further questioned). no advantage for man over beast for all is vanity.” (Ecclesiastes 3:19) In what way can we say that humans have intrinsic value that is not limited to being used “His compassion rests upon all his creatures.” for some purpose? (i.e. that a human is an end- (Psalms 145:9) in-itself rather than a means to an end?) New Testament Do animals also have intrinsic value, or do they “What man of you, if he has one sheep and it falls merely have extrinsic value, e.g. that of being into a pit on the Sabbath, will not lay hold of it and lift used by humans as a means to our end? it out? Of how much more value is a man than a sheep! So, it is lawful to do good on the

Questions for Discussion: Sabbath.” (Matthew 12:11-12)

St.

• What would make animals not have intrinsic “...According to the Divine ordinance the life of

value the way humans do? animals and plants is preserved not for themselves • What are some key differences that give us but for man. Hence, as Augustine says (De Civ. Dei i,

rights and moral standing, but not animals? 20), ‘by a most just ordinance of the Creator, both • Do some animals have more (or a different their life and their death are subject to our use!” degree of) intrinsic value than others? Why? (Summa Theologica) St. Francis of Assisi

Religious and Philosophical Views on the Value of Animals “Not to hurt our humble brethren is our first duty to them, but to stop there is not enough. We have a higher mission—to be of service to them With a partner, decide which of the following quotes wherever they require it.” from a variety of religious and philosophical texts consider animals to have intrinsic value, extrinsic value, or both.

DC 06/24/2020 Hinduism “Having well considered the origin of flesh foods. “In like manner we may infer that, after the birth of And the cruelty of fettering and slaying corporeal animals, plants exist for their sake, and that the other beings let man entirely abstain from exist for the sake of man, the tame for use flesh.” (Manusmriti 5.49, Early Hindu Scripture) and food, the wild, if not all at least the greater part of them, for food, and for the provision of clothing and “To my mind the life of a lamb is no less precious various instruments. Now if nature makes nothing than that of a human being. I should be unwilling incomplete, and nothing in vain, the inference must to take the life of a lamb for the sake of the be that she has made all animals for the sake of human body. I hold that the more helpless a man.” (Politics) creature, the more entitled it is to the protection by man from the cruelty of man.” (Mahatma Gandhi) “...Every rational being, exists as an end in himself “I abhor with my whole soul. All the and not merely as a means to be arbitrarily used by scientific discoveries stained with innocent blood this or that will...Beings whose existence depends I count as of no consequence.” (Mahatma Gandhi) not on our will but on nature have, nevertheless, if they are not rational beings, only a relative value as Jainism means and are therefore called things. On the other “In and suffering, in joy and grief we hand, rational beings are called persons inasmuch should regard all creatures as we regard our own as their nature already marks them out as ends in self and should therefore refrain from inflicting themselves.” (Groundwork of the Metaphysics of upon others such injury as would appear Morals) undesirable to us if inflicted upon ourselves.” (Yogashastra, Jain Scripture) “So far as mere reason can judge, man has duties only to man; for his duty to any subject is moral “This is the quintessence of wisdom; not to kill necessitation by that subject’s will. Hence the anything. All breathing, existing, living sentient necessitating (obligating) subject must, first, be a creatures should not be slain, nor treated with person; and this person must, secondly, be given as violence, nor abused, nor tormented, nor driven an object of experience . . . but with all our away. This is the pure unchangeable Law. experience we know of no being other than man that Therefore, cease to injure living things.” would be susceptible of obligation. Therefore, man (Yogashastra, Jain Scripture) can have no duties to beings other than man.” (Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals) Jeremy Buddhism Bentham “All living things fear being beaten with clubs. All living things fear being put to death. Putting “The day may come when the rest of the animal oneself in the place of the other, let no one kill nor creation may acquire those rights which never cause another to kill.” (Dhammapada 129, Karma could have been witholden from them but by the and status) hand of tyranny The French have already discovered that the blackness of the skin is no reason why a human being should be Native American abandoned without redress to the caprice of a “What is a man without the beasts? If all the tormentor. It may one day come to be beasts were gone, men would die form great recognized that the number of the legs, the loneliness of spirit, for whatever happens to the villosity of the skin, or the termination of the os beasts also happens to man.” (Chief Seattle) sacrum, are reasons equally insufficient for abandoning a sensitive being to the same fate.” (An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation) DC 06/24/2020 “What else is it that should trace the insuperable line? Is it the faculty of reason, or perhaps the faculty of discourse? But a fullgrown horse or dog Collect students’ findings and is beyond comparison a more rational, as well as consider the following questions: a more conversable animal, than an infant of a day, or a week, or even a month, old. But • What are the main criteria used in these suppose they were otherwise, what would it quotes to determine whether animals have avail? The question is not, Can they reason? nor, intrinsic or extrinsic value? Can they talk? but, Can they suffer?” (An • Which of the arguments/criteria used to Introduction to the Principles of Morals and determine how we should treat animals do Legislation) you find most compelling, and why? • Do you believe that there is a conclusive answer to this question, or is it ultimately up “Compassion for animals is intimately associated to each individual person to decide how to with goodness of character, and it may be treat animals? confidently asserted that he, who is cruel to living • What additional information do we need to creatures, cannot be a good man.” (On the Basis arrive at a conclusion? of )

“The assumption that animals are without rights 4. THE MODERN AND PHILOSOPHICAL and tire illusion that our treatment of them has no DEBATE ABOUT ANIMAL USE IN RESEARCH moral significance is a positively outrageous example of Western crudity and barbarity. In this section, we will discuss the modem Universal compassion is the only guarantee of philosophical debate on the issue of the use of morality.” (On the Basis of Morality) animals in research. Students will explore positions on this issue, held by four prominent

Ask students to categorize the views represented , namely , ,

in the quotations above by how they interpret , and Arthur Caplan. After

non-human animals’ value. considering possible arguments for and against the use of animals in research, students will be introduced to some basic facts about the scale and nature of animal use in research today, followed by a discussion of views of the four ethicists mentioned above. Primarily Primarily Not Sure/ Intrinsic Extrinsic Both (?) Vivisection Buddhism New Testament Hebrew Jainism Thomas Aquinas Scripture/ The question of the treatment of animals (in the Francis of Assisi Aristotle Old Testament West) began with a public debate about the pros Bentham Kant Hinduism and cons of vivisection in England in the 19th Schopenhauer Native American (?) century. This debate led to the first legislation on the treatment of animals in 1876. 1. What is vivisection? (Etymology: Combination of the Latin words “vivus” (alive) and “secure”

DC 06/24/2020 (to cut). Vivisection is the practice of doing Number of animals currently used in research in the scientific or medical experiments on live US: animals. 2. Based on our discussions so far, what do you Recent (2009) United States Department of think would have been the main arguments for Agriculture statistics list a total of 1,136,841 primates, and against vivisection, when this first became dogs, cats, rabbits, guinea pigs, hamsters, and other

an issue in England in the 19th century? species as being subjected to experimental procedures. The species by species listing includes: 3. Collect and discuss students’ findings, then share with students some of the actual 72,037 dogs arguments used in the debate, and the 69,990 primates principles on which these arguments were 65,615 pigs based, as well as information about legislation 236,511 rabbits from the debate about vivisection. 22,687 cats 172,498 hamsters 31,106 other farm animals Pro Vivisection Contra Vivisection 13,240 sheep Need For human health We can eliminate much of 136,509 other animals and well being; no the animal research we 207,257 guinea pigs real alternatives. currently conduct; continued reliance of scientists on animal The species that are not covered by the Animal models because of an Welfare Act, such as rats, mice, etc. are not economic or financial counted. Additionally, these statistics do not cover power structure animals that are caged in laboratories, but are being maintaining the status held for conditioning or breeding rather than used for quo; cosmetics experiments.

Moral Animals don’t Research shows animals

Equity experience pain and are remarkably similar Four views of contemporary philosophers: to distress the way humans; , humans might; consciousness; feel pain. Introduction: The four ethicists highlighted in this humans count more. section of the unit represent different positions in the current debate on the treatment of animals. Priority There’s plenty of High priority b/c animals Their positions are summarized in direct quotations misery in human are vulnerable to conditions that unavoidable suffering from their writings and interviews. Your task will be could use the caused by humans. to identify the key arguments contained in the views attention of the they hold. antivivisectionists.

Contemporary Use of Animals in Research. While vivisection constituted a very small part of research in the 19th century when the debate about vivisection took place, animal Students will work in small groups. They will be use is now a huge part of research provided information on each of the four thinker’s and experimentation in many different industries. position. Alternatively, groups of students may be provided with the information on just one of these thinkers listed below, and be asked to research them independently.

DC 06/24/2020 Each group will try to answer the following Someone might try to argue that what makes it questions about the view of the they have wrong to experiment on a human infant is that the been assigned: infant will, in time and if left alone, develop into more • What is the main criterion or guiding than the nonhuman, but one would then, to be used to determine how we should treat consistent, have to oppose abortion, since the fetus animals? has the same potential as the infant—indeed, even • Does your ethicist believe that conducting contraception and abstinence might be wrong on this research on animals is morally legitimate, or ground, since the egg and sperm, considered jointly, not? also have the same potential. In any case, this • Do you agree with the position represented by argument still gives us no reason for selecting a your ethicist? Why or why not? nonhuman, rather than a human with severe and irreversible brain damage, as the subject for our experiments. (All Animals Are Equal) #1 PETER SINGER This book [] is about the tyranny #2 TOM REGAN of human over nonhuman animals This tyranny There are many people who feel that we have an has caused and today is still causing an amount of obligation to be kind to animals, and not to be cruel pain and suffering that can only be compared with to them. But this view doesn’t make it a matter of that which resulted from the centuries of tyranny that we treat animals in a certain way—just by white humans over black humans. The struggle that it is nice if we are kind and not very good if we are against this tyranny is a struggle as important as cruel. Many people think that we should be nice to any of the moral and social issues that have been animals because if we are not nice to animals we will fought in recent years. (Animal Liberation) not be nice people, and then we will end up beating up our children and our neighbors and so on. The [The] Argument about vivisection...has been put in problem is, these views don’t focus on our duty to absolutist terms: would the abolitionist [i.e. a animals but only on the effects our treatment of person in favor of abolishing ] be animals has on us. The rights view says, “We owe it prepared to let thousands die if they could be as a matter of strict justice to treat animals in a certain saved by experimenting on a single animal? The way.” In particular we owe it to these animals not to way to reply to this purely hypothetical question is eat them, for example, or not to put them in cages for to pose another: Would the experimenter be our entertainment, or not to use them in education or prepared to perform his experiment on an in surgery, which is so anachronistic and yet orphaned human infant, if that were the only way characteristic of modem medical education in the to save many lives? If the experimenter is not United States. The current view is, “These animals prepared to use an orphaned human infant, then are ours, we may do with them as we wish.” The his readiness to use nonhumans is simple rights view says, “No you may not. They cannot , since adult apes, cats, mice, and claim their rights, they cannot understand their rights, other mammals are more aware of what is and in this way they are very much like mentally happening to them, more self-directing and, so far enfeebled human beings. But they have them none as we can tell, at least as sensitive to pain as any the less.’’ human infant. (Interview, taken from: http://appethics. There seems to be no relevant characteristic that blogspot.co.uk/2010/05/interview-with-regan-animal- human infants possess that adult mammals do not rights.html) have to the same or a higher degree.

DC 06/24/2020 In the case of the use of animals in science, the humans’—sometimes living as a child in the rights view is categorically abolitionist. Lab researchers’ homes—and suddenly incarcerated animals are not our tasters; we are not their kings. in a place where they are used for invasive Because these animals are treated routinely, research, and have no one, human or ape, to systematically as if their value were reducible to communicate with, and live wretched, isolated, their usefulness to others, they are routinely, deprived, lives. Most tragic, perhaps, is that they systematically treated with a lack of respect, and cannot understand what they have done to merit thus are their rights routinely, systematically what they, in their sublime innocence, must violated. surely see as punishment.

This is just as true when they are used in trivial, duplicative, unnecessary or unwise research as it Here, I have suggested, we can accelerate the moral is when they are used in studies that hold out real and legal enfranchisement of animals, at least of promise of human benefits. We can’t justify these animals, by using the extant legal machinery, harming or killing a human being (my Aunt Bea, and letting them tell their story in the context of the for example) just for this of reason. Neither can we judicial system. I am envisioning a plausible legal do so even in the case of so lowly a creature as a case based on the notions of denial of due process . It is not just refinement or reduction and cruel and unusual punishment. Surely one can that is called for, not just larger, cleaner cages, make the reasonable case that these animals are, by not just more generous use of anesthetic or the all rational standards, persons who have been elimination of multiple surgeries, not just tidying denied the fundamental civil rights and procedures up the system. It is complete replacement. The due to persons. These animals possess measurable best we can do when it comes to using animals in intelligence, sometimes in excess of that possessed science is not to use them. That is where our duty by certain humans, they can reason and, most lies, according to the rights view. (The Case for important, they can eloquently speak for ) themselves, and tell of their anguish and sorrow.

#3 BERNARD ROLLIN I am thus envisioning a new ‘monkey trial,’ at least Consider, then, a chimpanzee or an orangutan or as spectacular in its appeal and implications as the a gorilla who has learned to communicate with Scopes trial, which tested the Tennessee law against humans using a system perceived by most people the teaching of evolution. Such a trial would be as indeed linguistic. The experiment is terminated, extraordinarily salubrious in just the same and the animal is no longer of use and is turned sense...This trial would force an examination of our over to a zoo, or to a laboratory. When I first moral and attendant legal commitments, and discussed this sort of case, in the late 1970s, this illuminate areas too long left in the dark. scenario was hypothetical. By the late 1980s, however, it was all too real. Unfortunately, as Whatever the outcome of such a trial, the animals Eugene Linden has so deftly documented, this would of necessity win. If the trial were lost, the sort of case has occurred with heart-rending issues would still have been powerfully and frequency. Linden has told of how these animals unforgettably aired, and the failure of our current law have communicated their sorrow and perplexity and morality to protect these innocent creatures and anxiety and anger and fear and grief when forcefully and indelibly imprinted in the public mind. they are wrenched out of a rich environment Indeed, even if the case never came to trial, the where they were being treated as ‘honorary same result would be accomplished by the vast - and doubtless sympathetic—publicity which a skillful

DC 06/24/2020 attempt orchestrated by first-rate legal, philosophical retarded humans, it is wrong to interfere with their and scientific minds would undoubtedly generate. efforts to fulfill these desires. It needs to be And, in the end, the new ethic we discussed earlier quickly added that such interference is wrong would be articulated and enlivened, to the benefit of unless there exists some other reason or all animals, and most assuredly to the benefit of the justification for doing so. The fact is that, as is the great apes, whose shameful treatment at human case with the abortion debate, most persons hands occasioned the need for the trial. (Tire erroneously believe that once animal rights are Ascent of Apes—Broadening the Moral Community) established, the issue of animal experimentation is settled. If it is wrong to interfere with purposive creatures, then no animal research could ever be morally legitimate. But such a view confuses the #4 ARTHUR CAPLAN

If animals and humans are so organized as to be question of how moral worth and moral rights arise

purposive creatures with various desires, drives, with the question of what to do when rights conflict

intentions, and aspirations, it seems wrong to —a common, ordinary, and unavoidable

cavalierly frustrate these purposes. It might be consequence of the nature of the world we live in.

argued that if animals and humans are biologically No animals or humans capable of purposiveness

constituted so as to pursue their own existence, should be interfered with by others, other things

which is a fact quite consistent with current being equal. But other things are rarely equal. If

thinking in evolutionary theory, then it is morally humans are to survive, they must eat, and animals

wrong to interfere with or deprive animals of the may have to suffer the consequences. If human

opportunity to fulfill this basic drive. In other words, beings are to fulfill their desires to have medicines,

animals and humans, endowed by nature with a then some creatures will have to suffer in the

will to survive, have a right to survive—rights course of discovering whether different

being consequent upon the purposiveness and substances have therapeutic value. While it is

teleological orientation of living things. If all true that we ought not interfere with or hinder the

creatures who possess purposiveness have a right bringing to fruition of the desires and purposes of others, animals and humans, in a world of limited to be left alone to pursue their ends, then the resources and conflicting purposes, some basic moral repugnance felt by many people about creatures will, of necessity, have their basic rights animal experimentation can be easily understood overridden. (...) —most experimenta- tion deprives animals of the right to exist, or, at minimum, frustrates certain basic drives and intentions they manifest. While human beings are Perhaps the strongest caveat to emerge from an under no moral obligation to aid their fellows or analysis of the morality of animal research is that the animals in the pursuit of their basic purposes, they burden of proof always rests upon the experimenter do appear to be under some constraint not to to justify the use of animals in experimental contexts. uncaringly interfere with other organisms. The antivivisectionist has nothing to prove; many animals used in experiments are sentient and I believe that purposiveness rather than purposive, and thus have prima facie rights to live sentience [the ability to feel pain and pleasure] is a and be left alone. Those who would override or property that suffices for conferring moral worth abrogate these rights must provide compelling upon entities. When organisms have sufficient reasons for doing so. Humility and sensitivity, not organization to have basic drives, desires, and arrogance and hubris, must be the hallmarks of intentions, be they amoebas, bees, birds, or animal research since it is only out of ignorance

DC 06/24/2020 and expediency that we put members of the animal kingdom to our purposes rather than theirs. The other The Nuremberg code, for example, states: “The conclusion that follows from the analysis of the moral experiment should be so designed and based on the results of animal experimentation and a moral legitimacy of animal experimentation is that such knowledge of the natural history of the disease or activity is always morally tragic. No matter what goods other problem under study that are promoted by the process, some creatures who are the anticipated results will justify the performance unable to alter their circumstances will have their basic of the experiment.” rights of life and fulfillment infringed. Accordingly, experimentation on animals is a Since this is so, it would seem imperative that steps be crucial step in getting a drug approved for human taken to reduce waste and duplication in the use of use by the US Food and Drug Administration. animals for research purposes, put more funds toward Results from animal models of disease or the development of alternatives to animal testing, and experiments on animals are part of various stages make the public aware of the moral trade-offs that of drug development: must be faced in deciding how best to achieve human well-being, health, safety, and knowledge at the expense of animal suffering. Ultimately, the public will • Basic life science and behavioral research have to decide what sorts of trade-offs are morally relies on animal models acceptable when animal and human interests conflict. • Preclinical testing of drugs (Phase I)

(Beastly Conduct: Ethical Issues in Animal • New drug applications (NDAs) must include

Experimentation) animal data • Determining risk, as animal data is sometimes included when eliciting informed from people for human subjects research When students or groups of students have finished their research (either in class or at home), collect and discuss their findings. Whatever our beliefs are with Questions for Discussion: regard to how animals should be treated, and whether it is morally permissible to use them in research, it • In what way the use of animals in research seems likely that we would be in favor or some kind of represents a direct conflict between the regulation of the treatment of animals. As we will see protection of human beings and animals? in the next section of this unit, some of the issues we • Even if we believe that we should never have discussed so far will re-emerge in our discussion intentionally inflict pain or suffering on animals, of current regulations (e.g. Caplan’s point about the what if such treatment would lower the risk of conflict between the rights of humans and those of inflicting pain or suffering on humans? animals). • If we have to choose between an animal and a human being as the subject of a research project, is it ever justified to use a human

5. RULES AND REGULATIONS subject instead of an animal?

One of the problems with the establishment of rules and regulations concerning the welfare of animals is that those regulations may conflict with the principles and regulations aimed at protecting human beings.

DC 06/24/2020 • Balancing societal benefits with imposition on animals (with respect to suffering and numbers of animals used) • Minimization of pain, suffering, and distress in Discuss with students the following all procedures controversial cases of animal use in research • Species-appropriate housing, feeding, and care meant to protect human beings: • Involvement of veterinary personnel • Qualifications of investigators and their Pharmaceutical companies or animal testing personnel facilities test the safety of chemicals used in a • Research is overseen by an Institutional Animal variety of products. This is called toxicology Care and Use Committee testing. These tests are typically conducted without anesthesia, because drugs used for anesthesia could interfere with test results. The substances that are being tested are applied to Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees skin or dripped into the eyes of animals; injected The IACUC has the responsibility to evaluate, intravenously, intramuscularly, or report on, and inspect the facilities of all units subcutaneously; inhaled; or administered orally. employing animals for research, teaching, or testing. The mission of an IACUC is to Two especially controversial acute toxicity tests assure the humane handling, care, treatment, are the LD50-Test (“Lethal Dose 50%”) and the and transportation of covered animal species. . The LD50 test is used to evaluate the toxicity of a substance by determining the IACUCs must have a minimum of three members: dose required to kill 50% of the test animal population. The Draize test, consists in applying a test substance to an animal’s eyes or skin, • One must be a doctor of veterinary medicine. usually an albino rabbit. • One must be a practicing scientist with relevant animal experience • At least one must be a “public member” not • In what way do these kinds of tests represent otherwise associated with the institution or an an example of a direct conflict between the immediate family member of someone affiliated rights and interests of humans and animals? with it and who is not a user of laboratory • Would it be justified to ban these tests, even animals if that would increase the risk of humans being hurt or killed by exposure to toxic substances? The three main criteria used in the evaluation of animal used in research are: Present the Current Regulations on Animal Use in Research: 1. Provide a clear rationale of animal use 2. Justify number of animals used in the study Act of 1985 3. Risk/benefit Analysis The Animal Welfare Act provides some guidance for the utilization and care of animals in research. Subjecting animals to risk or certainty of The following guidelines are used to determine discomfort, pain, and distress requires that the scientific benefits be at least commensurate. whether the use and care of animals is ethical: Investigators are responsible for designing research in which benefits outweigh risks or

DC 06/24/2020 harm to animals and for persuading the IACUC Heart failure is an increasingly common disease. that this is so. Investigators must show that This is caused by a range of different there are no acceptable alternatives to animal mechanisms (e g. heart attack), which ultimately use. Alternatives may include non-animal weaken the heart's capacity to contract, and alternatives, but also include concepts such as results in cardiac failure. To ensure optimal using the “lowest” species possible, minimizing contraction, the heart’s four chambers have to the numbers used (statistical planning of the work in a synchronous fashion. In some experiment minimizing variability within the diseased hearts this contraction is model, etc.) and minimizing the pain/distress dysynchronous, that means that some parts of associated with a particular model. the heart contract earlier than others dampening the amount of blood propelled into the bloodstream. To rectify this abnormality, pacemakers have been introduced in some patient groups with heart failure to resynchronize Students will get into groups of three. Each of the heart. Unfortunately, not all patients respond the group members may take on the role of one to this therapy, and some even become worse. of the persons on an IACUC: veterinarian, In an attempt to improve patient selection, we scientist, and public member. Each group will wish to conduct animal experiments with examine an example (from below or one found pacemakers where we induce heart failure to online) of an actual animal research protocol and study heart mechanics after resynchronization, try to reach a consensus on whether the study by looking at the efficiency of the heart. It is should be approved or not. To that end, unethical to conduct these tests on humans. students should answer the following questions: There are data models that could simulate the heart’s function, but these are too simplistic to • Do you (the IACUC) believe that this study is replace the data collected during an animal compliant with current rules, regulating the experiment and would be of low scientific value. humane treatment of animals used in These experiments rely upon an organism with research, and should therefore be approved? intact regulatory mechanisms. Due to the • Do you believe, independent of the official invasive nature of the experiment and size of rules and regulations that the use of animals instruments, animals smaller than dogs are less (including the infliction of discomfort, pain, useful because of the frequent occurrence of and/or death) is justified in this research lethal irregular heart rhythms and lower tolerance project, or not? of the cardiovascular system. • How did you arrive at your answers? • What principles, if any, did you use in Study protocol addition to those articulated in official regulations? Mixed-breed dogs bred specifically for research purposes. Age 2-3 years, weight 25-35 kg. Experiments are performed in a standard operating For these and other examples see: http:// theatre. The animal receives a venous cannula in www.vetmed.ucdavis.edu/clinicaltrials/index.cf one forelimb. Initiation of anesthesia is started with m sodium thiopental followed by pentobarbital. Anesthesia is maintained with a continuous infusion Example 1 of pentobarbital and morphine. Intubation is Study heart mechanics after resynchronization performed and a respirator is connected. A urine and evaluate heart efficiency. catheter, ECG and pulse oximeter are then connected.

DC 06/24/2020 Sternotomy (splitting the breastbone) is In Mali, West Africa, approximately 80% of the performed in order to expose the heart. population relies almost entirely on traditional Pressure catheters are inserted into the aorta, medicines for their primary healthcare. The

left ventricle and atrium. Ultrasonic crystals are provision of safe and effective therapies based

implanted in various areas of the myocardium. on traditional medicine would therefore become a

Constrictors are inserted over the vena cava and critical tool to increase access to health care in

aorta, and a Swan-Ganz catheter is inserted into the country. The positive side of using plant

the pulmonary artery. During the experiment, sugars as therapeutics is that to date, no

pressure measurements are made in the heart negative or toxic effects have been recorded for

chambers. Monitoring includes measurement of this group of natural compounds. blood gasses, body temperature and anesthesia. The animals are euthanized while Study protocol remaining under anesthesia using pentobarbital.

Example 2 The mice will be given the test substances as injections 3h prior to challenge with Streptococcus pneumoniae serotype 6B. Mice will be followed for Protective effect of medicinal plant survival over a 9-day incubation period. polysaccharides against systemic Streptococcus Determination of survival and blood sampling will pneumoniae infection in mice. be performed at 3h 24h, 48h, 72h, 96h and 9 days after challenge with S. pneumoniae. Blood samples A major public health concern today is the of 25μl will be drawn from the distal part of the increasing resistance of bacteria to antibiotics. It lateral femoral vein of each mouse. 10μl of the is therefore important to find preventive and blood will be used for seeding onto blood plates curative alternatives to existing antibiotics. A to determine the number of colonies forming units strain of bacteria that has shown resistance (CFU). towards antibiotics is Streptococcus pneumoniae. This bacterium may cause Mice that are moribund will be euthanized by potentially lethal diseases like meningitis. cervical dislocations, and the time of euthanasia will be recorded as the survival time. At the time of Studies have shown that specific plant sugars, euthanasia blood samples from the abdominal for instance glucans and pectins, protect against cavity will be drawn for measurements of various bacterial infections, and stimulate the macrophage activity in this region. immune system. These studies have mainly been performed in vitro, that is outside the living Example 3 organisms. In order to find out if these Colitis mouse model to study IgA on microbial substances are active also in vivo, within a living composition and mucosal immunity. The main goal organism, and to study the mechanism behind of this project is to explore the interaction between this effect the use of experimental animals is intestinal microbes and secretory immunity. We will necessary. The research will study whether use a colitis mouse model to observe the effect of characterized pectins isolated from Malian IgA on microbial composition and distribution and medicinal plants can give protection against S. thereby investigate the importance of polymeric pneumoniae infection. Mice will be given certain immunoglobulin receptor (plgR), which plays a vital doses of the pectin before challenge with S. role in mucosal immunity. The project will use mice pneumoniae. knocked out for polymer immunoglobulin receptor, compared to wild type mice.

DC 06/24/2020 No alternative to an animal model is possible due to • With a partner, students should consider ways the intricacy of the system being investigated. in which animal use in research could, in the future, be replaced by other methods that do not Since we are unable to create physically 8001000 involve animals (or humans). Encourage commensal bacteria in the human intestinal students to be as imaginative as possible. (If environment, we wish to generate such a type of necessary, mention possible candidates for the microenvironment in laboratory animals. As we development of such new methods: computer know polymeric Ig receptor neutralizes intestinal technology, stem cell research, cloning, etc.) bacteria; we want to investigate this receptor, so we • Collect and discuss students’ findings. Mention need the bacteria. that some of similar ideas are actually already being explored. Share with students the article In vitro studies can be used to create a monolayer “Reconstituting Organ-Level Functions on a of intestinal epithelial cells, but they cannot create Chip,” which was published in Science in 2010, the unique environment in the intestine, including or just the abstract of the article, below: subepithelial inflammatory cells, blood vessels, commensal bacteria, fungi and so on.

To determine the composition of intestinal microbes Reconstituting Organ-Level Lung Functions on a on bacterial fecal pellets and fecal content there is Chip no alternative to experimental animals. Dongeun Huh, Benjamin D. Matthews, Akiko Mammato, Martin Montoya-Zavala, Hong Yuan The animals will be 5-7 weeks old; this will probably Hsin, Donald E. Ingber create variable tumor progression since younger (Science 25 June 2010, Vol. 328. no. 5986, pp. animals are more sensitive to the carcinogen. In 1662-1668) the pilot we will consider this fact and improve breeding techniques in further experiments. Here, we describe a biomimetic microsystem that reconstitutes the critical functional alveolar-capillary

6. ALTERNATIVES TO ANIMAL USE interface of the human lung. This bio-inspired

IN BIOMEDICAL RESEARCH microdevice reproduces complex integrated organ-level responses to bacteria and

Based on what we have talked about so far and inflammatory cytokines introduced into the alveolar regardless of where we come down on some of space. In nanotoxicology studies, this lung mimic the issues, it seems that we will always have to revealed that cyclic mechanical strain accentuates make tough decisions when it comes to weighing toxic and inflammatory responses of the lung to the protection of animals and the benefits of silica nanoparticles. Mechanical strain also biomedical research to humans. But what if we enhances epithelial and endothelial uptake of could find alternatives to the use of animals in nanoparticles and stimulates their transport into the research? According to one of the generally underlying microvascular channel. Similar effects accepted principles for the use of animals in of physiological breathing on nanoparticle research, namely “replacement,” (the other two absorption are observed in whole mouse lung. being “reduction” and “refinement”), non-animal Mechanically active “organ-on-a-chip” micro- methods should be preferred over animal devices that reconstitute tissue-tissue interfaces methods whenever the same scientific aim can critical to organ function may therefore expand the be achieved. capabilities of cell culture models and provide low- cost alternatives to animal and clinical studies for drug screening and toxicology applications.

DC 06/24/2020 Discuss with the Students the Following University of California – Davis Veterinary Medicine: Questions: Regan, Tom. “The Case for Animal Rights.” In • How is this article relevant in the context of Defense of Animals. Ed. Peter Singer. New York: this unit? Basil Blackwell, 1985, pp-13-26. • Do you believe that the technology described in this article could, one day, replace all use Rollin, B.E. “The Ascent of Apes—Broadening the

of animals in research? Moral Community.” The :

• Do you believe that finding alternatives to the Equality beyond Humanity. Ed. and Peter Singer. New York: St. Martin’s, 1994, pp. use of animals in research will put an end to 206-219. the discussion about the treatment and moral status of animals? Why? Why not? Singer, Peter. Animal Liberation. New York: Harper

7. REFERENCES AND ADDITIONAL Perennial Modern Classics, 2009. RESOURCES Singer, Peter. “All animals are equal.” Animal For additional background information: Rights and Human Obligations. Eds. Tom Regan http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_testing and Peter Singer. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1989, pp. 148-162. For more cases of animal use in experimentation: University of Minnesota website on Research Acknowledgements Animal Resources: http://www.ahc.umn.edu/rar Support for the High School Project at NYU School of Medicine was provided by the Squire http://www.vetmed.ucdavis.edu/research/ Foundation. References: Beauchamp, Tom L., and R.G. Frey, eds. The Oxford Handbook of . Oxford: Oxford UP, 2011.

Caplan, Arthur L. “Beastly Conduct: Ethical Issues In Animal Experimentation.” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 406 (1983): 159-69.

Goodman, Brenda. “In Test Program, Whole Foods Becomes a Lobster’s New Best Friend.” The New York Times 10 June 2006. http://www. nytimes.com/2006/06/10/us/10crabs.html

Gruen, Lori, “The Moral Status of Animals”, The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Ed.

Edward N. Zalta. Fall 2014. http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2014/ entries /moral-animal/

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