JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES (JSS) Vol. 2 No. 2. December, 2018
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JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES (JSS) – Vol. 2. No.2 December, 2018
EDITORIAL COMMITTEE
EDITOR-IN-CHIEF
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ganiyat A. Adesina Uthman ,acma,mnes,fce, fifp Department of Economics, National Open University of Nigeria
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
Prof. Dimis I. Mai-Laifia Department of Economics, University of Jos
Prof. Mercy Ada Anyiwe Department of Economics, University of Benin
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ibrahim Bakare Department of Economics, Lagos State University
Dr. Oyebode Oyebamiji Department of Political Science, National Open University of Nigeria
Dr. Ojo Mathew Department of Political Science, National Open University of Nigeria
Dr. Abdul-Lateef Adelakun Department of Mass Communication, National Open University of Nigeria
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ASSISTANT EDITOR Dr. Ebele Udeoji Department of Political Science, National Open University of Nigeria
JOURNAL SECRETARY
Dr. Emmanuel I. Ajudua Department of Economics, National Open University of Nigeria
Mrs. Antonia Hafunjoh Okonye Department of Political Science, National Open University of Nigeria
JOURNAL BUSINESS MANAGER
Mr. Samuel Olusanya Department of Political Science, National Open University of Nigeria
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EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD
Prof. Kabir Hassan New Orleans University, U.S.A
Prof. Sheriffdeen A. Tella Olabisi Onabanjo University, Nigeria
Prof. Anthony A. Akinola Oxford University, United Kingdom
Prof. Abdallah Uba Adamu National Open University of Nigeria
Prof. Risikat Dauda University of Lagos
Prof. Abiodun S. Bankole University of Ibadan
Prof. Shehu Abdallah Federal Capital Territory
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THE EDITORIAL
The Journal of Faculty of Social Sciences, National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN) is a bi-annual peer reviewed journal published by Faculty of Social Sciences, NOUN. The objectives of the journal is to establish a symbiosis among scholars, state and society by providing purpose-driven research as a template for the formulation of problem-solving policies in response to the myriad national and international integration and development challenges. JSS-NOUN is an offshore peer review journal published two times in a year by the Faculty of Social Sciences-NOUN.
Notes to Contributors
The journal operates a double blind reviewing process; it accepts original articles from fields of Social Sciences and other related fields that have not been submitted anywhere else for publication.
Manuscript Submission Guides
The language of the journal is English Font size is 12-point type in Time New Romans with double line space Manuscript SHOULD NOT be more than 5000 words.
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Tables and Figures must be numbered serially, titled and must be inserted under the text explaining them Topic should not be more than 20 words, written in 14 point font, at the Centre of A4 paper. Author(s)’ name(s) should be written in same font as topic; should be in the centre with email and phone number of the Author. In case of 2 or more Authors, the Corresponding Author should be identified. The journal style of referencing is APA, 6th Edition Authors should submit softcopy of articles as MS-Word document electronically to [email protected]. Final paper after review process should be submitted to [email protected]
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TABLE OF CONTENT
Effect of Financial Liberalisation on Macroeconomic Convergence Variables in the West Africa Monetary Zone- Page 2 Tunde Abubakar BAKARE-AREMU, PhD
Conflict Transformation and Peace Building in Divided Homogeneous Communities: A Case Study of Ife and Modakeke- Page 57 Basil IBEBUNJO, PhD and Samuel Opeyemi IROYE, PhD
Tax Incentives and Industrial Development in Nigeria- Page 89 Emmanuel Ifeanyi AJUDUA, PhD and Davis OJIMA, PhD Poverty and Inequalities Nexus: A Comparative Study of Nigeria and Ghana- Page 117 Samuel Olumuyiwa OLUSANYA
Usage of Electronic Banking Services and Customer Satisfaction in Lagos State, Nigeria- Page 157
Jameelah O. YAQUB, PhD and Anthonia T. ODELEYE, PhD
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Nollywood to Onlinewood: Issues on Film Censorship and National Security in Nigeria- Page 193
Lateef Adekunle ADELAKUN, PhD
Islamic Leadership Model and the Burden of Terrorism and Leadership in Nigeria: Issues, Myths and Realities-Page 231
Ibrahim Olatunde UTHMAN, PhD, FIPMD
Positive or Negative Reinforcement of Staffs’ Behaviour towards Achievement of University Vision, Mission and Objectives: Which Works Better?-Page 269 Aminu Kazeem IBRAHIM, PhD
Yoruba Muslim Youths and the Problems of Identity in the Midst of Diversity-Page 296
Mikail Kolawole ABDULSALAM and Jamilah Adenike ADEOGUN
Role of the Mass Media in Community Development in Nigeria:A Study of Ushafa and Amaigbo Communities-Page 328 Josephine OBIAJULU and Daniel Ewomazino AKPO Employability of Journalism Graduates of Open and Distance Learning (ODL) Institutions: A Tracer Study of National Open University of Nigeria Graduates (2009-2014)-Page 370
Chidinma Henrietta ONWUBERE, Ph.D, LL.B
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Effect of Financial Liberalisation on Macroeconomic Convergence Variables in the West Africa Monetary Zone
Tunde Abubakar BAKARE-AREMU, PhD
Department of Economics Faculty of Social Sciences National Open University, Jabi, Abuja. Email: [email protected]
Abstract
his research study examines the effect of financial liberalization policy on the prospect of attainment of key Tmacroeconomic convergence criteria required for the commencement of West Africa Monetary zone (WAMZ). Achieving these WAMZ's global convergence criteria ex-ante policy coordination by member states have however proved difficult. This study examines the influence of financial liberalisation policy on the likelihood of achieving these criteria without prior policy coordination within the zone using descriptive and panel data techniques on data which spanned the period 2001 to 2015.The study revealed that lack of policy coordination within the zone had an adverse effect on financial liberalisation policy as regards its effects
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on the WAMZ area macroeconomic convergence variables possibly due to the asymmetrical policy thrust. The study concludes that there might not be any reasonable macroeconomic convergence without policy coordination and that financial liberalisation policy is a key factor to reckon with for a successful WAMZ.
JEL Classification: C13; C33; F33; G14
Keywords: Financial Liberalisation, Macroeconomic Convergence Variables, Panel Data Analysis, West Africa Monetary Zone
1 INTRODUCTION
Developing nations have lately witnessed an increase in international capital and investment flows occasioned by the implementation of financial liberalisation policies. Major drivers of these flows are globalisation and financial market liberalisation which allow investors to seek higher rate of returns and have the opportunity to diversify risk globally (Nwaogwugwu, 2012). Nations that adopted financial liberalisation policies encourage inflows of capital through dismantling of restrictions and controls (regulations) on foreign capital flows. It also entails domestic financial markets deregulation in order to improve their economic prospects through the adoption of market-driven economic systems. According to Diamond (1984); and
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Obstfield (1994); financial liberalisation promotes access to international capital inflows which allows recipient economies to smooth both investment and consumption, especially in a situation of adverse shocks. Ram (2009) identified the key elements of financial liberalisation to be: deregulation of interest rate; removal of credit control; privatisation of government banks and financial institutions; removal of restrictions on entry of private sector and/or foreign banks and financial institutions into domestic financial markets; introduction of market based instruments of monetary control; and capital account liberalisation
In West Africa, almost all the countries embarked on financial liberalization with the adoption of Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) in the mid 1980s. In particular, all West Africa Monetary Zone (WAMZ) countries adopted financial liberalisation policy, and thus implemented market reforms and liberalisation as part of SAPs. Five of the six countries in WAMZ adopted and commenced the Structural Adjustment Programme in 1986, while Liberia had begun two years earlier. The Gambia and Guinea adopted the programmes in bits. In the Gambia, it was known as Structural Adjustment Loan One and Two (SAL I & SAL II), which took place in 1986 and 1992 respectively. But, Guinea referred to it as Structural Adjustment
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Programme One and Two (SAP I & SAP II) in 1986 and 1997 respectively.
There is a consensus in the literature that macroeconomic policy outcomes and performance reflects the relative degree of financial liberalisation policy (Abdullahi and Suardi (2009); Romain et.al. (2011); Bekeart, et. al.(2006)). In addition, Balogun, (2014) reiterates that liberalisation policy regime soften influenced a number of macroeconomic variables indicators such as economic growth, trade openness, deficit financing, capital and current account balances and financial prices (i.e. inflation rate, exchange rate, interest rates and external reserves, etc.). Summarily, this study links financial liberalization policy to macroeconomic performance and national capacity to meet ex-ante macroeconomic convergence criteria in WAMZ area.
- The proposed WAMZ consists of six West African countries, namely: the Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Nigeria and Sierra Leone. These countries wish to have a common currency through monetary union. However, for this to happen, nine macroeconomic variables preconditions must be met ex-ante macroeconomic policy coordination simultaneously. That is, these nine macroeconomic convergence criteria must be met ex-ante before the monetary union
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could commence. The two sets of criteria to be met are: the primary and the secondary criteria. The primary consists of the following macroeconomic stance which each intending member of WAMZ must attain with the targets in parenthesis: They include the following: Inflation rate (single digit); fiscal deficit/GDP excluding grants (≤ 4%); Central bank financing of fiscal deficit as percentage of previous year tax revenue (< 10%): gross external reserves–month of imports (≥ 3). The secondary criteria are tax revenue as a GDP ratio (> 20%); salary mass/total tax revenue ( 35%); Public investment financed from domestic receipts as percentage of total tax revenue (≤ 20%); real interest rate (>0) and exchange rate against WAMZ ERM (± 15%). Table 1 show the score card of the participating countries with respect to the number of criteria met annually from 2001 to 2013.
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Table 1: Summary of Convergence Criteria Score Card of WAMZ Member Countries Country 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Mean Expected
Gambia 4 2 2 6 6 7 6 6 6 4 5 5 5 4.9 9
Ghana 2 1 4 4 4 5 5 2 3 2 6 5 5 3.6 9
Guinea 4 4 1 1 3 2 4 3 3 1 5 5 4 3.0 9
Liberia 3 3 3 4 4 3 4 6 6 5 5 5 5 4.2 9
Nigeria 6 5 5 6 7 8 8 6 7 5 6 6 6 6.3 9
S/Leone 3 3 1 3 5 3 3 2 1 2 3 4 5 3.4 9
Source: derive from WAMZ convergence reports (2015); www.wami.org
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The Table 1.1 shows evaluation of individual country’s criteria performance in term of its expectation to satisfy the proposed nine convergence criteria. The best performance ever witnessed within the zone was by Nigeria in 2006 and 2007 followed by the Gambia in 2006, while the highest score (in term of satisfying the nine convergence criteria) ever attained by other countries, include the following; Ghana, five (5) in 2006 and 2007; Guinea, four (4) in 2001 and 2002; Liberia, six (6) in the year 2008 and 2009; and Sierra Leone, five (5) in 2005. The highlighted figures represent the best each country has attained in term of satisfying the criteria. In spite of subscribing to the membership of WAMZ, individual macroeconomic policy pursuits did not foster macroeconomic convergence as desired.
2.0 LITERATUREREVIEW
2.1 Financial Liberalisation and Macroeconomic Outcomes
Stiglitz (1994) posited that while government intervention (beyond financial sector regulation) could not guarantee a more productive and efficient financial sector, a partially repressed financial sector clearly had the capacity to outperform more liberalised finance. It should, therefore, not be assumed a priori, that liberalisation will bring a net improvement in the financial sector or in the real sector performance.
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In a related study by Willi and Brigitte (2010), the major issues involved in financial market liberalisation were examined. These included policy proposals put forth as a correcting mechanism for the last financial meltdown by the G20 group, the US, the UK, and the EU and it was found that liberalisation thrived in a well developed financial sector. In addition, the role of capital flows volatility threat on economic growth stability was examined in selected developing economies, using the empirical model of panel logit estimation, and it was shown that foreign debt liabilities to total liabilities and foreign direct investment liabilities to total liabilities increase the likelihood of banking crisis (Helmi & Nabila, 2014). Misati and Nyamongo (2012) investigated the dual role of financial liberalization on growth in 34 Sub-Sahara African countries, using a bank crisis model and a growth model. The outcome of their study indicates that institutional variables are the key factors that determine economic growth while they recommend the adoption of the financial liberalisation policy and institutional reform measures.
McKinnon (1973) argued that the limited capital market development of developing countries meant that firms were largely confined to self-finance at the same time that indivisibilities in physical capital required the accumulation of savings prior to physical capital
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accumulation. Bekaert, Harvey and Lundblad (2005) looked at growth volatility and financial liberalisation in 40 developed and 95 developing countries and concluded that financial liberalisation was associated with decline in the ratio of consumption growth volatility to GDP growth volatility. This means there is a nexus of financial liberalisation and consumption volatility; the result, however, holds for both total and idiosyncratic consumption growth. A similar study carried out by Abdullahi and Suardi (2009), found that trade liberalization was observed to increase the efficacy of consumption growth smoothing and income stability. In the same study, it was demonstrated that volatility in output and consumption growth caused by trade liberalisation was negatively associated with the depth of the financial market.
Romain et al (2011) examined the costs and benefits of financial liberalisation and concluded that a number of problems are associated with financial liberalisation. Ameliorating contract enforceability problems, through a better legal system and other institutional reforms are seen as fundamental sources of higher growth and lower volatility in the long-run. They noted, however, that it often takes time for these reforms to be achieved. They further noted that countries with a functioning financial sector can be made better-off
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by liberalising and experiencing a rapid but fairly risky growth path, rather than by remaining closed and trapped in a safe ‘haven’ but slow growth path. In a similar work by Fowewe (2006), who examined the effect of financial liberalization on savings in 16 Sub- Saharan African countries, found that financial liberalisation had dual and conflicting effects on savings. These conflicting effects were as a result of the usage of two mutually exclusive variables to proxy financial liberalisation namely, FINDEX1 and FINDEX2, the former being derived from method of principal component which put into consideration various phases of financial liberalisation process while the latter (FINDEX 2) used period in which the countries under study adopted financial liberalization policy which took dummy ‘0’ before liberalisation and ‘1’ after liberalisation. The conflicting resultant effects indicate that financial liberalisation (FINDEX 1) positively and significantly spurs savings while financial liberalisation (FINDEX 2) has a negative effect on savings. This was as a result of the credit constraint in the economy which the financial liberalisation removed and thereby increased consumption. This findings supported the studies by Giovannini (1983): and Bandiera et al.(2000).
Gries et al (2009) examined linkages between financial deepening, trade openness and economic development for 16 Sub-Sahara Africa
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countries and concluded that there was a limit to which the financial sector could promote regional development and thereby refuted the popular finance-led hypothesis. In general, they found that financial deepening and trade openness had swayed regional development only marginally. Therefore, rather than support any development strategies prioritising financial sector liberalisation or trade liberalisation, they advocated a holistic approach that would take into account other fundamental development factors. Their study, however, did not look at the country specific-effect on these Sub-Sahara Africa countries, they only considered the joint effects. In a related study, carried out by Bekeart, Harvey and Lundblad (2006) which examined the possibility of financial liberalisation in supporting economic growth (i.e. financial liberalisation–growth nexus), they found that equity market liberalisation on average led to 1% increase in real economic growth over a five-year period. Also, they gathered that financial liberalisation furthered financial deepening but that the measure of financial development failed to fully neutralise the liberalization effect. In the same vein, investment/GDP ratio increases post liberalisation, meaning that financial liberalisation spurs investment. However, differentiating across liberalising countries, they found that secondary school enrolment, a small government and an Anglo-Saxon legal system tended to enhance the liberalisation effect.
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Niels and Robert (2005) examined the influence of financial liberalisation on savings, investment and economic growth in twenty- five (25) emerging market economies during the 1973-1996period. The investigation of the relationship between financial liberalisation, on the one hand, and savings, investment and economic growth, on the other hand, reveals that there is no evidence that financial liberalisation affects domestic savings and total investment although there are some signs that financial liberalisation may actually reduce rather than increase domestic savings, whereas it is positively associated with private investment as well as per capita GDP growth. They further provided evidence of an adverse relationship between financial liberalisation and public investment, and suggest a substitution of public investment for private investment which, they noted, may contribute to higher economic growth. Menzie and Hiro (2007) presented a new measure of financial openness or liberalization which seeks to address the shortcomings in earlier literature on the extent of openness in cross-border financial transactions. In creating this index (i.e. index which aimed at measuring the extent of capital controls), they make use of the information from the International Monetary Fund (IMF), Annual Report on Exchange Arrangement’s and Exchange Restriction (AREAER).
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Also, John (2009) examined the impact of financial liberalisation on domestic resources mobilization in nineteen (19) African countries. He noted that the available domestic savings were insufficient to meet the already low investment requirement, and that to achieve the Millennium Development Goals, some substantial external resources inflows was required, with a view to relieving the savings and foreign exchange constraint faced by most of these countries. He further noted that most resources inflows for the preceding three decades were largely Official Development Assistance (ODA), that is, they were aid rather than capital investment inflows. This is, however, dangerous because it could lead a country into aid dependency and incapable of mobilising financial resources, domestically. Specifically, during the period stated earlier, foreign savings had been necessary for funding more than 35 percent of the region’s already low investment level and they are largely ODA.
2.2 Financial Liberalisation and Macroeconomic Outcomes in the West African Monetary Zone (WAMZ)
Essays (2013) analysed the relationship between capital account liberalisation and economic growth in the West African Monetary Zone (WAMZ) for the 1980-2012 period. The result revealed that in Ghana and Sierra Leone there was a significant positive relationship
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between capital account openness and economic growth, both in the short and the long-run. But, there was no significant long-run relationship between capital account liberalization and economic growth in the Gambia, Guinea, Liberia and Nigeria, and thus concludes that opening of capital accounts should be gradual and be complemented with sound macroeconomic and financial policies. In a related study by Akingunola, Adekunle, Badejo and Salami (2013), in which vector error correction model was used to establish a positive relationship between financial liberalisation and economic growth in Nigeria. In line with this, Sulaimon, Oke and Azeez (2012), empirically investigated the effect of financial liberalisation on economic growth in developing countries using the Johansen co- integration test and the Error Correction Mechanism (ECM) and found that financial liberalisation had growth stimulating effects.
A study by Essay (2015) noted that the failure of Keynesian theories of government intervention had reinforced the invisible hand of allocative power of the market of the classical thought with the adoption of financial liberalisation through structural adjustment programmes in Ghana and Nigeria. The study further examined whether these two countries had benefited from the policy, noting the imperfection of their financial markets and concluded that the duo
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have benefited but that more could be achieved, if the market is well developed. In a similar study, Owusu (2009), investigated the financial sector reforms programme in Ghana taking into consideration, the pre and post-reforms policies to determine whether those policies had helped to eradicate associated problems in the financial system and noted that the performance had been substantial and healthy since the adoption of financial liberalisation (financial reforms).Also, Orji, Eigbiremolern and Ogbuabor (2013) examined the nexus between financial liberalisation and private investment in Nigeria and found that financial liberalisation had a significant impact on private investment flows. The study noted the existence of a structural break within its scope.
Agbaeze and Nwaka (2014) examined the sequencing of financial liberalisation process within the hostile macroeconomic environment and concluded that the hostile macroeconomic environment minimised the expected benefit of financial liberalisation. They then however, recommended policies that could ensure promotion of monetary stability, stabilise macroeconomic environment and provide infrastructures to enable private investments to thrive in Nigeria. Also, Santigie (2010) examined the complementarity between the accumulation of money balances (financial assets) and physical
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capital accumulation in Sierra Leone within the context of a theoretical underpinning of the McKinnon-hypothesis and suggested the need for achieving positive real interest rate to support capital formation. Quartey, Aidam and Obeng (2008) also investigated the effect of trade liberalisation on economic growth of Ghana and, by implication, on poverty reduction level. The study shows that trade is better than no trade and that trade liberalisation will significantly improve exports earnings and enhance economic growth in Ghana.
Mansaray and Swaray (2013) examined how changes in the financial market in Sierra Leone affect real money balance behaviours. The result suggested stable demand for real money balance and recommended that monetary authorities should continue to pursue real money balance as an intermediate target in setting the country's monetary policy framework. Nwadubu and Onwuika(2014) observed the impact of financial liberalisation in Nigeria on saving-investment relationship and, by implication, on economic growth using error correction mechanism (ECM). They concluded that financial liberalisation impacted minimally on economic growth. In contrast to this, the study by Sulaimon et al (2012) examined the presence of the McKinnon-Shaw hypothesis in Nigeria, that is, that financial liberalisation has a positive impact on economic growth. The study
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concluded that financial liberalisation has a growth-stimulating effect in Nigeria and, thus, recommends that economic stability should either be maintained or pursued before implementing financial liberalisation measures, and that, the regulatory and supervisory framework for the financial sector should be strengthened. Antwi, Mills and Zhao (2013) examined the major macroeconomic factors (variables) that drive the Ghana economy proxied by Ghana's real per capita GDP growth, and found a long-run relationship among those macroeconomic factors and economic growth and recommended that the government should look inward in revenue generation rather than relying on foreign aid. Dapaah, Brar, Cole, Olowo-Okere and Seligmann (2013) scrutinised Liberia's financial management capacity building initiatives from the immediate aftermath of the 14 years civil war, looking at challenges, support opportunities and threats, and concluded that financial management capacity building in Liberia followed an incremental open and collaborative approach. In summary, most studies in the West African monetary zones favour financial liberalisation policy measures on both country-specific and zone-wide basis, but it was observed that macroeconomic stability is key to a successful financial liberalisation adoption.
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2.3 Analysis of Macroeconomic Convergence in Africa and Beyond
Calvin and Olumide (2014) examined the challenges of financial integration and monetary coordination in the West African Monetary Zone (WAMZ) and the East African Community (EAC).The challenges noted include lack of minimum prerequisite condition such as an adequate degree of trade and economic integration. The authors' observed that synchronisation of key convergence criteria between the two regions will help, and that different degrees of financial sector development may equally hinder the process of financial integration in the two regions. In a similar study, Kumo (2011) examined convergence in real per capita GDP and macroeconomic policy and stability indicators within the Southern African Development Community (SADC).
The outcomes of his tests indicate that, there is no evidence of absolute beta and sigma convergence in real per capital GDP among the SADC economies. In addition, according to him, further assessment of possible conditional beta convergence to own steady state showed no evidence of convergence either. A related study by Babones (2014) looked at the macro trends of global convergence with particular attention to the "BRIC” countries (i.e., Brazil, Russia,
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India and China) and the "four tigers''' economies of East Asia ( Hong Kong, Korea, Singapore, and Taiwan). He observed that the macroeconomic trajectories of the BRICs since 1980 could be seen as disparate cases of evolution towards equilibrium: stagnation for Brazil, convergence down for Russia, and convergence up for India and China. He further noted that all the four countries would soon have near identical macroeconomic characteristics (except for India which was at a much earlier point on the curve than the others). A review of development in the world economy and its implication for Southern African was carried out by Goeiemann (2007), with primary focus on the progress towards the achievement of macroeconomic convergence (MEC) targets in SADC member states. The study compared the actual performance against agreed macroeconomic indicators and targets in the SADC's macroeconomic convergence programme, and then presented prospects for the 2007 and beyond. The study by Maleke (2005) investigated the evidence for convergence in macroeconomic variables of Southern African Custom Union (SACU), using panel data unit root tests. The results showed significant evidence that the SACU countries had reached a reasonable threshold of convergence on some specific macroeconomic convergence variables which he attributed to common economic policies and institutional characterisations.
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Most other studies on macroeconomic convergence are based on selected convergence variables, mainly inflation rate which was analysed using inflation differentials to validate ex post the doctrine of the “law of one price” which had been analysed with several models especially in the Euro area {Hofmann & Remsperger, 2005; Angeloni & Ehrmann, 2007; Horvath & Koprnicka, 2008 and Mara & André, 2011}. The empirical approach of these studies was econometric differing only in terms of model specification, scope and span of data. While Hofmann & Remsperger (2005) analysed inflation differentials by panel-generalized method of moments over 1999Q1-2004Q2. Angeloni and Ehrmann (2007) analyzed both output and inflation differentials observed across the Euro area over 1998Q1-2003Q2, from aggregate demand and supply equations. The findings of these authors suggest that the observed inflation differentials are mainly influenced by differences in cyclical positions and fluctuations of the effective exchange rate, combined with a rather high level of inflation persistence, while the proxies of price level convergence do not show significantly.
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3.0 THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
3.1 Conceptual Framework of Financial Liberalisation and Macroeconomic Convergence
3.1.1 The Concept of Financial Liberalization
Prior to financial liberalisation, the government of developing countries practiced financial repression thereby limiting the administrative framework of the financial system to its whims, such that financial policies formulated and implemented go well with its desires, (Sulaiman et al, 2012). However, financial liberalisation (FL) refers to the deregulation of domestic financial markets and the liberalisation of the capital account. The effects of FL have been a matter of some debate. In one view, it strengthens financial development and contributes to higher long-run growth. In another view, it induces excessive risk-taking, increases macroeconomic volatility and leads to more frequent crises. (Romain, 2007).
According to Khan and Hassan (1998), the main financial liberalisation policies were aimed at liberalising interest rates, reducing controls on credit, enhancing competition and efficiency in the financial system, strengthening the supervisory framework, and promoting the growth and deepening of financial markets.
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FINANCIAL L1BERALISATION
Interest Rate Exchange Rates Privatizatio Removal of Foreign Ownership Capital Stock Market Deregulation Deregulation n of Banks. Credit Control and Participation in Account Liberalization Banking Sector Liberalizati
Banking Sub Sector Reform and Development Foreign Capital
Financial System (Sector) Development
Enhanced Macroeconomic Indicators
Economic Growth and Development
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework of Framework of Financial liberalisation
Source: Bakare-Aremu (201 Bakare-Aremu (2018)
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The conceptual framework of financial liberalisation shows several linkages among financial liberalisation policies and financial sector development on the one hand and economic growth and development on the other hand (Finance-led Growth Thesis). This begins with financial liberalisation policies (such as interest rates deregulation, exchange rate deregulation, removal of credit control, private and foreign ownership and control of banks, capital market and capital account liberalisations) which lead to domestic financial sector development and positive net foreign capital inflows. Both foreign capital inflows and domestic financial sector development (financial deepening) have dual effects on economic activities. Firstly, they smoothen hitherto deficit domestic financial resources through improved savings mobilization and also increase investible funds in the capital market; secondly it encourages foreign direct investment flows. These dual effects will result in the enhancement of some macroeconomic indicators, such as reduction in inflation rates and improved investment (productive base), increased GDP growth rate, increased tax base and tax revenue, (and thus reduced public debt and debt servicing), increase in foreign reserves, appreciate and conserve foreign exchange earnings, improve balance of payments and trade, and increase real interest rates. These improvements on the macroeconomic indicators will then have direct and indirect
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enhancement effects on the economic growth and development. Direct effect is evidence from increased productivity through enhanced funds mobilisation and its optimal disbursement for productive purposes. On the other hand, the indirect effect is premised on the fact that financial liberalisation can enhance revenue generation and reduce debt financing and servicing, and thus in a way increase the productive base of the nation through provision of improved infrastructures and facilitation of social health insurance that will consequently increase the average wellbeing of the people and their performance in the work place.
3.1.2 The Concept of Macroeconomic Convergence The convergence theory is based on the neoclassical growth model (Solow, 1956; Swan, 1956) and implies a tendency, over the long- term, to level the rate of income growth or that of per capita production in different geographical zones. In other words, there is convergence when a “poor” economy tends to increase more rapidly than a “rich” economy, in a way that the “poor” country will, in the long-term, catch up with the level of income or per capita production of the “rich” country.
The idea of convergence in economics is also sometimes known as the catch-up effect. It is the hypothesis that poorer economies' per
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capita incomes will tend to grow at faster rates than richer economies. As a result, all economies would eventually level up in terms of per capita income. It was noted that developing countries have the potential to grow at a faster rate than developed countries because of diminishing returns (in particular, to capital) are not as strong as in capital-rich countries. Furthermore, poorer countries can replicate the production methods, technologies, and institutions of developed countries, shortening the period needed to reach the production level of the more developed economies.
3.2 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
3.2.1 Financial Liberalization Theory
The justifications for policies of financial liberalisation find their initial expression in the propositions contained in the independent (and nearly simultaneous) publications of McKinnon (1973) and Shaw (1973). These propositions, taken together, have since become known as the McKinnon-Shaw hypothesis or the financial liberalisation thesis. In sum, these authors argued that the financial sectors of most developing economics were repressed by misguided financial and monetary policies, overregulation of the financial sector and other forms of public sector intervention and excessive public
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borrowing from the financial system. The consequences of this repression could be seen in: Administering low nominal interest rates, often resulting in negative real rates (nominal interest rate less inflation rate). Low ratio of real money to national income. Small and oligopolistic financial sectors (relative to the size of the economy) dominated by intermediation in short-term financial assets. Dual economies with capital-intensive modern sectors served by cheap foreign exchange and low-interest finance and labour-intensive traditional sectors, left to be served by informal finance. Large government deficits that pre-empted the resources of the formal financial sector and generated inflation (by inducing excess money creation).
The outcome of that repression was low savings and investment rates and retarded growth. Shaw (1973) argued that increased financial intermediation provided the impetus for growth more directly. Liberalisation would result in an expanded, improved and integrated financial sector that would lead to:
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an Increase in the savings rate from the diversion of potential savings from inflation hedges, capital flight and the like; an Increase in the rate of investment by facilitating more lumpy investment; and a direct enhancement to growth via improved financial technologies
These growth-inducing consequences of increased monetisation and financial sector intermediation are referred to as Shaw’s ‘intermediation’ effect. Financial liberalisation, in the view of both authors, meant: a) Market-determined interest rates b) Greater ease of entry into the banking sector to encourage competition c) The elimination of directed credit programmes d) Reduced fiscal dependence of the state on credit from the banking system (to allow for greater expansion of credit to the private sector) e) The integration of formal and informal markets f) A movement towards equilibrium exchange rates and, eventually, flexible exchange rate regimes with open capital accounts
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Initiatives (a)-(e) are, effectively, domestic financial liberalisation, while (f) extends liberalisation to external finance. Though the causal links between liberalised finance and growth suggested by McKinnon (1973) and Shaw (1973) were different, they were not mutually exclusive.
However, McKinnon (1973) and Shaw (1973) identified savings as one of the transmission mechanisms through which financial liberalisation is expected to affect economic growth. The Fig. 3.2 shows that, the artificially low interest rates, resulting from financial repression, keeps savings low. Low savings lead to a higher degree of competition between different investment projects than would otherwise be the case, resulting in a situation where high-yielding investments are rationed out. The financial liberalisation hypothesis states that removing repression should increase interest rates and so attract deposits which will improve savings and, thereby, increase saving from point X on the SS curve to point E, the equilibrium point.
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Real
Interest I Z S Rate
r2
r* E
C r1 X Y I
0 Savings, 1 2 Investment I I8 I Figure 2: Financial Repression
Source: Romain et al (2011)
In Figure 2, the real rate of interest is measured on the vertical axis, while the level of investment and savings are measured on the horizontal axis. The SS curve represents the savings function, while the II curve represents the investment function. If the market is allowed to operate freely, equilibrium in the market for loanable funds would be attained at point E, where amount saved (S) is equal to amount invested (I*), and the market-determined rate of interest will be r*. However, if an interest rate ceiling (C) is imposed on 1 deposit interest rates at r1, savings will be I , banks can charge a 1 lending rate at r2, which corresponds to investment at I . However,
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interest rate ceilings will more likely apply to both deposit and lending interest rates. In this case, both savings and investment will be restricted to II; XY amount of investment opportunities is not met, and the investment undertaken will be inefficient (dotted area).
Liberalisation of the financial sector through interest rate decontrols, denationalization of banks, strengthening of prudential regulations, and the granting of more bank licenses (including foreign participation), is expected to raise interest rates, thereby increasing savings and also investments. This process will continue until the real interest rate is at r*, where saving is enough to satisfy investment. McKinnon and Shaw, therefore, advocated the liberalisation of such repressed financial systems so as to increase savings and investment, and consequently promote economic growth.
4.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
4.1 Research Design
The static panel data estimation techniques were used for this study. The study estimated the three methods: the Pooled OLS, the Fixed Effect Model (FEM), and the Random Effect Model (REM) where necessary for each model, and the optimal results were presented after diagnostic tests. In the empirical analysis, this study used data from
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six (6) member countries of WAMZ spanning 2001 to 2015. This technique (panel data technique) was used to estimate and test for this study objective as indicated in equation (6). The static model is implied because this study wish to estimate long run relationship as against the dynamic model (GMM) wish is meant for short run analysis.
4.2 Model Specification
To test for this study objective, which is on the effect of financial liberalisation on the macroeconomic convergence variables in WAMZ, the study adopts the openness and financial liberalisation model, which is in consonance with the model estimated by Niels and Robert (2005) and Abdullahi and Suardi (2009). The former estimates a set of equation to investigate the relationship between financial liberalisation on savings, investment and growth. The econometric specification used in the study, (which is in line with the theoretical formulation of financial liberalisation thesis with some modifications) can be generally described as follows:
yit j j FINLIB jt X jt t (1) s FINLIB X y j j jt jt t (2) i FINLIB X y j j jt jt t (3)
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ipr FINLIB X y j j jt jt t (4) ipb FINLIB X y j j jt jt t (5) where is the per capita growth rate; is the domestic saving to yg s y
GDP ratio; is the total investment to GDP ratio; is the private i y ipr y investment to GDP ratio; is the public investment to GDP ratio; ipby
is the country specific constant; FINLIB is the measure of j financial liberalisation, and is a vector of country variables X jt which are normally used in cross-country analysis. The subscripts j and t refer to a specific country and time period, respectively and t is the error term. The reasons for the adoption of the above model in estimating the effect of financial liberalisation (proxy FLPIND) on macroeconomic convergence variables are; (a) cross – country (i.e., WAMZ); (b) multiple regression technique; and (c) multi-dependent variables (6)
Similarly, for the purpose of this study, equation (6) is estimated to elucidate the impact of financial liberalisation on the nine macroeconomic convergence variables. Therefore, Yi represents the
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dependent variables, that is, all macroeconomic convergence variables while financial liberalisation indicator (FLPIND) is the main explanatory variable and financial sector development (FDN), that is, financial deepening and net capital flow (NCF) are represented in the earlier equations as Xij, which are the control variables that are assumed to have influence on the dependent variables because of their relationship with common policy programmes (Structural Adjusted Programme) adopted by all member states. All variables are annual time series data, and various tests were carried out on these variables for reliability and appropriatability of the model. Such tests include the Haussmann tests which were conducted to examine whether the model estimation should be Fixed Effect (FE) or Random Effect (RE).
4.3 The Techniques of Analysis
The panel data method of analysis was employed in this study because of the nature of data involved. It was used to achieve the objective because the data's nature is both cross sectional and time series. These techniques allow for correction of those problems that are associated with pure time series analysis, such as problem of autocorrelation and heteroskedacity.
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4.4 Data Sources
The data used in this study were obtained from two separate sources, namely: (a) Internal sources (b) External sources (a) The Internal Sources
These are annual data publications of individual member country’s Central Bank Statistical Bulletin, the Stock Exchange Markets, and Bureaux of Statistics. (b) The external sources
These include, largely, West Africa Monetary Institute (WAMI) publications, the World Bank, and International Financial Statistics (IFS) of IMF.
4.5 Description of Major Variables
The implementation process of financial liberalisation involves a number of policies. Most of the studies that involve financial liberalisation implementation policies use individual financial liberalisation policies, or a dummy variable, to represent the effect of the policy. However, such studies either treated partial financial
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liberalisation as the full liberalisation policy or excluded it by taking only the date of the full liberalisation. To avoid the problem of losing information on the full liberalisation and allowing possible reversal of the policy, this study follows Shrestha and Chowdhury (2006), Caprio et al (2000), Laeven (2003), Owusu (2012), and Fowowe (2007) and construct a financial liberalisation index, using principal components analysis (PCA) for the selected ECOWAS countries (WAMZ), unlike Owusu (2012) and Fowowe (2007) who used multiple indices to capture FLP. The former used three financial liberalisation indices (FLIR, FLCA and FLBL) which were captured through the same process (i.e. PCA) but different policy thrust. The latter combined two methods of generating financial liberalisation indices: the dummy variable of 0s and 1s, and the PCA. Others, such as Caprio et al. (2000) construct a financial liberalisation index for eight developing countries by including eight main components of financial liberalisation in their index, which are: (i) interest rates, (ii) pro- competition measures, (iii) reserve requirements, (iv) credit controls, (v) banks’ ownership, (vi) prudential regulation, (vii) stock markets, and (viii) international financial liberalisation. Laeven (2003) also constructs a similar index for 13 developing countries. He included six measures of financial liberalisation but excluded the measures related to stock markets and external sector in his index, whilst
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Shrestha and Chowdhury (2006) construct a similar index for Nepal which included both internal and external liberalisation. However, according to Shrestha and Chowdhury (2006), in order to derive the financial liberalisation indices, some arbitrary value is assigned to each of the financial liberalisation policy variables. Each policy variable can take a value between 0 and 1, depending on the implementation status. When a particular sector is fully liberalised, that policy variable takes a value of 1, and when that sector remains regulated, it takes a value of 0. To capture the scenario of part, step- wise or gradual liberalisation process in a particular sector, partial values, like 0.33, 0.50, and 0.66, would be assigned. A value of 0.50 (or less, depending on the number of policy thrust to achieve full liberalisation) would indicate the first phase of partial deregulation in a two-step deregulation process, whereas a value 0.33 and 0.66 would indicate the first and second steps, respectively, in a three-phased deregulation process. The two-phased process takes a value of 1 in the second phase and the three-phased case takes a value of 1 in the third phase. In other words, if a country is fully liberalised in a single phase, the value assigned in this case is 1, but if the liberalisation is completed in two phases, then 0.5 is assigned for the first phase and 1 for the second. Similarly, if the liberalisation takes place in three
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phases, then the number assigned is 0.33 for the first phase, 0.66 for the second phase and 1 for the last phase (Shrestha and Chowdhury, 2006). This study joins other authors, in particular, Fowowe (2006) and Owusu (2012), to derive financial liberalisation policy index for WAMZ, using five compressed policy thrusts to represent both domestic and foreign or international dimension of financial liberalisation policy (FLP), which includes, capital account liberalisation (including stock market liberalisation), removal of credit control, interest rate deregulation, ownership structure of banks (indigenes, foreigner participation, and privatisation of government banks) and, lastly, foreign exchange liberalisation. Each of these is assigned the value of 0.2 and any country that has achieved the five is assigned 1 and that indicates full liberalisation. This is in line with Owusu (2012), and Shrestha and Chowdhury (2006).
Financial sector development (FDN) is in line with the Central Bank of Nigeria's definition, that is, ratio of credit to private sector, as a percentage of GDP. The value of net capital flows is derived from the difference between total capital inflows and capital outflows. Missing values are approximated with the aid of the linear interpolation technique, and in a bid to render all the coefficients as elasticity (where applicable), the log transformation of the time series data
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involved in this study is based on the advice of Carlos Barrera-
log( x) if x 0 Chaupis, that is, to adopt the rule: log (x) = where ''x'' is log( x) if x 0 the time series variable. The macroeconomic convergence variables are a creation of WAMI and are taken from the source.
5.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
5.1 Financial Liberalisation and Macroeconomic Variables in WAMZ
The main objective of this study is to assess the effect of financial liberalisation policy on the macroeconomic convergence variables in WAMZ. This was achieved through panel data estimation for the entire zone. However, the method reported in Table 5 (primary convergence variables) and Table 6 (secondary convergence variables) are the optimal model among the variants of panel data analysis method
Table 2: Panel Results on Effect of Financial Liberalisation Policy on Primary Macroeconomic Convergence Variables in WAMZ Variables INFR FDY CBFD GER C -0.7585 2.9624 -0.48169 6.60701 (0.8916) (0.3909) (0.9622) (0.0092)* FDN -1.5641 -1.81479 -4.282128 -0.018156 (0.0275)** (0.0001)* (0.0147)* (0.9442) NCF -0.00002 -0.00028 -0.000153 0.000498 (0..5863) (0.2698) (0.9048) (0.7539) FLPIND 27.5616 2.71858 42.79557 4.5261 (0.0079)* (0.6643) (0.0202)** (0.1793)
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R-Squared 0.308393 0.79325 0.087358 0.684067 Adjusted R- 0.228209 0.76929 0.050359 0.646899 Squared F- Statistics 3.843991 33.6918 2.361088 18.40445 (0.0006)* (0.0000)* (0.07822) (0.0000)* Wald Joint 7.72025 34.6639 7.117501 1.05795 Infl. Test (0.0522) (0.0000)* (0.0482)** (0.7887)
*Source: Author’s Computation, (2016)
**The values in parentheses are the probability of the coefficient and represent the level of significance. Where * and ** depict one and five per cent respectively The results in parentheses are the probability values of individual coefficients while asterisk (*) shows level of statistical i significance, i.e., 1% (*) and 5% (**). However, the result shows that financial liberalisation policy (FLPIND) has a significant positive impact on INFR, as indicated from the coefficient of FLPIND against INFR, (which means that the policy of financial liberalisation could engender inflationary pressure in WAMZ) and CBFD, which is against the theoretical expectation. Theoretically, inflation rate is expected to reduce as financial liberalisation progresses, only if the financial inflows are used for investment smoothening, rather than for consumption smoothening, all things being equal. Also, fiscal deficit financing through central banks should also reduce because FLP is
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expected to boost investment and increase revenue base of the government, thereby reducing fiscal deficit financing through the central bank. The of volatility and external shocks (Baerkert, 2004; Diamond, 1984; Obstfield, 1994 and Aghion et al, 2004). It is worth noting that the R-squared that measured the goodness of fit is 30% for INFR and 9 per cent for CBFD, but F-statistic and Wald test show robustness of the INFR model. The net capital flows (NCF) show inverse relationship, as expected on inflation rate (INFR), while financial sector development (FDN) equally indicates expected inverse relationship on inflation rate, meaning that financial sectors in the zone are well developed, such that, they mobilised and channelled funds to their most profitable uses, and as a result cushion inflation pressures. NCF increases the gross external reserves through conservation of foreign exchange from improved investments.
The finding that domestic financial sector development, as indicated by FDN, could reduce inflation through improved investment that is made possible through availability of investible funds, is in consonance with the study by Owusu (2012), while the result that linked financial liberalisation policies to high inflationary pressure, is also in line with the submission of Kamirsky (2009) who reiterated that financial liberalisation could be a source of shocks. It is useful to
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note that financial liberalisation policy (FLPIND) has expected sign on GER, but the effect is statistically insignificant. The reverse is the case for FDY, but it still statistically insignificant. However, the fact that the R-square in these two models is high (68% and 78%, respectively) and that the post estimation diagnostic test shows the robustness of the models at one per cent level of significance, further indicates that variables other than FLPIND has more influence on FDY and GER. Therefore, net capital inflows, proxied by NCF, and financial sector development indicators (FDN), are very crucial variables that explain variation in FDY and GER. Along with financial liberalisation policy indicator, financial deepening and capital flows should be taken note of, if primary convergence is to be achieved. The inverse relationship between FDN and FDY implies that financial sector development could lead to reduction in fiscal deficit, as expected. Since FDN's aim is to make funds available to its most potent or optimal user, this, in turn, will stimulate investment and productivity and, thereby, generate a new source of revenue to the government. The result further shows that for any one per cent reduction in FDY, FDN contributes a 1.8% of the estimated reduction.
Also, NCF measures the degree of financial openness of WAMZ and constitutes the activities in the capital accounts of WAMZ nations.
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This also indicates an inverse relationship as FDN. However, FLPIND indicates a positive relationship with FDY, which shows that FLP could be a source of fiscal indiscipline or recklessness in such manner that financial intermediation could be skewed towards raising of funds for public authorities. It could be summarised from these results that financial liberalisation has a positive effect on all primary macroeconomic convergence variables, whereas the theoretical expectation is that the relationship should be inverse to three of these four variables, namely INFR, FDY, CBFD. This implies that financial liberalisation is a source of volatility on these variables and could be a factor hindering the actualisation of convergence; but zonal gross external reserves is spurred by FLPIND, as expected.
The results that show the effect of financial liberalisation policy on secondary macroeconomic convergence variables in WAMZ countries using panel data analysis, are displayed in Table 3.
Table 3: Panel Results on Effect of Financial Liberalisation Policy on Secondary Macroeconomic Convergence Variables in WAMZ Variables TRY SMRTR PIFDR EXR RIR C 7.1592 34.1061 -4.08634 45.7063 2.148 (0.0029)* (0.0002)* (0.6957) (0.0019)* (0.6659) FDN 0.1055 2.1968 -6.00412 -0.8830 0.1457 (0.7175) (0.0094)* (0.6346) (0.6202) (0.8156) NCF -0.00002 -0.00042 -0.00003 -0.0001 -0.00003 (0.0911) (0.3877) (0.9963) (0.3811) (0.9238) FLPIND 11.13161 -7.70843 38.686 86.4195 -12.5697 (0.0102)** (0.5057) (0.0448)** (0.0013)* (0.1674) *Source: Author’s Computation (2016) Bakare-Aremu (2018)
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R-Squared 0.81534 0.13715 0.077869 0.69073 0.32709
Adjusted 0.79393 0.10217 0.041335 0.6585 0.24907 R-Squared F- Statistics 38.08254 3.9207 2.10678 19.2635 4.19255 (0.0007)* (0.0118)** (0.1066) (0.0000)* (0.0000)* Wald Joint 17.76629 17.7663 4.50575 18.3817 3.30652 Infl. Test (0.0005)* (0.0005)* (0.2118) (0.0023)* (0.3454)
**The values in parentheses are the probability of the coefficient and represent the level of significance Where * and ** depict one and five per cent respectively.
The results in parentheses are the probability values of individual coefficients while asterisk (*) shows the level of statistical i significance, i.e., 1% (*) and 5% (**). Therefore, the results of the first model (TRY dependent variable) show that FLPIND has a significant positive impact on TRY, as theoretically expected. This means that the policy of financial liberalisation should stimulate tax revenue and increase the tax base through investment and productivity, such that for a one per cent increase in TRY in WAMZ, 11% of this is explained by the financial liberalisation policy. Also, it can be deduced that FDN has a positive effect on TRY, as expected, because financial sector development should spur investment and increase tax revenue base, however, not statistically significantly. But NCF has an inverse and
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significant effect on TRY, the economic meaning of this is that there is existence of repatriation of profits and evasion of taxes by expatriates within the zone. The F-statistic value however, suggests the robustness of the model at one per cent level of significance and the goodness of fit measured by R-squared and adjusted R-squared at 82% and 79% respectively suggests reliability of the model and also allied with the Wald test for joint influence of explanatory variables which is significant at one per cent level.
The second dependent variable is the SMRTR, which is estimated in the same line with the first, over the same set of explanatory variables or regressors and indicates that FDN, which is proxied by the domestic financial sector development, has direct relationship with the dependent variables. This implies that financial sector development of WAMZ area could lead to increase in salary mass in relation to tax revenue. The expected relationship should be inverse, that is, FDN should spur the growth of private investment and productivity and reduce reliance on authority to create jobs, since FDN's aim is to make funds available to its most potent or optimal user. Also, net capital flows (NCF) measure the degree of financial openness of WAMZ and constitute the activities in the capital accounts of the WAMZ nations. This indicates an inverse relationship as FLPIND, as expected, but it is
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not statistically significant. This implies that financial liberalisation policy has expected theoretical relationship with SMRTR but not it is significant. The R-squared and the adjusted R-squared are at 14% and 10%, respectively, and are in disagreement with other statistical measures, such as F-statistic and Wald test for joint influence of explanatory variables that both indicate a one per cent level of significance. The Wald test for joint influence of countries dummy variable is, however, at one per cent significant which means that the individual countries that make up WAMZ differ in intercepts. The third is the PIFDR, and the indicator of financial liberalisation, which is the key explanatory variable (i.e., FLPIND) that indicates a positive relationship at 5% level of significance. This implies that policies of financial liberalisation spur public investments, financed domestically, as expected, while FDN, that is, financial deepening, shows an inverse relationship with PIFDR, meaning that private sector financing is paramount and more profitable and could reduce the amount available for public investment financing. However, the joint influence of financial indicators shows an acceptance of the null hypothesis that all the indicators, pooled together, do not have much significant influence on PIFDR. Similarly, the R squared and adjusted R- squared are 8% and 4%, respectively, which shows a very weak goodness of fit. In the same vein, the F statistic also indicates a non-significant relationship,
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but the Wald dummy variable test depicts a strong effect of dummy variables at one per cent.
The next dependent variable is the WAMZ exchange rate (EXR), which is regressed on the set of financial sector indicators; the domestic financial sector development (FDN), financial liberalisation policy indicator and net capital flows. The last two of these explanatory variables have an inverse relationship but it is not statistically significant, while the FLPIND, which is the measure of financial liberalisation policy, is positively related to the WAMZ exchange rate, which is at variance with the theoretical postulation. This shows that FLP could be a source of exchange rate volatility and depreciation. This is in consonance with the study of Kamirsky (2009), Roman (2011) and Owusu (2012). The adjusted R-squared which measures goodness of fit indicates a 66% goodness of fit. The F-statistic is at one per cent level of significance and the Wald test for joint influence indicates significant at one per cent.
The last dependent variable is the RIR, this is also set against the set of financial indicators. The domestic financial development of WAMZ (FDN) shows a direct relationship with WAMZ (RIR) which implies that a well developed domestic financial sector will promote return on investment, and reduce the spread of rate of interest (LR - DR) and
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increase real interest rate. In contrast, NCF and FLPIND both have inverse but insignificant relationship with RIR. The adjusted R-squared is 25% which is considerable low, but the F-statistic indicate robustness of the model. In contrast, the Wald joint influence of explanatory variables shows acceptance of null hypothesis that there is no joint influence of financial sector indicators on WAMZ real interest rate. It should be noted that the relationship between financial liberalization policy index and real interest rate in WAMZ is in contrast with McKinnon and Shaw financial liberalisation hypothesis.
In conclusion, financial liberalisation policy on average, has adverse effect on EXR and RIR but spur PIFDR, SMRTR (though not statistically significant), and TRY. These imply that if financial liberalisation policy is well tailored, it will result in maximum gains, and it could help in achieving macroeconomic convergence in WAMZ. In other words, WAMZ economies should liberalise their financial sector with caution to derive benefit from global financial resources.
6.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
This study could be summarised as an enquiry into the possible effect of financial liberalisation policy on these macroeconomic convergence variables in the region (WAMZ area). It confirmed the divergent (mostly adverse) effect of FLP on the macroeconomic convergence
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variables, with both theoretical and empirical support. That is, FLP adversely affects most of the nine convergence criteria (both primary and secondary convergence variables) and, as such, could impair the chance of achieving convergence, which the authorities need to manage and control.
In conclusion, from the study's discussion, it is clear that financial liberalisation policy among other things, has had a major role to play in the realisation of the WAMZ macroeconomic convergence. Therefore, in the light of this conclusion, the following recommendations are made:
Policies should be jointly developed against the evil effect of financial liberalisation that would serve as antidote for zone- wide adverse effect of the policy. In addition, those countries that have overcome these adverse effects should serve as guides to others. Financial liberalisation policy should be adopted with caution and macroeconomic policy framework should be strengthened
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Conflict Transformation and Peace Building in Divided Homogeneous Communities: A Case Study of Ife and Modakeke
Basil IBEBUNJO, PhD Centre for Strategic and Development Studies Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma, Edo State.
and Samuel Opeyemi IROYE, PhD
Peace Studies and Conflict Resolution Unit Faculty of Social Sciences National Open University of Nigeria, Jabi, Abuja.
Abstract raditional conceptions and approaches to conflict resolution typify conflict along lines of heterogeneity. Consequently, Tcentury old intra-ethnic conflicts such as the Ife-Modakeke crises tend to defy regular approaches to conflict resolution techniques. Rebuilding divided intra-ethnic societies presents more daunting challenges. Their resolution and transformation are equally cogent because interactions at this level are more frequent than inter- ethnic or larger divisions such as inter-State or regional conflicts. Indeed, Ife and Modakeke are homogenous in that they share common ancestry and are both located in Osun State. The Modakekes settled in Ife during the period of the collapse of Old Oyo Empire in the 19th Century. Various studies have examined the history, causes and consequences of Ife-Modakeke crisis and found that they became
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divided by conflicts ranging from economic, political and identity crisis revolving around the indigenes and settlers question. Attempts made to resolve the conflicts have been mostly political, administrative and judicial in nature. Consequently, these efforts have failed and armed hostilities have been recurrent in the locality. This study used conflict transformation theory as a framework, placing emphases on John Paul Lederach and Thomas Imobighe’s approaches. It was guided by justice, reconciliation and full participation, which enhance peace building in divided societies. It also highlighted informal grassroots peace building initiatives, projecting it along Burton‘s thesis which operates on the premise of meeting human needs. The study posited that justice and reconciliation is key to securing a peaceful future for Ife and Modakeke, rather than political, economic and judicial solutions that the political bigwigs from either intra-ethnic extraction continue to project. In addition to justice and full grassroots reconciliation, the study recommends full implementation of key findings of the reconciliation committees. Finally this study advocates the involvement of civil society in the peace building process.
Keywords: Conflict Resolution, Homogeneous Communities, Conflict transformation, Reconciliation, Peace building
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1.0 INTRODUCTION
Conflict is a naturally occurring phenomenon that is inevitable in any interaction between humans. The resultant positive or negative manifestation of conflict is the sum of all the different divergent or opposing emotions, desires, ideologies, and goals. Conflict has rightly been used interchangeably with friction. Without friction there can be no purposeful movement in the forward or backward direction. Without motion, there can be no progress.In the same manner, conflict is a necessary constant for progress or retrogression. Conflict can therefore be good or bad depending on how it is managed.
Nigeria is a multi-ethnic society with high propensity for intra and inter-ethnic rivalry that often become violent. Examples of such hostilities include: Yoruba-Hausa community in Shagamu, Ogun State; Ibo-Hausa community in Kano; Eleme-Okrika in Rivers State; Itsekiri-Ijaw/Urhobo in Delta State; Ijaw-Ilaje conflict inOndo State; Tiv-Jukun in Wukari, Taraba State; Ogoni-Adoni in Rivers State; Ife- Modakeke in Osun State Zango-Katafanin Kaduna State; Chamba- Kuteb in Taraba State; Aguleri-Umuleri in Anambra State; Basa- Egbura in Nassarawa State; Hausa/Fulani-Sawaya in Bauchi State; Fulani-Irigwe and Yelwa-Shendam, both in Plateau State; Hausa-
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Yoruba clashes in Idi-Araba in Lagos State (Imobighe,2003; and Omotayo, 2005).
According to Yoruba history, the Ifes and Modakekes are sons and daughters of the same parents since their ancestry is traceable to Oduduwa, the progenitor of the Yoruba race. This makes them homogeneous communities. With the frequency and magnitude of destruction from such conflicts, it is a wonder that solutions are yet to be found for the resolution of internal conflicts in Nigeria. More worrisome are homogenous conflicts such as the Ife-Modakeke conflicts. This is because Ife and Modakeke are both located in the same state.
1.1 Statement of the Problem
The collapse of the Old Oyo Empire in the 19th century caused a flood of refugees down south towards Ile-Ife. Albert (1999: 143) noted that visitors from Oyo must have been attracted to Ile-Ife by the historic image of the city as the aboriginal home of the Yoruba people [Orisun Yoruba]. According to Ade-Ajayi (1986),
The Ife welcomed Oyo migrants as a source of cheap labour; but soon Ibadan began to use the Oyo settlers to intervene in Ife Politics. In 1851, the Ooni, in
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trouble with his Chiefs, and relying on the Oyo settlers for support, granted their request for a township of their own outside Ife. The new settlement, named Modakeke, was later used by the Ibadan twice to sack Ife. The second time was in 1882 when the Alerin, the Ooni-elect, had to take refuge in Oke-Igbo.
This conflict, which is regarded as the oldest conflict in the history of Nigeria, started in 1835 and is still ongoing. Various scholars have examined the Ife-Modakeke crisis. Such studies include Albert (1999), Aguda, (2001); Oladoyin (2001), Agbe (2001), Toriola (2001), and Babajimi (2003). The focus has been on the history, causes and consequences of Ife-Modakeke crises. The causes of the conflicts are varied ranging from socio-economic, political and identity issues revolving around land ownership issues, payment of land rent (Isakole), and the status of Modakeke community.
With the post-1997-2000 conflict that is constantly brewing within the locality of Ife and Modakeke, there is no doubt that conflict resolution techniques used in the resolution of Nigeria’s oldest conflict need to be revisited. This is because Ife and Modakekeare still divided and struggling to maintain the fragile peace so far achieved. Indeed, homogenous conflicts are the most difficult to
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resolve because they are not temporal in nature. In our case study, it is historical, generational, traditional, political, socio-economic and even cultural. There is therefore the need to examine and proffer better peace building instruments and techniques for the divided homogeneous communities of Ife and Modakeke.
2.0 CONCEPTUAL CLARIFICATIONS Conflict Conflict has been defined in various ways by different scholars. Zartman (1991:370) stated that conflict is “an unavoidable concomitant of choices and decisions and an expression of the basic fact of human interdependence”. Chaplin (1979:109) defined conflict as “the simultaneous occurrence of two or more mutually antagonistic impulses or motives.” To Francis (2005:6), conflict is the “pursuit of incompatible interest or goals by different groups.”While all the above and many other definitions of conflict are correct in that they present the basic element of conflict, which is antagonism, they however omitted the essential elements of hostility (which may be non-violent and violent), that can result when antagonism crosses a certain threshold on the conflict/war index. According to Ibebunjo (2012: 35), the definitions of conflict by Thomas Imobighe and that of Bartos and Wehr addressed this deficiency.
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Bartos and Wehr (2002:22) define conflict “as a situation in which actors use conflict behaviour against each other to attain incompatible goals and/or to express their hostility.” For Imobighe (1997: 272) “the term conflict represents a disharmony, antagonism or hostility in a relationship, which could arise due to incompatibility of the goal being pursued or incompatibility of the means used in pursuing such goals.” The fault-line in Bartos and Wehr’s definition arises from the fact that it is possible for incompatible goals to be pursued using compatible means, and at the same time keep conflict within a manageable rate. Also, compatible goals could be pursued by two or more persons (or group of persons) through incompatible means, with the end result being antagonism and violence (Ibebunjo, 2012: 35).
Peace Building The term peace building is usuallyattributed to Johan Galtung, who first used it in 1975. Galtung (1996) defined peace building as strategies designed to promote a secure and stable lasting peace in which the basic human needs of the population are met and violent conflicts do not recur. He also incorporates the goals of both negative peace (absence of physical violence) and positive peace (absence of structural violence) into the conception of peace building.
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More contemporary definitions of peace building are drawn from Galtung’s exposé. Lederach (1997) introduced a notion of peace building which he linked to sustainable reconciliation in divided societies. He argued for a shift in focus on social relations and reconciliation as tools to the attainment of sustainable peace in war- torn societies. Essentially, he advocated for a long-term and holistic perspective, and called for a change from the focus on the use of external to internal actors in the peace building process. This became the foundation for a broader, better and more inclusive understanding of peace building.
Spence (2001) noted that peace building includes those activities and processes that focus on the root causes of the conflict, rather than on just the effects. She also emphasised that such activities must i) support the rebuilding and rehabilitation of all sectors of the conflict ravaged society; ii) encourage and support interaction between all sectors of society in order to repair damaged relations and start the process of restoring dignity and trust; iii) recognize the specifics of each post conflict situation; iv) encourage and support the participation of indigenous resources in the design, implementation and sustainment of activities and processes; v) and promote processes
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that will endure after the initial emergency recovery phase has passed. This is the sum of an adequate peace building process. It is obvious that some of these processes are lacking in the post-conflict settlements of Ife-Modakeke crises.
Divided Homogeneous Communities Oberschall (2007) defined divided society as one in which the relationships of the dominant group to ethnic minorities are hostile rather than cooperative. Lederach (1995) supports this assertion when he argued that ethnically inclined nature of many states serves to create and exacerbate social cleavages in already divided societies where armed conflicts are rampant.
According to Horowitz (1985)a divided society can be characterised as a society that has a segmented organizational structure that applies to the structure of economic organizations, as it does to political organizations. In other words, in divided societies, identities and divisions are structurally flawed and reinforced through imbalances of socio-economic power along with political differentiation.
2.1 Theoretical Framework
A number of conflict theories have been put forward to explain how conflicts are generated, maintained and terminated in human society.
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They are generally referred to as “conflict theory”, a term, which according to Sanderson (2007, 662), came into wide use in sociology during the 1960s, when it was seen as an alternative and rival of functionalism”. Sanderson explained that the term initially “seemed merely to identify a more neutral Marxian perspective, but for some it meant something broader” (Sanderson: 2007, 662).
Conflict transformation theory Miall (2015) and a number of other scholars had theorised that a distinctive theory of conflict transformation is indeed emerging. Good examples include Lederach(1995) and Imobighe (1995: 2003). Indeed, this theory draws from many of the familiar concepts of conflict management and conflict resolution, and it also rests on the same tradition of theorising about conflict. It is best viewed not as a wholly new approach, but rather as a reconceptualization of the field in order to make it more relevant to contemporary conflicts (Miall, 2015).However, conflict transformation is not entirely a new conception. It draws its conceptual building blocks from a number of other theories and also borrowed from other schools of thought. Conflict formation as a thought was already present in the work of the European structural theorists who analysed it (See Krippendorf, 1973 and Senghaas, 1973). The most influential work on the subject is however reputed to be that of Galtung (1996, 70-126).
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Essentially, conflict transformation theorists argue that modern conflicts require more than the framing of positions and the identification of win-win outcomes. They opine that the very structure of conflicting parties and their relationships may be embedded in a pattern of conflictual relationships. This may extend beyond the conflict if not properly managed, leading to the recurrence of the conflict. Conflict transformation can therefore be said to be a “process of engaging with and transforming the relationships, interests, discourses and, if necessary, the very constitution of society that supports the continuation of violent conflict” (Miall, 2015). In constructive conflict, which is seen as a vital agent or catalyst for change, all conflict parties within the society or region affected have complementary roles to play in the long-term process of peace building.
Drawing from his experience as both a mediator and a non-violent activist, Lederach (1995) explained the differences between social justice activists and conflict resolution practitioners. He suggested that for effective conflict resolution, both approaches are necessary. As Lederach noted:
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Conflict transformation must actively envision, include, respect, and promote the human and cultural resources from within a given setting. This involves a new set of lenses through which we do not primarily see ‘the setting and the people in it as the problem ‘and the outsider as the answer‘. Rather, we understand the long- term goal of transformation as validating and building on people and resources within the setting (Lederach, 1995).
Similarly, Imobighe explained that:
Since conflict is an inevitable part of human relations, it is important that when conflict occurs, it should be managed productively to avoid its destructive effects. While we cannot eliminate conflict completely, we can, at least prevent it from escalating into violence and transform it into a creative element (Imobighe, 2008:1).
Imobighe (2003:2) provides the framework for an adequate conflict transformation with his Integrated Conflict Management Circle (ICMC). He explains that conflicts are best managed by tackling the
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conflictual issues at their roots. This is by eliminating early such enabling conditions that cause conflict to fester. Conflict management processes must therefore be proactive rather than reactive. ICMC comprises three types of activities: conflict prevention and/or peace promotion and consolidation; conflict control/abatement; and conflict resolution. This is represented in the figure 1 below.
Conflict Prevention/Peace Promotion Possible Responses: • Democratic Conflict Control & practice Abatement • Behavioral code Possible Responses: • Confidence • Passing resolutions building • Making appeals measures & • Using neutral • Integrative forces to activities keephostile parties apart
Conflict Resolution Possible Responses:
Use of mediatory organs Conciliatory activities Intensive negotiations
Figure 1. Integrated Conflict Management Circle (ICMC) Source: Imobighe (2003:2). Ibebunjo & Iroye (2018)
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As Ibebunjo (2012) explained, the hallmark of Imobighe Conflict model (ICM), is the ICMC. This adequately captures and explains an essential but often omitted aspect of conflict, which is the fact that the conflict process is a cycle that must be adequately managed to avoid a recourse to armed hostilities. This is the case for Ife-Modakeke and other conflicts in Nigeria, Africa and to a large extent, the world.
3.0 HISTORY OF IFE-MODAKEKE CONFLICT
The relationship between the Ifes and Modakeke was cordial and mutually beneficial from the start. Both visitor (Modakeke) and host (Ifes) farmed, traded together and also jointly defended their cities. From the successes of this, the same warm welcome was extended to the Oyos, who provided military assistance to the Ifes during the Owu War of 1825 and other Ijesha invasions (Albert, 1999:144). Ife Chiefs were so encouraged by this that they threw their doors open to more of Oyo refugees.
The first of many of these crises occurred between 1835 and 1849 (Oladoyin, 2001), making the Ife-Modakeke Conflict the oldest intra- ethnic conflict in Nigeria. It has been on-going for more than a century (Albert, 1999 and Toriola, 2001). Albert, (1999: 144-145) tells us that the origin of Ife-Modakeke crises started with the Ife
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Chief, Okunade (the Maye), the autocratic and brave leader of the Yoruba warriors who had settled in Ibadan in the early nineteenth century. His power and influence in Ibadan politics was so great that the Ifes started to see Ibadan as an extension of their town. Okunade’s autocracy was however challenged in 1835, by some Oyo citizens in Ibadan. Consequently, he was expelled from the town. He was so bitter that he attempted to recapture the city during the Gbanamu battle. He was however killed in the battle and the Oyos thus took over the political leadership of Ibadan and totally excluded their Ife allies. The response of Ifes was the maltreatment of Oyo refugees in their town. They were even sold into slavery (Ajayi and Akintoye 1980).
With rumours of impending invasion of parts of Yorubaland by Fulani jihadists who were based in Ilorin, Ife surroundings such as Ikire, Iwata, Gbongan, Ipetumodu and Origbo were abandoned and the refugees ran to settle in Ile-Ife. Unfortunately, there was already conflict between Ife and the settlers, so after the defeat of the Fulani invaders at Osogbo in 1840, the Ooni Abeweila (who ascended the throne in 1839), sent some of the refugees back to Ipetumodu, Gbongan and Ikire in 1847. The Ooni also created a separate settlement for those Oyo refugees who had no home to return to. This
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was named Modakeke, mimicry of the cry of a nest of storks on a large tree near the settlement site.
There have been about seven major violent conflicts between Ife (who is regarded as the landlords), and Modakeke (the “strangers/tenants”). These wars were fought in the following years: 1835-1849, 1882-1909, 1946-1949, 1981, 1983, 1997-1998 and 2000. These crises have caused unquantifiable death and loss of properties.
3.1 Various Approaches in Resolving the Conflicts I. Institutional Approaches to Resolving Ife-Modakeke Conflicts Most conflicts in Nigeria and indeed Africa, are not taken serious and resolved until they become violent and spiral out of control. Like many other communal (homogeneous and heterogeneous) conflicts in Nigeria, attempts to resolve Ife-Modakeke conflict served mostly to complicate it using political solutions. This was carried out by successive governments and politicians. As an example, in 1981, the defunct House of Assembly of the then Oyo State (now Osun State), created 54 additional local government areas (LGAs). It was said that the powers that be, in Ife community prevented the creation of a separate Modakeke LGA. Subsequently, the Modakekes decamped en
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mass from the Unity Party of Nigeria (UPN), the dominant party in Oyo State, for the National Party of Nigeria (NPN). NPN was the opposition party in Oyo State but was the ruling party at the federal level.
The Ooni was so enraged by this development, that he renamed streets in Modakeke and downgraded the title and status of the Ogunsua. This sparked off another series of violent conflicts between the two communities. In attempt to resolve this new violence, a Judicial Commission of inquiry headed by Kayode Ibidapo-Obe (a judge of the High Court of Oyo State), was constituted by the federal government. The commission recommended the creation of a separate Modakeke LGA but the governor of the then Oyo State, late Chief Bola Ige refused to carry out this directive. Consequently, in the general elections of August/September 1983, Modakeke voted massively for Chief Victor Omololu Olunloyo of the NPN. The result was that Chief Ige lost the governorship election of the old Oyo state. This resulted in another violent conflict.
Again in 1996, the Arthur Mbanefo Panel constituted by the then Federal Military Government recommended the creation of additional units of administration at the state and LGA levels and on boundary adjustments. The panel also recommended the creation of an L.G.A.
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for the Modakekes. This was not realised as it was alleged that the Ife elite impeded this recommendation. The result was the placement of the headquarters of the new local government area for the Modakekes in Enuowa, a locality where the palace of the Ooni is situated. This was protested by the Modakekes, thereby compelling the federal government to return the headquarters to Modakeke. The Ifes saw this as an assault on their revered traditional stool. The state radio, the Osun State Broadcasting Corporation (OSBC) on August 14, 1997, announced to the public that the site of the headquarters of the new LGA is no longer Modakeke but Oke-Igbo in Ife.
The Military Administrator claimed that Oke-Igbo was a neutral ground belonging to neither the Ile-Ife nor the Modakeke, but the Modakekes, however, claimed that Oke-Igbo was part of Ile-Ife and that the announcement by the Military Administrator was a disguise to maintain the status-quo ante. They subsequently accused the Ooni of using his enormous wealth and influence with the then ruling military regime to perpetuate his “oppression” of their community.
The Modakeke youths quickly organised a protest march that was dispersed with tear gas. This was effectively the beginning of what was known as the “Ife-Modakeke War” of August 1997. By August 18 1997, a full-scale armed hostility erupted between the Ifes and the
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Modakekes, with significant loss of lives. Also, property worth hundreds of millions of Naira were burnt, looted and vandalised. It was reported that military grade ammunitions and other sophisticated/traditional tools of violence (such as machetes, cutlasses, axes, clubs etc.), were freely used. Police and military personnel were deployed from the state Police Command and later from other states as well. The violence was eventually halted by the government, using federal peacekeeping instruments. As it is traditional with conflict resolution practice in Nigeria, once the warring parties have been separated and the peace enforced, the conflict resolution process is halted. As Imobighe’s conflict model explained, when the issues of conflict are not adequately addressed, there will likely be a return to other aspects in the conflict cycle. There was therefore another violent clash between Ife and Modakeke in February 2000. Again, the contention was centred on the same issues of citizenship rights and struggles over land ownership between the Ife “landlords” and the Modakeke “strangers/tenants”.
II. Judicial Approach to the Ife-Modakeke Crisis The continuing conflict between Ife and Modakeke communities is in spite of all the judicial approaches and efforts made to solving the conflict. The earliest resort to the judiciary was the 1946 Ife-
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Modakeke crisis. This resulted from the commercialization of cocoa and the huge revenues accruable to Modakeke farmers. This made Ife land owners demand 10% of the harvest. Modakeke lost all cases relating to the demands made by Ife, even at the Appeal Court. This obviously did not solve the problem but rather, complicated and exacerbated it.
Other attempts were made by successive governments (at both state and federal levels), to institute different investigative commissions to look into various aspects of the Ife/Modakeke crisis. The most recent of such commissions include:
• The Justice KayodeIbidapo-Obe Judicial Commission of Enquiry, of 1981 (Oyo State government);
• The Arthur Mbanefo Panel for the Creation of Additional States, Local Governments and Boundary Adjustments of 1996, (Federal Military Government of General Sani Abacha);
• The Olabode George Presidential Conflict Reconciliation Committee of June 2000, on Ife/Modakeke, Ife North Local Government communities, (Federal Government); and
• The Human Rights Violations Investigation Commission
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(HRVIC), popularly known as the Oputa Panel, which sat between 1999 and 2002.
The various commissions submitted reports and recommendations. Till date, no one has been brought to books as it was mostly a peace committee. The Oputa Commission itself only submitted its report and recommendations to the Federal Government in May 2002. The other three Commissions never submitted their reports to the various governments that constituted them. Iroye (2017) thus concluded that judicial approaches to conflict resolution are inadequate to tackle such conflicts. An indication of the failures of past approaches to resolving the homogeneous conflict is the return to the conflict path as Imobighe (2003), has shown in the ICMC.
Recent Ife-Modakeke Conflict In October, 2017, there was another conflict between Ife and Modakeke communities, leading to fears that the two homogenous communities may again take the war path. Ife youths accused Modakeke community of flouting the peace agreement reached by the two communities in 1999 after the clash that claimed several lives and properties worth billions of naira. Consequently, they (Ife youths), wrote a letter to Governor Rauf Aregbesola and copied all the security agencies in Osun State. The letter read in part:
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“On behalf of the generality of youths in Ile-Ife, these pressure groups known as Great Ife Movement, GIM and Ife Youth Vanguard, IYV, wish to intimate your excellency of imminent incursion on Ife-land and for your Excellency to use your good offices as the Chief Security Officer of this state, to urgently do the right thing at the right time to impending trouble. Otherwise the 1997-2000 Modakeke/Ife imbroglio may be a child’s play… (Osogbo, 2017).
The youths of Ife thus accused the traditional head of Modakeke, the Ogunsua of Modakeke-Ife, of leading his people to trespass on Ife’s belongings by “cunningly and forcefully depriving our Obas, Baales, chiefs and Ife people of their inheritance with impunity”. Another reason for this outcry is the claim that the Ogunsua is tactically replacing
The Ooni appointed Obas and Baales with his own favourites in Ife North Local Government Area. This is usurping the authority of the Ooni of Ife and it is in contrast with the Ife Native Law and Custom. “This is our bitter experience now at Toro, Famia, Oyere , Opoye, Ejesi, Alapata, Jabata, Igbofon-Salami, Kilibi,
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Rogborogbo, Idi-iroko, Kinkinyinun/Onibambu, Oyoo-lowa, Oyo-onikeke, etc where the Ogusua is appointing his own Obas and Baales to replace those earlier appointed by the late Ooni Sijuade, Olubuse. The lives of Ooni-appointed Obas and Baales are also often being threatened (Osogbo, 2017).
Two things can be deduced from the above:
1. Issues of the age-old conflict are still unresolved; and 2. The Ife-Modakeke Conflict of 1997-2000, which claimed many lives and saw to the wanton destruction of properties is still glorified and romanticised.
Another indication of ineffective conflict resolution and peace building initiatives is the outbreak of conflict in the locality by either of the former warring parties with new group(s). A good example was the outbreak of violent conflict between the Hausa community and Ife people in the ancient city of Ile Ife on Wednesday, March 8, 2017. This led to the wanton destruction of lives and property. The bloody clashes were later contained by the Osun State security operatives, but tension and acrimony that had been built up by the incident will continue to undermine the peace process in the troubled town.
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Violent conflicts in such localities often follow the established trend of conflicts. This can be readily seen from the pattern and weaponry used. Combinations of daggers, guns, clubs, arrows, cutlasses and swords dane guns, cutlasses and traditional magical power were used by the parties. True to type, the clash between the Hausa and Ife community was described as “a replica of Ife-Modakeke conflict” (Kolawole, 2017).As usual, besides the usual rhetoric, little or nothing was done to resolve and transform the conflict. The Ooni of Ife, Oba Adeyeye Ogunwusi, cautioned the warring factions to give peace a chance as there are no gains in crisis. Speaking through his media aide, Comrade Moses Olafare, the monarch stated that
peace would soon be normalised between the two warring factions in the town and assured that, every one of them would tolerate one another and live as one without segregation, sectionalism, de-tribalism and nepotism saying all tribes are one in the country (Kolawole, 2017).
This was accompanied with the usual threat and /or use of force to quell any disturbances to the peace. The governor of the state, Rauf Aregbesola, while speaking on the issue noted that “…Osun is the land of peace and love, we have not experienced this in the last six
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years, and I believe such thing would never happen again (Kolawole, 2017)”.
Burton’s human needs theory of conflict resolution posits that a pre- condition for the successful resolution of conflict is that fundamental human needs be met (Burton and Sandole, 1986). Burton adopted eight fundamental needs from the basis of the work by the American sociologist Paul Sites and introduced one further need of his own (Scimecca, 1990: 206). Those adopted needs included control, security, justice, stimulation, response, meaning, rationality and esteem/recognition in essence; the Track 1 diplomatic techniques used to solve Ife-Modakeke and other conflicts in Nigeria will continue to fail. In this method, only the leaders of the conflict parties are invited to the table to negotiate with actors such as government agents and external forces such as the United Nations (UN), African Union (AU), etc. It is often assumed that the negotiated ‘peace’ will trickle-down to the rest of the population. There is however a growing acknowledgement that Track I diplomatic efforts is not enough to end the world‘s violent conflicts and wars and create peace. In Nigeria, the rest of the population include the restive youths, and this does not usually happen because the elders have lost the respect and authority they held over the youth. As Lederach emphasised in his conflict
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transformation thesis, “anyone who has lived in settings of protracted conflict or engaged in peacemaking activities in divided societies knows that standardized formulas do not work” (Lederach, 1997:23).He also noted that conflicts such as Ife-Modakeke are difficult to resolve because of the
“close proximity of conflicting groups, the shared common histories of the conflictants, and the dynamic of severe stereotyping coupled with radically differing perceptions of each other. The geographic setting of these conflicts is often the immediate community, neighbouring villages, or the domains of close sub- clans... (Lederach, 1997: 13).
Again, Lederach noted that community leadership who are key in the conflict resolution negotiations often “act as underlying forces in the dynamics of control and domination-forces” and manipulate the process to further their gain and positions.(Lederach, 1997: 13).This has been the case in the unending Ife-Modakeke conflict. This means that continuous informal grass root peace building initiative must be encouraged and practised. This must involve youth from both sides of the divide and civil society. Government and other agents the peace
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process must ensure that community leaders and politicians do not hijack the process. Only then can stable peace be achieved and the conflict transformed fully, putting the conflict cycle to a manageable non-hostile peaceful phase.
4.0 CONCLUSION In addition to threat and/or use of force to separate the warring parties, political and judicial solutions have been traditionally used to resolve Ife-Modakeke and other conflicts in Nigeria. From the foregoing, it becomes clear that the traditional conflict resolution technique employed by the government and its agents have failed to secure stable peace in Nigeria. This is evident from the recurring cases of Ife-Modakeke conflicts and the devastation that accompany them. For intra and inter-ethnic conflicts to be fully resolved, the peace building process must move away from the traditional Track I diplomatic efforts, where only key and political stakeholders are factored into the peace accord. Conflict transformation that focuses on the youth and all other stakeholders in the restive communities must be engaged. There is therefore no need to outline lengthy recommendations in this study. Recommendations of various commissions of enquiry, if implemented will be instrumental in the
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peace process. Additionally, civil society must be encouraged to join in the efforts to build a more peaceful society by contributing to reduce violence and end armed hostilities. They must constantly engage the conflicting parties by being unbiased umpires who are flexible, available and collaborative.
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REFERENCES
Albert, I. 1999. Ife – Modakeke crisis. In Otite, O. and Albert, I. S; Community conflict in Nigeria: Management, Resolution and Transformation (Ibadan: Spectrum Books.
Bartos, O. J. and Wehr, P. E. (2002). Using Conflict Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge).
Burton, J. W. and Dennis J. D. Sandole, D. J. (198) ―Generic Theory: The Basis of Conflict Resolution‖, Negotiation Journal, 2(4), October.
Burton, J. W. (1990). Human Needs Theory (New York: St. Martin's Press).
Chaplin, J. P., (1979). Dictionary of Psychology (New York: Dell Publishing).
Francis, D. J. A., (2005). Peace and Conflict Studies: An African Overview of Basic Concepts” in Introduction to Peace and Conflict Studies, S. G. Best (ed.) (Ibadan: Spectrum Books).
Galtung.J. (1969).Violence, Peace and Peace Research, Journal of Peace Research: 167-191.
Horowitz, Donald H. 1985. Ethnic Groups in Conflict. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Ibebunjo, B. O. (2012), Imobighe Conflict Model In: Theoretical Perspectives in Strategic Studies, Agara, T. (Ed.) (Epkoma: Ambrose Alli University Press).
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Imobighe, Thomas A. (1997). “Conflict Management in Nigeria” in I. B. Bello-Iman (ed.) Governance in Nigeria: Economy, Politics and Society in the Adjustment Years 1985-1995 (Ibadan: Stirling-Horden Publishers).
Imobighe, T. A. (2003). “Ethnicity and ethnic conflicts in Nigeria: an Overview” in Thomas A. Imobighe (ed.) Civil society and ethnic conflict management in (Nigeria Ibadan: Spectrum).
Imobighe, T. A., (2003). The OAU (AU) and OAS in Regional Conflict Management: A Comparative Assessment, (Ibadan: Spectrum Books Ltd.).
Imobighe, Thomas A., (2008). Conflict /Crisis Management Training Manual for “Conflict/Crisis Management Exercise” held at the Centre for Strategic and Development Studies (CSDS), Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma,
Iroye S.O. (2017). An Evaluation of the Nigerian Legal System in The Resolution of Conflicts in Nigeria, PhD thesis, Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma, Edo State.Kolawole, Y. (2017). A Bloody Clash in Ile-Ife, ThisDay, March 13.
Krippendorf, E. (1973). Peace Research and the Industrial Revolution“, Journal of Peace Research, Vol 10, 185-201.
Lederach, John Paul. 1995. Preparing for Peace: Conflict Transformation Across Cultures. Syracuse, Syracuse University Press
Lederach, J. P. (1997). Building Peace – Sustainable Reconciliation in Divided Societies (Washington: United States Institute of Peace Press)
Oberschall, Anthony. 2007. Conflict and Peace Building in Divided Societies: Responses to ethnic violence. New York: Routledge. {86}
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Omotayo, B. 2005. “Women and conflict in the new information age: Virtual Librariestothe rescue” A paper presented at the World Library and Information Congress: 71th IFLA General Conference and Council “Library - a voyage of discovery” August15th – 18th 2005, Oslo, Norway.
Osogbo, G. O. (2017). Tension as Ile-Ife youths accuseModakeke of encroachment, Vanguard, October 16.
Sanderson, Stephen K., (2007). “Conflict Theory” in Encyclopedia of Sociology. Available online at: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781405165518. wbeosc089. Accessed on June 13, 2018.
Senghaas, D. 1973.,Conflict Formations in Contemporary International Society,“ Journal of Peace Research, Vol.10, 163-184.
Miall, H. (2015). “Conflict Transformation: A Multi-Dimensional Task”, Bergh of Research Center for Constructive Conflict Management: Available online at: http://www.berghof- handbook.net. Accessed on April 23, 2015. Scimecca, J. A. (1990) Self-reflexivity and Freedom: Towards a Prescriptive Theory of Conflict Resolutiin, In J.Burton (ed.) Conflict: Human Needs Theory. Human Needs Theory (New York: St. Martin's Press). Spence, R. (2001) Post-Conflict Peacebuilding: Who Determines the Peace? In Bronwyn Evans-Kent & Roland Bleiker (eds) Rethinking Humanitarianism Conference Proceedings, 24-26 September 2001. (St Lucia: University of Queensland)(2001): 137-8. Zartman, W. I. (1991). Conflict Resolution in Africa, (Washington DC: The Brookings Institute).
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Tax Incentives and Industrial Development in Nigeria
Emmanuel Ifeanyi AJUDUA, PhD
Department of Economics Faculty of Social Sciences National Open University, Jabi, Abuja Email: [email protected] and Davis OJIMA, PhD
Ignatius Ajuru University of Education Port Harcourt, Rivers State Abstract he paper investigated tax incentives and industrial development in Nigeria. Using a well structured questionnaire, the paper assessed the relationship that exists between tax incentives and industrial development in Nigeria. One hundred and seventy one questionnaires were administered to top and middle management staff of four selected companies in Rivers state which had a combined population of about three hundred staff. Data obtained were analysed using the Chi- Square Test (X2). From our findings, it was seen that tax incentives has a positive relationship on industrial development in Nigeria as it boost industrial output, promote investment, and bring about development of the industrial sector. It was thus recommended that tax incentives should be {89}
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pursued and granted to industries and firms for an all round development of the industrial sector. There should be strategies to ensure that incentives granted to local industries are properly utilized. There is also a need for industries benefitting from incentives to send periodic progress report to authorities in charge of such incentives. Keywords: Tax incentives, Industrialization, Development, Chi Square JEL Classification: H25, O14
1.0 INTRODUCTION Policies centred on industrialization have become a key focus of most underdeveloped and developing economies due to the vital role it plays in economic growth and development. Industrialisation involves the transformation of an economy from a crude agrarian society to a manufacturing based economy. The processes of achieving industrialization has remained a key component in the developmental objectives of successive governments in all economies as it aims at improving quality of human life through extensive re-organisation of the economy for the provision of goods and services at various scales of production.
In Nigeria, several measures and policies have evolved which are geared towards promoting industrialization and the development of the industrial sector. This study looks at the tax incentives as a policy essential for industrial development. Ajudua &Ojima (2018)
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Tax incentives are direct government policy which involves the manipulation of the tax system to the advantage of a potential tax payer aimed at reducing the incidence of taxation on some sectors of the economy (Dotun, 1996). It is a fiscal provisions designed by core industry-driven governmental authorities to attract and empower investors in strategic sectors of the economy (Ohaka & Agundu, 2012).
Tax incentive is a strong fiscal measure targeted at stimulating and encouraging investment for higher capital formation in certain preferred sectors of the economy, reallocate and attract domestic and foreign investment, reduce industries liability, provide working capital to encourage production, influence production level and curb unemployment. It thus improves productivity of industries and enhances industrial growth and development which ultimately promote the standard of living of the people.
Government pursuit of tax incentives is a means to an end. It involves funds mobilization channelled towards achieving higher output without necessarily making the benefiting industries to borrow and pay interests even if the causal links between each of these stages is far from proven. In determining the tax incentives to adopt in an economy, the circumstances surrounding the economy, the
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competence of the tax administration, the type of investment being courted and the budgetary constraints of the government are put into consideration (Barbour, 2005). These tax incentives include tax holiday, capital allowance, investment allowance, investment tax credit, accelerated depreciation, rural investment allowance, interest subsidy, and export processing zone (EPZ) incentives, tax exemption, reduction of tax rate, reduction of import duty on imported raw materials, among others.
Some researchers have posited that tax incentive encourages economic growth and industrial development through less charges and taxes on manufacturing companies. According to Amadiegwu (2008), tax incentives expand investment spending which is essential for enhancing production possibilities thereby sustaining improvement in the standard of living of the people. Beyond this, tax incentives ought to fight and stem the existing depression in the economy, counter inflation thus increasing the equitable distribution of income. However, it is believed by some that the incentives reduce revenue accruable to the government and therefore do not stimulate the economy.
Despite the numerous tax incentives available to investors and entrepreneurs in Nigeria, there appears to be no appreciable growth in
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the industrial sector while the poverty level and unemployment rate among others have remained high. This begs the questions; to what extent do tax incentives determine the output of manufacturing companies in Nigeria? Are the existing tax incentives adequate for industrial development and economic growth? Do these incentives stimulate individuals to establish new enterprises which will boost industrial development and economic growth? Do these tax incentives induce the existing industries to pursue vigorous expansionary policies?
It is against this backdrop one is tempted to access the impact of these tax incentives on the industrial sector. The study thus investigates the linkage between the utilization of the numerous tax incentives on the industrial sector development in Nigeria and would be guided by the research hypotheses
Hypothesis I
H0: Tax incentives have no significant impact on industrialization in Nigeria.
Hypothesis II
H0: Tax incentives have no significant impact in stimulating the establishment of more enterprises essential for industrial development.
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2.0 REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1 Industrialisation in Nigeria
Industrialisation is one of the crucial problems facing Nigeria. It could be regarded in a sense as a sine qua non to modern prosperity and as such the key to the development process. Thus, every country exploits available options so as to achieve industrialisation. The need for industrialisation cannot be farfetched. Industrialization is an essential aspect of long-run development and a hallmark of modernization and national economic power (Brundtland, 2007). It aids in diversification of the economy, increase economic flexibility, creates employment; boost exports etc.
An overview of Nigeria industrialisation shows that prior to independence in 1960, the predominant economic activity was agricultural production and marketing of imported goods, exporting raw material and importing from it finished goods. Industrialization was hardly a policy objective as Nigeria predominantly produced primary raw material for foreign industries (Iwuagwu, 2009). With independence, came industrialisation policy, this led to the first National Development plans (1962 – 1968) which was prepared and executed with the aid of foreign investment and focused mainly on
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import substitution as a means of strengthening the Nigerian manufacturing sector. Other focuses of the policy were; increased participation of Nigerians in control of the economy, expanding the technological base of the country to support industrialization etc. Subsequently, the Nigerian government has embarked on numerous economic and industrialization policies (Iheanacho, 2014). With the most recent being the Vision 20:2020. Nigeria attempted to leap directly into a modern industrial structure through public investment in large scale industries. The state assumed the dominant position for lack of a strong indigenous entrepreneurial class and the major aim was to avoid the foreign control of industrial activities (Akinlo, 1996). The nation thus adopted the policy of import substitution industrialization strategy and established industrial development centres. Industrialization witnessed an upward surge in output, also helped by the oil boom of that period which made foreign exchange available for importation of the needed industrial inputs.
However, the oil glut of the late 1970s and early 1980s affected the industrial sector as stringent economic policies were put in place and many industrial businesses were closed down. The government embarked on deregulation, privatization and commercialization of public enterprises to reduce the financial burden on her. Till today the
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industrial sector has been witnessing series of policy change to adjust the sector and direct it to the part of growth. The components of industrial sector are manufacturing, mining, electricity, construction, water and gas (Kirkpatrick, Lee and Nixson, 1984). In this work, we concentrate on manufacturing, mining and electricity. However, more attention is accorded manufacturing since the degree of manufacturing in the country measures the extent to which other components have been effectively utilized (Ndebbio, 1994). With the decline in oil price in the early 1980s, the manufacturing sector suffered as capacity utilization of the sector which was impressive and stood at 76.6% in 1975 and 70.1% in 1980 due to increased foreign exchange earnings during this period dropped to 38.8 in 1986, 46.2% in 2005 and has not climbed above 50% since then (CBN, 2016). The manufacturing sector performance began to decline. Its contribution to GDP fell from 11.2% in 1982 to 7.98% in 1986 to 8.65% in 1988 and stood at 4.16% in 2012 (CBN, 2013), in the fourth quarter of 2016, growth of the Manufacturing sector stood at 3.56% as against 6.93% recorded in 2015 while its contribution to GDP was 8.34% in the fourth quarter of 2016 as against 9.09% recorded in 2015, and 8.59% in the third quarter of 2016 (NBS, 2017).
Manufacturers Association of Nigeria (MAN) in 2005 in a forum on
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reviving Nigerian industries, classified Nigerian manufacturing industries as follows; 30% closed down 60% ailing, 10% operating at sustaining level. In 2009, it was reported that about 820 industries closed down or temporarily suspended production nationwide while in 2016, about 272 shut down, (MAN, 2016). This was blamed on several factors among which include multiple taxation and levies slammed on manufacturers by tiers of government.
2.2 Tax Incentives: An Overview Tax incentive is a prominent feature of developing countries. It is basically designed to attract new investment into the entry and to expand existing ones in priority industries which is based on the country development plan capable of stimulating economic growth. Tax incentives are granted on sector basic to key sectors such as agriculture, manufacturing, mining, oil and gas, etc. and are reviewed regularly (Somorin, 2015).
Nigeria’s experience in the granting of tax incentives is traceable to the inception of British Administration in the territory, when all sorts of reliefs, allowances, and tax holidays were granted to British Companies and individuals as an attraction to establish trade links with the country. Tax incentives for industrial development came to national scene in 1958 (Oriakhi and Osemwengie, 2013). The benefit
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of the incentive development income tax relief Act of 1971 as amended to date, granted a period of up to five years relief period concession which is to attract and support the establishment of big industries. Again, import duties concession typically have a significant effect in their mission of duties, construction materials, machinery and equipment, and also to reduce the fixed cost of a new business and then place the enterprise on a more competitive advantage. To consider the chances of the scheme, there is usually an assessment of the adequacy of legislation and also a suitability of the administration. The costs of these incentives are determined by analyzing the opportunity cost of the foregone alternative.
Based on Barbour (2005), an effective and efficient tax incentive should be able to
1. Stimulate investment in the desired sector or location, with minimal revenue leakage, and provide minimal opportunities for tax planning. 2. Show transparency and be easy to understand, and have specific policy goals expressed precisely in legislation. 3. Resist frequent changes, and should provide investors with certainty over its application and longevity.
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4. Avoid trying to target cyclical depressions due to the lag effects of intervention. 5. Should be developed, implemented, administered and monitored by a single agency. 6. Should have low administrative costs for both governments and firms. 7. Should co-ordinates national, regional and local governments effectively and should include follow-up and monitoring, so as to ensure that the incentive criteria are being met while providing monitoring and evaluation feedback loop. 8. Should be non-discretionary and applied consistently against an open set of transparent criteria.
The use of tax incentives in developing countries to encourage investment so as to boost industrial development and economic growth has brought contrasting ideas among scholars and experts. This is so because while it is clear that incentives are used to attract investors, there is the inability to collect tax effectively given the high evasion rate thereby depleting government purse (Dotun and Sanni, 2009). Also irrespective of the incentive given or offered to businessmen, the business environment and the atmosphere associated with incentives in many developing countries are great
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factor of consideration. They compete among themselves to attract foreign investors in their countries. The more incentive a country is able to offer the more potential investors it is able to attract. Some scholars hold that tax incentives have impacted the economy in the following ways.
1. It directs investment and developmental activities which improves the standard of living of the populace.
2. Tax incentives lead to diversification, increases urban and rural development.
3. Tax incentives stimulate and motivate companies, individuals and business firms to establish industries leading to industrial development.
4. It is a strong fiscal measure/policy which raises investment funds and can in turn bring about industrial growth and economic development.
5. Tax incentives attract investors to a given environment and with the presence of these potential investors, investments are made into the economy of the given environment thereby causing developmental changes leading to industrial and economic growth.
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6. Compensating for other deficiencies in investment climate.
7. Measures that reduce the tax imposed on income from capital leave investors with a higher net rate of return. This leads to greater incentives for investment, and (hopefully) more investment.
8. Revenue Gains.
However, problems associated with tax incentives, particularly selective incentives are seen as
1. Revenue Loss for the government
2. Tax incentives often create opportunities for businesses and individuals to engage in aggressive tax planning -a polite term for tax avoidance. It is instructive to cite a few examples of how tax planning can convert well-intended incentives into a revenue drain.
3. Company Churning. A term used to describe an existing company closing down all or part of its operations and establish a new company so as to qualify for a full tax holiday.
4. False export declarations. In many parts of the world, tax incentives or subsidy schemes that target export performance have triggered false declarations that can be extremely costly.
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2.3 Empirical Review
Regan (2008) surveyed fifty-five Jamaican firms and concluded that there is no economic justification for having granted tax concession to most of the firms under the pioneer industrial law in Jamaica. Only two of the fifty-five industries interviewed mentioned tax incentives as an important factor of influencing investment in Jamaica.
Regan (2008) further posited that the state government generates less revenue through incentives as exemption of low income earners from tax payment depletes the government purse.
Chukwu (2012) in a study on tax incentive; a catalyst for industrial development and economic growth opined that tax incentives has positive impact on the investment decision of an organization.
Okafor (2009) in his contribution on the effect of tax incentive contends that the policy creates a healthy economy and assists the tax paper to invest scarce resources into valuable prospects. He further opined that apart from employment generation, tax incentives will motivate entrepreneurs into incorporating limited liability companies. The effect of which is to stimulate the economy and ultimately engender growth.
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Olabiri (2009) revealed in his study that tax incentives as a catalyst for economic development summarizes that tax incentives has positive impact on the investment decision and greatly stimulate the stability of economic growth in Nigeria, he further averted that tax incentives should be considered along with tax infrastructure.
3.0 METHODOLOGY
The study adopted the random sampling technique, while the population of the study was drawn from respondents of four selected companies in Rivers state which have a combined population of about 300 top and middle management staff made up of Chief Executive Officers, auditors, managers and accountants. The sources of data in this study are the primary sources which involved the use of questionnaire. The questionnaire was structured to carry a 5-point likert scale; respondents were allowed to indicate their opinion as strongly agreed (SA), agreed (A), undecided (U), disagreed (D) and strongly disagreed (SD). Using the Taro Yamane method, the sample size for the study was gotten. The formula is given as; n =
( ) Where n = Sample size N = Population under study e = Margin error
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Using the formula above
n = ( . ) ) n = 171 Thus, a total of 171 copies of the questionnaire were administered. The questionnaire was designed as multiple-choice and open-ended. Data obtained was analysed using the Chi- Square Test (X2). The choice of Chi-Square technique was informed by the nature of data obtained. Besides, the suitability and ease of manipulation of data using the Chi-Square, buttressed the use of this test. The formula for Chi-Square is given as
( ) X2 = ∑
Where ∑ = Summation O = Observed Frequency E = Expected Frequency X2 = Chi-Square The null hypothesis would be rejected if the calculated value of the
Chi-Square is greater than the critical of tabulated value (i.e reject Ho 2 2 if X cal >X tab).
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4.0 ANALYSIS OF RESULTS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS 4.1 Data Presentation 4.1.1 Analysis of Response Rate Table 4.1: Analysis of Questionnaires Distributed S/N Administered Frequency Percentage Questionnaire 1 Returned 145 84.8 2 Unreturned 26 15.2 Total 171 100 Source: Field Survey 2018
The Table 4.1 above revealed that of 171 questionnaires administered, 145 questionnaires representing 84.8% were rightly filled and returned. 26 questionnaires representing 15.2% were not returned.
4.1.2 Analysis of Respondents Bio Data The bio-data analyses of the one hundred and forty five completed questionnaires are shown below Table 4.2: Respondents Bio Data Sex S/N Age S/N Qualifications S/N Years in S/N Services
Male 97 Below 11 WAEC/SSCE – Less than 58 25 5 Years Years
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Female 48 25 – 35 57 OND/NCE 4 5 – 10 71 Years Years
36 – 45 52 B.Sc/HND 77 11 – 15 12 – – Years Years
Above 25 M.Sc/MBA 36 16 – 20 4 – – 45 Years Years
Professional 28 Above 20 – – – – – Years
Total 145 145 145 145
Source: Field Survey 2018 The Table above summarises the bio data of respondents. From the table, 97 of the respondents are male while 48 are female. The table shows that eleven (11) of the respondents were below 25 years old, fifty seven (57) of the respondents were between 25 to 35 years old, fifty two (52) were 36 to 45 years old and twenty five (25) of the respondents were above 45 years of age. Furthermore, revealed in the table is the educational background of respondents. From the table, four (4) of the respondents were OND/NCE holders, seventy seven (77) of the respondents were BSc/HND holders, thirty six (36) of the respondents were MBA/MSc holders, and twenty eight (28) of the
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respondents were professionals. Finally, the years of service of respondents in their various companies was reported. It was revealed that fifty eight (58) of the respondents have been on the job for less than 5 years, seventy one (71) of the respondents have been on the job for a period of 5 – 10 years, twelve (12) of the respondents have been on the job for 11-15 years, and four (4) of the respondents have been on the job for 16 - 20 years.
4.2 Data Analysis
4.2.1 Analysis of Response to Research Questions
Table 4.3: Does your Company/Organization pay tax? Responses No of Respondents Percentage (%)
Yes 145 100
No - -
Total 145 100
Source: Field Survey 2018 From Table 4.3, the entire respondents agree to the fact that their company or organizations pay tax.
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Table 4.4: Does your Company/Organization benefit from tax incentives Responses No of Respondents Percentage (%) Yes 145 100 No - - Total 145 100 Source: Field Survey 2018 From table 4.4, the entire respondents agree to the fact that their company or organizations benefit from tax incentives.
Table 4.5: Do these tax incentives have a positive impact on your Company or Organization working capital and investment decision? Responses No of Respondents Percentage (%) Yes 102 100 No - - Total 102 100 Source: Field Survey 2018 From table 4.5, the entire respondents agree to the fact that tax incentives have impacted positively on their companies or organizations working capital and investment decision.
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4.2.2 Result of General Questions Related to Tested Hypothesis Table 4.6: Response to General Questions Questions Response Frequency Percentage (%) Column 1. Do you agree that SA 19 13.10 the existing tax A 48 33.10 incentive is adequate U 30 20.70 enough for industrial D 26 17.93 development and SD 22 15.17 economic growth in Total 145 100 Nigeria? 2. Do you think the SA 28 19.32 incentives stimulate A 46 31.72 individuals to establish U 25 17.24 new enterprises which D 24 16.55 will boost industrial SD 22 15.17 development and Total 145 100 economic growth? 3. Tax incentives have SA 16 11.03 a great influence in A 63 43.45 determining quantity U 33 22.76 and price of output of D 19 13.10 industries? SD 14 9.66 Total 145 100
Source: Field Survey 2018
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4.3 Presentation and Analysis of Data Testing of Hypothesis I Do you agree that the existing tax incentive is adequate enough for industrial development and economic growth in Nigeria?
H0: Tax incentives have no significant impact on industrialisation in Nigeria.
To test this hypothesis, statement of respondents from question 1 in table 4.6 was used O E O – E (O –E)2 (O –E)2 E 19 29 -10 100 3.45 48 29 19 361 12.44 30 29 1 1 0.034 26 29 -3 9 0.31 22 29 -7 49 1.69 145 ∑17.924
2 2 Thus, X calculated (X cal) = 17.92 2 2 Tabulated value of X (X tab) at 5% level of significance, where d.f = (r-1) (c-1) r = row, c = column Thus, d.f = (5 - 1) (2 – 1), = 4 x 1 = 4 2 (X tab) at 5% level of significance = 9.49
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Interpretation 2 2 From the analysis, X cal = 17.92 is greater than X tab, the null hypothesis is therefore rejected and we conclude that Tax incentives have significant impact on industrialisation in Nigeria. Testing of Hypothesis II
H0: Tax incentives have no significant impact in stimulating the establishment of more enterprises essential for industrial development.
To test this hypothesis, statement of respondents from question 2 in table 4.6 was used O E O – E (O –E)2 (O –E)2 E 28 29 -1 1 0.034 46 29 17 289 9.67 25 29 4 16 0.55 24 29 -5 25 0.86 22 29 -7 49 1.69 145 ∑12.804
2 X cal = 12.80 2 X tab at 5% level of significance d.f 4 = 9.49 Interpretation 2 2 From the analysis, X cal = 12.80 is greater than X tab, the null hypothesis is therefore rejected and we conclude that Tax incentives
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can stimulate the establishment of more enterprises which will boost industrial development and economic growth.
5. CONCLUSION
From the findings, it was concluded that most companies, industries and firms have benefited from and are benefitting from the provisions of tax incentives. This corroborates the study of Chukwu (2012), Okafor (2009) and Olabiri (2009). These tax incentives will offset other disadvantages that investors may face such as the lack of infrastructure, complicated laws, bureaucratic complexities and weak administration in the tax area. The appropriate measure is now to reform the existing tax laws that create inadequacies and build on the necessary incentive administrative capacities and infrastructure to provide an enabling environment for investors. Thus, the following recommendations are made;
A detailed, financial and accountable record of business should be kept by industries so as to be able to assess their performances in the face of tax incentives. Tax incentives should be granted to all industries and firms and not to specific ones so as to record on all round developmental change in the industrial sector which will improve the economic growth level.
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Industries benefitting from incentives should be required to send a periodical progress report. Government should fashion out a strategy to ensure that incentives granted to local industries are properly utilized by the industries.
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REFERENCES Amadiegwu, N. O. (2008). Taxation an Indispensable Tool for Economic Development. Enugu: Aries Publication
Akinlo, A. E. (1996). The impact of adjustment programme on manufacturing industries in Nigeria, 1986–1991: a sample study. African Development Review, 8(1), 61-96.
Barbour, P. (2005). An Assessment of South Africa’s Investment Incentive Regime with a Focus on the Manufacturing Sector, ESAU Working Paper 14, Overseas Development Institute; London
Brundtland Report (2007). Sustainable Development in action. Press Release, United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development.
CBN (2006). Central Bank of Nigeria Statistical Bulletin
CBN (2013). Central Bank of Nigeria Statistical Bulletin.
CBN (2016). Central Bank of Nigeria Statistical Bulletin.
Chukwu, N.B. (2012). Tax Incentives: Catalyst for Industrial Development and Economic Growth in Nigeria. A study of Selected Industries and Firms in Port Harcourt. Caritas University, Amorji-Nike, Enugu.
Dotun, P. (1996). “Corporate Tax Incentives and Economic Growth in Nigeria”. Tax News, 1(2)
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Dotun, S. O. and Sanni O.,E. (2009). Corporate Tax Incentives and Economic Growth in Nigeria. Ibadan: University of Ife Press Ltd.
Iheanacho, E. N. (2014). National Development Planning in Nigeria: An Endless Search for Appropriate Development Strategy. International Journal of Economic Development Research and Investment, 5(2)
Iwuagwu, O.(2009). Nigeria and the Challenge of Industrial Development: The New Cluster Strategy, African Economic History,37, 151-18
Kirkpatrick, C. H., Lee, N. and Nixson, F. I. (1984). Industrial Structure and Policy in Less Developed Countries. Hemel Hempstead, United Kingdom, George Allen & Unwin (Publishers) Ltd.
Manufacturers Association of Nigeria, (2005). Newsletter Publication (various issues).
Manufacturers Association of Nigeria, (2016). Newsletter Publication (various issues).
NBS (2017). Nigerian Gross Domestic Product Report, 2017.
Ndebbio, J. U. (1994). Industrial Development Policies/Incentives and their Impact on the Nigerian Economy. In: Ndebbio and Ekpo (eds.). The Nigerian Economy at Crossroads: Policies and Their Effectiveness. University of Calabar Press, 11- 13
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Ohaka, J., & Agundu, P. U. C. (2012). Tax incentives for industry synergy in Nigeria: A pragmatic proprietary system advocacy. African Research Review, 6(3), 42-58.
Okafor, F. O. (2009). Investment Decision, Evaluation and Development. Volume 7, Source Issue: 3. London: Chassell Press.
Olabiri, J. (2009). Tax Incentive as a Catalyst for Economic Development in Nigeria. Journal of Research in National Development; Vol. 7, No. 2.
Oriakhi, D. E. & Osemwengie P. K. (2013). Tax Incentives and Revenue Productivity of the Nigerian Tax System, International Journal of Development and Economic Sustainability 1 (1) pp.31-44 Regan, L.,E. (2008). Tax Incentives in Developing Countries. A Reading on Taxation in Developing Countries, 3rd edition. London. Chassell Press.
Somorin, T. (2015). Tax incentives under the Nigerian tax laws: Business Day Newspaper, 13 (153), 20.
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Poverty and Inequalities Nexus: A Comparative Study of Nigeria and Ghana
Samuel Olumuyiwa OLUSANYA
Department of Economics Faculty of Social Sciences National Open University of Nigeria Email: [email protected]
Abstract he paper take a look at Poverty and Inequalities nexus: a comparative study of Nigeria and Ghana. The paper made use of report collected from Ghana living standard measurement survey for various issues till 2016 and the Nigeria national minimum standard measurement survey various issues till 2016 and Logit model was used to estimation techniques. However, the objectives of the paper is to examine the relationship between Poverty and inequalities in Nigeria and Ghana and to also examine where Poverty and inequalities is more prevalent in both countries. The result of the findings shows that there was a direct relationship between Poverty and inequalities in Nigeria but in Ghana, it shows an inverse relationship. However, Poverty and Inequalities is more severe in Nigeria than in Ghana due to people oriented policies put in
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place by the Ghanaian government. The paper recommends that Nigeria government should put in more effort in making sure that various Poverty and inequalities policies are implemented and re- organised the national Poverty programme. More so, the Ghanaian government should consolidate on their gains and improve on their existing policies for better performance in their poverty eradication programme. Finally, the paper concludes that the rural area in both countries should be given more priority and government should improve on the living standard of people especially in Nigeria. Keywords: Poverty, Inequalities, National Living measurement
1.0 INTRODUCTION Poverty has a major subject of concern in national and international policy discourse. Adewaju (2015) notes that poverty is engulfing more and more of the world human population and has continued to increase despite all developmental effort put in place by both the government and non-government organization to eradicate it.
Adesanya (2017) observes that while the number of the poor in advance countries of the world has reduced considerably over the years, the reverse has been the case with the developing countries. Poverty takes various form including low nutritional status, low level of education, low level of savings and investment among others.
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The situation is so worrisome that the relevance of the Nigerian economy at the global level is continuously shrinking. According to UNDP human development report (2010), ‘Nigeria’s current contribution to global GDP is rather infinitesimal -0.22 percent, whereas in 1960’s it was 0.55 percent.’ This fact, further portray Nigeria’s declining economic performance, resulting in a lacklustre growth pattern.
The above situation therefore, calls for an immediate policy effort to fine-tune the economy in the direction of a reduced poverty and inequality levels that will generate sufficient growth to revamp and bolster the economy.
However, in the case of Ghana as a developing country too, is seriously affected by poverty. Nevertheless it is known that whenever there is poverty, development suffers. Many developing countries are faced with numerous development problems of which poverty serves as a central focus. It is estimated that 1/5 of the world’s population currently lives on less than one US dollar per day. These affect children and mortality increases between the periods of 1980 and 1999. This brings in the issue of human capabilities such as being illiterate, unhealthy and inadequate nourished. For instance a UNDP
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(2008) report shows that 30% of all adult women are illiterate in developing countries.
According to Ashaye (2018), development partners, adult educators, researchers as well as planners have recognized that it is necessary to involve the poor in any programme that aims in reducing poverty and this is the reason why participatory poverty assessment (PPAs) programme has been put in place in some countries to provide space for the poor to be involved in the process of poverty reduction. This is an idea that was initiated by the World Bank. The Ghana PPA’s series was also initiated by the World Bank as part of a series of research initiatives under the Extended Poverty Study (World Bank 2015) in Ghana. The two Phases of the study carried out in 2010 and 2014 focused in gaining insights into the poor living experiences and conceptions of wealth, poverty and well-being and the needs and priorities which they considered essential in the formulation of any poverty reduction policies and programmes.
Moreover, Epam (2017), assert that poverty has been a serious problem in Ghana for many years. He further said, Ghana has undertaken living standards measurement surveys on poverty as portrayed in the Ghana living standard measurement surveys (GLSS) in 1987-88, 1988-89, 1991-92, 1998/99, 2000-2003 and 2004-2006,
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2006-2008. 2008-2010, 2010-2014 respectively. In the surveys, poverty was examined in monetary terms by locality, region and socio-economic groups. The results showed that poverty was more pronounced in rural area than urban centre although some urban poverty was identified. Moreover, Ghana loses about 30% of its agricultural production annually due to poor post-harvest handling and inadequate storage capacity. This contributes in making farmers poorer. It is known that the multi-dimensional nature of poverty needs a holistic approach which involves the poor in looking for the appropriate approaches or interventions for poverty reduction.
Poverty as explained by the poor from rural communities include: lack of income, lack of assets, the inability of poor individuals to meet basic human needs such as education, health, good food for survival and good drinking water.
According to Dohado (2017), he said in one of the communities in Ghana, ‘Nayagnia’, the people defined poverty as the inability to satisfy the basic requirements of life in the following words: poverty means hunger, most of us here are poor because we do not have money to help us to acquire inputs as farmers to work better. Though one may be energetic and may want to go into serious farming, we cannot afford the cost of fertilizer and the use of bullocks and tractors.
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It is clear from the perceptions of both experts and the poor that the concept is well understood and therefore both showed similar characteristics. In effect, both the poor and experts are aware of the causes of poverty and some of the interventions that should be put in place to reduce poverty.
In Nigeria, the twin issues of poverty and inequitable income distribution present a paradox. This is so because, though the country is rich in land, human and natural resources, the people are still considered to be poor, as nearly 70 percent of Nigerians in 1999 were living in poverty (FOS, 1999; Okojie, et al 2000; World Bank 2000; Soludo, 2006), while the incidence of poverty has remained relatively high, hovering around 54% between 2005 and 2009 (CBN, 2009). Per Capita income by 2000 was still around the same level as in 1965 and in between, Nigeria's cumulative revenues from oil (after deducting the payments to the foreign oil companies) have amounted to about US$350 billion at 1995 prices (Salai-Martin and Subramanian, 2003). Worse still, the problems of poverty in Nigeria are multi-faceted, among which are widespread outbreak of AIDS pandemic, lack of access to good health facilities, high infant mortality rate, lack of essential infrastructure, unemployment and underemployment, corruption.
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In the past few years, Nigerian government has spent colossal sum of money both at the Federal, State and Local Government levels in vain attempts at the relief of poverty by initiating and executing several poverty alleviation programmes, However, many of the people who are put in charge of such programmes have been accused of having only succeeded in enriching themselves and their cronies, sending the country deeper into the abyss of higher poverty and inequality.
Interestingly, a major strategy which has been used in reducing the level of poverty in most developing countries (Nigeria, inclusive) is the economic growth strategy which focuses on the macro and microeconomic policy which ensures rapid growth of the economy. Economic growth is regarded as crucial as it would generate income- earning opportunities for the poor and thereby make use of their most abundant asset, that is, their labour. Besides, human capital, the product of education and improvement of health, is also crucial to raising the living standard by raising productivity, stimulating growth and by opening up economic opportunities to more people, which contributes to reducing income inequality.
However, Ghana faces widespread poverty and inequality characterized by a low quality and quantity of employment opportunities. It ranks 1131 out of 177 countries listed the 2004
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Human Development index. Per capita income is about US $380 (compared to US $450 in 1975). The workforce is growing by about 230,000 annually. Given the lack of opportunities for employment and income generation, almost 40% of the population was living below the poverty line in 1998/99 according to the latest available Ghana living standard Survey (GLSS$) 2014. Women are disproportionately affected, with the incidence of poverty higher amongst women than men across virtually every sector of the economy. After farming, non-farm self-employment in micro and small enterprise has the highest prevalence of poverty and inequality in Ghana and about 29% of all persons whose livelihood depends on it live below the poverty line. The GLSS4 revealed that, of the labour force aged 15 to64 years, 52 percent were self-employed in agriculture, 34.3 percent worked in the informal economy, and only 13.7 percent worked in formal public or private employment. The number of households whose main source of income is in the informal economy is growing fast, particularly in non-farm self- employment. Job quality is low in the micro and small enterprises that are predominantly operating in the informal economy.
However, Charles (2018) said that, since the Ghanaian government has introduced various policies on poverty and inequalities, a lot of
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improvement has been seen in Ghana, both in the rural and urban area of the country, but more effort is still needed to eradicate it to the minimum. The paper will examine the relationship between poverty level and standard of living of household in Nigeria and Ghana and to also examine where poverty and inequality is more prominent between Nigeria and Ghana.
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Conceptual Literature Definitions of poverty which are restricted to income (or consumption) and those which incorporate such factors as autonomy, self-esteem or participation. In Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, these were seen as higher needs, which would become more important as basic needs for food, shelter, housing and safety were met.
On the basis of this surveys and poverty assessments report the incidence of poverty at a point in time. However, there is a long history of thinking about poverty in terms of life cycle experience (e.g Chayanov’s pioneering work in the 1920s on the peasant household), seasonal stress and shocks (illness, drought, war). In both North and South, there has been increasing attention to understanding movement in and out of poverty, what Jenkins calls ‘bottom-end churning’. Fifth
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is poverty perception as actual or potential. By this some analysts conclude that the poor are those who are actual or potential. By this some analysts conclude that the poor are those who are highly sensitive to shocks, or not resilient. In this group area the vulnerable such as small-scale pastoralists exposed to the risk of drought, the elderly etc. Sixth has to do with the stock or flow measures of poverty. In this regard the definition of poverty as income focuses on the flow of material goods and services. An alternative is to examine the stock of resources a household controls. This may be measured in terms of physical or monetary assets (Land, Jewelry, Cash), or in terms of social capital (social contacts, networks, reciprocal relationships, community membership). Seventh is input or output measures of poverty.
Sen (2017) has reminded us that poverty measured as a shortfall in income essentially captures an input to an individual’s capability and functioning rather than a direct measure of well-being. Thus writing about poverty has often assumed, wrongly, an automatic link between income and participation, or functioning, in life of a community. Eight consideration is absolute or relative poverty. The World Bank currently uses a figure of $US 1 per day (in 1985 purchasing power dollars) for absolute poverty. The alternative has been to define
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poverty as relative deprivation, for example as half mean income, or as exclusion from participation in society. Thus the European Union has decided that ‘the poor shall be taken to mean persons, families and groups of person whose resources (material, cultural, social) are so limited as to exclude them from the minimum acceptable way of life. Finally there is the objective or subjective perceptive of poverty. In this regard, the use of participation methods has greatly encouraged an epistemology of poverty which relies on local understanding and perceptions. For example, exposure to domestic violence may be seen as important in one community, dependency on traditional structures in another, thanks to ‘The voice of the poor’.
Given all these, the appropriate question to ask is whether there is a right answer to the concept of poverty. The answer is certainly ‘no’, but current thinking does allow some simplification. First, poverty needs to be understood first and foremost as a problem at the individual rather than the household level. Second is the use of income of food measure of poverty. Third, is the settled consensus that people move in and out poverty, and that seasonal, cyclical or stochastic shocks are important in poverty conceptualization and measurement. Beyond these areas of agreement, there are different views on whether assets, including social claims, should be counted
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in a poverty matrix, on the importance of vulnerability, and on the relative prioritization of monetary and non-monetary variables. What is becoming clear in contemporary literature on poverty is that the most radical proponents of a participatory approach would deny the validity of standardized, so called objective measures of poverty, whether based on income or wealth, chambers, for example, has argued that these approaches are reductionist.
However, a concise and universally accepted definition of poverty is elusive largely because it affects many aspects of the human conditions, including physical, moral and psychological. Different criteria have, therefore, been used to conceptualize poverty. Most analysis follows the conventional view of poverty as a result of insufficient income for securing basic goods and services. Others view poverty, in part, as a function of education, health, life expectancy, child mortality etc. Blackwood and Lynch (2016), identify the poor, using the criteria of the levels of consumption and expenditure. Further, Sen (2017), relates poverty to entitlements which are taken to be the various bundles of goods and services over which one has command, taking into cognizance the means by which such goods are acquired (for example, money and coupons etc) and the availability of the needed goods. Yet, other experts see poverty in very broad terms, such as being unable to meet “basic needs”-
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(physical; foods, healthcare, education, education, shelter etc, and non-physical; participation, identity, etc) requirements for a meaningful life (Fridayho 2016).
Dele (2017) notes that the choice of inequality measure depends on practical convenience. Even though it is not easily decomposed, the Gini provides other advantages and is simpler to interpret compared to the other measures (Dele, 2017). However, providing estimates for a range of measures provides a more holistic approach to analyzing inequality in Ghana. The GE indices have the advantage of decomposability, where the relative shares of between and within group inequality can be identified. The changes in within - and between - group inequality will provide an indication of the determinants of the changes in income inequality, in particular an assessment of whether increasing income inequality is due to rising within-group inequality rather than between-groups. The continued role of north-south inequality can be further explored. To give a clearer idea of the gap between rich and poor, the inequality indices are augmented with additional analysis based on growth incidence curves (showing the distributional pattern of growth) and on comparing consumption and its growth among the richest 10% of the population with the average consumption of the bottom 10% of
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the population. We also estimate total consumption shares for the wealthiest 10% of the population compared to the total consumption share of the poorest 10% and how these shares have changed since 2006.
Inequality, on the other hand, implies the dispersion of a distribution whether one is considering income, consumption or some other welfare indicators or attributes. Although conceptually distinct, income inequality is often studied as part of the broad analysis covering poverty and welfare. Thus, inequality is a broader concept than poverty because it is defined over a whole distribution (Wagner, 2017).
2.2 Empirical Literature
Literatures on the poverty inequality link are most times connected to growth as a result of the theoretical link between inequality and growth. The literature on the empirical analysis of the relationship between poverty, inequality and economic growth has become quite substantial since early 1980‟s.
Empirical evidence has been conflicting with contradictory findings as a result of differences in samples used, econometric techniques, measurement of poverty, specifications and country peculiarities.
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Earlier studies before the past two decades tend to support Kuznets’s inverted-U curve of an increase in income inequality at the early stage of growth of the economy which will decline as the economy grows.
Most of these studies were done on cross-sectional basis. However, most studies in the last two decades do not support the Kuznets’s hypothesis mostly on country specific factors and some found no methodical relationship between growth and inequality Wagner (2017). The study carried out by Ravallion (1997) concludes that in the presence of high inequality, poverty may still rise irrespective of the high growth. Using 1983/84 and 1991 data, Aigbokhan (1997), examined poverty and poverty alleviation in Nigeria in a micro data analysis that links macro model to micro analysis. He found that inequality was found higher in the rural areas and during the Structural Adjustment Programme period.
Inequality was also higher among males in urban areas but higher among females in the rural areas both in Nigeria and Ghana but higher in Nigeria. Aigbokhan (2000) also extended his studies analyzing the profile of poverty in Nigeria based on the introduced structural policy reforms in 1986 and the reversal introduced in January 1994. He made use of national consumer survey data sets for 1985/86, 1992/93 and 1996/97 from the Federal Office of Statistics
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on the food energy intake (FEI) variant of the consumption-based method in poverty analysis. He also examined the polarization of income distribution. The study found evidence of increased poverty, inequality and polarization in distribution for the period of study. Poverty and inequality was found higher among male-headed households, in rural areas and the northern geographical zones. It was also found that the country experienced positive real growth in the period with rising poverty and inequality thus the “trickle down” hypothesis was not supported. Lin (2003) reported China’s experience during the period of 1985-2001. It was reported that economic growth effectively reduced poverty. However, at the same time, the increasing income inequality that was created by the economic growth decreased the effectiveness of the effort to reduce poverty. Sarumi (2017) did a study on growth, poverty and inequality and he make use of Econometrics model of Co-integration and the result revealed that there is a long run relationship between growth, poverty and inequality. Ravallion (2006) studied the effects of income inequality on poverty in India and China in 1980-2000. He found that, similar to Lin’s findings, economic growth reduced poverty in the two countries, and income inequality reduced the effectiveness of poverty reduction. Furthermore, he also reported that poverty reduction needed a combination of economic growth, a sort of “pro-poor” pattern of economic growth, and income inequality reduction.
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Le (2008) examined the relationship between poverty and growth on the one hand and initial inequality on growth on the other hand in the provincial level of Vietnam. Poverty was negatively related to growth while there was no relationship between initial inequality and later growth. Poverty and inequality was found to be positively linked thus reducing one entails the reduction of the other. Poverty reduction and inequality was also found to be determined by human capital, investment, GDP growth rate and trade openness. He concluded that policy on poverty reduction in the country will bring about more equitable society.
2.3 Theoretical Framework
2.3.1. Classical Theory of Poverty
Classical traditions view individuals as largely responsible for their own destiny, choosing in effect to become poor (e.g. by forming lone- parent families). The concept of ‘sub-cultures of poverty’ implies that deficiencies may continue over time, owing for example to lack of appropriate role models, and that state aid should be limited to changing individual capabilities and attitudes (i.e. the laissez-faire tradition). However, the theory is a major proponent of Oscar Lewis theory in
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1966. The theory believes that the individuals are the cause of their poor state. They are poor because poverty is in them (inherited) and their actions such as being lazy, not educated, teen parent, single female headed family and many more which makes them unable to compete for economic opportunities. These attitudes of the individual that made them poor, becomes a way of life/culture for them which they pass on to their next generation leading to vicious cycle of poverty, Jordan (2004). This theory is however still controversial among scholars of poverty and policy makers.
2.3.2 Neoclassical Theory of Poverty Neoclassical theories are more wide ranging and recognise reasons for poverty beyond individuals’ control. These include lack of social as well as private assets; market failures that exclude the poor from credit markets and cause certain adverse choices to be rational; barriers to education; immigrant status; poor health and advanced age; and barriers to employment for lone-parent families.
Looking at the classical and neoclassical approaches together, their main advantages reside in the use of (quantifiable) monetary units to measure poverty and the readiness with which policy prescriptions can be put into practice. They also highlight the influence of
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incentives on individual behaviour as well as the relationship between productivity and income.
More so, the theory believes that poverty is as a result of the structure of the economy. Among these factors are different employment level and the nature of the distribution of income. Thus an individual is poor not because he is not hard working but does not have the opportunity to work. He is made poor as a result of the economic system that denied him his share of the income and inequitable distribution of income. A major proponent of this theory is Rainwater Lee (Jordan, 2004).
2.3.3 Keynesian/Neoliberal Theory of Poverty
Even though the neoliberal school led by the new-Keynesians also adopts a money-centred, individual stance towards poverty, the importance assigned to the functions of the government allows for a greater focus on public goods and inequality. For instance, a more equal income distribution can facilitate the participation of disadvantaged groups of society in the type of activities that are deemed essential under broader notions of poverty. On the other hand, new-Keynesians are in line with neoclassical economists in their belief that overall growth in income is ultimately the most effective element in poverty removal.
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Publicly provided capital (including education) has an important role to play, with physical and human capital believed to be the foundation for economic prosperity. Unlike the classical approach, unemployment, viewed as a major cause of poverty, is largely seen as involuntary and in need of government intervention to combat it. Excessive inflation, high sovereign debt and asset bubbles are other macroeconomic factors, besides weak aggregate demand, believed to cause poverty.
Therefore, the paper will make use of classical theory which states that Classical traditions view individuals as largely responsible for their own destiny, choosing in effect to become poor (e.g. by forming lone-parent families).
3.0 METHODOLOGY 3.1 Model Specification The paper adopts the neoclassical theory of poverty which states that poverty is as a result of the structure of the economy. The theory asserts that an individual is poor not because he is not hard working but does not have the opportunity to work and he is made poor as a result of the economic system that denied him his share of the income and inequitable distribution of income. Therefore, Logit model was adopted in the paper and the model will give an insight to the use of
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dummy variable. The models is stated as follows: POV = F(HHSZ, AGE, RURAL, FM, PVTWGD, SELF EMPLD, NON WKNG, INEQ)
POV = ao + a1HHSZ + a2AGE + a3RU + a4FEMALE + a5PVTWGD + a6SELF EMPLD + a7NON WKNG + a8INEQ + U
Where HHSZ = household size
AGE = age of the respondents
RU = number of people that live in rural/urban area, if rural dummy is 1 and if is urban is zero
FM = number of female and male respondents, if is female dummy is 1 if male dummy is 0
PVTWGD = number of people that earn their living through private wage. If private wage, dummy is 1 if otherwise is zero
SELF EMPLD = number of people that do work of their own, dummy is 1, if otherwise is zero
NON WKNG = number of people that are not working, dummy is 1 if non-working and zero if otherwise.
INEQ = Represent inequality in rural and urban areas both Nigeria and Ghana, inequality among male and female in Nigeria and Ghana, inequality among public waged and private waged employee in Nigeria and Ghana, inequality among those that are self-employed in
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Nigeria and Ghana and inequality among those that are not working in Nigeria and Ghana.
Furthermore, the model specification is based on the type of data available to both Nigeria national minimum standard survey and Ghana living standard measurement survey. In both country (Nigeria and Ghana) living standard measurement survey, we have the household data and the individual data. The household data only comprise the income and expenditure while the individual data comprise both income and expenditure as well as data on the poverty variables such as employment, food intake, school attended etc.
3.2 Logit Model
Pr(yt = (1/ x, B) = 1- ( e-x,B/(1+e-xi)) = ( e-x,B/(1+e-xi)) ……………………………..(i)
This model is based on the cumulative distribution function for the logistic distribution, just like most other works in this area, we also prefer the logit to the probit model because it is simple to analyse mathematically. Logit analysis regression will then be examined to know the determinant of poverty (whether poor or non-poor). It will also look at whether the same factors are responsible for poverty in Nigeria and Ghana or not. Therefore, this will enable us to do a
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comparative analysis between the two countries on the degree of impact of different determinant of poverty.
3.3 Source of Data The data that was use in this paper will be collected from the Ghana living standard measurement survey as at 2016 and the Nigeria national household survey conducted as at 2016.However, it should be noted that inequality parameter will be extracted from the model to make a clear distinction between inequality in Nigeria and Ghana.
4.0 RESULT AND ANALYSIS 4.1 Result of Logit Model Analysis for Nigeria Variable Coefficient Std. Error z-Statistic Prob. C 4.456633 0.543421 -21.564921 0.0000 HHSZ 0.564320 0.654650 12.876023 0.9823 AGE 4.347254 0.324548 0.542897 0.0000 RURAL -2.545902 0.332481 12.112085 0.0000 FEMALE -4.568935 0.023165 15.569023 0.0000 PVTWGD 3.882354 0.348769 5.330976 0.0000 SELFEMPLD 2.670334 0.998721 11.786032 0.0000 NONWKNG 0.311723 0.458762 25.430981 0.4341
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Mean dependent variance 0.590876 S.D. dependent var 0.546790 S.E. of regression Akaike info criterion 4.324267 0.341987 Schwarz criterion 5.321095 Sum squared resid Hannan-Quinn criter. 5.222056 3412.564 Avg. log likelihood -3.545100 Log likelihood McFadden R-squared 1.510942 7644.548 Total obs 12200 Restr. Log likelihood -4902.336 LR statistic (7 sf) 6751.432 Probability (LR stat) 0.000000 Obs with Dep=0 3566 Obs with Dep=1 8634 Source: E-view
From the result above, there is direct or positive relationship between household size and poverty which means that as the number of household increases poverty in the household increases. That is a unit increase in the household size will lead to 0.564320 unit increase in the poverty level. Olusanya (2018)
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However, it is also not significant at 5% (1.96) level of significance which also shows that poverty is very high among the household size.
The age group category also has a direct or positive relationship with the poverty level in Nigeria and this means that as the age group category increases in Nigeria, the level of poverty also increases, but it is significant at 5% (1.96) level of significance and the implication of this is that even if the age group in Nigeria increases it will not have much effect in the poverty status of the age group in Nigeria.
More so, the number of people living in the rural area has an inverse or negative relationship with the poverty level in Nigeria. The implication of this is that as the number people living in the rural area increases, it leads to a decrease in the level of poverty, and this may be increase in man power in the rural area. The parameter rural was significant at 5% (1.96) level of significant and the implication is that as the number of people in the rural area increases, the level of poverty decreases.
The number of female in Nigeria also has an inverse or negative relationship with the poverty level in Nigeria and the implication of this is that as the number of female in Nigeria increases it leads to a decrease in the poverty level in Nigeria. The parameter FEMALE is statistically significant at 5% (1.96) level of significance.
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However, the number of people that earn their money through the private wage has a direct or positive relationship with the level of poverty in Nigeria. It was then evident that the parameter private wage is statistically significant and this confirmed the high level of poverty among the private wage so severe.
The number of people that are self-employed also has a direct or positive relationship with the level of poverty in Nigeria. The parameter self-employed is not statistically significant which shows that as number of people that are self-employed increase over time, it mean that the level of poverty will be very high and severe.
Finally, the numbers of people that are not working also has a direct or positive relationship with the level of poverty and this shows that as more people are not working in Nigeria, poverty increases over time among them. The parameter is statistically significant at 5% level of significance.
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4.2 Result of Logit Model Analysis for Ghana
Variable Coefficient Std. Error z-Statistic Prob. C -2.358682 0.133545 -41.77821 0.0000 HHSZ -0.207870 0.877821 10.811230 0.0000 AGE -1.342220 0.663211 0.556611 0.0000 RURAL 4.229310 0.055644 17.332211 0.0000 FEMALE -2.877211 0.087744 12.662310 0.0000 PVTWGD 2.546120 0.667730 3.558998 0.0000 SELF EMPLD -8.773201 0.077655 1.356490 0.0000 NONWKNG -0.872165 0.559110 19.672110 0.0000 Mean dependent var 0.872213 21.433091 0.0000 0.449210 S.D. dependent var 0.655989 S.E. of regression Akaike info criterion 9.332100 0.225563 Schwarz criterion 7.566122 Sum squared resid Hannan-Quinn criter. 4.887872 1651.156 Avg. log likelihood -7.766550 Log likelihood - McFadden R-squared 2.988734 401.669 Total obs 44820 Restr. Log likelihood - 4421.656 LR statistic (7 sf) 1109.421 Probability (LR stat) 0.000000 Obs with Dep=0 2255 Obs with Dep=1 7721
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From the table above, there is an inverse or negative relationship between household size and poverty which means that as the number of household increases poverty in the household decreases. That is a unit increase in the household size will lead to -0.207870unit increase in the poverty level. The parameter HHSZ is significant at 5% (1.96) level of significance.
The age group category also has an inverse or negative relationship with the poverty level in Ghana and this means that as the age group category increases in Ghana, the level of poverty decreases, but it is significant at 5% (1.96) level of significance.
More so, the number of people living in the rural area has a direct or positive relationship with the poverty level in Nigeria. The implication of this is that as the number people living in the rural area increases, it leads to an increase in the level of poverty. The parameter rural was significant at 5% (1.96) level of significance.
The number of female in Ghana also has an inverse or negative relationship with the poverty level in Ghana and the implication of this is that as the number of female in Nigeria increases it leads to a decrease in the poverty level in Nigeria. The parameter FEMALE is statistically significant at 5% (1.96) level of significance.
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However, the number of people that earn their money through the private wage has a direct or positive relationship with the level of poverty in Ghana and this shows that there is high level of poverty among the private wage earner in Ghana. It was then evident that the parameter private wage is statistically significant.
The number of people that are self-employed also has an inverse or negative relationship with the level of poverty in Ghana, this shows that as the number of people that are self-employed increases over time, it means the level of poverty decreases. The parameter self- employed is not statistically significant at 5% level of significance.
Finally, the numbers of people that are not working also has an inverse or negative relationship with the level of poverty and this shows that as more people are not working in Ghana, poverty decreases over time among them and this may be due the stipend policy the Ghanaian Government introduced through their various Local Government for poverty eradication programme. The parameter is statistically significant at 5% level of significance.
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4.3. Result of Inequality extracted from the Logit Model for Nigeria and Ghana Ghana Rural 0.79220567 Nigeria Rural 0.85420472 Ghana Urban 0.72890718 Nigeria Urban 0.88430212 Male in Ghana 0.85786931 Male in Nigeria 0.89760130 Female in Ghana 0.83486919 Female in Nigeria 0.88346701 Ghana Public Waged 0.95944852 Nigeria Public Waged 0.99320113 Ghana Private Waged 0.91414615 Nigeria Private Waged 0.92312720 Ghana (People that are self-employed) 0.73441375 Nigeria (People that are self-employed) 0.71223204 Ghana Non-working 2.04837480 Nigeria Non-working 6.32043217 Source: E-View
From the result above, it was evident that inequality in the rural area in Nigeria is 85% compare to the rural area in Ghana which is 79%. We then conclude that there is more inequality accounted for in Nigeria rural area compare to Ghana rural area.
Inequality in urban area in Ghana is 72% compare to the urban area in Nigeria which is 88%. Therefore we conclude that there is more inequality accounted for in Nigeria urban area compare to Ghana urban area.
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Also, inequality among the male in Ghana is 85% while in Nigeria is 89% and we can conclude that inequality is more pronounced among the male in Nigeria compare to the male in Ghana.
Inequality among the female in Ghana is 83% while in Nigeria is 88% and we can concludes that inequality is more pronounced among the female in Nigeria than the female in Ghana.
However, inequality among those that earned their living from public enterprise such as government work in Ghana accounted for 95% while those in Nigeria accounted for 99% which shows that there is more inequality among those that earn their living in public enterprise in Nigeria compare to their counterpart in Ghana. Also, those that are self-employed in Nigeria accounted for 71% and Ghana is 73% and this shows that there are more inequality among those that are self- employed in Ghana than in Nigeria.
Furthermore, it was evident that there is more severe inequality among those that are not working in Nigeria which accounted for 63% while those that are not working in Ghana accounted for 20%. In conclusion, inequality is more pronounced among those that are not working in Nigeria than in Ghana.
In conclusion, we can infer that there are more inequality in Nigeria than in Ghana base on the result and the analysis above.
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5.0 RECOMMENDATION
Based on the findings, the following recommendation is given:
1. Putting in Place a Good National Poverty Programme: Poverty programme in Nigeria are shallow, incomprehensive, and non- implementable programme compare to better policy put in place by Ghanaian Government. In contrast, poverty programme should be re- organized to take care of the household in the rural and urban area. Further programme should also include making all other policies pro- poor as well as sourcing fund for financing poverty programmes should be done from government revenue base, rather than waiting for foreign assistance. However, corruption is seen as one of the problem of non-implementable poverty programme in Nigeria and this has made Nigeria the capital of poverty in the world as at 2019.
2. Increase Economic growth Performance: Growth of the economy is a must for poverty reduction. In developing countries such as Nigeria and Ghana growth that is employment generation and with export base is desirable in order to achieve growth that is poverty reducing with equity. However, overall economy will be better if there is increase in economic growth because it will reduce some of the poverty level experience in the rural and urban area of Nigeria and Ghana as it was shown from the result.
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3. Government Should Avoid Macroeconomic shocks and Policy Failure: This has been a major cause of poverty and inequality in Nigeria as it was shown from the paper. The Nigeria Government should make sure that macroeconomic shocks and policy failure should be avoided because from the result we conclude that there is more poverty and inequality in Nigeria compare to Ghana. However, some of the things responsible are mainly policy failure and inconsistency in policy of Nigeria Government.
4. Government Should Improve the Labour market: The poor’s most abundant is their labour market, which is one of the important ways of reducing poverty and income inequality in the rural and urban area of Ghana and Nigeria. It was known from the study that majority of poor households in both countries participate in the labour market in one way or another, and thus poverty is a problem of low wages (in the informal sector) and it leads to low labour returns to rural self-employment activities, underemployment and in some cases, protracted unemployment as it was seen from Ghana and Nigeria survey. These problems are affected in different ways by deficiencies in labour market. The majority of the labour force work as paid employees in the private informal sector, followed by employees in the public sector in both Ghana and Nigeria. However, it was evident from the paper that when there are deficiencies in
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labour market, the poor are affected by limited job growth and absorption capacity in the informal sector.
4. Development of the Rural Area to avoid Migration: Migration rates should be avoided by Nigeria and Ghana Government; rather they should developed the rural area to even attract people from the urban centre. Moreover it was evident from the study that migration is responsible for some of the brain drains on skills in both country, it reduces the pace of economic growth and thus slows the process of overall job creation and affects the long-run development potential in a country. Therefore, the Government of both countries should try to cub poverty especially in the rural area.
5. Creation of Employment Opportunity: Employment is a key determinant of poverty. Gainful employment is important for individual to earn income and escape from ‘income’ poverty. Generally, the paper shows that in Nigeria and Ghana, none of the poor suffer from transitional or involuntary unemployment, the poor are faced with problems of structural unemployment due to lack of skills or extremely low educational levels, medical problems, geographical isolation (which affects some of the rural poor in general and the urban poor due to marginalization of persons living in high-crime neighborhood). Further, underemployment occurs largely
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in the informal sectors in Nigeria and Ghana, and its results in low incomes for an important segment of the labour force, particularly in rural areas, therefore it is compulsory that the Government of both countries should create more employment opportunity in their respectively country.
6.0 CONCLUSION
Poverty has remained a major source of concern to many developing nations of the world because of its debilitating effects on the citizenry. In Nigeria, poverty and inequality is multi-faceted, as it incorporates economic, social, cultural and political dimensions. As such, achieving an appreciable rate of poverty whereas in Ghana the Government has put a good policy in place which has help in reducing the rate of poverty and inequality as shown in this paper.
Furthermore, increasing household sizes inevitably reduces per capita income and worsens the incidence of poverty. This underscores the need to campaign against large family size, while women are placed on birth control programmes in both countries.
More so, small-scale enterprises, that are both agricultural and non- agricultural based, should be genuinely encouraged and the Nigerian government, through the activities of the National Directorate of
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Employment (NDE), should refocus more on the rural areas where the incidence of poverty is greater. Skill acquisition in non-agricultural enterprises that can be managed within the socioeconomic structure of the rural areas should be promoted, while notable problems militating against agricultural development in Nigeria, like inefficient pricing system and natural resource degradation, shouldbe urgently addressed. The Ghanaian Government policy on poverty and inequality that has yielded at least a little improvement should be consolidated to still alleviate poverty and inequality in the country.
Finally, the paper concludes that poverty and inequality is more severe in Nigeria than in Ghana.
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Usage of Electronic Banking Services and Customer Satisfaction in Lagos State, Nigeria
Jameelah O. YAQUB, PhD Department of Economics Lagos State University, Ojo, Lagos State Email: [email protected] and
Anthonia T. ODELEYE, PhD Department of Economics University of Lagos, Lagos State
Abstract anking activities in Nigeria in recent times depend heavily on the use of Information and Communication Technology B(ICT). The study examines the effect of usage of Automated Teller Machines (ATM), Point of Sales (POS) platforms and internet banking on customers’ satisfaction. Data for the study were collected using a structured questionnaire administered on 200 respondents in Lagos Mainland Local Government Area of Lagos State. The respondents were chosen through non-probability sampling technique; and analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics.
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The reliability of variable items was confirmed with the Cronbach Alpha coefficient. The results obtained show that there is no difference between male and female in the usage of e-banking services but younger people tend to use e-banking services more relative to older customers. It is also found that electronic banking has positive impact on customers’ satisfaction; however critical infrastructure like power and telecommunication should be strengthened to ensure efficient utilization of electronic banking so that customers can derive optimum satisfaction. Moreover, cyber security should be improved upon to encourage more people to adopt e-banking platforms; and banks’ ATM points should be made more disabled friendly.
JEL Classification: G20, G41, O31
Keywords: E-banking, Customer’s satisfaction, Automated Teller Machine, Point of Sales, Cyber security,
1.0 INTRODUCTION Banking activities in Nigeria in recent times depend heavily on the use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT). Financial institutions in Nigeria are introducing and expanding the electronic banking products offered their customers in a bid to catch up with global developments and improve the quality of their service delivery.
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Electronic banking (e-banking), which is an umbrella term for the process by which a customer may perform banking transactions electronically without visiting a physical institution, involves the use of products such as Automated Teller Machines (ATM), Mobile Banking, Electronic Funds Transfer, and Point of Sales (POS). It is expected that with the adoption of e-banking, less cash will circulate in the economy while fewer customers will need to physically visit their banks. However, despite the adoption of e-banking, queues in the banking halls still persist and bank customers still handle much cash; it therefore becomes imperative to ask if bank customers are satisfied with the e-banking services as provided by the Nigerian banks. The objective of this study is therefore to investigate the impact of e-banking services on customers’ satisfaction in Nigeria, using Lagos State as a case study since Lagos is the commercial and economic capital of Nigeria. The paper is structured into five sections. The first section is the introduction while the second section contains a brief literature review. The third section discusses the methodology of the research while the result is presented in the fourth section. The conclusion of the paper is presented in the fifth section.
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2.0 CONCEPTUAL REVIEW Electronic Banking: Electronic banking (e-banking) is a general term for the process by which a customer may perform banking transactions electronically without visiting any banking hall. Electronic banking can be performed through the use of smartcard, banks’ credit cards or debit card, automated teller machine (ATM), and point of sales (POS) among others. Electronic banking allows customers to transfer funds, pay bills, view checking and savings account balances, pay mortgages, and purchase financial instruments and certificates of deposit. The rationale behind the establishment of e-banking services in the first place is to enable bank account holders to conduct transactions with higher degree of convenience and speed, and to access banking services at all times and places. Electronic banking provides three major advantages: convenience, speedy service, and accessibility compared to traditional retail banking services, which is expected to provide some level of satisfaction to bank customers. Both the bankers and customers would be satisfied with a service delivery that is convenient, quick and easily accessible. Customer Satisfaction Customer satisfaction is a measurement of the degree to which customers or users of an organisation’s products or services are
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pleased with those products or services. Customer satisfaction is fundamental to the marketing concept, which holds that satisfying customer needs is the key to generating customer loyalty. Customer satisfaction generally means customers’ response in the context of the state of fulfilment, and customer adjudication of the fulfilled state. It is defined as an overall negative or positive sense about the net value of services received from a service provider. Kotler (undated) described satisfaction as a person’s feeling of enjoyment or disappointment resulting from comparing a product’s perceived performance (or outcome) in relation to their expectations purchasing experience with a given electronic commerce. The ultimate goal of any organisation is generation of profits and that can be achieved with attaining customers’ satisfaction.
Customer satisfaction is an ambiguous and abstract concept and the actual manifestation of the state of satisfaction will vary from person to person and product/service to product/service. The state of satisfaction depends on a number of both psychological and physical variables which correlate with satisfaction behaviours such as return and recommendation rate. The level of satisfaction can also vary, depending on other options the customer may have and other products against which the customer can compare an organisation's products.
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Electronic Banking and Customers’ Satisfaction A number of studies examined the relationship between e-banking and customers’ satisfaction. Such studies include Suki (2012) and Al- Fahim (2013) among others. Suki (2012) and Al-Fahim (2013) examined the factors affecting customers’ satisfaction on internet banking. Their conclusion was that customer satisfaction towards internet banking was significantly influenced by ease-of-use, responsiveness and brand image. Their findings implied that banks need to focus on the factors that can generate more satisfaction and trust from the customers.
Ahmed (2005) found that many banks’ customers in Nigeria are fully aware of the positive developments in information technology and telecommunications which led to the introduction of new channels for Nigerian commercial banks’ products and services. In his analysis, he showed that providing 24hours-7days service, completing a task accurately, contacting staff to check immediately, and providing accurate and up to date information, among others were the important factors that have impact on customers’ satisfaction. But most customers however, still patronise the bank branches and find interaction with human tellers as very important. This is expressed in the number of times customers physically visit banks and length of
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time spent before such services are received. Ahmed (2005) found that e-banking services are not fully effective because of low quality of services. Nochai and Nochai (2003) found that e-banking is not fully effective as the number of times customers visit the banks are still many and the length of time spent before services is still considerable.
Chuang (2012) and Omar (2011) examined customers’ perception of e-banking service based on time usage. They used both primary and secondary data. They found that there are six factors of internet banking services that influence customers’ satisfaction. These are transaction technicalities, decision-making convenience, interactive interrogation, specialty information, security and exploration. The work of Ahmed (2005) revealed that most customers prefer internet banking services over branch banking due to reliability, convenience, speed, safety, security and cost effectiveness.
2.1 Theoretical Review This study relies on expectancy-disconfirmation paradigm (EDP) proposed by Oliver in 1977 and modified in 1980. This theory seeks to explain post-purchase or post-adoption satisfaction as a function of expectations, perceived performance, and disconfirmation of beliefs.
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According to the expectation-disconfirmation theory, consumers develop expectations about a product or service before purchasing it. Subsequently, they compare actual performance with those of expectations. Consumer satisfaction can then be seen as having relationship between the costs of what the consumer spends and the rewards (benefits) he/she anticipates. The theory proposes that users first form expectations or belief probabilities of attribute occurrence. They then form post-usage perceptions about performance and a comparison between initial expectations and performance known as disconfirmation of expectations. The theory has two famous variables: expectation or desire and experience or perceived performance. These variables are defined in two distinct time periods. Expectation or desire is related to the pre-purchase time period that a customer has initial expectation or desire about a specific performance such as quality of products or services. The expectations about the anticipated performance will make the consumers to purchase the goods or services. The expectation level will become a standard against which the product is judged and this will be used to compare outcomes with expectations.
Experience or perceived performance is related to the after purchase time period that the customer gets the experience after perceiving a
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real performance such as quality of a specific product or service. The difference between initial expectation or desire and perceived experience or performance is known as disinformation of expectation. It means that disconfirmation of expectation or desire can be positive or negative. When a customer’s perceived performance from the quality of specific product or service is higher than his/her expectation or desire, a positive disconfirmation will occur; otherwise a negative disconfirmation will happen. Positive disconfirmation leads to the customer’s satisfaction and negative disconfirmation means perceived performance of products or services could not attract the customer’s satisfaction. Expectation disconfirmation theory involves four primary constructs which are expectations, perceived performance, disconfirmation of beliefs, and satisfaction. In this research, consumers’ satisfaction in e- banking service is examined. If bank customers are satisfied, they are likely to continue their relationship with the services but if not, they would likely discontinue their patronage of the services in question.
Electronic Banking Trends in Nigeria
The payments system in Nigeria was solely traditional paper-based until card-based e-payments products were introduced in 1996. By 1999, card based payments products had assumed an open platform
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with the authorisation from the Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) for the floating of two card service companies. The CBN launched the first major initiative to modernise the payment system by granting approval to a number of banks to introduce international money transfer products, telephone banking and online banking via the internet on a limited scale. The Nigerian payments system has further evolved with the introduction of the Payments System Vision 2020, launched in 2007 to facilitate a wider range of electronic payment methods such as POS terminals.
Today, virtually all banks have introduced electronic fund transfers, debit and credit cards, internet banking and deployed automated teller machines (ATM). While cash still remains the preferred mode of payment, other payment options have grown exponentially. Table 1 below shows the volume and percentage of transactions done via electronic platforms from 2008 – 2015. The table reveals that the ATM platform is the most used of all the e-banking platforms. In terms of value and volume, transactions on the ATM platform are responsible for over 80% for the period between 2006 and 2015. This is followed distantly by POS and mobile banking. Mobile banking assumed higher prominence especially from 2013.
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Table 1A: Volume of e-Banking Platforms Transactions (2006 – 2015)
E-BANKING VOLUME IN MILLIONS PLATFORMS 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 TRANSACTIONS ATM 12.1 16.7 60.1 109.6 186.2 347.6 375.5 295.5 400.1 433.6 PERCENTAGE OF 89.6 89.3 90.9 95.3 95.15 97.86 98.33 91.32 88.09 83.51 TOTAL POS 0.8 0.4 1.2 0.9 1.1 2.1 2.59 9.4 20.8 33.7 PERCENTAGE OF 5.9 2.14 1.82 0.78 0.56 0.59 0.68 2.90 4.58 6.49 TOTAL INTERNET 0.2 0.9 1.6 2.7 7.2 3.6 2.3 2.9 5.6 8.0 BANKING PERCENTAGE OF 1.48 4.81 2.42 2.35 3.68 1.01 0.60 0.90 1.23 1.54 TOTAL MOBILE BANKING 0.4 0.7 3.2 1.8 1.2 1.9 1.5 15.8 27.7 43.9 PERCENTAGE OF 2.96 3.74 4.84 1.57 0.61 0.53 0.39 4.88 6.10 8.46 TOTAL TOTALS 13.5 18.7 66.1 115.0 195.7 355.2 381.89 323.6 454.2 519.2 Source: Authors’ Computation based on Data Sourced from CBN Annual Reports (Various issues)
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Table 1B: Value of e-Banking Platforms Transactions (2006 – 2015)
E-BANKING VALUE IN BILLIONS OF NAIRA PLATFORMS 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 TRANSACTIONS ATM 63.2 131.6 399.7 548.6 954.0 1561.8 1984.7 2828.9 3679.9 3970.2 PERCENTAGE 73.06 90.63 94.67 95.57 97.08 96.6 96.07 91.94 88.49 81.64 OF TOTAL POS 20.20 6.4 16.1 11.0 12.7 31.0 48.44 103.79 137.72 448.5 PERCENTAGE 23.35 4.41 3.81 1.92 1.29 1.92 2.34 3.37 3.31 9.22 OF TOTAL INTERNET 3.0 7.1 5.7 13.1 9.30 3.5 1.5 1.5 1.7 1.8 BANKING PERCENTAGE 3.47 4.89 1.35 2.28 0.95 0.22 0.07 0.05 0.06 0.04 OF TOTAL MOBILE 0.1 0.1 .70 1.30 6.70 20.5 31.5 142.8 339.2 442.4 BANKING PERCENTAGE 0.12 0.07 0.17 0.23 0.68 1.27 1.52 4.64 8.16 9.1 OF TOTAL TOTALS 86.5 145.2 422.2 574.0 982.7 1616.8 2066.14 3076.99 4158.52 4862.9
Source: Authors’ Computation based on Data Sourced from CBN Annual Reports (Various issues)
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3.0 METHODOLOGY This study made use of data from primary sources which were obtained through the administration of a structured questionnaire. Copies of the questionnaire were administered on 200 respondents, chosen in a non-random manner, in Lagos Mainland Local Government Area of Lagos State, in June, 2017. Lagos Mainland Local Government Area was chosen being a cosmopolitan area. The questions on the questionnaire were explained to the respondents so as to help them understand the purpose of the research and provide their independent opinions on the subject matter. The data collected was analysed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences version 24 and the analysis carried out include simple percentage and frequencies, test of difference of means and Chi-square.
4.0 DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS Reliability Test A Cronbach coefficient alpha test was conducted on all the variables generated to test the reliability of the items in order to determine the internal consistency of the scale used. According to Sekaran (2000), Cronbach alpha is a reliability coefficient that indicates how well the items are positively correlated to one another. The closer the coefficient is to 1, the higher the internal consistency. Based on the
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guidelines by Sekara (2000), a scale of below 0.6 is considered poor; values between 0.6 and 0.7 are acceptable while those above 0.7 are considered good. The Cronbach alpha for the variables for this study is presented below in Table 2 below. Table 2: Reliability Test Result
Determinant No of items Cronbach Alpha Ease of Use 10 0.714 Cost 3 0.637 Security 4 0.705 Source: Authors’ Computation (2017)
Table 3: Demographic Characteristics of Respondents Variables n Valid N Percentage (%) Gender Male 110 55.0 200 Female 85 42.5 Not indicated 5 2.5 Age 18 – 24 years 91 45.5 200 25 – 40 years 67 33.5 41 – 59 years 32 16.0 60 years and above 10 5.0 Marital Status Married 67 33.5 200 Divorced 6 3.0 Separated 4 2.0 Single 123 61.5 Occupation Public Servant 49 24.5 200 Self employed 48 24.0 Student 97 48.5 Retiree 3 1.5 Not indicated 3 1.5
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Educational Senior Secondary School 38 19.0 200 Attainment Certificate and below Ordinary National 27 13.5 Diploma /National Certificate of Education Higher National 130 65.0 Diploma/degree and above Other certification 1 0.5 Not indicated 4 2.0 Income per Below #18,000 40 20 200 month in Naira #18,000 - #50,000 72 36 #50,001 - #100,000 35 17.5 #100,001 - #250,000 26 13.0 #250,001 - #500,000 8 4.0 Above #500,000 1 0.5 Not indicated 18 9.0 Source: Field Survey, 2017
Table 3 above shows that 55% of the respondents are males while 42.5% of the respondents are females; however, 2.5% of respondents did not indicate their sex. The same table shows that 45.5% of the respondents are between the ages of 18 to 24 years while 33.5% of the respondents are between the ages of 25 to 40 years. Only 21% of the respondents are above 40 years of age.33.5% of the respondents are married as indicated in Table 3 while 61.5% of the respondents are single. Five per cent (5%) are either divorced or separated. Nineteen per cent (19%) of the respondents have Senior Secondary School certificate as their highest educational attainment while 13.5% hold either National Diplomas or National Certificate of Education;
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65% hold minimum of either Bachelor’s degrees or Higher National Diplomas while 0.5% hold other degrees such as Bachelor of Medicine Bachelor of Science (MBBS) and 2% of them did not indicate their educational attainment.
About forty – eight per cent (48.5%) of the respondents are students while 24.5% are public servants but 24% of them are self-employed. About one and half per cent (1.5%) of the respondents are retired but 3 of them, representing 1.5% did not indicate their employment status. Table 3 above also indicates that 20% of the respondents earn 18,000 naira or below per month while 36% of them earn between 18,001 and 50000 naira; 17.5% of them earn between 50,001 and 100,000; 13% earn between 100,001 and 250,000; 4% earn between 250,000 and 500,000 and 0.5% earn above 500,000. However, 9% of them did not indicate their income. The e-banking products used by respondents are ATM, POS, internet banking.
4%
96%
YES NO
Figure 1: Ownership of Bank Accounts Source: Field Survey, 2017
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Figure 1 above indicates that 96% of respondents own bank accounts while only 4% do not own bank accounts. Almost ninety-five per cent (94.4%) of those who have bank accounts claim they use e-banking services, while 5.6% do not use e-banking services.
The reasons why some of the respondents do not use e-banking are depicted in Figure 2 below. The figure indicates that the majority of them do not use e-banking because of its cost.
Reasons for not using E-banking
Not available to me 3
Security 3
Cost 5
Not provided 2
Inconvenient 1
Figure 2: Reasons for Not Using e-Banking Platforms Source: Field Survey, 2017
In order to test the satisfaction of customers with respect to the services obtained via the e-banking platforms, the respondents were
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asked questions regarding the cost, ease of use and security of the e- banking platforms. Questions were asked on these three criteria of satisfaction for ATM, internet banking and POS platforms. The chi square statistics were used to test the hypothesis on how satisfied the customers were with respect to each platform. Their responses are presented in Tables 4 - 6 below. Table 4: Respondents’ Views on Satisfaction Derived from ATM Usage ATM and Customers’ Agree Undecided Disagree Satisfaction There are sufficient 71% 8% 17.5% numbers of ATM stands in Lagos. The ATM machines are 9% 13.5% located in convenient 73.5% places. ATM services are available 17% 26% and accessible at all times in 53.5% Lagos. Increase in customer’s 75% 15.5% 5.5% services as a result of ATM has increased the level of customer satisfaction. It is easy to deposit and 5.5% 5.5% withdraw money from 77.5% ATMs. ATM fees charged by banks 41.5 13% 40% are reasonable.
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ATMs are easy to operate. 89% 4.5% 2.5% ATMs frequently break down. 20% 16% 58.5% ATMs are user friendly to the 23% 38% visually impaired and the 35.5% uneducated. ATMs have reduced the 87% 2% 7.5% number of times I visit banks. Source: Field Survey, 2017
Table 4 above shows that 71% of the respondents agree there are sufficient numbers of ATM stands in Lagos, 73.5% agree that the ATM are located in convenient places while 53.3% are of the opinion that the ATM services are accessible at all times. About seventy-eight per cent (77.5%) believe that it is easy to deposit and withdraw money from the ATMs however, less than 50% believe that the ATM fees are reasonable and that the ATMs are user friendly for the visually impaired and the uneducated. Eighty-seven per cent (87%) believe the use of ATM has reduced the number of times they visit banks. In all, the majority believe that the use of ATM has increased their satisfaction with banking services.
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Table 5: Respondents’ Views on Satisfaction Derived from Using Internet Banking Internet banking AGREE UNDECIDED DISAGREE and customers’ satisfaction Customers enjoy 67.5% 13.5% 2.5% using internet banking. Internet banking 78% 2.5% 3% saves transaction time. Availability of 65.5% 6% 12% internet banking has reduced queues in banks in Lagos. It is easy to 74% 5% 3.5% transfer money from one account to another account through internet banking. Internet banking 56.5% 20% 5.5% services are secure. Internet banking 74% 5.5% 3% is time saving. There are enough 48.5% 23.5% 11.5% security measures in place to safe guard the customers’ funds.
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The customer is 48% 25.5% 9.5% satisfied with the service he/she gets each time he/she uses internet banking. Internet banking 62% 8% 13% services are available 24/7. It is easy to check 73% 6.5% 3.5% customers’ account using internet banking. Source: Field Survey, 2017 Table 5 above presents respondents’ feelings on the use of internet banking. About six – eight per cent (67.5%) say they enjoy using internet banking while 78% believe internet banking saves transaction time; 65.5% believe internet banking has reduced queues in banks in Lagos; 48.5% however agree that enough security measures are in place to safeguard customers’ funds. In summary, only 48% agree that they are satisfied with the services they get each time they use internet banking.
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Table 6: Respondents’ Views on Satisfaction Derived from POS Usage POS and Customers’ Agree Satisfaction Undecided Disagree POS has increased the level of 68% 5.5% 5% customers’ satisfaction. There are enough security measures in place to safeguard 52.5% 18.5% 7.5% the funds of customers that use the POS. POS has increased the rate at 14% 4% which goods are ordered for in 60.5% Lagos. POS has reduced the rate of 64% 6% robbery in Lagos. 8.5% POS has ensured the effectiveness of cashless policy. 48.5% 19.5% 10.5% Source: Field Survey, 2017
Table 6 above shows that respondents felt that POS services has increased the rate at which goods are ordered in Lagos and has also reduced the rate of robbery as they do not need to carry physical cash. Respondents also agree that there are enough security measures in place to secure customer’s fund, however, only 48.5% agree that the use of POS has ensured the effectiveness of the cashless policy.
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Test of Hypotheses on e-banking and Customers’ satisfaction Three hypotheses are tested in this regard using the Chi-square and these are: i. ATM has no significant effect on customers’ satisfaction. ii. Internet banking has no significant effect on customers’ satisfaction. iii. Point of Sale (POS) has no significant effect on customers’ satisfaction.
Hypothesis I: ATM services have no significant effect on customers’ satisfaction.
Table 7: Test Statistics on ATM and Customers’ Satisfaction ATM and Customer Satisfaction Chi- 86.417a Square Df 22 Asymp. .000 Sig. a. 0 cells (0.0%) have expected frequencies less than 5. The minimum expected cell frequency is 8.1.
From Table 7above, it can be observed that the returned p-value 0.000 is less than 0.05, with a Chi-square of 86.417, thus the null hypothesis that ATM has no significant effect on customers’ satisfaction cannot
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be accepted. We therefore accept the alternative hypothesis that ATMs has significant effect on customer satisfaction in Lagos.
Hypothesis II: Internet banking has no significant effect on customer satisfaction.
Table 8: Test Statistics on Internet Banking and Customers’ Satisfaction
Test Statistics Internet Banking and Customer Satisfaction a Chi-Square 81.500 df 24 .000
Asymp. Sig.
a. 0 cells (0.0%) have expected frequencies less than 5. The minimum expected cell frequency is 6.2.
From Table 8 above, it can be observed that the returned p-value 0.000 is less than 0.05, with a Chi-square of 81.5, thus the null hypothesis that internet banking has no significant effect on customers’ satisfaction is rejected and the alternative hypothesis is accepted.
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Hypothesis III: POS has no significant effect on customer satisfaction
Table 9: Test Statistics on POS and Customers’ Satisfaction
Test Statistics on POS and Customers’ Satisfaction Chi-Square 107.269a df 14 Asymp. Sig. .000 a. 0 cells (0.0%) have expected frequencies less than 5. The minimum expected cell frequency is 10.4.
From Table 9 above, it was observed that the returned p-value 0.000 is less than 0.05, the critical level of significance with a chi-square test of 107.269, thus the null hypothesis that POS has no significant effect on customers’ satisfaction is rejected. We therefore conclude that POS usage has significant effect on customers’ satisfaction.
Testing for Differences in Mean Usage of e-Platforms The study also tested whether or not there are differences in the average usage of e-banking between males and females; between younger and older persons; and between low and high income earners. This was done using the difference of means method and the results for the tests are presented in Tables 10 – 13 below.
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Test of difference in the average usage of e-banking services by male and female The hypothesis for this test is presented below
Ho: µ1=µ2
H1: µ1≠µ2
Table 10A: Group Statistics for Test of Difference of Means Group Statistics
Sex N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean Do you use any e-banking Male 110 3.7364 16.02617 1.52804 services (Mobile banking, Female 85 2.2000 10.62656 1.15261 internet banking. ATM etc.)?
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Table 10B: Independent Sample Test for Difference of Means Independent Samples Test Levene's Test for t-test for Equality of Means Equality of Variances F Sig. t Df Sig. (2- Mean Std. Error 95% Confidence tailed) Difference Difference Interval of the Difference Lower Upper Do you use any e- banking services Equal (Mobile variances 2.314 .130 .763 193 .446 1.53636 2.01251 -2.43297 5.50570 banking, assumed Internet banking. ATM etc.)? Equal variances .803 188.950 .423 1.53636 1.91400 -2.23920 5.31192 not assumed
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As shown in Table 10B above, the p-values given by significance (two tailed) in both cases (assuming equal variance and not assuming equal variance), are greater than the level of significance of 0.05. Therefore we cannot reject the null hypothesis of no difference in the usage of e-banking between male and female. We therefore conclude that there is no difference in the usage of e-banking services by the males and females in the study.
Test of difference in the average usage of e-banking services by younger (below 40 years) and older respondents different age distributions (above 40years)
Table 11A: Group Statistics for Test of Difference of Means Group Statistics Age N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean 18-40 158 2.3038 10.98622 .87402 Do you use any e-banking services (Mobile banking, 41 and above 42 8.0238 25.53858 3.94069 Internet banking. ATM etc.)?
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Table 11 B: Independent Sample Test for Difference of Means
Levene's Test t-test for Equality of Means for Equality of Variances F Sig. t df Sig. (2- Mean Std. Error 95% Confidence tailed) Difference Difference Interval of the Difference Lower Upper Do you use any e-banking services Equal (Mobile variances 19.417 .000 2.169 198 .031 -5.72001 2.63719 -10.9206 -.51942 banking, assumed Internet banking. ATM etc.)? Equal variances not -1.417 45.104 .048 -5.72001 4.03645 -13.84932 2.40930 assumed
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Using a significance level of 0.05, we can reject the null hypothesis and conclude that there is a difference in the usage of e-banking services by young and older people in the study. As the p-values given by significance (two tailed) in the SPSS output show that in both cases (assuming equal variance and not assuming equal variance), they are less than the level of significance (0.05).
Table 12A: Group Statistics for Test of Difference of Means
Group Statistics income N Mean Std. Std. Error
class Deviation Mean Do you use any 1.00 110 1.0364 .18805 .01793 e-banking 66 1.0758 .26664 .03282 services (Mobile banking, 2.00 Internet banking. ATM etc.)?
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Table 12B: Independent Sample Test for Difference of Means
Independent Samples Test Levene's Test t-test for Equality of Means for Equality of Variances F Sig. t df Sig. (2- Mean Std. Error 95% Confidence tailed) Difference Difference Interval of the Difference Lower Upper Do you Equal 5.289 .023 -1.146 174 .253 -.03939 .03436 -.10722 .02843 use any e- variances banking assumed services -1.053 104.059 .295 -.03939 .03740 -.11356 .03477 (Mobile banking, Equal Internet variances banking. not ATM assumed etc.)?
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As shown in Table 12B above, the p-values given by significance (two tailed) in both cases (assuming equal variance and not assuming equal variance), are greater than the level of significance of 0.05. Therefore we cannot reject the null hypothesis of no difference in the usage of e-banking between those who earn monthly income below #50,000 per month and those who earn income of above #50,000 per month. We therefore conclude that there is no difference in the usage of e-banking services among different income groups in the study. From the result presented in Tables 10 - 12 it can be concluded that there is no difference in the use of e-banking services based on gender and income, however, there is significant difference in the use of e- banking between young and older people.
5.0 CONCLUSION From the findings of this study, the availability of ATM services has increased customers’ satisfaction. It is therefore suggested that banks should provide more ATM points and ensure regular availability of network to enhance the usefulness of the ATMs. The study also found that both POS and internet banking have significant impact on customers’ satisfaction. It is also suggested that ATM points should be made more disabled friendly so as to increase its usage by disabled people.
It is therefore suggested that banks should manage the e-banking platforms well so as to increase customers’ satisfaction and enhance
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their own profitability. Proper management of e-banking platforms will also ensure the success of the CBN’s cashless policy by reducing the quantity of cash carried about and also the cost of cash management. The study found also that there is no difference in the mean usage of e-banking products between male and female and between low and high income earners; however, there is difference in the mean usage of e-banking products between young and older persons. Based on this, it is suggested that older persons must be engaged by banks from time to time so as to improve their usage of the e-platforms.
Overall, our results show that electronic banking has positive effects on customers’ satisfaction. However, the level of satisfaction can be improved if ATM services can be made more convenient and accessible to persons with disabilities and better security can be guaranteed against cyber-crime and physical assault at ATM points at odd hours. Moreover, infrastructure, such as telecommunication and power, should be improved upon to give customers uninterrupted access to e-banking services at all times. It is suggested that banks should adopt policy measures that would ensures feedback from the customers with respect to the satisfaction derived from e-banking services. This will help to increase customers’ satisfaction and enhance the profitability of banks.
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REFERENCES
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Casalo, L., Flaviam, C. & Guiraliu, M. (2008). The Role of Usability and Satisfaction in the Consumer’s Commitment to a Financial Services Website, International Journal of Electronic Finance 2(1), 2008 – 2031.
Chuang, C. (2012). A Study of the Relationship between the Value Perception and Loyalty Intention Toward an e-retailer. The Journal of Internet Banking and Commerce, 17(1), 1-18
Cronin, J. J. & Taylor, S. A. (1992). Measuring Service Quality: A Reexamination and Extension, Journal of Marketing, 56(3), 55 -68.
Ibok, N. I. & Itoro, M. I. (2013). Determinants of Customers Satisfaction with Internet Banking Services. British Journal of Arts and Social Sciences, 14(2), 178-185. Kotler, P. (undated). http://marketinglessons.in/building-customer- satisfaction-philip-kotler-summary/ (Retrieved on 10th October, 2017).
Mohd Suki, N. (2012). An Empirical Study of Factors Affecting Internet Banking Adoption among Malaysian
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Consumers, Journal of Internet Banking and Commerce, 15(2), 1 -11
Nochai, R. & Nochai, T. (2003). The Impact of Internet Banking Service on Customer Satisfaction in Thailand: A case Study in Bangkok, International Journal of Humanities and Management Sciences, 10(1), 2320 – 2344.
Oliver, R. L. (1980). A Cognitive Model of the Antecedents and Consequences of Satisfaction Decisions, Journal of Marketing Research, 17(4), 460 – 469.
Oliver, R. L., (1977). Effect of Expectation and Disconfirmation on Post Exposure Product Evaluations – an Alternative Interpretation, Journal of Applied Psychology, 62(4), 480 – 486 https://www.scribd.com/document/61634536/Effect-of- Expectation-and-Dis-Confirmation-on-Post-Exposure- Product-Evaluations-an-Alternative Interpretation.
Omar, A. (2011). Customer Perception towards Online Banking Services: Empirical Evidence from Pakistan. Journal of Internet Banking and Commerce, 16(2).
Parasuraman, A., Zeithaml, V. A., & Berry, L. A. (1985). A Conceptual Model of Service Quality and its Implication for Future Research, The Journal of Marketing, 49(4), 41 – 50, https://edisciplinas.usp.br/pluginfile.php/2491773/mod_resour ce/content/1/Conceptual%20Model%20of%20Service%20Qu ality%20and%20Its%20Implications%20for%20Future%20Re search.pdf (Retrieved on 10th October, 2017).
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Saha, P. & Zhao, Y. (2006). Relationship between Online Service Quality and Customer Satisfaction: A Study in Internet Banking. From http://ltu.divaportal.org/smash/get/diva2:1030797/FULLTEX T01(Retrieved on 11th October, 2017).
Sekara, U. (2000). Research Methods for Business: A Skill-Building Approach. New York: John Wiley & sons. Inc.
Zhengwei, M. (2012). The Factors Impact Customer Satisfaction in Online Banking Sector: The Chinese Perspective.In Advances in Control and Communication (pp. 625-632). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.
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Nollywood to Onlinewood: Issues on Film Censorship and National Security in Nigeria
Lateef Adekunle ADELAKUN, PhD
Department of Mass Communication National Open University of Nigeria, Abuja Email: [email protected], [email protected]
Abstract
he debacles caused on national security by the infiltration of foreign movies (Hollywood and Bollywood) coupled with censorship evasion as well as piracy syndrome within the indigenous movie industry have metamorphosed into ‘Onlinewood’ innovation. As the movie industry fret over losing the audience of home video films due to the absorbance of both digital-native and digital-immigrant audiences into social media circle, the need to go online is pervasive. Movies are now produced for online consumption with less focus on copy distribution for home video use to keep abreast with the diffusion of online innovation. Social media, particularly YouTube, house and give virtually unlimited and indiscriminate access to movies and short clips. This trend loosely hangs the burden of censorship; a pseudo means of gatekeeping scenes that are obnoxious to Nigerian national security. Aiming to explore the level of
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compliance with industrial censorship, movies that were produced before and after the diffusion of onlinewood innovation were content analysed. The analyses were thematically based on eight major film classification criteria, entrenched in the principles of Nigerian Films and Video Censors Board (NFVCB). About 50 per cent scenes of the onlinewood contents run afoul of the NFVCB principles, among which safeguarding national security is paramount while less than 30 per cent scenes of the prior productions are guilty of the same offence. This work recommends that NFVCB should extend its censoring modality to online contents. Parents are also encouraged to restrict the underage exposure to and selectivity of social media messages. Keywords: Media displacement, Censorship, Onlinewood, National security, Communicating-development
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In August 2007, almost all Nigeria national newspapers reported the turmoil in the city of Kano as angry mobs flooded the streets, calling for a total ban of Hausa home movies (Kanywood). It was a reaction to the broken news of pornographic video clip featuring a prominent Hausa movie star, Maryam Usman, (Hiyana) and her boyfriend having sex. The news generated a lot of mixed reactions from the public in the entire Northern part of Nigeria and beyond so much that it nearly got out of control. In August 29, 2007, Daily Trust carried an
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opinion article titled “Beyond Porn Video” written by Jamiu Hamzat from Sokoto. After Jamiu had proved that the video clip was not a photograph or film per say, he called the attention of the public to the power of the mass media particularly home video and its implication on national security if not properly and judiciously utilized. “…though both cultural and moral standards are relative terms, even among Hausa-speaking North, Islam has been a unifying factor for setting cultural and moral values, but we tend to violate the fundamental upon which these tenets are built - love, peace and tolerance” He said. He explained further that the demonstration and the registration of annoyance against the unethical and antithetical clips are enough method of seeking redress. The call for total ban of Hausa home movies can do more damages than mediating influences. Banning the production of Hausa home movies by Kano state government neither stops the infiltration of the Hollywood and Bollywood films nor blocks the access to Nollywood movies online, some of which may be precarious to social ethics and religious fundamentals in the Northern part of the country. The issues enumerated above are just to showcase how strong the impact of home movies could be felt on the national security of the country.
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It is not debatable that the mass media have power. Government, elites and social critics talk about and indeed engage in censoring the media because of its presumed or known power – even the mass media themselves do self-censorship. That the motion picture medium is an extremely powerful platform of communication is after all, no longer in doubt. That governments across the globe have since realized this and as such, have gone ahead to ensure that a strong framework of guidelines and regulations are therefore put in place to curb possible abuses, is again also not in doubt. And this perhaps, explain why today, the coalition of artistic theatre and the digital media have made this need even more imperative (M’ba, 2008).
In mass communication, questions about media power are invariably expressed by using three popular words – impact, influence and effect on society. This suggests the way social institutions such as family, school, business, religion, government and particularly children are affected by media messages. The influence of the home movie messages is more apparent because the audience consciousness to segregate fiction from reality is always beclouded by the emotional appeal and entertaining satisfaction derived from movie contents. The entertainment value also locks the audience consciousness of home video influence – how the movie messages shape our cultural tastes
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and moral standard, how it determines our political and economic patterns, how they affect the way people spend their time, how they make people perceive themselves, how they make people structure their relationship with others, and how they shape people perceptions, understanding and response to issues affecting the society (Haynes, 2007).
Despite that the access to video films was, until the era of internet boom, constrained to the households, who possessed video cassette players or later video compact disk players (VCD), the influence of video films was much felt at both individual and societal levels (Akpabio, 2007). The impact of films and the reactions it generates from the audience are issues of concern to national security of the country. The way some sensitive issues such as politics, religious and ethnic are satirically portrayed in video films triggered intolerance among political rivalries, faith-based institutions and ethnic groups. The recent call on the Nollywood industry to digress from the over- flogged themes of negative cultural phenomenon and social vices as well as the putative interest in extra-mundane and fetishism to pressing issues on politics, economic and education as enunciated in Haynes (2006) and Akpabio (2007) is another challenge in the industry.
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Three major concerns are germane to the pressing issues emphasised in the Nigerian movies industry: the fear of arbitrary censorship of accusative contents, hinged on the excuse of protection of national security of the country; fear of turning the industry into a political battle field, just like conventional news media, where media contents are sponsored to exalt political superiority and struggle; and the censorship evasion that may result from making online and social media the major outlets for marketing and distribution of video films, the term herein referred to as onlinewood.
J. Haynes (2006) corroborates that: One of the most common charges against video producers and distributors is that they are motivated entirely by the desire for profit, with a consequent strong preference for sticking to known subjects and formulae, which does not include political matters. As petty producers, they have generally been careful to avoid trouble with the Censors Board since the financial loss consequent on the banning of even a single film would put most of them out of business. Relatively few films have been censored for political reasons. Exploring these issues require an empirical analysis of the contents of the video films prior the innovation of film production for online consumption vis-à-vis the current trend of digital absorbance.
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Establishing the relationship within the purview of modality for movie censorship in Nigeria and the trend in the struggle to safeguard national security will form a justification for the modality for online censorship.
2.0 INTERNET INFLUENCE ON THE BREEDING OF ONLINEWOOD INNOVATION
Digitisation of the movie industry as one of the remedies to the displacement media theory, which envisages the old media transforming into new digital forms (Ha & Fang, 2012), is challenging the mediating and moderating influence of media censorship. The mechanisms for establishing and enforcing censorship for online media productions, particularly self-generated contents on social media, are far from perfection (Adelakun, 2018a). Every genre of mass media including video film is experiencing analogue-digital migration to have a market share of the swollen online audience and to evade stringent measures that are considered not only unfriendly to but also avoidable in the production and distribution of online copies. Four reasons could be alluded to the onlinewood migration of the indigenous film industry. First, it is precipitated by the movement away from classical Africa-spiritual contents to modern/foreign structures. Classical Africa-spiritual
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contents dominated the earliest form of movies produced in Nigeria perhaps until feet are set into modernisation paradigm that envisages the displacement of foreign contents by producing replacements locally. While the classical Africa-spiritual contents promote African settings, culture, norms, and belief (J. Haynes, 2006; Omoera, 2009), westernisation of the industry accommodates socio-cultural dregs, alien to African values and judgement. Absorbance of the modernism widened the need for censorship as even the minimum African values are eroded under the disguise of keeping abreast with western civilisation.
Second, pervasiveness of the internet facilities and the digital-native of an average movie audience promote the online consumption of home-films (Belton, 2002; Vyas, Singh, & Bhabhra, 2007). As mobile service providers joined the chain of data suppliers and the difference in buying a copy of a movies CD/DVD and burning data to watch the movie online becomes insignificant, social media becomes a free market where uploading and downloading of films and short clips are done with no or minimum restriction. “What” to watch in term of content selectivity; “When” to watch in term of leisure period to be sacrificed for the duration of the contents; and “Where” to watch, which internet and mobile phones have turned to “everywhere-
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you-go” logo, as well as private affairs vantage, are discriminant factors that enrich the interests in onlinewood over distribution of home copies. The interest of the digital-native audience in the onlinewood innovation is advanced by individual interest as well as the level of buoyancy to procure or access data to sustain internet connectivity (Gauer, 2014).
Third, onlinewood innovation is also considered a strategy to evade censorship whips. It appears that the anonymous nature of the online audience and the unrestricted access to social media lay siege to nailing and frowning at the offensive contents uploaded online. Short films and video clips including video recording of news occurrences are posted online in crude form, thereby stimulating reactions from different angles of the affected and the concerned individuals, groups and governments.
Fourth reason revolves round the opportunity for free movie adverts, a means of reaching a wider audience most especially the diaspora audience and a subtle means to compete and overwhelm the online domination of foreign movies in the indigenous movie market. Movies titles, adverts, and online access links pop up whenever access is gained online to entice actual and potential audience of home movies. Audience are not only seduced by the movie adverts
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online, they are also presented with various options of releases that enhance their selective exposure (Gauer, 2014). The number of movie adverts on conventional media (radio, television, newspaper and billboard) as well as in postal form among others has reduced as the target audience are migrating online, thereby significantly cutting the cost of advertising the films. There is also a significant cut in the budget for producing film. The cost of advertising any release is insignificant in the movie budgeting as free online adverts substitute for or supplement the placements in conventional media (Evuleocha, 2008). 2.1 The Earliest Nigerian Films and How Secure the National Security
The myth of reincarnation (Abiku) in the Yoruba tradition rightly portrays the early era of Film production or cinema in Nigeria. Film was introduced into Nigeria by British colonial imperialists in 1903 with the aim of propagating British ethos, values and norms. The first film shown in Nigeria was at Glover Memorial Hall, Lagos in 1903. It is apposite to mention that Nigeria’s first film hero was pa Orlando Martins, who in the 1935 production of Edger Rice Borough’s film “Sanders of the river” starred alongside the highly respected American actor at that time, Paul Robertson. He thus went down in history as the first Nigerian actor to feature in a foreign film, part of
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which was shot in Nigeria (Onabajo & M’bayo, 2008). After a long silence, film resurfaced in Nigeria in the 1970s with Nigerians fully in charge. Prominent among the trailblazers in the film making genre are Wole Soyinka with a film titled “Kongi’s Harvest”; Dr. Ola Balogun with “Amadi”, a film on Nigeria post-civil war experiences; Hubert Ogunde with “Aye” and “Bisi, Daughter of the River” by Cina Ventures. Others include the works of Lade Ladipo, Sanya Dosumu, Wole Amele, Eddie Ugbomah, Afolabi Adesanya, Adamu Halilu and Shaibu Umahr. Osofisan (2003), noted that these movies did not enjoy accurate distribution and thereby not profitable. Examples include soaps like ‘Mirror in the Sun’, ‘Checkmate’, ‘Ripples’, ‘Village Headmaster’ among others. These soaps were also short- lived because of series of unfavourable TV regulations and government policies. In 1992, after series of unsuccessful attempts, Kenneth Nnubue came up with a film, ‘Living in Bondage’ in Igbo language followed by ‘Glamour Girls’ in English language. And this opened door to what is today known as Nollywood. Director General of National Film and Video Censors Board, Mr. Emeka Mba said:
Nigeria is currently the acclaimed third largest movie producer in the world after India and United State of America. Nigerian movie products are widely available and in large demand by
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Africans and black people across the world. Indeed, no other realm of endeavour by Nigerians has profoundly conveyed the value, character and promise of the nation in the global brand view. (The Classifier: July, 2008: Vol. 2, No. 3)
The last part of the above quotation glamorized the purpose of home movies in protecting, preserving and promoting national interest – common aspiration of the citizens of Nigeria in the area of culture, values, norms and beliefs to achieve national security and sustainable development.Section 39 (1), (2), & (3) of Nigerian 1999 constitution confirms the right of an individual ‘…to freedom of expression including freedom to hold opinions and to receive and impact ideas and information without interference’. Sub-section 3(a) of the same section of the constitution includes cinematograph movies as part of media of disseminating information. Mba (ditto) argue further that in as long as film entertainment has been available to a mass audience; there have been questions about the likely impacts on individuals and society. The same concerns, to a large extent, exist today and perhaps not exactly as simplistic and class oriented as those expressed at the advent of the cinema in the early 1900s.
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In 2003, a Yoruba movie actress, Serifat Ajileye (Iyamileko) was saved by security agents from angry movie audience at Iyana-Ipaja area of Lagos for acting cruelly in a Yoruba film titled ‘Aye Akamara’. Another movie actress, Patience Ozokwo (Mama G.), got the windscreen of her car broken by the movie audience at Ojuelegba, Lagos in 2005. In fact, she narrowly missed death for no offence other than acting cruelly in a movie titled ‘Lost Battle’. There are several other cases in which members of the public or audience of movies in Nigeria tried to avenge for the hero or heroine in any movie that grip their emotions and passions.
It was of main concern why movie audience failed to differentiate mirror of reality from reality itself until some of the coders of the movie contents that were sampled in this work fell into similar state as in the two cases of audience reactions cited above, which they had earlier perceived absurd. During the preliminary analysis that confirms inter-coder reliability coefficient fit for the analysis, tears started rolling down the cheeks of the coders unconsciously and uncontrollably as they were watching some of the movies selected for the preliminary analysis. Perhaps, if the coders had had their way, they would probably have avenged for the injustice presented in some of the movies, subjecting the judgement to emotional appeal in the works. Some studies (Akpabio, 2007; A. L. Azeez, 2010; Krings,
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2005; Okunna, 1996; Omoera, 2009; Wendl, 2007) introduce discussions on the reactions emanating from an appeal to audience emotions, which are sometimes uncontrollable, blindfold many from segregating reality from imitation. This, in some cases trigger actions that drive the national security of the country to shame.
Beside the passion and emotional state of the audience while watching movies, the report of the survey conducted by the Kasser Foundation in 1999, shows that majority of the young people in the United Kingdom have their model among movies star (Clay, 1999). In a similar study carried out by Oyewole (2005) on Lagos secondary school students, it is equally realised that majority of young people in Nigeria like to speak, dress, walk, and totally emulate their film idols. These imitations, according to the study, are not limited to physical appearances; they include critical aspect such as norms and values, and behavioural tendencies under critical situations.
The impact of movies can be good or bad; just as we have good and bad movies. A film is considered bad if it debases national culture and values, and celebrates societal vices such as robbery, assassination, wicked conspiracy, kidnapping, cultism, nudity, drug-trafficking, bribery, corruption, embezzlement, terrorism, nepotism, ethnicity, religious bias and many others societal vices. There is no doubt that
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any movie either local or foreign that supports or propagates any of the vices threatens the national security of the country. It would be quite unimaginable what could have been the reactions of the movie audiences, who attacked Iyamileko and ‘Mama G’ if the actresses had acted against the audiences’ ethnic groups, political ego, religious beliefs, or economic gains. It is certain that the avenge could have been more brutal and traumatic as we have seen in the protests when the movie, "Innocence of Muslims," that ridicules the personality of Prophet Muhammad was released on YouTube in 2012 (Al-Rawi, 2016; Allen, 2012; Herrenberg, 2015).
Many more of today’s youth are aggressive and violent while relating with the society. Observation learning theory states that exposure to aggressive stimuli will increase a person’s level of physiological and emotional arousal, which in turn will increase the probability of aggressiveness in behaviour (Akpabio, 2007; Gauer, 2014). The theory also states that people can learn aggressive behaviour by observing aggression in movies; that under certain conditions, they will model their behaviour after aggressive characters in such movies. In 1996, a six-year old boy reportedly stabbed his two-year old brother to death in Asaba, Delta state claiming that he was acting out his favourite character, Rambo, the famous American film hero.
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Sina Rambo, the notorious armed robber in Nigeria may also have taken after the character of famous Rambo in American films.
It has been observed that many of kids nowadays would want their parents buy toy gun for them to play with rather than any other toy form. This has negative implication on the psychological development of children. Imagine a child who has been playing with toy gun from the cradle now having access to a pistol as an adult; there is no need of teaching such youth what to do with the gun.
2.2 The Implication of Film Censorship on National Security and Development
Another critical area in movies production is censorship. Censorship has made giant landmark in the movies and the industry by ensuring quality control and audience protection through expurgation, suggestion for annotation, total rejection or banning as well as rating and classification of the movies. This could moderate the provision in Section 22 of 1999 Nigerian Constitution, “the press, radio, television and other agencies of the mass media shall at all times be free to uphold the fundamental objectives contained in this chapter and uphold the responsibility and accountability of the government to the people”.
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Akinfeleye (2006), also supported that: Mass media are seen as mediating factors in a democratic setting. In fact, they are regarded as not only the fourth estate of the realm but as essential social forces that help to lubricate the engine room of democracy. They do not only monitor governance and make government accountable to the people, but they are required to check and balance, watch-dog and gate-keep the door for sustainable democracy. One of discusses that some studies (Azeez, 2010; Dipio, 2007; Evuleocha, 2008; Okome, 2007; Okunna, 1996; Omoera, 2009)empirically substantiate is how to maintain balance between censorship to protect national security of the country and holding government accountable to people with satirical movies. The questions, “At what point a movie threaten National security?”, and “Who define what constitutes National security?” become rhetorical. Such is why movies that dare to criticize or make government accountable to the people, suffer a great deal in the hand of Nigerian Film and Video Censors Board (NFVCB). Movies like “Alaga Kansu” by Nurudeen Akanmu (Koledowo); “Asiri Gomina wa” and “Widows’ Court” went through stringent censorship. Parts of the movies were accused of threatening national security and thereby
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expurgated(Azeez & Husseini, 2014).Not only these, many other home movies that are satirical in contents such as “Saworo-Ide”, “Brass Bell” fall victims of the same accusation(Haynes, 2006). It makes it difficult for home movies to perform the functions stated in the section 22 of Nigeria 1999 constitution. One of the means through which movies perform the functions is to ridicule societal vices in order to correct them or to call the public attentions to it.
1.3 Gatekeeping Theory, Diffusion Of Onlinewood Innovation And The Challenge Of Film Censorship
The influential power of the media on the attitudinal and behavioural tendency of an average media audience necessitated measures to ensure that media outputs are not consumed raw. The essence of gatekeeping is to ensure that media outputs are refined and made consumable for the end users. It is assumed this will mitigate the uncanny reactions that such propaganda-infested outputs could stimulate in the media audience. Although, the variations in the meaning and usage of propaganda vindicate the term from all- negative assumptions (Ngoa, 2011), the term in the media parlance still reeks message or audience manipulation for prioritised objectives. Gatekeeping idea according to Adelakun (2018b) is a means towards the sanctity of the media of propaganda, stereotyping and yellow journalism practices, as well as efforts to repel all other
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forms of media junks. It goes beyond newsroom affairs; gatekeeping in the film industry is encapsulated in censorship. It is about film evaluation, classification, banning, expurgation, proscription, and all other measures placed on a film to ensure that it conforms to the standard set for public consumption. NFVCB is saddle with the responsibility of gatekeeping in the film industry.
The market force, the competition in the film industry as well as the profit maximization motive, arriving from the audience patronage are parts of the factors, which breed the production of films that are considered distasteful, offensive, and repugnant to public peace. NFVCB sets guidelines on the minimum standard expecting of a film based on the target audience. The gatekeeping process is enunciated in the NFVCB regulatory activities resulting into film classifications as follows: a. Submission of a film or video work by a distributor or film company in a stipulated format. b. Preview of a film or video work by a groups of individuals called Film Censorship and Classification Committees Films are normally previewed by the Film Censorship and Classification Committee using the stipulated guidelines and looking at issues such as drug use, horror, language, nudity,
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c. ritual, sex, sexual violence, theme, tribalism and racism, violence, or any content which could disrupt the peaceful state of the nation. Reporting and Rating is done using film classification software called the Magpie Suite. d. The distributor or film company is then informed of the rating, consumer advice (if any) and reasons behind the rating which if they accept
The Censors Board issues a Certificate of censorship on all films and video works censored by its Committee and in the certificate the classification of the film or video is indicated as follows: a. ‘G’ to indicate for general exhibition; b. ‘PG’ to indicate intended for children under parental guidance; c. ‘12’ and ‘12A’ to indicate not recommended for children under 12 years; and 12A means that no one under 12 years may enter a cinema unless accompanied by an adult d. ‘15’ to indicate not recommended to persons under 15 years e. ‘18’ to indicate for mature audiences f. ‘RE’ to indicate for restricted exhibition and such other Classification as may be deemed appropriate
As entails in Censorship process of the film industry, gatekeeping films demands registration, previewing and examination prior to its categorization for public supply, distribution or exhibition.
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Gatekeeping entails the examination of the contents of a film or video work to determine the age group of the target audience, based on the film’s possible or inherent psychological, sociological and moral impact, among other factors. Gatekeeping could be metaphorical of censorship in the film industry. 3.0 METHOD Each scene in the movies constitutes a construct upon which all the eight variables of analyses were evaluated. Three coders were engaged in the preliminary analysis in which five per cent of the samples contents were coded. Scott’s pi Intercoder Reliability was run to test for the level of coders’ agreement on the coding analysis. The mean reliability coefficient of 0.96was achieved, which spread across the variables within the range of 0.93 to 1.0.The coders were certified for analysing the contents having satisfied with the level of coding agreement among coders, which is within the recommended Intercoder Reliability Coefficient value for the liberal index employed (Lombard, Snyder-Duch, & Bracken, 2002).
Ten home movies were content analysed with an average of twenty- three major scenes per each. Each scene was evaluated and classified in respect to the eight NFVCB parameters for censorship. Scenes that satisfy more than one of the variables of evaluations were treated as
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such and as a result, more analyses than the number of scenes treated was achieved. The films were distributed evenly between those produced prior (Before 2011) and after (After 2011) the onlinewood innovation diffusion. The five movies prior the onlinewood innovations are: “Saworo-Ide”, “Brass Bell”, produced in 1999; “Thunderbolt”, “Magun”, (2000); Rising Moon, (2005); “Hostage” (1997); and Alaga Kansu “The Local Council Chairman” (2012). The post onlinewood innovation are: “The Mayors”, produced in 2017; “Ghana Must Go” (2016); “Road to Yesterday”, (2015); “October 1”, (2014); and “Mother of George” (2013).Not more than a movie was randomly selected from the lists of the most popular and highly rated in the sampled years.
4.0 ANALYSES AND DISCUSSION OF THE MOVIES CONTENTS The Scenes of the sampled movies were analysed in line with parameter below as contained in the NFVCB acts:
1. If the movie has an educational or entertainment value, apart from promoting Nigerian culture, unity or interest, 2. If it does not undermine national security, 3. If it does not induce or reinforce the corruption of private or public morality,
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4. If it does not encourage or glorify violence, 5. If it does not expose the people of African to ridicule or contempt, 6. If it does not encourage illegal or criminal acts, 7. If it does not encourage radical, religious and ethnic discrimination or conflict, 8. If it does not promote blasphemy and obscenity or depict any matter which is: (a) Indecent, obscene or likely to be injurious to (public or private) morality or (b) Likely to incite or encourage public disorder or crime or is undesirable in the public interest.
After a critical examination on the movies selected for the analyses, quantitative values were assigned to each of the variables that were used to assess the movies. The quantitative values are between the ranges of 1 – 5; 1 stands for the weakest, least or lowest while 5 stands for the strongest or highest. The ranges are used to measure the rate at which each of the movies promotes the variables. The variables are in positive statements below:
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The variables V1 Promotion of Education and entertainment value V2 Promotion of Nigerian culture; values and interests V3 Promotion of national security V4 Curbing corruption of private/public morality V5 Discouraging violence V6 Promotion of African heritage V7 Discouraging illegal or criminal act V8 Demote blasphemy or obscenity
Based on the quantitative analysis adopted, the variables are positively stated, and the measurement ranges are also in ascending order. It implies that the greater the total score for a movie obtainable from all indices of analyses, the better the movie portrays the indices of analysis; hence it is suitable for public consumption and vice-versa. The variables work hand-in-hand to ensure national security and development. Each of the variables has its quota in promotion of national security and development. For example, if a movie promotes education and entertainment value, such a movie is likely to enlighten and convince the public on issue which could have disrupted the peaceful coexistence among people and thereby aid national security and development.
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Table 1.Assessment of Movies prior the Diffusion of Onlinewood Innovation Average Score in each Variables % S/N Movies V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6 V7 V8 Total 1 Saworo-Ide 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 3 23 18.9 2 Thunderbolt 3 4 2 3 3 4 4 4 27 22.1 3 Rising Moon 3 2 3 3 2 3 2 3 21 17.2 4 Hostage 4 4 4 4 3 4 4 4 31 25.4 5 Alaga Kansu 3 3 2 2 2 3 2 3 20 16.4 Total 16 16 13 15 13 17 15 17 122 Percentage 13.1 13.1 10.7 12.3 10.7 13.9 12.3 13.9 (%)
Table 1 shows that African movies are rated low in variables three and five. This is an indication that African movies promote violence and as a result deficient in the rate at which they promote national security of the country. The table also shows that variable six and eight have highest percentages. It confirmed that the movies have done better in the promotion of African heritage and the demotion of blasphemy or obscenity than in other aspects. The rate at which the movies promote education and entertainment values is encouraging though not of the equal strength with that of foreign movies.
When comparing the African movies selected for the analyses, the table shows that “Hostage” surpasses others in almost all the variables
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of assessment. The movie is a perfect reflection of an ideal African movie, both in content and production quality. Next to this on the rank is “Thunderbolt”, from the same producer of “Saworo Ide”, Main Frame Production. Others are “Rising Moon”and “Alaga Kansu” in that order. The summary of the performances of the movies in the promotion of national security and development are presented in the graph below
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0 Saworo-Ide Thunderbolt Rising Moon Hostage Alaga Kansu Fig.1: Line graph showing the Assessment of Post- Diffusion of Onlinewood Innovation Movies
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Table 2.Assessment of Post-Diffusion of Onlinewood Innovation Movies Average Score in each Variables % S/N Movies V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6 V7 V8 Total 1 The Mayors 3 2 2 2 3 3 3 1 19 19.4 2 Ghana Must 4 1 2 3 3 1 3 2 19 19.4 Go 3 Road to 4 1 2 4 2 2 4 3 22 22.4 Yesterday 4 October 1 4 1 2 3 2 2 2 3 18 18.4 5 Mother of 4 2 2 3 3 1 3 2 20 20.4 George Total 19 07 10 15 13 09 15 11 98 Percentage 15.9 10.5 10.5 13.6 11.8 11.4 13.6 12. (%) 7
Table 2 presents the performance of the post-diffusion of onlinewood innovation movies vis-à-vis the variables of assessment. Almost all the Post-diffusion of onlinewood innovation movies do better in the promotion of education and entertainment values. This is not enough to rate the movies high because they are deficient in the promotion of Nigerian culture values and interest as well as in the promotion of national security of the country.
The table also presents that the post-diffusion of onlinewood innovation movies are violent and weak in curbing corruption of
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private/public morality and in discouraging illegal or criminal act. It is noted that the variance in the performance of the movies in almost all the variables is not too dispersed.
In the overall rating of the post-diffusion of onlinewood innovation movies chosen for the analyses, “October 1”was confirmed the most inimical to the national security of the country, having the least value. Others are “Ghana Must Go”, “The Mayors”, “Mother of George” and “Road to Yesterday” in that order. The variances in the performances of the movies are presented in the chart below:
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0 The Mayors Ghana Road to "October 1" Mother of Must Go Yesterday George
Fig.2: Line graph showing the Assessment of Post-Diffusion of Onlinewood Innovation Movies
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Table 3.Overall Assessment of the Movies Major Variable Sum of % of the S/N Movies Scenes Ave. Variable guilty Score Scores scenes 1 Saworo-Ide 22 3 528 28 2 Thunderbolt 17 4 544 17 3 Rising Moon 20 3.5 560 24 4 Hostage 21 4 672 29 5 Alaga Kansu 26 2.5 520 36 6 The Mayors 21 2 336 55 7 Ghana Must 19 2 304 42 Go 8 Road to 23 2.3 423 45 Yesterday 9 October 1 24 2 384 42 10 Mother of 27 2.4 518 50 George Total 220 368 *Sum of Variable Scores = Major scenes × Variable Ave score × Number of variables
In the overall assessment of the movies, the first four movies that took the lead in the promotion of national security and development of the country are those produced prior the diffusion of onlinewood innovation. The table summarily presents the following findings:
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1. Movies that were produced prior the diffusion of onlinewood innovation better promote national security and development of the country than those produced after the diffusion of onlinewood innovation. 2. Home movies do better in the promotion of education and entertainment than in any other aspect of human life constituted in the NFVCB principles 3. Movies produced after the diffusion of onlinewood innovation are more violent in their contents than those produced prior the diffusion of onlinewood innovation, thereby endanger the national security and development of the country. 4. Movies produced before the diffusion of onlinewood innovation promote African culture, interests, values and heritage than their counterpart 5. Movies produced before the diffusion of onlinewood innovation are better off than their counterpart in discouraging obscenity and blasphemy
Nothing to suggest that most of the onlinewood contents would have been vindicated and allowed to flourish in the movie market if they had been submitted for NFVCB scrutiny. Perhaps, the public would be faced with less national security challenging contents. The
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fundamental journalistic ethics are found wanting in social media as self-generated contents displaces public value for individual interest (Gauer, 2014). As social media share the heterogeneous characteristic of conventional media audience, its impact is surreptitiously horrendous. The online demand for video films and the market-force- driven contents contend with censoring provision rather than placating the embattled national security of the country.
5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This work presents the issues in the Nigerian film industry as one of the media that have been influenced with the development experienced in ICTs. The influx of the foreign movies through social media avenue, enhanced by ICT left Nollywood with no other option than to keep abreast of the innovation. This move, though is considered the only option to wrestle the competition that stack the industry, it is found to be belligerent of the gatekeeping function of NFVCB as it allows junks and uncensored contents to stimulate reactions that are inimical to national security of the country. Having subjected the movies produced prior and after the onlinewood innovation to comparative assessments, the challenges provoked in the industry by the innovation were glaringly established.
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Since it has been established that home movie, if well managed, is one the avenues through which national security and development are enhanced, it is then necessary to ensure that any movie produced in or imported to the country is of good taste and should be channelled towards communicating development. The goals of producing or importing any movie to the country should not be limited to its education and entertainment values but rather, the content should not be inimical to national security and development of Nigeria. Thus, such contents must discourage violence and illegal or criminal acts, religious bigotry, heresy or fundamentalism, ethnicity or tribalism, terrorism, blasphemy, obscenity, or any other act that may bring governments or its officials to disrepute.
The onlinewood innovation as a result of the growth in the digital- native movie audience, which limits the censor power of NFVCB to curb the offensive contents, needs to be checked. Parents also need to guide what their wards watch on social media particularly YouTube since many of the post-onlinewood innovation contents escape the whip of censorship (directly or indirectly) thereby do not conform to the taste and standard set by NFVCB.
Home movie is one of the fastest growing industries in Nigeria. Many of the youth are today engaged by the industry. Many homes have also
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been either re-united or put in disarrays by the power in the movies messages. The country therefore needs to be more proactive in strengthening her capacity not only to use home movies as a shield against infiltration of unceremonious cultures and ethos but also to check her falling moral standard. As social media make the blockage of uncensored foreign movies impossible, effort towards online regulation of the industry should be intensified and accentuated. We are now in a global world full of competition and cultural domination. The country must face the modern-day realities of exploiting information, communication technology and fast-growing tourism and entertainment industry to protect her national security, preserve her cultural identities, and to champion her national interest in the competing global world. It should be noted that these do not suggest that home movies should not be thoroughly censored if some parts are considered inimical to national security and development of the country.
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Haynes, J.M. (2006). Political critique in Nigerian video films. African Affairs, 105(421), 511-533.
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Krings, M. (2005). Muslim martyrs and pagan vampires: Popular video films and the propagation of religion in Northern Nigeria. Postscripts, 1(1.3), 183-205.
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FILMOGRAPHY
1. Saworoide. 1999. Dir. Tunde Kelani, Prod. TundeKelani, Scr. Akinwumi Isola 2. Alaga Kansu, “The Local Council Chairman”. 2011. Dir. Yomi Ogunmola, Prod. Yomi Ogunmola, Scr.Yekeen Ajileye. 3. Thunderbolt, “Magun”. 2000. Dir. Tunde Kelani, Prod. TundeKelani, Scr. Akinwumi Isola 4. Rising Moon. 2005. Dir. Andy Nwakalor, Prod. Emmanuel Uzochukwu, Scr. Steve Kola Ademuwagun 5. Hostage. 1997. Dir. Tade Ogidan, Prod. Tade Ogidan, Scr. 6. The Mayors 2017. Dir. Dickson Iroegbu, Prod. Dickson Iroegbu, Scr. 7. Ghana Must Go. 2016. Dir. Chimdi Chiama, Prod. Emeka Nwosu, Scr. Emeka Nwosu 8. Road to Yesterday. 2015. Dir. Ishaya Bako, Prod. Chichi Nwoko, Scr. Genevieve Nnaji 9. October 1. 2014.Dir. Kunle Afolayan, Prod. Kunle Afolayan, Scr.Tunde Babalola 10. Mother of George. 2013. Dir. Andrew Dosunmu, Prod. Patrick S. Cunningham, Scr. Darci Picoult
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Islamic Leadership Model and the Burden of Terrorism and Leadership in Nigeria: Issues, Myths and Realities
Ibrahim Olatunde UTHMAN, PhD, FIPMD
Department of Arabic and Islamic Studies University of Ibadan
Email: [email protected]
Abstract slam has contributed immensely to the history of Nigeria, offering the country education, political administration, economic I development, the Sharī‘ah judicial system and security etc. However, its role in the development of the country is today questioned by the terrorist activities ravaging Nigeria. Despite the efforts of the Nigerian government at tackling the problems of terrorism and corruption, the country is still not free from these challenges. The terrorist activities of the Boko Ḥarām added to those of herdsmen, cattle rustlers, farmers, cultists and militias who kill, vandalise, rob, rape and kidnap with impunity have virtually destroyed many areas of the country, especially in Northeast Nigeria, where its tourism industry has gone into extinction in addition to the challenges of human, arms and drugs trafficking, money laundering, child soldiers and Internally Displaced Persons in the region. All these take place while the country is also confronting the challenges of corruption. In {231}
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what ways has Islam contributed to the development of Nigeria? How is Islamic ideology tied to the terrorist acts all over the country? What role can Islamic leadership model play in bringing an end to the destruction of life, property, human rights, the environment and food etc. ravaging the country? These are some of the questions that this paper answers by adopting the content analysis methodology to interpret historical data, newspaper reports and Islamic texts. It also employs the leadership models of the Sharī‘ah to offer some solutions to Nigerian problems of terrorism and leadership.
Keywords: Islamic leadership, terrorism, Sharī‘ah
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Whereas a popular myth is that Islam was spread in Nigeria through wars, yet the activities of Islamic scholars and merchants accounted mainly for the growth of Islam and have contributed immensely to the educational, political, socioeconomic and judicial development of the country. For instance, though Christianity preceded Islam in South Southern and Eastern Nigeria, the establishment of a military base in Calabar, an important Efiktown, in 1890 facilitated the arrival of Muslim traders and the building of a mosque. Natives were impressed by the dress and devotions of these Muslims and began to imitate
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them. From 1896 there were also reports of Muslim elephant hunters from Kano in Elele, Port Harcourt (Kilani, 2008: 42-43). By 1903, Muslims in Eastern Nigeria were also mainly traders that settled there before indigenous leaders such as Alhaji Sufiyan Agwasim, a Roman catholic converted to Islam (Clarke, 1982: 224-226 and 228-229). Thus the spread of Islam in these areas like Southwestern parts of Nigeria and indeed the West African sub-region as observed by Trimingham (1959: 1-15) could be almost entirely attributed to the efforts of “merchants and traders.” With the construction of roads, railways and new towns like Jos in Plateau State, Muslims mainly from the North started expanding their “commercial and religious interests” in Port Harcourt, Onitsha and Benin (Kilani, 2008: 42-43).
Additionally, Islam cultivated Arabic literacy as medium for the preservation of African indigenous history, arts and culture. Hunwick and Dike (1965: 2 in Abdul-Rahmon, 2012: 2) have respectively referred to Arabic as the “Latin of Africa” and “the classical language of West Africa” used by administrators, diplomats and bilingual experts who served as interpreters in palaces. Experts in the language also served as professional reciters, religious specialists, teachers, scribes, judges, letter-writers, legal-draftsmen and notary public record-keepers in palaces, government or teaching service etc. They formed a notable part of trading stations all over West Africa and
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governmental positions in the pre-colonial era like prime minister legal adviser and judge, were reserved for them (Umar, 2001: 4-5).
Similarly, Islam has contributed to the education of women in the country. Despite the opposition by some ‘‘ulamā,’’ the Izalah in Northern Nigeria has established schools modeled after British Arabic School. According to this group, educating Muslim women is considered as a lesser evil than leaving them ignorant of Islam, an argument earlier advanced by ShaykhUsman Dan Fodio (Umar, 9- 11). According to the observation of Jean Boyd and Murray Last (cited in Uthman, 2009: 249-250), the Shaykh’s mother, grandmother as well as the mothers of many other jihādists throughout West Africa in the eighteenth century were learned as female education was a common feature of the mystical orders in West Africa. Hence, according to al-Ālūrī (1985: 124-143 inUthman, 2009: 246), Muslim women in Southwestern Nigeria have always played a prominent role in the economic, social, religious and even political advancement of the society.
Notwithstanding the above stated past contributions of Islam to the development of Nigeria, some Muslims are today involved in terrorist acts such as kidnapping, the use of Improvised Explosives Devices (IEDs) involving even female suicide bombers, sacking of
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communities, leading to camping of Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs), displacing millions of people and forcing over one million children out of their schools. These terrorist acts have virtually destroyed Northeast Nigeria. Its tourism industry has virtually gone into extinction in addition to the challenges of human, arms and drugs trafficking, money laundering, child soldiers and Internally Displaced Persons in the region etc. Scholars have attributed the numerous problems in Nigeria including terrorism to many factors. One of such factors is bad leadership. According to such scholars as Danjibo(2010: 13-16), Bamidele, (2012: 32–42) and Onuoha, (2014: 163-169), while the country has been blessed with both human and natural resources, the bane of its development is corrupt leadership of which, terrorism is a by product. The well-known writer, Chinua Achebe has focused on this in most of his works such as Things Fall Apart, No Longer at Ease and The trouble with Nigeria. In the last booklet, The Trouble with Nigeria, Achebe explains that our trouble in the country is simply and squarely a failure of leadership just as “we are all living witnesses to the failure of helpless integrity to solve the problem of rampant corruption” (Achebe, 1984: 1 and 43). While these scholars have proffered different solutions to the problem of corrupt leadership in Nigeria, none has examined the Islamic leadership model, especially of the second righteous caliph, ‘Umar.
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It is this gap that this study fills. But first it answers the following questions: Is Islamic ideology tied to the terrorist acts all over Nigeria and indeed all over the world as claimed by some Islamic movements such as the Boko Ḥarām (hereafter written as BḤ)?
Is Islamic Ideology Tied to Acts of Terrorism?
The view that terror is essentially an Islamic obligation born out of Islamic tenets and teachings permeates the literature (Umar, 2012: 118–144 and Uthman, 2017: 149-172). However, in order to answer the question, is terrorism an Islamic obligation born out of the Sharī‘ah teachings, this author had earlier proposed a rereading of the crimes of Ḥirābah as contained in the Qur’an (Q5: 36-37) using what he terms the comparative reading of Islamic texts (Uthman, 2017: 149-172). Though the term Irhāb is the Arabic word commonly used for terrorism, the use of the term in the Qur’ān (Q8: 60) however contradicts this popular usage. Irhāb, the verbal noun of turhibūn in the verse means “to strike terror.” Two important points to note here are connections with warfare and “the enemies of Allah and your enemies” (Q60: 1, 8 and 9), contrary to acts of terrorism targeted at innocent civilians and non-combatants such as women, children and monks (Uthman, 2017: 149-172). In the Sharī‘ah, the various acts of terrorism fall under al-Ḥirābahas used in the Qur’ān (5:33) meaning
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“waging war against Allah and his messenger and doing mischief on the earth.” Classical Muslim scholars have defined it as waiting by the highway to rob by force, thus obstructing travelling or armed action perpetrated against travellers on the outskirts of the city (Uthman, 2013: 49). According to the historical circumstance of the revelation of Q5: 33 (al-Bukhārī, 1990: 291), al-Ḥirābah must have taken place in circumstances where it is difficult for the victims to receive help and assistance or where the people are completely defenseless such as the highway.
Therefore, even if such acts occur in houses, on roads and in public places in the city, it will still be regarded as al-Ḥirābah. Although Ibn Taymiyyah (1989: 309-316) argues that if these crimes happen in residential areas, they would be considered theft and not al-Ḥirābah because the required protection can easily be gotten if a request for such is made by the people; but in Nigeria and any other country or place where people just like the travellers do not have ready assistance to protection and can be attacked with numerous types of weapons, these crimes therefore become al-Ḥirābah. This view is in line with the position of the Mālikī jurists who extend al-Ḥirābah to residential areas and all forms of anarchy, arson, felony, chaos and turmoil because wherever this occurs, members of the public become afraid, terrified and scared even if they are not killed or robbed (Muṣṭafā, 1986: 45). Uthman (2018)
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The above stated rereading of al-Ḥirābah shows that terrorism is outlawed in the Sharī‘ah and BḤ and any other such Islamic movement or individuals, state actors and their agents who perpetrate terrorist activities are al-Muḥāribūn (perpetrators of al-Ḥirābah) in spite of their acclaimed religious goals because the vulnerability of defenseless people is the key focus of al-Ḥirābah and all such destructive acts designed to create panic, fear and undermine the society like the use of nuclear and chemical weapons of mass destruction, kidnapping, armed robbery, assassinations, forced marriage and rape fall under al-Ḥirābah.
Following the pre-colonial peaceful growth of Islam in Nigeria and its contribution to the development of the country, it is necessary to ask how Islam has come to be linked to terrorist acts and whether it has any role to play in curbing the terrorism ravaging the country. To answer these questions, I begin by examining the roots of the BḤ terrorism in Nigeria.
Nigeria and the Challenges of Terrorism: Retracing the Roots of BokoḤarām
One of the many myths about the Jamā ‘atuAhl al-SunnahLī al- Da‘awahwa al-Jihād (Movement of the people of the Prophetic Tradition for propagation and Jihād) popularly known as the BḤ,
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which literally means ‘‘Western education is forbidden’’ is its opposition toWestern-style education. Whereas the reality reveals that Boko in classical Hausa literally means deception and is used to describe a “fake bride.” Adamu(1978) explains that the word boko connotes the “fake bride’’ historically a feature of the Hausa wedding, riding the horse in place of the real bride as part of the convoy that escorted the bride to her new home. So when the missionary brought education, the Hausa generally labeled it iliminboko or fake education and since then the name iliminbokohas remained the standard translation of education among the Hausa. Since Ḥarām, on the other hand is the Sharī‘ah term for what is forbidden, prohibited or unacceptable in Islam, the term, BḤ could be interpreted as was originally used during the Fulani/Hausa Muslim contact with Western education in Nigeria to mean “fake education” or evangelism deceptively camouflaged as education is prohibited in Islam (Da‘wah Coordination of Nigeria Council, 1430/2009).
This is confirmed by the panoply of studies that have documented how the core of missionary proselytisation in Nigeria was carried out through Western-style schools as Christian missions invested heavily in educational, medical and other humanitarian services. According to Gbadamosi(1967: 93), the Muslim community was initially averse to
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the missionary schools, which had the apparent intentions of winning for Christ the “followers of the false prophet.” Another important myth is the claim that the British policy on education in the North was neutral, based on the solemn pledge of Lugard during the installation of a new Sultan of Sokoto on March 21, 1903 that “Government will in no way interfere with religion” as “all men are free to worship God as they please.”The reality was that missionaries were allowed a few random missionary schools in such places as Sokoto in 1905 (Gbadamosi, 1967: 94-99).This accounted mainly for the backwardness of Muslims as Islamiceducation in the North became retarded for decades (Uthman, 2013b: 26).
The British government was therefore compelled to enter the educational field in 1910 with Nassarawa Central Schools in Kano that comprised Mallams’ School, which provided mallams teacher- training to manage new schools, Sons of Chiefs School that taught future rulers, Technical School, which taught servants of sons of Emirs crafts and Primary school that produced clerks while allowing all pupils to attend nearby Islamic schools. On March 5, 1922, the famous Katsina Teacher Training College, a five-year school to train as teachers, Muslim young men of standing from all the Muslim Emirates with Islam and Arabic included in the curriculum was
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opened. By 1923, Government schools rose to 39 with enrolment of 1,955 boys and by 1926, they shot up to 69 with enrolment of 2,454 pupils because they cut off Christian evangelisation and adapted Islamic values (Gbadamosi, 1967: 94-99).
As for southern Nigeria, the story was different. Missionaries in Badagry, Abeokuta, Lagos, Ibadan, Iseyin and Ogbomoso used schools for the infant church and the British government made no attempts to restrict educational/evangelical activities of missionaries but merely “criticised the missionaries for unbounded enthusiasm that resulted in little affrays with pagans.”Hence, there was initial skepticism among Muslims in attending Christian schools. In Lagos in 1870, there were just 22 Muslim pupils with about 242 registered pupils but by 1891, it was 347 and by 1893, it had risen to 408(Gbadamosi, 1967: 100-104). At the same time, the antipathy generally felt by Muslims towards Christian education remained even in Southwestern Nigeria such as in Epe, where the 99% Muslim population refused to tolerate it (Gbadamosi, 1967: 100-104). Due to this, the government on June 1,1896 opened in Lagos the first Muslim School with one teacher and 80 pupils. Due to the success, petitions of Muslims for more of such schools were granted in Epe in 1898 and Badagry in 1899, thus synthesizing Western and Islamic education, though sponsorship ceased in 1926 (Gbadamosi, 1967: 107-101).
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Muslims’ Western-style education involvement was belated as Muslim communities in Ijebu-Ode, Abeokuta and Islamic societies such as the Young Ansar-Ud- Din began the opening of schools at a time élite products of the scores of Christian Schools dominated administration, judiciary and teaching professions etc. The traditional Muslim system of education continued alongside the new education due, more so in the South than in the North, to the paucity of the new type of school for Muslims who desired it. Public Muslim schools were only three; in places without such schools (e.g. Osun, Oyo areas), traditional Muslim education held sway (Gbadamosi, 1967: 113-115).
The age-long Muslim resentment towards Western education accounts for the condemnation by the BḤ. Its preaching shows that it is not against education qua education or Muslims using science and technology developed in the West but rejects only the un-Islamic ideas mixed with it. To its founder for example, knowledge acquired through the West like medicine is permissible if it does not clash with the teachings of the Prophet. However, he takes this argument further to accuse the Nigerian state of representing a Western-style Boko system or model of governance and openly attacked the local scholars for what he termed hobnobbing with the corrupt and un-Islamic government(AbūYūsuf (1430, 16-18).
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Thus the fatal shooting of 14 BḤ members on June 11, 2009 by men of Operation Flush while they were riding on motorbikes because of their alleged refusal to wear crash helmets on their way to a cemetery to bury four of their members that had died in a motor accident worsened the crisis. Reacting to this, Yūsuf in his well-circulated videoed Friday sermon in Maiduguri, called for a redress in 40 days, otherwise the government should prepare for Jihād (Murtadā, 2013). In fulfilment of this threat, his members started the mayhem on July 26, 2009, which ended on July 30, 2009, when their leader was finally captured. Yūsuf and some of his followers, including Foi, the former Commissioner of Religious Affairs of Borno State and a financier of BḤ were later murdered extra-judicially in police custody while hundreds of its members were arrested (Reinert and Garçon, 2014, 238).
The Boko Ḥarām and its Terrorist Transformation in Nigeria
Once the BḤ was militarily crushed, the remainder of the leadership went underground while most members either fled or melted into the local population. According to Pérouse de Montclos (2014:135-157), the way BḤ was repressed by the Nigerian State was a critical factor in its terrorist metamorphosis. Under the new leadership of Abubakar Shekau, BḤ went into alliance with one of the deadliest terrorist
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groups ravaging Africa, al-Qaida in the Maghreb (hereafter AQIM) whose main goal is to supplant the secular governments in the Northern and Sahara-Sahel region of Niger, Mali, Mauritania and Chad and to install the Islamic government (Adeyemi and Musa, 2014: 23-31).The BḤ also benefited from the organisation of the Ḥarakat al-Shabāb al-Mujāhidīn in the Horn of Africa, which has continued to attack countries in East Africa such as Uganda, Tanzania, Eritrea and Djibouti using IEDs, guerilla warfare, kidnapping, piracy and charities etc. (Ibrahim, 2015: 282-295).
Following the above stated alliances, the BḤ began to employ IEDs, female suicide bombers and kidnapping in attacking markets, religious and relaxation places, schools, universities, military installations and IDPs camps. According to the International Displacement Monitoring Centers (2015) by 2015, the figures of IDPs in Nigeria were about 2.152 million. According to the statistics of the International Organisation for Migration (2015), the percentages of the IDPs displaced by communal clashes and natural disturbances in 207 Local Government Areas of 13 Northern Nigeria states were 12.6% and 2.4% respectively in 2015 with a whopping and alarming 85% displaced by terrorist acts of the BḤ.
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Some of the damaging effects of the insurgency according to a United Nations report (2015) include the exposure of many girls and women rescued to sexual violence. They are either pregnant or have had children for BḤ members, causing them stigmatisation and contempt from both their families and communities. Many others who have been radicalised are even reluctant to return to their homes. Some have no homes to return to. The BḤ terrorist acts have also forced over one million children out of their schools. According to the United Nations Children Emergency Funds (2016), these school children are being transferred to temporary learning spaces or different Unity Schools across the country while their schools are being renovated and expanded.
While the incumbent government in Nigeria has since recorded some gains in the fight against the BḤ insurgency such as the release of 106 Chibok girls, 104 Dapchi girls and over 16,000 other persons (Buhari, 2018, 14-15).Having traced the historical roots and development of the BḤ, this paper will now examine the reality of leadership failure and corruption as causal factors that account in the main for the prevailing terrorist acts in the country.
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Leadership Failure, Corruption and Terrorism in Nigeria
In the words of Lewis (2002:3), “movements generally reflecting this description” of the BḤ “have been evident in Nigeria for more than two decades, the most prominent being ‘yanTatsine (Maitatsine), the millenarian movement at the centre of upheavals in several northern cities during the early 1980s.”Therefore, the emergence of the BḤdid not come about suddenly but had been hovering over Nigeria since the Maitatsine.
At this juncture, it is important to ask how BḤ was allowed to become terrorist if “movements generally reflecting this description have been evident in Nigeria for more than two decades,” as Lewis (2002: 3) observed almost two decades ago. The answer may be found in the corrupt leadership that has characterised successive Nigerian governments, especially from the time of the country’s return to democracy under President Olusegun Obasanjo through President Goodluck Ebele Jonathan to the incumbent President Muhammadu Buhari. The failure of these administrations to adequately contain the menace early enough as well as to bring the BḤ uprising to a closure for almost two decades is to a very large extent due to corrupt practices.
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While the President (Buhari, 2018: 14-15)can today boast of many achievements in the fight against BḤ terrorism, which include its “degrading,” the recovery of all territories captured during Jonathan administration, the release of 106 Chibok girls, 104 Dapchi girls and over 16.000 other persons, the BḤ’s continuous bombing of soft targets, killing Nigerians almost on daily basis such that the government had to request for $ 1 billion extra budgetary spending for security recently added to terrorist acts of herdsmen, cattle rustlers, farmers, cultists and militias are the clearest indications of how Nigerians are still killed, robbed, raped, kidnapped and murdered etc. with impunity under the watch of President Buhari.
The visible achievements of this administration include bringing the country’s economy out of recession by bailing out states unable to pay salaries, building railways, reconstructing Mambilla Hydro Electric Power Project, constructing 2nd Niger Bridge, massive housing projects and major roads, earmarking 30% of the Budget for capital expenditure in 2016, creating Social Investment Programmes (SIP): feeding 8.2 million pupils from 24 states with over 75,000direct jobs for catering staff, paying N5.000nairamonthly stipends in 9 pilot states, prosecuting and jailing corrupt past public officials, including governors, recovering “billions of naira” via TSA
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and eliminating of the fees payable to banks and ghost workers to the tune of N200 billion, recovering N500 billion from its Whistle Blowing Policy, almost stopping the importation of rice and raising foreign reserves from $29 billion to $47 billion at a time when oil sells at $60 a barrel; less 50% of what it sold during the time of President Jonathan at $140 a barrel, earning $420 billion in 5 years but depleting foreign reserves from $65 billion to $29 billion as well as leaving states unable to pay salaries (Akintola, 2018: 22-23 and Buhari, 2018: 14-15).
However despite these achievements, most Nigerians are still poor with public hospitals still only good enough for people who are not in government. Unemployed youths still roam the streets in search of jobs. Nigerian schools are still closed with teachers, lecturers or supporting staff on strike and educational expansion in higher institutions still create new owners of universities but not the massive access that is needed and with the underutilisation of the National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN). This is the result of Nigeria’s successive administrations’ institutionalised corruption, which is the bane of the country’s development, leading to terrorism and other challenges plaguing the country (Danjibo, 2010: 13-16, Bamidele, 2012: 32–42 and Onuoha, 2014: 163-169). James Forest (2012) has
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assessed the threat the BḤ poses to Nigeria and US national security interests and notes that the unequal distribution of power fueling terrorism combined with the ready availability of weapons, contribute to Nigeria’s security challenges, which include militancy in the Niger Delta and organised crime around the economic centre of the country, Lagos. He also observes the preponderance of corruption in the country amidst state institutions that are weak and opines that it is within this larger context that the BḤ should be understood. Similarly, Uzodike and Maiangwa (2012) examine the contextual factors that gave rise to the emergence of the BḤ in Nigeria and submit that the BḤ terrorism was triggered off by bad governance in Nigeria, widespread failures of state policies, inefficient, wasteful government departments, endemic corruption, poverty, unemployment, and extensive underdevelopment in the country. Therefore, there is the need to now examine some lessons from the Islamic leadership model on how to curb the challenge of terrorism in the country; but first what is the Islamic conception of security and leadership?
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Terrorism, Corruption and Leadership: The Sharī‘ah Perspectives
In the Sharī‘ah, security could be defined as the protection of the five ultimate objectives of the Sharī‘ah: life, religion, intellect, offspring and property (Uthman, 2013: 59) against all threats such as hunger and fear (Q 106: 1-6). In other words, insecurity goes beyond the material and physical threats to life and property. Rather it includes threats to basic human rights of religion, education, dignity and progeny. Put another way in Islam to paraphrase Raphael (1981: 46), security is holistic and extends to the protection “against deliberate infringements of rights in respect of person or property.” It follows that two broad basic forms of security in the Sharī‘ahare coercive/military and social/welfare security. This could have informed Oloyede (2006 cited in Uthman, 2013: 41-43) who explains that despite the existence of 13 security agencies, the bane of Nigerian security could be traced to the misplaced emphasis on protection of those in government by providing coercive security at the expense of social welfare which is cheaper and more effective for internal security than coercive power. To achieve both forms of security, Islam prescribes an incorruptible and pious leadership.
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Leadership, which could be defined as the state of being in front of a person or an animal to show the way or make them to go in the right direction (Wehmeier, McIntosh and Turnbull, 2005: 872) is a management quality by which a person motivates, guides, influences and persuades others through planning, organisation and decision making to accomplish organisational objective(s) enthusiastically (Davis, 1967: 96).Writing on the leadership crisis in Nigeria, Imhonopi and Ugochukwu (2013)identify the leadership crisis and corruption as the albatross to national development in the country, where the public sector has become an epitome of all that is corrupt, mediocre and fraudulent. They conclude that Nigeria lost the traction in its attempt to achieve national development due to its invidious corrupt politics of “ethnicity, mediocrity, partisanship, cronyism” and recruitment of leaders, etc.
However according to the Sharī‘ah, the Islamic leadership is termed Imāmah, Ra‘ī, Imārah, Mulk and Khilāfah etc. Imāmahis used by Allah (Q, 2:124) and refers to the leader of prayers, religious rituals and spiritual matters or supreme authority of the Muslim community or Islamic state. Another important term used for Islamic leadership is Ra‘ī, which is employed by Prophet Muhammad (SAW) as follows: “Each of you is a shepherd and each of you is responsible of his flock…" (Al-Bukhārī,1990:Kitāb al-Istiqradwaadā’ al-Duyūnwa al-
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Hajrwa al-Taflīs).Imārah means the administration of the Muslims’ affairs as stated by Allah as follows “O! You believers! Obey God and obey the messenger and those of you who are in command of affairs from among you” (Q4:58). Mulk is used by Allah as follows:
…Lo! Allah has raised up Saul to be a king for you. They said: How can he have kingdom over us when we are more deserving of the kingdom than he is, since he has not been given wealth enough? He said: Lo! Allah has chosen him above you and has increased him abundantly in wisdom and stature. Allah bestows His Sovereignty on whom He will. Allah is All-Embracing, All-Knowing (Q, 2:247).
Lastly, Khilāfah means succession, vice regency or representations Allah says “O David! Lo! We have set thee as a viceroy in the earth; therefore judge aright between mankind, and follow not desire that it beguile thee from the way of Allah…” (Q38:26). What is clear from all the leadership terms used by Islamic scholars is that the Islamic leaderships a political notion refers to the Khalīfah (successor to the Prophet Muhammad (SAW), not as a prophet of Allah but as the head of the Islamic state. It was first used as the title for AbūBakr who was elected through the bay‘ah (pledge of allegiance) to him. Though bay‘ah was made to Prophet on entering Islam, embarking on
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Jihād and establishing justice etc., ʻUmar was the first to make the bay‘ah a political instrument in the Ikhtiyār (choosing) of the head of the Islamic state when after lengthy arguments and debates, he made the bay‘ah to AbūBakr and all others at the Saqīfah followed suit. Thus the bay‘ah first by the few (bay‘ah al-Khāssah) and later by the general people (bay‘ah al-‘āmmah) was institutionalised (Al-ṭabarī, 1961: 206-207 and Haykal, 1976: 491-494 and 498).
The bay‘ah in the Ikhtiyār of the head of the Islamic state also became attached to the Shūrā (consensus of the people) such that the capital punishment is prescribed for whosoever opposes the decision of the Muslim community or attempts to capture power without their consent (Al-Bukhārī,1990:Kitāb al-Hudūd). Thus, the Khalīfah in the political history of Islam became the “pioneer of modern civilisation” that was “based upon the Islamic democratic system, the system which was incorporated in the West as late as 19th and 20th centuries” (Khan, N.D b.: 33).ʻUmar later succeeded AbūBakr (632–634) as the Khalīfah on the 23 August 634 and became the “pioneer of modern civilisation to form a state based upon the Islamic democratic system, the system which was incorporated in the West as late as 19th and 20th centuries” (Khan, N. Db.: 33). Therefore, this paper draws lessons on how to curb the challenges of terrorism from the Islamic leadership of ʻUmaribn al-Khaṭṭāb, (584 -644 CE).
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Curbing Terrorism and Security Challenges in Nigeria using the Islamic Leadership Model
ʻUmarin line with the Sharī‘ah began an aggressive investment in education and social welfare alongside military security, establishing the Bayt al-Māl (Public Treasury) and providing child benefits and pensions, the Khalīfah during the golden era of the Islamic civilisation maintained simple, humble and basic lifestyle while remaining the just follower of the Prophet whose foremost worry was the well-being of the poor citizens. The Khalīfah lived in a mud hut without doors, walked the streets every evening and monitored public policy very closely. No wonder ‘Umar, the second Khalīfah refused to chop off the hands of thieves during severe famine and drought unless the rich paid additional tax to cater for them. He thereafter took steps to facilitate the import of grains from Egypt, Syria and Iraq etc. to Madīnah and personally supervised the unloading of grains from three ships and distributed the grains himself (Khan, N.Db.: 22 and 39-53).
The Nigerian government can employ the above leadership model by first investing heavily in education and proscribing medical tourism for all government officials as well as overseas’ education for their children and by extending the ongoing school feeding and monthly stipends projects to all states of the federation. This will go a long
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way in the eradication of poverty in Nigeria ashappened when the governor of Yemen, Mūāz ibn Jabal brought the 1/3 of the Zakāh collected in his state to the Khalīfah ‘Umar who objected and declared as follows: “I have not appointed you to loot or collect the Jizyyah (poll tax). Instead, I have appointed you to collect from the rich people and distribute to their poor.” Mūāz thereafter replied that “I have not brought to you anything that I could find anybody to collect from me”. This repeated itself the following year and the next when Mūāz brought 1/2 and the whole of the Zakāh collected in Yemen respectively to ‘Umar (Sābiq, 1987 cited in Uthman (2016: 4- 5).
In addition, there is need for administrative autonomy in Nigeria asthe federal government today appears to be overwhelmed by the current security challenges. A lesson that could be emulated from the Islamic leadership model was the division of the Islamic state into eight provinces namely Hijāz, Syria, Iran, Iraq, Egypt, Palestine, Mesopotamia and the Central province with Makkah, Damascus, Basrah, Kūfah, Fustāt, Jerusalem, Homs and Madīnah as their capitals respectively. Each province was headed by the Wālī (provincial governor) who was the supreme head over all establishments including the military and police in the province while
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the Khalīfah headed Madīnah (Khan, N.Db.: 37- 39).This can be emulated by the Buhari government by decentralising all federal establishments, giving states autonomy over all establishments in their domains including their mineral resources while percentages are remitted to the Federal government for mainly the defense of the country.
For accountability, while all principal officers of the provinces were autonomous, they were required to travel to Hajj, during which people presented their complaints against them to the Khalīfah and they were looked into. In order to minimise the chances of corruption, all the officers were paid high salaries(Khan, N.D b.: 37- 39). In fact, ‘Umar established a special department for the investigation of complaints against the officers of the State. He dismissed his most successful general Khālid ibn al-Walīd from his command during a major battle, Yarmuk, between the army of the Byzantine Empire and the Muslim forces that lasted for six days in August 636, near the Yarmuk River, along what today are the borders of Syria–Jordan and Syria–Israel, due to the complaint that he awarded 10,000 dīnār to a poet, which he could not deny (Khan, N.Db.: 17- 18).TheBuhari government can also emulate this by first implementing a federal high minimum wage in order to minimise the chances of corruption among
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public workers followed by naming, shaming and prosecuting all those from whom “billions of naira” via TSA and the whistle blowing policy have been recovered. This should be followed by the immediate prosecution of all “the NASS” “ex-governors with huge skeletons in their cupboards” (Akintola, 2018: 24).A point reiterated by Jega(2018).
Though I agree with Akintola (2018: 11 and 25) that the current change agenda, supported by the exceptional sincerity of president Buhari and needs time just as Lee Kuan Yew of Singapore needed 30 years of 8 terms (1959-1990, Mahathir Muhammad of Malaysia 22 years (1981-2003), Jerry J. Rawlings of Ghana 26 years (1981-2002) and Meles Zenawi Ethiopia 12 years (1995-2012) to clean their countries, President Buhari’s first term in office of four years of rancor, acrimony and arm twisting with the NASS does not prove that this change agenda can be concluded, for he does not appear as “mad” as these leaders as I have alluded to elsewhere (Uthman, 2017, 153).When he made his famous inaugural declaration that he belongs to no one and belongs to all, I had thought that he was re-echoing AbūBakr who had said on his election: “… in my sight, the powerful and the weak are alike” for “the weakest” is to me the strong “until I get him his due rights” and “the most powerful among you is the
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weakest in my eyes until I make him pay due rights to others”(Khan, N.Da.: 15).
There is no better testimony that Buhari and indeed previous leaders in Nigeria have not been capable, mad and prepared well enough for office than the insight of El-Rufai (2013, 52-57).He calls attention to how the appointment of Nigerian leaders depends on series of weird accidents and not any meritocratic review or process. There is no better evidence that Nigeria’s leaders only plan to win elections and not to rule than the lame excuses given by this administration on the economy going into recession, fuel price hike and corruption fighting back etc. El- Rufai (2013: 60-61) shows how IMF in renegotiations of loans, always asks Third World countries to balance their budget deficits, reduce teachers, healthcare, deregulate and devalue currency, which in turn run down the economy. A point reiterated by Jega (2018).
Evidence that Nigerian leaders only plan to win election and not to rule includes the infighting among the various agencies prosecuting corruption and antiterrorism wars: EFCC and DSS, EFCC and AGF and the Military and the Police e.g. on the abduction of Dapchi girls (The Guardian, 2018:Tuesday16) and Maina, declared wanted by an agency but protected, reinstated and promoted by other agencies (The
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Guardian, 2017: 1 and 6)as witnessed during the first term of president Buhari.
However, the clearest proof that the incumbent president is not mad enough to change this country is the failure to prosecute such past corrupt public officials who bought shares of Transcorp, a company that acquired government assets through transaction approved by the same government and built universities, etc. while in office. Nuhu Ribadu allegedly vowed to recover these stained properties at the expiration of the tenure of these officials but was dismissed from office before he could act (El-Rufai, 2013: 362-364, 380).Today the “Great Man” leadership theory that created the third term agenda in Nigerian political history appears to have repeated itself as governors and political leaders were not ashamed to ask President Buhari to declare his intention to contest in 2019 (The Nation, Saturday January 13, 2018) just a day after the burial of 71 corpses killed in the farmers and herdsmen's crisis in Benue State.
With the current security challenges in Nigeria, especially the farmers and herdsmen's crisis almost all over the country, the president could have emulated the seer, Mandela (Akintola, 2018: 15 and 22)and Muhammad who both relinquished offices at the peak of their achievements for public good though Muhammad returned to office
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after 15 years after he was begged by Malaysians to do so (Moniruzzaman and Farzana, 2018: 207-228). Following the examples of Mandela and Muhammad may be the best for Nigeria and the president as he appears currently to be overwhelmed by a powerful cabal, which his advisers have at different times regarded as “corruption fighting back.”
Conclusion
Islamic leadership guarantees holistic security including the protection of the five ultimate objectives of the Sharī‘ah, hunger and fear. In other words, it goes beyond the coercive/military security that has been the major focus of governments in Nigeria to include social/welfare security. The absence of this today contributes to the terrorist acts in Nigeria. Social/welfare security provided by Islamic leadership models discussed in the paper includes aggressive investment in education, child benefits and pensions. It was possible to mobilise funds for these social investments since the leadership maintained simple and basic lifestyle, persuading the rich to pay additional tax to cater for the poor during severe famine and drought, administrative autonomy as well as the department for the investigation of complaints against the officers of the State.
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While the incumbent government in Nigeria has recorded some achievements in the fight against BḤ terrorism, which include its
“degrading,” the recovery of all territories captured during the Jonathan administration, the release of 106 Chibok girls, 104 Dapchi girls and in its Social Investment Programs (SIP) such as feeding 8.2 million pupils from 24 states, paying N5,000 naira monthly stipends in some pilot states, prosecuting and jailing corrupt past public officials and eliminating the fees payable to banks and ghost workers to the tune of N200 billion, it has failed to successfully prosecute any BḤ member, herdsman, cattle rustler, farmer, cultist and kidnappers who are killing, robbing, raping, kidnapping and intimidating Nigerians all over the country. In addition, it has also failed to prosecute top Nigerian leaders alleged to have used their office for personal aggrandisement.
The recommendations of this paper include massive and heavy investment in education, proscribing medical tourism for all government officials and overseas education for their children, extending the feeding and monthly stipends projects to all states of the federation as well as administrative autonomy and the decentralisation of federal establishments.
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Positive or Negative Reinforcement of Staffs’ Behaviour towards Achievement of University Vision, Mission and Objectives: Which Works Better?
Aminu Kazeem IBRAHIM, PhD
National Open University of Nigeria Kaduna Study Centre Email:[email protected]
Abstract
he paper investigates the perception of staff in an Open University system on prevalence, commonly used and most effective reinforcements toward achievement of university vision, mission and objectives. A descriptive survey method was adopted for the study. The sample consisted of 140 staff. The study used “Positive and Negative Reinforcement of Staff’s Behaviour Effectiveness Scale”, (PNRSBES) to obtain data from the sample. The validity of the scale was determined with face and content validity while, Chronbach Alpha statistic was used to determine the reliability with an obtained Alpha value of 0.79. Data collected were analysed with the use of frequency counts and percentages. The results revealed prevalence in the use of accelerated promotion, notional promotion, and increased remuneration among others. On most commonly used reinforcements, the study revealed the use of notional promotion,
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verbal warning/reprimand, query/written warning, termination/dismissal and particularly the use of different types of staff transfers. The study discovered that the most effective reinforcements used are the use of notional promotion, termination/dismissal and staff transfers among others. The study recommendation among others is elaborate use of notional promotion for positive behaviour and for discouraging members of staff from unacceptable behaviour. If staff transfers will be used as a form of negative reinforcement, it should be clearly stated, documented and the reason (s) communicated in the transfer letter to all, including the affected staff, units, departments, directorates, offices, faculties and study centres. This approach may prevent boomerang effect.
Keywords: Reinforcement, Staff Behaviour, University Vision, Mission and Objectives
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Following the establishment of National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN), a single mode open and distance learning university to cater for the professional and academic development of the existing workforce; absorb all qualified applicants who could not gain admission to other existing traditional universities (Adeyeye and
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Oyeleke, 2016). The vision statement of the National Open University of Nigeria reads: “To be regarded as a foremost University providing highly accessible and enhanced quality education anchored on social justice, equity, equality, and national cohesion through a comprehensive reach that transcends all barriers”. The Mission statement is “To provide functional and cost-effective, flexible learning that can add life-long value to quality education for all who seek knowledge’’. The objectives of NOUN are“ To ensure equity and equality of opportunities in university education to all; to provide a wider access to university education in Nigeria; to enhance more access to education and lifelong learning for all; to entrench a global learning culture in Nigerians; to provide instructional resources via an intensive use of information and communications technology; to provide flexible but qualitative education; and to reduce the cost, inconvenience, and hassle of and access to education and its delivery’’ (NOUN Conditions of Service, 2016). It is worth knowing that National Open University of Nigeria has seventy eight (78) accredited study centres in all the thirty six states of Nigeria including the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. The seventy- eight (78) study centres are spread across the six geo-political zones of Nigeria (North-West, North-East, North-Central, South-West, South East and South-South) (NOUN Website, 2018).
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Based on these foundations, the Management of the National Open University of Nigeria expect staff’s behaviour to be in conformity with the management expectations toward achieving the vision, mission and objectives of the university on the basic principle of management of quality. In view of this expectation, the regulations governing the conditions of service of staff of the university (NOUN Senior Staff Condition of Service, 2009 reviewed 2016) stipulates different reinforcement strategies (positive and negative) for motivating staff. In the categories of positive reinforcement, there are accelerated promotion; notional promotion; increase in remuneration; award certificate; prizes; letter of recommendation and different kinds of gifts. In the categories of negative reinforcement, the university has strategies like withdrawal of promotion; verbal warning/reprimand; query/written warning; denial or withholding of increment; suspension; interdiction and termination/dismissal (correct as above2009 reviewed 2016).
In order to ensure quality in the processes of these reinforcements, the university regulations document (2016) states that disciplinary proceedings shall be initiated in accordance with the provision of the 1983 Act establishing the National Open University of Nigeria and as may be amended from time to time. However, the document states
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that the power to exercise disciplinary control over members of staff of the University shall, in accordance with the Act, be vested in the Vice Chancellor and the University Council, appropriate Dean/Director and Head of Unit are to report to the University Registrar in writing, any case of misconduct on the part of any member of his or her staff that comes to his/her notice. Further stated in the university regulations document for staff is that the Registrar on the receipt of such report, shall forthwith forward it to the Vice Chancellor with his/her comments, and the Vice Chancellor after conducting such enquires shall take an appropriate action and report to the University Council. In addition, there shall be a Disciplinary and Appeal Committee of Council whose duties shall be to investigate and report on any disciplinary matter referred to it by the Vice Chancellor or Council.
In view of behavioural psychology, the arrangement of reinforcement in NOUN is the introduction of a favourable condition that will make a desired behaviour (management, promoting and exhibiting quality by university staff) more likely to happen, continue or strengthen in the future(Vroom, 2005; Robbins, 2009;Cole, 2009; Okorie, 2010 and Addiction Intervention, 2013). Reinforcement can be positive or negative. Positive reinforcement is adding a pleasant stimulus to
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enhance behaviour while, negative reinforcement is removing an aversive stimulus to enhance a behaviour (George, 2018).
Behaviourist B.F. Skinner (Skinner, B. F. (n.d.) states that "an individual’s behaviour is a function of its consequences" (Management Study Guide, 2013). Tracing the development of reinforcement, Banaji (2011) opines that Skinner’s most important contribution to psychological science is the concept of reinforcement and this serves as the theoretical foundation for this study. In line with this, NOUN arrangement with the use of reinforcements supports George’s (2018) view of workplace behaviour style of reinforcements coined from Skinner foundation.
To George (2018), reinforcement in the workplace is shaped by two theories: positive and negative reinforcement. Positive reinforcement involves rewarding an employee for doing a good job while, negative reinforcement involves removing something undesirable to alter behaviour. The use of positive and negative reinforcement in the workplace therefore, should be done only when employees’ reactions are carefully monitored in order to achieve the intended results, as positive and negative reinforcement are both used to create positive behaviour (Heather, 2017). Managers of staff need to analyse a situation and determine which sort of reinforcement, positive or negative would be most effective. Addiction Intervention(2013)
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opines that one way to look at it is to treat positive reinforcement like a goal and negative reinforcement as a reminder.
More research evidence, such as Martins (2015) who discovered that positive reinforcement incentives such as financial and non-financial have a positive relationship with the efficiency and effectiveness of staff. Heather (2017) asserts that motivating employees comes down to two methods, that is, positive or negative reinforcement but warns employees about punishments, like public humiliation, or creating the anticipation of pleasure by promising rewards, like a bonus. Martins (2015) gives a clearer explanation when he opines that employers need to be very precise and give employees as much concrete information as possible about what they did that was right. Martins rejects the idea of simply saying “good work, John!” is a nice, friendly thing to say, but it won’t be very reinforcing unless John knows exactly what it is that he did that was “good.” The implication of this is that employers understand very precisely what actions John took that made his work seem so good. Kelly and Pohl (2018); Shah and McNeil (2013) and Thompson (2016) are of the opinion that clear evidence shows that the sooner a behaviour is reinforced, the greater is its impact.
The focus of this study therefore, is to use the perception of staff to determine which sort of reinforcement is most effective as they are used in National Open University of Nigeria, the only single mode
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Open University system in Nigeria. Form the writer’s experience, both positive and negative reinforcement in use by the university are intended to create positive behaviour in staff toward ensuring quality that enhances the achievement of the university’s vision, mission and objectives bearing in mind that positive or negative reinforcement becomes effective when the employee is reminded of the positive or negative activity that was removed to produce the positive or negative result (Neil, 2018 and George, 2018).
Therefore, it is the writer’s belief that several implications must have been postulated and considered by the National Open University of Nigeria before the use of reinforcements, to make staff behave in certain ways and to discourage the same staff from behaving in particular ways. From the writer’s experience also, no human organisation with specified vision, mission and objectives to achieve will allow its members too freely and uncontrollably behave the way they feel. This is more important to an organisation like NOUN that is mandated to provide learning to the present and future professionals and academics. However, for the types of reinforcements being used by the University to be effective, there is need to find out if the staff are actually aware of the laid down reinforcements in the university likewise, which type the staff considered to be most effective in terms of achieving the targeted behaviour.
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The aim of this study is to explore the perception of staff of National Open University of Nigeria toward prevalent, most commonly used and most effective reinforcements as stipulated and in use in the university community. Therefore, the objectives of the study are, to determine the prevalent reinforcement (positive or negative) used in the university; to determine the most commonly used reinforcement (positive or negative) in the university and to determine most effective reinforcement (positive or negative) used on staff’s behaviour in the university.
For this work also, the questions that guided the author are: (1) what is the prevalent reinforcement (positive or negative) used in the university?(2) Which of the reinforcements (positive or negative) is most commonly used in the university?
(3)Which reinforcement (positive or negative) is the most effective on staff behaviour in the university?
2.0 METHODOLOGY
Research Design
The study is a description of staff’s perception toward reinforcements used in the University; therefore the study follows a descriptive survey design. The design is suitable and convenient towards achievement of the study objectives.
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Population, Sample and Sampling Technique
The population consisted of an estimated five thousand (5,000) members of staff of National Open University of Nigeria.
The sample size was determined by adapting the recommendations of Nwana in Omemu (2016) that sample sizes for a specific population could be at least 40% for a population of few hundreds, 20% for many hundreds, 10% for few thousands and at most 5% for several thousands. Based on this, 5% of NOUN staff was considered appropriate for this study.
The study used purposive sampling technique to select one hundred and forty (140) members of staff that formed the sample for the study. The sample characteristics include 70 male and 70 female staff of NOUN. The staff members are representatives of academic staff, administrative staff, and technical staff and student counselors with an average work experience of 5 years with the University. Average age of the staff is 27 years.
Instrumentation
The research instrument used to collect data for the study was a structured and open ended researcher-developed scale. The scale was titled: Positive and Negative Reinforcement of Staff’s Behaviour Effectiveness Scale”, (PNRSBES). PNRSBES contained a list of positive and negative reinforcement strategies drawn from National
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Open University of Nigeria Regulations Governing the Conditions of Service of Senior Staff (Reviewed, 2016). The scale is divided into five (5) sub levels, A-E. Level A contained some biographic information of staff. Level B contained a list of positive reinforcement. Level C contained list of negative reinforcement. Level D contained provision for rating of most effective reinforcement (positive and negative reinforcement mixed together) and level E contained provision for others; this is where the staff can list other reinforcements (positive or negative) possibly not included in the university regulations document with their perceived level of prevalence, uses and effectiveness. Items on the scale were formulated in a way that they could elicit the staff’s perception of the concepts covered in the study. The response format was on two way dimensions namely, Thurstone or Equal- Appearing interval scaling (cited in Funder, 2010 and Stevens, 2018). Staff’s perceived level of prevalence required ticking of “prevalent” or not prevalent ” while, response to most commonly used reinforcements required ticking “commonly used” or “not commonly used”. Responses to the most effective reinforcement require ticking by going through the listed reinforcements and ticking whether the reinforcements are effective or not.
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Validation The scale was validated by three experts in areas of education psychology, administration/management and counselling psychology who checked the contents of the instrument and also determined the face value before its use. To ensure the reliability of the instrument, Chronbach Alpha statistic was used. After analysis the result yielded 0.79, the reliability value of 0.79 was considered and adjudged reliable value for the study.
Procedure for Data Collection/Analysis
The scale was administered to and collected from the members of staff by the researcher at different intervals with the assistance of administrative officers in some instances. This approach was used to ensure maximum return rate of the copies of the scale distributed to the staff and this lasted for a period of four weeks.
The data collected were analysed with use of frequency counts and percentages. This process is justified since the study is description of staff’s perception on the study variables (Stevens, 2016).
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3.0 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
Research Question 1: What is the prevalent reinforcement (positive or negative) used in the University?
Table 1: Staff’s Perception of the Prevalent Reinforcement Used in the University (N=140)
S/n Reinforcement P.% NP.% Total Positive Negative % Reinforcement Reinforcement
1. Use of accelerated 75 113 95 - 100 promotion 2 Use of notional 12992 11 8 - 100 promotion 3 Use of increase in 118 84 22 16 100 remuneration
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4 Use of award 107 76 33 24 100 certificate
5 Use of prizes 118 129 92 - 100
6 Use of letter of 127 91 13 9 100 recommendation
7 Use of gifts 9 6 131 94 100
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8 Use of withdrawal of 13 9 127 94 100 promotion
9 Use of verbal 140 100 - - 100 warning/reprim
10 Use of query/written 140 100 - - 100 warning
11 Use of denial or 13 9 127 91 100 withholding of increment
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12 Use of suspension 119 85 21 15 100
13 Use of interdiction 18 13 122 87 100
14 Use of termination/ 29 92 11 8 100 dismissal
Other Kinds of Reinforcement Identified by Staff 1. Transfer of staff within a state 119 85 - - - 85 2. Transfer of staff outside a state 109 78 - - - 78 3. Transfer of staff within geo-political Zone 103 74 - - - 74 4. Transfer of staff outside geo-political zone 99 71 - - - 71
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Note: P.=Prevalence, %= Percentage for P., NP.=Not Prevalence, %=Percentage for NP and Total %= Overall percentage for response to the reinforcements.
Table 1 shows the perception of staff on the prevalent reinforcements used in the University. The response from the Table shows that the majority of the staff members identified with the use of these reinforcements as stipulated in the university regulations governing the conditions of service of senior staff. The rate of prevalence varies from each other across positive and negative reinforcement. The study discovered a strange form of reinforcement not contained in the university regulations governing the conditions of service of senior staff. These reinforcements were identified from the section that asked the staff to list any reinforcement apart from those on the data collection instrument. The identified reinforcements are transfer of staff within a state, transfer of staff outside a state, transfer of staff within a geo-political zone and transfer of staff outside a geo-political zone where the university has study centres.
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Research Question 2: Which of the prevalent reinforcements (positive or negative) is most commonly used in the university?
Table 2: Staff’s Perception of the Most Commonly Used Reinforcement in the University (N=140)
S/n Reinforcement CU CU% NCU NCU% Total %
Positive Reinforcement 1. Use of notional promotion 129 92 11 8 100 2. Use of increase in remuneration 118 84 22 16 100 3. Use of award certificate 119 85 21 15 100 4. Use of letter of recommendation 131 93.57 9 6.43- 100 Negative Reinforcement 5. Use of verbal warning/reprimand 140 100 - - 100 6. Use of query/written warning 140 100 - - 100 7. Use of suspension 119 85 21 15 100 8. Use of termination/dismissal 129 92 11 8 100
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Other Kinds of Reinforcement Identified by Staff 9. Transfer of staff within a state 13797.8632.14 100 10. Transfer of staff outside a state10977.863122.14 100 11. Transfer of staff within geo-political Zone 121 86.43 1913.57100 12. Transfer of staff outside geo-political zone101 72.14 39 27.86100
Note: CU= Commonly used, CU%= commonly used percentage, NCU=Not commonly used, NCU%=Not commonly used percentage and Total %=Overall percentage on each reinforcements.
Table 2 shows the perception of staff on the most commonly used reinforcement in the university. The response from the table shows that the most commonly used forms of positive reinforcement are the use of letter of recommendation, notional promotion, award certificate and increase in remuneration while, on the negative reinforcement are the use of verbal warning/reprimand, use of query/written warning, use of termination/dismissal and the use of suspension. Other forms of reinforcement identified by staff not on the university regulations governing the conditions of service of senior staff are transfer of staff within a state, transfer of staff within
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ageo-political zone, transfer of staff outside a state and transfer of staff outside a geo-political zone.
Research Question 3: Which reinforcement (positive or negative) is the most effective on staffs’ behaviour in the University?
Table 3: Staffs Perception on the Most Effective Reinforcements Used in the University (N=140)
S/n Reinforcement Most effective %
1. Use of notional promotion. 137 98.86 2. Use of termination/dismissal 133 95 3. Transfer of staff outside geo-political zone 129 92.14 4. Transfer of staff outside a state 129 92.14 5. Use of suspension 121 86.43 6. Transfer of staff within a state 99 70.71
Table 3 shows the perception of staff of the most effective among commonly used reinforcements in the university. The response from the table shows that the use of notional promotion based on staff perception is the only positive reinforcement perceived to be the most effective towards encouraging staffs to achieve the university vision, mission and objectives. The use of termination/dismissal and use of
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suspension of staff are negative reinforcements which can be interpreted as punishment for unacceptable behaviour against university vision, mission and objectives. The other reinforcements perceived by staff to be effective were transfer of staff outside geo- political zone, transfer of staff outside a state and transfer of staff within a state.
The findings of the study revealed prevalence in the use of accelerated promotion, use of notional promotion, use of increase in remuneration, use of award certificate, use of prizes, use of letter of recommendation, use of gifts, use of withdrawal of promotion, use of verbal warning/reprimand, use of query/written warning, use of denial or withholding of increment, use of suspension, use of interdiction, use of termination/dismissal, transfer of staff within a state, transfer of staff outside a state, transfer of staff within geo-political zone and transfer of staff outside geo-political zone supported Heather (2017) and Martins (2015). According to Martins (2015) and George (2018), reinforcement in the workplace is in two theories: positive and negative reinforcement. Positive reinforcement involves rewarding an employee for doing a good job while, negative reinforcement involves removing something undesirable to alter behaviour. The use of positive and negative reinforcement in the workplace therefore, should be done only when carefully monitoring employee reaction to ensure the intended results as positive and negative reinforcement are
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both used to create positive behaviour (Heather, 2017). Managers of staff need to analyse a situation and determine which sort of reinforcement (positive or negative)would be most effective. Leong and Rashad (2014) opine that one way to look at it is to treat positive reinforcement like a goal and negative reinforcement as a reminder.
The findings that the most commonly used reinforcements are the use of notional promotion, use of increase in remuneration, use of award certificate, use of letter of recommendation, use of verbal warning/reprimand, use of query/written warning, use of suspension use of termination/dismissal and particularly the use of transfer of staff within a state, transfer of staff outside a state, transfer of staff within geo-political zone and transfer of staff outside geo-political zone need to be clarified by the university management if it is part of reinforcement and if so, which category of reinforcement; positive or negative. In addition, the most effective reinforcements used are the use of notional promotion, use of termination/dismissal, transfer of staff outside geo-political zone, transfer of staff outside a state, use of suspension and transfer of staff within a state. These findings are also in support of Kelly and Pohl (2018); Shah and McNeil (2013) and Thompson (2016).
4.0 CONCLUSION /RECOMMENDATION
The study concluded that the most effective reinforcements that work better are a combination of positive and negative reinforcements.
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To inculcate and encourage positive behaviour of staff towards achievement and upholding university vision, mission and objectives, the study recommends elaborate use of notional promotion and for discouraging staff from unacceptable behaviour against the vision, mission and objectives of the university use of termination/dismissal, transfer of staff outside geo-political zone, transfer of staff outside a state, use of suspension and transfer of staff within a state may be applied. However, if a staff transfer is used as a form of negative reinforcement, it should be included in regulations governing the conditions of service of senior staff of National Open University of Nigeria. And, whenever a member of staff is transferred as negative reinforcement it should be clearly stated, documented and the reason (s) communicated in the transfer letter to all, including the affected staff, units, departments, directorates, offices, faculties and study centres. This approach may make the transfer not to produce boomerang effect.
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REFERENCES Adeyeye, M. O. & Oyeleke, O. (2016).Management Issues in Emerging Information and Communication technology (ICT) Driven Education in Nigeria. West African Journal of Open and Flexible Learning (WAJOFEL).Vol. 5. No. I.
Addiction Intervention (2013).Both Positive and Negative reinforcements can Create Behaviour Changes. Retrieved from http://www.addiction-intervention.com/current- Events/addiction-news/both-positive-and-negative- reinforcements-can-create-Behaviour-changes
Banaji, M. (2011).Reinforcement Theory. Harvard Gazette. Retrieved from http://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/multimedia /reinforcement-theory/
Skinner,B.F (Skinner, B. F. (n.d.)A Brief Survey of Operant Behaviour. Retrieved from The B.F. Skinner Foundation Website: http://www.bfskinner.org/BFSkinner/SurveyOperantBehavior. html
Cole, C. P. (2009). Human Needs in Organisational Setting. New York: Free Press.
Funder, D. C. (2010).The Personality Puzzle (5th Ed). New York- London: W.W. Norton & Company.
George, N. R. III (2018). The Effects of Positive and Negative Reinforcement.From:https://smallbusiness.chron.com/effects- positive-negative-reinforcement-21099. html
Huhman, H.R. (2017). It's Science, Baby! Proving the Power of Positive Reinforcement at Work. From: https://www.entrepreneur.com/article/302489 {292}
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Kelly, J. &Pohl B. (2018). Using Structured Positive and Negative Reinforcement to Change Student Behaviour in Educational Settings in Order to Achieve Student Academic Success. Multidisciplinary Journal for Education. https://doi.org/10.4995/muse.2018.6370 Social and Technological Sciences ISSN: 2341-2593
Management Study Guide (2013).Reinforcement Theory of Motivation. Retrieved from http://managementstudyguide.com/reinforcement-theory- motivation.htm.
Martin, S. (2015). Using Positive Reinforcement to Motivate Employees. Retrieved from https://www.laboratoryequipment.com/article/2015/04/using- positive-reinforcement- motivate-employees
Neil, K. (2018). Management Styles: Positive and Negative Reinforcement. American Journal of Industrial and Business Management, 2014, 4, 9-12
National Open University of Nigeria (2009).Regulations Governing the Conditions of Service of Senior Staff. Nigeria: Source Plus Ltd.
National Open University of Nigeria (2016).Regulations Governing the Conditions of Service of Senior Staff. Nigeria: NOUN Press.
National Open University of Nigeria (2018). Study Centres in NOUN. Retrieved from NOUN Website: www.nouedu.net
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Okorie, N. C. (2010). Relations to Herzberg’s MotivatorHygiene Factor.A study of Teachers’ Workers Value.The Nigerian Teachers Today, 1, 1, 250-279.
Omemu, F. (2016).Effectiveness of Motivational Techniques in the Administration of Secondary Schools in Yenagoa Local Government Area of Bayelsa State. West African Journal of Open and Flexible Learning.Vol. 5. NO. 1.
Robbins, P. S. (2009). Organisational Behaviour; Concepts, Controversies, and Applications. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc.
Shah, N., & McNeil, M. (2013). Discipline Policies Squeezed as Views on What Works. Education Week, 32(16), 4–11.
Stevens, S. S. (2018). General Issues in Scaling. Retrieved from http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/scalgen.php(Web Centre for Social Research Methods).
Thompson, J. (2016). Eliminating Zero Tolerance Policies in Schools: Miami-Dade County Public Schools Approach. Brigham Young University Education & Law Journal, (2), 325– 349
Vroom, V. H. (2005). Work and Motivation.New York: Willy and Sons Publications.
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Yoruba Muslim Youths and the Problems of Identity in the Midst of Diversity
Mikail Kolawole ABDULSALAM Department of Arabic and Islamic Studies, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria. [email protected]
and
Jamilah Adenike ADEOGUN Department of Arabic and Islamic Studies, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria. [email protected] Abstract
dentity is an ambiguous term with assumptions about its meaning and relevance to peoples' understanding of Muslim youths' Iresponse or behaviour to issues in the society. Therefore, this study seeks to examine the way of life that defines who a Muslim youth is. Is he one whose practice of Islam separates him from others or one whose Islam accommodates innovations and diversities? Taking cognizance of the position of Muslim youth to the Yoruba culture and the interactional patterns that characterize everyday encounters among people; greetings by prostration, kneeling and bending as major ways by which Yoruba express respect for their elders, dressing for both male and female Muslims as outlook to life, have all become point of arguments and diversities among Muslim youths in Ibadan. On account of these, some youths deliberately reject the taslīm (Islamic greeting) of their fellow Muslims, they also disrespect elders who do not share their opinions. These issues have led to disputes and malice which shamelessly resulted to enmity and disunity within the
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Muslim ummah. Consequently, this paper attempts to find solution to these problems of identity among Muslim youths.
Keywords: Identity, Muslim, Yoruba, Youth and Diversity.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Identities are the personalities, uniqueness, social relations, roles and social group memberships that define who one is. Identities can be focused on the past-what used to be true of one, the present-what is true of one now or the future-the person one expects or wishes to become, the person one feels duty-bound to try to become or the person one fears one may become. Identity has been defined as any group element that provides recognition or explanation, position, similarity, logic and importance for individual members of the group, acting individually or collectively (Zagorka, 2010:26-27)
The concept of identity is complex because of the density of its meaning. That is why there is no often one-dimensional interpretation but a confusion of different terms used in explaining the meaning. The conflict between self-identification and innate communal identification appears, when cultural patterns transform and create conflicting norms and values, making uncertainty in thoughts about pattern to accept in an effort to define personal identity (Zagorka, 2010:26-27). Abdulsalam & Adeogun (2018)
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A vital assessment of the classification of the concept of identity reveals that the nature of Nigeria’s identity diversity embraces all identities such as region, religion, ethnicity, class, gender and other forms of social differentiation. In the Nigeria context, religious identity ranks second, following ethnicity in order of importance. (Saheed, 2011:169). The southern Yoruba and Igbo ethnic groups are considerably more prone to label themselves ethnically than the (northern) Hausa-Fulani, who rather opt for a religious (Muslim) identity. This explains why the North/South dichotomy in Nigeria is not only a product of ethnic groupings but also of religious identities. Nevertheless, that is not to say that the entire North is united along the line of Islamic identity or that the south or southwest is united on the basis of ethnicity. (Saheed, 2011:169).
2.0 METHODOLOGY
This paper aims at investigating identity crisis among youths especially Yoruba Muslim youths and the excesses they portray in understanding Islam and the rules and regulations. The methodologies applied in this work are content analysis of texts and interview sessions.
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Yoruba Culture and Islam
Nigeria, before the Western colonization, had consisted of over 450 ethnic groups, each of which is independent of the other, with morals, culture, religions, politics and economy (Nnoli, 1978:35). Research has shown that the name Yoruba was given to the people who now bear the name by an European adventurer, Richard Clapperton. The discovery of the Yoruba by the Portuguese explorers long before the 15th Century has been ascertained by archaeological discoveries, which indicated that cities such as Benin and Ife had existed for more than five hundred years before the arrival of the Europeans (Fadipe, 1991:31).
Culture means the entirety or summation of the way of life of a people, which is conveyed in their language, history, religion, philosophy, art, music, food, politics and dressing. It involves knowledge, beliefs, values, customs and skills that are obtainable in a society. Culture is the shared ways of accepted wisdom. (Eze, 2008:141). Culture, like history, allows for transformation. It is self- motivated, decisive and shaped by those who occupy it. Culture has two focal dimensions: enculturation and acculturation. Enculturation is the process by which a person is introduced into the culture of his birth and transmitted from one person or generation to another while,
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acculturation is the coming into contact of different cultures. The colonial era is an example of this. It cultivates a global vision without losing sight of local differences and intricacies (Madison, 1998:75).
Yoruba culture consists of the folk/cultural philosophy and is embodied in Ifa-Ife Divination, known as the tripartite Book of Enlightenment or the Body of Knowledge in Yorubaland and in Diaspora. Yoruba cultural thought is a witness of two epochs. The first epoch is an epoch-making history in mythology, cosmology and oral culture during which time divinity- Orunmila was the head and a pre-eminent diviner. The second epoch is the epoch of metaphysical discourse (Ogunyemi, 2003:11-12).The uniqueness of Yoruba thought is that it is mainly in narrative form, explicating and pointing to the knowledge of the causes and nature of things, affecting the physical and the sacred life and its wellness. Yoruba people have hundreds of aphorisms, folktales and lore and they believe that any lore that widens people's horizons and presents food for thought is the beginning of a philosophy (Abimbola, 2005:10-12). Although habitually, religion is first in Yoruba culture, nonetheless, it is the thought of man that actually leads spiritual consciousness (ori) to the creation and the practice of religion (Ogunyemi, 2003:22- 23). There are many types of art among the Yoruba, and many objects
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are placed on shrines to honour the gods and ancestors. There are beautiful sculptures that have been made with wood and brass. Other important art forms are masks, pottery, weaving, beadwork and working with metal. Musically, the Yoruba are well known for their drumming.
The Yoruba's earliest contact with Islam was through the itinerant Arab Muslim scholars who visited in the 15th century. However, prevailing Islamic influence was not documented until the penetration of the Hausa- Fulani in the region from the second half of the 18th century (Gbadamosi, 1978:76). The adoption of Islam, for some Yorubas constituted the possession of an additional way of life, especially in cultural practices. With the advent of Christianity in the early 19th century, Western-style education was introduced to the Yoruba. The Muslims who ultimately imbibed Western education absorbed it, with the western culture. As such, a distinctive Yoruba Western educated Muslim has multiple identities by being traditional Yoruba, Islamic and Western (Gbadamosi, 1978:76-78).
The position of Islam to non-Islamic traditions is that of accommodation and rejection. Islam accommodates a local culture if the culture is attuned with the tenets of Islam. It discards the indigenous culture if it undermines the belief system of Islam. Despite
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this position of Islam, there is a school of thought with the view that acceptance of Islam should not cause a break with the past; rather it should be an accumulation to the former religion (Oyelade, 2003:195). According to this view, it is insubstantial if a Yoruba Muslim shows interest in traditional religio-cultural festivals by partaking in the rituals. This analysis amounts to giving implied approval to syncretism which has no basis in Islam. However, there is another view that diminishes Islam to a rigid way of life which does not give room to local cultural norms (Quadri, 2003:241). This view fails to recognize that the strength of Islam has been its ability to mingle with the cultural values of its adherents. Although neither of these views represents the factual teaching of Islam, the religion as practiced by diverse age grades in the Yoruba society reflects these diametrically divergent views in paradoxical degrees.
Appearance and Cultural Attire in Islam Dress is an important component of material culture that symbolizes and communicates a hybrid of traditions, social and cultural values, religious ideologies. It involves transmission of certain signals on the part of wearer and their reception and interpretation from the viewer. This transmission, reception and interpretation are based on the cognitive structures of the wearer and the observer and may not
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necessarily be in harmonious relationship with each other, resulting in a controversial interpretation (Saadia,2014:19)
Like all other forms of material culture, clothing/dressing is a reflection of the society and people among whom it is worn. It is not mere cloth but cloth worn in appropriation to a value system established by a society. The code of dress thus developed over a period of time corresponds to all the potent variants; culture and tradition, values and ideals, religion and rituals, ceremonies and celebrations, profession, gender and space etc. The conformity to this value system renders an identity expressed through dressing. Dress, then operates as a means of “visual communication”. It also plays a significant role in communicating affiliation to a particular religion(Saadia, 2014:20) and influences the gendered dress as well as the social roles and norms that it entails; it plays an important role in the creation of gender identity (Eicher and Roach-Higgins, 1992:19).
Therefore, the relationship between religion and dress is particularly significant with reference to the present study. Religious dress has two meanings: “to maintain the customs and traditions of the organization, thereby establishing a visual identity for the religion and to simultaneously control the individual identities of its members by symbolically denoting dress as in-need of control” (Arthur, 2005:96).
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Moreover, dress as a symbol of identity is a subject of disputes among many Muslim youths. Every tribe or nation has its own unique culture with regards to the ways of dressing. For example, the Europeans usually prefer to wear suit while the Arabs wear Jalabiya /Abaya and Mindil, the Hausa and the Yoruba gorgeously dress in Babariga or big Agbada with a cap to match, while the Ibo put on Buba, tie wrapper to their waist and put hats on their heads with feathers as mark of honour, dignity and distinction. In the same manner, a banker may use a tie and jacket while a medical doctor puts on a white pull- over or scrubs. Thus, it is flawed to portray the Arabs mode of dress as the only acceptable Islamic mode of dressing and those of other tribes, un-Islamic as some Muslim youths do. Specifically, there is no Islamic dress than what modestly covers the nakedness of a woman or man as would be seen shortly.
Islam, like traditional Judaism and Christianity, requires its adherents to observe a minimum dress code in accordance with some of the universal guidelines from its religious sources; the Qur'an and the Sunnah. A woman may dress behind closed doors, to please herself, her friends or her husband etc, but when she goes out or when other men than her close relatives are nearby, Islam makes it ḥarām(forbidden) for a woman to wear clothes which reveals what is underneath. It is equally ḥarām to wear tightly fitting clothes which
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delineate the parts of the body, especially those parts which are sexually attractive (Uthman, 2008:15-18).
In recent times, modesty is seen as a sign of weakness or insecurity, unlike in Islam, where modesty is seen as a sign of respect for oneself and others. Islam holds humans including women in an exceptionally elevated regard and the Islamic rules of covering are intended to protect and guard their dignity and honour.
The word used most often in regards to women covering is hijāb. The minimum requirements of hijāb are that, it should be loose, not transparent and cover the parts of the body that are considered not for public viewing. i.e. the awrah. For Muslim women, the awrah is parts of the body except the face and hands, while some scholars also make an exception for the feet. The minimum requirement for men's awrah is the area between their navels and their knees (Da'wah Institute of Nigeria, 2011:17). Muslim scholars agree that fulfilling the conditions of the dress code is an obligation on all Muslim men and women, with evidence found in the Quran and the Sunnah. O ye who believe! Enter not the Prophet's houses, unless leave is given to you, for a meal, (and then) not (so early as) to wait for its preparation. But when you are invited, enter and when you have taken your meal, disperse, without seeking familiar talk. Such (behaviour) annoys the Prophet, he is
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shy to dismiss you, but Allah is not shy (to tell you) the truth. And when ye ask (his ladies) for anything ye want, ask them from before a screen (hijāb): that makes for greater purity for your hearts and theirs…1 The hijāb (screen) was used to distinguish between the private quarters and the public area of the home. The “hijāb” also refers to a metaphysical barrier of perception, knowledge and spiritual benefit between those who believe and those who disbelieve in the Holy Qur'an as Allah says: And when you (Muhammad) recite the Qur'an, We put between you and those who believe not in the Hereafter, and invisible veil (hijāb), (or screen their hearts, so they hear or understand it not).2 From the above, hijāb as a word, is not used for women’s clothing alone, rather a screen or barrier etc. The Ka’bah in Makkah is veiled and the veil is a symbol of something being marked off or sacred. Nonetheless, the actions of the Prophet’s wives following “the verse of the hijāb” (Q33:53) in veiling their entire bodies whenever they encountered non-Mahram men suggests that a hijāb can also refer to clothing through which a woman conceals herself from scrutiny. Thus veiling and covering practices have differed from one Muslim culture to another, each authoritatively legitimated by references to the Qur’an and Hadīth, most usually by the same verses. This cultural
1Surah Al-Ahzab, verse 53. Abdulsalam & Adeogun (2018) 2Surah Al-Isra', verse 45. {306}
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diversity has historically been mandated by equal authoritative texts. In recent years, a number of Muslim reformers have begun to distinguish the teachings of the canonical texts from the cultural practices that these have traditionally justified (Fadwa,1999:242).
Although hijāb is used in the modern sense to represent a head-cover, the term khimār is used in the Qur’an for a covering that includes a woman’s hair. …that they should draw their khimār (veils) over their bosoms…3 In view of the fact that the verse endorses a new mode of wearing the khimār for believing women (by drawing it also over their chests), it would appear that the khimār was known in pre-Islamic era to be a head-covering that left the chest uncovered. Muhammad al-Albani writes that several Qur’anic commentators have noted that the khimār used to drape down a woman’s back, leaving her neck, shoulders and ears uncovered (al-Albani, 1994:78). Therefore, khimār means to cover or veil, but it has become synonymous with a veil with which a woman covers her head. Khimār comes from the word khamr, the root meaning of which is to cover. Some of the fuqahā’
3Surah An-Nur, verse 31. Abdulsalam & Adeogun (2018)
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(jurisprudence scholars) have defined it as that which covers the head, the temples and the neck. Sayyid Qutb states that the Islamic khimār covers the head, neck and chest areas. Al-Albani states that, linguistically, the khimār refers to the covering of the head only, as in the hadith which mention wiping over the khimār for ablution (Al-Albani, 1994:6-7:72). Nonetheless, in practical reality, a khimār could be extended to cover other body parts. The hijāb plays the role of moderation of physical appeals that are of no positive moral or societal value outside the private life. It demarcates most of a woman's body as her private realm, for exclusive rather than public gaze, thus having a practical function. Islamic law has made provision for exceptions, such as when a medical professional needs to look at a private part of a patient in order to conduct a medical examination or procedure. Given that the hijāb is not meant to imprison a woman, nor does it restrain the mind, voice or spirit, nor restrict her physical movements, the Muslim woman's dress does not hamper any necessary aspects of her interaction with others, as demonstrated by the great roles Muslim women have played in the society. The hijāb has no specific colour or style mandatorily prescribed in the Qur'ān or in the Hadith (Da'wah Institute of Nigeria, 2011:21). A contemporary scholar of Arabic and
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Islamic studies, Professor AbdulRahman4 also cleared the argument (most especially, among Yoruba Muslim youths) surrounding the wearing of a particular dress/uniform (khimār) for Muslim women:
Islam has no uniform dressing for Muslim women, it has no certain colour or style. Rather, it emphasizes on the mode and certain areas which are required for Muslim women to cover. Similarly, the above view is in tandem with the opinion of Shaykh Yusuf Al-Qaradawi, who narrated a scenario that:
One day, I was lecturing on proper Islamic dress for women, according to the Qur'ān and Sunnah, when a person in the audience said that the hijāb mentioned in the Qur'ān must include an additional outer covering. I replied that the hijāb is not an end in itself, but rather a means for decently covering those parts of the body which the Shari'ah prohibits to be exposed. In this sense, it can differ from one place and time to another. But the man shouted furiously that the garment required is very clearly specified in a Quranic text, and we therefore have no right to change it. He cited the following verse: O Prophet! Tell your wives and daughters and the believing women, that they should cast their outer garments over their persons (when abroad). That is most convenient, that they should be known (as such) and not molested
4An audio recording of Professor Mufutahu Oloyede Abdul Rahman (Chief Imam, University of Ibadan, Lecturer – Arabic and Islamic Studies University of Ibadan), delivered on June 6, 2018, at DS Adegbenro ICT Polytechnic, Eruku-Itori, Ewekoro, Ogun State. {309}
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(Q33:59). I replied that the Qur'ān sometimes specific certain means and methods that were suitable and common at the time of the revelation, but were never meant to become permanently binding if better or similar ones are found. The following example is sufficient enough to demonstrate my point, Allah (SWT) said: Against them make ready your strength to the utmost of your power, including steeds of war, to strike terror into (the hearts of ) the enemies of Allah and your enemies (Q8:60). The steed is specifically mentioned above because it was –at the time of revelation one of the most powerful means known at the time. But there is indeed no reason why Muslims in our times and in earlier days should not use tanks and armoured vehicles to achieve the end referred to in the above verse, i.e., to strike fear into the hearts of the enemies of Allah (SWT) and of the enemies of Muslims. Similarly, the woman's outer garment could be any dress which satisfies the objective expressed in verse (Q33:59) that Muslim women should be recognised and not molested (al-Qaradawi, 1992:113) Therefore, the standard components of Islamic garment requirements for women are a head covering and loose-fitting, non-transparent clothing that covers the whole body, maybe with the exception of the hands and face. How these requirements are satisfied depends on the culture of the woman, and personal likes and dislikes. Typically in
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Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirate, Egypt etc for example, Muslim ‘women wear full-length Jilbāb, loose-fitting to conceal body contours, in solid austere colours made out of thick fabric’ (El Guindi 1999:143). In Morocco it is the jellaba—‘a long-sleeved, floor-length garment which also has a hood’ (El Guindi 1999:143), although in recent times the jellaba can also be hoodless. It is similar in style for both sexes, with material and detail (embroidery etc.) providing differentiating characteristics: ‘women cover their bodies when they go out. Also, traditional clothing for Muslim women in Malaysia is the Baju Kurong—a Malay dress with loose long skirt, long sleeves and tight neck top, and cover head with a headdress (Lie 2000:33). Similarly, Muslim men have specific dress requirements for public functioning: loose clothing, covering at least the navel to the knees (inclusive); and no silk and no gold at all times. Men also customarily wear round caps or turbans to distinguish themselves as dignified Muslims. Many Bedouin men from North Africa to the Middle East regularly wear headdresses or face coverings. The minimum requirements differ from that of Muslim women because women are less likely to achieve the objectives of hijāb if her requirement was any less (Da'wah Institute of Nigeria, 2011:36:37). Therefore, the
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motive behind the commandment of hijāb is to preserves female dignity because one's worth is not measured by one's physical attributes or bodily commodities. It helps society to operate better in accordance with the commandments of Allah regarding physical admiration between the sexes. It is also a form of bonding in sisterhood as well as brotherhood. Allah says in the Qur'an on the male and female decorum as follows: Tell the believing men to lower their gaze (from looking at forbidden things)…5 And tell the believing women to lower their gaze (from looking at forbidden things)…6 This relates to both physical and behavioural modesty. Qatadah narrated that he heard 'Aishah saying that Asma', the daughter of Abu-Bakr, went into the presence of the Prophet wearing transparent clothing. The Prophet turned away from her saying: 'O Asma'! When a woman reaches the age of menstruation, it is not allowed that any part of her should be seen except this'' and he pointed to his face and two hands (Uthman, 2008:206).
Consequently, hijāb does not prevent men and women from interacting for the purpose of study, work, performing good deeds and so on. Rather, when decorum is mutually observed, such interactions will take place in sincerity of purpose devoid of impropriety. Islamic
5Surah An-Nur, verse 30 Abdulsalam & Adeogun (2018) 6Surah An-Nur, verse 31 {312}
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modest dress does not socially suffocate women by denying them free and necessary movement, expression of opinion, education, health care and other human rights. Rather, it assists in building a sound society and reduces the number of sexual crimes such as rape and molestation since a possible stimulus for such crimes is not present when hijāb is observed. Its observance is part of the larger social system in Islam that when properly followed maintains the dignity of men, women, and society as a whole.
3.0 GREETINGS, CULTURE AND ISLAM
Human relation is an imperative aspect of any society. In Islam, proper relationships are stressed at all segments of interaction and the universal greeting holds a special place in Islamic manners. Advance in human culture is made possible through communication and it is through communication that culture is transmitted from one generation to the other (Schauer, 2009:12). Gudykunst and Kim (2003:430-431) highlight the way culture always influences communication because competent speakers know what is acceptable and appropriate in a given context. Such speakers have been socialized into a particular culture and have been sensitive to the system and beliefs from an early stage.
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According to Ekanjume-Ilongo (2013:25-26), greeting is an approach by which people consciously and deliberately make their presence felt by other(s), show attention and imply a type of relationship or social status between themselves and others. Akindele (2007:3) asserts that, greetings can be described as the exchange of expressions, pleasantries or good wishes between two people or a group interacting for the purpose of fulfilling social obligations or for the purposes of establishing interpersonal relationships. Greetings can be portrayed as a sort of alliance, which continues but abide by certain rules. Greeting is an expression of contentment while meeting someone (Akmajian et al, 2001:4-9). However, these expressions differ tremendously in complexity and formality. Modes of greetings are essential linguistic mechanisms by which a greeter's attitude and interpretation of people's relationship with a speaker is reflected (Ahmad, 2015:48).
The Yorubas are noted as greeters par excellence, gifted with a rich store of proscriptive and prescriptive array of inexhaustible greetings, which form the cornerstone of their linguistic acuity and explains how the Yoruba earned the alias ''the Aku people'', meaning ''the people who have abundant greetings and the expression ''Aaa awọn Yoruba le ki eeyan pa'' meaning ''Ah, Yoruba people can greet to death
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(Falola & Akinyemi, 2017:72). The Yoruba of south-western Nigeria have been described as people whose communication patterns make use of proverbs, folktales, rituals, songs, prayers, pithy sayings and even drumming and singing to supplement the meaning of what they say. This is especially true when speaking their native language, although many of the characteristics have been carried into their English language usage. The Yoruba often use humour to avert boredom during long meetings or serious discussions. They believe that when songs, proverbs, folktales, humour, satire, etc. are embedded in their messages, such messages are not readily forgotten, particularly since Yoruba is a tonal language where the tone of an utterance determines the meaning of what is said. People have been known to ignore and even sometimes refuse to assist visitors who did not first offer greetings (Abioye, 2011:72).
In African tradition, greeting often engages both verbal and physical expressions such as prostration, particularly if it is between the elderly and the young. In Asia for example, one is expected to lower his head when greeting another person and in India, the followers of Hindu religion put their hands together and raise them to their faces as sign of greetings. French kiss both their cheeks, Latinas hug, Eskimos slap hands on their heads or shoulders, Polynesians embrace
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each other and rub backs, and Americans exchange handshakes (Omotosho, 2001:28).
Greeting is significant in the life of the Yoruba to the extent that its avoidance is viewed as the first sign of dilemma or clash and an early indication to a family or community that all is not well. To turn a blind eye as an excuse of minding one's business is seen as a sign of trouble (Smith, 2017:69-70). Greetings reveal much more about Yoruba cultural values and what the people value about their culture. A Yoruba proverb clearly states that:
Bi ara ile ęni ba n ję kokoro, bi a ko ba sọ fun un, huruhęrę ọnaọfun rę konijęki a sun l'oru Meaning:
A family member who deliberately watches another consuming insects and does nothing to caution or stop him or her, will, in turn, suffer nerve-wrecking sleeplessness caused by that relative's night-long, constant throat-clearing and hacking (Smith, 2017:70). Interaction is an imperative aspect of any society. In Islam, good relationships are stressed at all phases of interaction and the common greeting holds a special place in Islamic manners.
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Allah says in the Qur’an:
And when you are greeted with a greeting, greet in return with what is better than it or (at least) return it equally.7 O you who believe! Enter not houses other than your own, until you have asked permission and greeted those in them, that is better for you, in order that you remember.8 In these verses, Muslims are enjoined to offer greetings and that the manner of the greeting is of greatest significance. The recommended greeting of a Muslim is to say: “Assalaamu ‘alaykum” (peace be upon you). Abu Huraira narrated that the Prophet (pbuh) said,
Allah created Adam in his complete shape and form (directly), sixty cubits (about 30 meters) in height. When He created him, He said (to him), “Go and greet that group of angels sitting there and listen to what they will say in reply to you, for that will be your greeting and the greeting of your offspring.” Adam (went and) said, ‘As- salamualaykum (Peace be upon you).’ They replied, ‘Assalamu-‘alaykum wa Rahmatullah (Peace and Allah’s Mercy be on you) So they increased ‘Wa Rahmatullah’ The Prophet added ‘So whoever will enter Paradise, will be of the shape and form of Adam. Since then the creation of Adam’s (offspring) (i.e. stature of human beings
7 Surah An-Nisa', verse 86. Abdulsalam & Adeogun (2018) 8Surah An-Nur, verse 27.
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is being diminished continuously) to the present time (Muhammad, 1997:78). Islam has identified 'greeting' as one of the habitual practices that play social and spiritual role of communication. To many people, when one embraces Islam, it means that one has abandoned one's culture and tradition. For this reason, those people often indict Islam as a religion that opposes culture and tradition, simply because the religion insists on strict devotion to its principles (Omotosho, 2001:28).In actuality, greeting represents peace, friendliness and security. In addition, it serves as a means to establish familiarity and cheerfulness (Omotosho, 2001:28).
Similarly, in South Western Nigerian, it is a sign of respect for young ones to prostrate or to kneel or to bend-down to greet their fathers, mothers, uncles, aunties, grandparents, scholars (Alfas) or any elderly persons in the community and if they do not do that, then it is seen as a lack of respect. This issue has generated a lot of arguments among youths, households and ceremonies and has resulted to disunity and hatred among the ummah. For example, with respect to Yoruba culture of greeting i.e. prostration, kneeling and bowing when greeting someone, Adeoye Idris9 described these practices as shirk, because, it is narrated that:
9Oral interview with Adeoye Idris. Age: 34, at Olunloyo Area, Amuloko Akanran Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria, on Tuesday15 August, 2017.
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When Mu‘aadh ibn Jabal (may Allah be pleased with him) returned from Syria, he prostrated to the Prophet (blessings and peace of Allah be upon him and his family), and he said: What is this, O Mu‘aadh? He said: O Messenger of Allah, I saw them in Syria prostrating to their bishops and patriarchs, and they attributed that to the teachings of their Prophets. He said: They are lying, O Mu‘aadh. If I were to instruct anyone to prostrate to anyone, I would have instructed women to prostrate to their husbands, because of the rights that Allah has given them over them. O Mu‘aadh, do you think that if you pass by my grave, you would prostrate? He said: No. He said: Then do not do this (Abdul Salam, 2018:74). Moreover, Taoheed10 argues that as far as the question of bending or prostrating before someone, to show a kind of honour or respect is concerned, is of two kinds: If it is done in the same way Ruku or Sujūd in Ṣalāt is prescribed, then it is totally prohibited, but if the action does not in any way conform with it, and not with the intention of worshiping that person, then it is makrūh (a detestable act).
However, the manner of greeting in Yoruba culture is not unIslamic and cannot be equivalent to kufr, based on the analysis of Abu Al- Ma'ālī, who said in his book ‘al-Adab al-Kubra’ (Elevated Manners) that: bowing as a form of showing mutual respect is permissible
10Oral interview with Taoheed Qamarudeen. Age: 36, at Ansarudeen High School, Liberty road Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria, on Saturday 13 May, 2017.
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(Abdul Salam, 2018:75). He drew analogy from the Angels’ bowing before Adam (peace be upon him) in the Qur'an:
And behold, We said to the angels, “Bow down to Adam:” and they bowed down: Not so Iblis: he refused and was haughty: He was of those who reject Faith.11 And prostration of Prophet Ya'kub and his sons to Prophet Yusuf in the Qur'an:
And he raised his parents High on the throne. And they fell down in prostration, (All) before him. He said, “O my father, this is The fulfilment of my vision of old! Allah hath made it come true. He was indeed good to me when he took me out of prison and brought you (all here) out of the desert, (Even) after the Satan had sown enmity between me and my brothers. Verily, My Lord is Gracious to whom He wills. For verily, He is full of knowledge and wisdom.12 Also when Ibn `Umar went to Lebanon, the People of the book there bowed to him as a sign of respect and he did not forbid them from doing so. Instead he said, that it was a form of dignifying Muslims (Abdul Salam, 2018:76).
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4.0 CONCLUSION
In the midst of globalization and multiculturalism, there is an escalating need to stress the reality of cultural diversities and identities as a way to encourage communal commitment, understanding, harmony and tolerance, as well as to promote understanding of diversity among Muslims in terms of accepted dress codes and greetings etc. Promoting Muslim cultural activities can also highlight the diversity among Muslims. As evident above, the opinions of the majority of the ulama that the face and hands of a Muslim woman are permitted to be revealed in public is stronger, though, the dispute between the advocates and adversaries of the obligation of covering the face may likely continue for some time. Differences of interpretation and individual inclinations are not restricted to a code of conduct characterized by modesty, modest behaviour of piety and mutual respect, as well as a standard of clothing often identified by the headscarves worn by Muslim women, but also extend to the mode of greetings acceptable in Islam.
The Muslim identity discussed in this work, relates not only to the Muslims external appearance, it also has to do with conduct and traditions. As a result, Islamic identity is of no essence if it has no
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comportment with the Muslims behavioural model. In other words, being a Muslim goes beyond the appearance, both the deeds and manners have to justify it. It is significant to note that many of the Islamic values which Muslims should imbibe to portray them as good Muslims are consistently the very values that would make one a cultured Yoruba. Such values include respect for elders, sincerity and honesty, being generous to people and extended family system. It is however unfortunate, that most of these values are waning in the Yoruba society especially among the youths due to Western influence and lack of Islamic knowledge.
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Al-Albani, M. N. (1994). Jilbāb Al-Mar’ah Al-Muslimah fil Kitāb was-Sunnah. Beirut: Al- Maktab al-Islami. Arthur, L. B. (2005). Religion and Dress in: Velerie Steele (ed.) Encyclopedia ofClothing and Fashion. Volume 3, USA: Thomson Gale. (pp 94-100) Da'wah Institute of Nigeria. (2011). Hijab Q & A. Minna: Islamic Education Trust. Eicher, Joanne B. and Roach-Higgins, Mary E. 1992 (b). Definition and Classificationof Dress: Implications for Analysis of Gender roles in: Ruth Barnes and Joanne B .Eicher (ed.) Dress and Gender: making and meaning in cultural contexts. New York: Berg, (pp 18-25) Ekanjume-Ilongo, B. (2013). Greetings in Akoose: A Sociolinguistic Approach. Lesotho: National University of Lesotho Press. El Guindi, Fadwa, 1999. Veil: Modesty, Privacy and Resistance. New York: Berg. Eze, D. (2008). Africa in Turmoil. Enugu: Lingo Press.
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Falola, T., Akinyemi, A. (2017).Culture and Customs of the Yoruba. Ibadan: Pan-African University Press.
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Gbadamosi, T. G. O. (1978). The Growth of Islam Among the Yoruba 1841-1908. London: Longmans. ,
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Ogunyemi, Y. D. (2003). The Aura of Yoruba Philosophy, Religion and Literature. Boston: Diaspora Press of America.
Omotosho, A. O. (2001). The Greeting Culture of Islam. Jos: Da’wah Highlights Of Islam.
Ong Aihwa, (1990). State Versus Islam: Malay Families, Women’s Bodies, and the Body Politic in Malaysia. American Ethnologist.Vol, 17, No 2 (pp 258-76).
Oyelade, T. (2003).Yoruba Muslims and Cultural Accommodation.In P. Ade Dopamu et al (eds.) Religion, Science and
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Culture.Nigeria Association for the Study of Religions, Ilorin (Pp 197-205). Quadri, Y.A. (2003). The Yoruba Muslim of Nigeria and the Problem of Cultural Identity. In Dopamu et al (eds) Religion Science and Culture. Nigeria Association for the Study of Religions, Ilorin (pp 240-247). Saadia, A. (2014). Religion as Faith? Education Purdah and Modernity An Ethnographic Study of Islamabad’s Madrassah Jamia Hafsa. Dissertation submitted to the University of Wien. Saheed, A. R. (2011). The Interplay of Power and Religion in Nigeria from Colonization to Democratization.World Journal of Islamic History and Civilization. Vol. 1 (3) (pp 164-171). Smith, P. J. O. (2017). ''Ệ kứ…'' Yoruba Greetings- A Protocol.In Falola, T. and Akinyemi, A. Culture and Customs of the Yoruba.Pan-African University Press. Austin, Texas (pp 69-83). Schauer, G. S. (2009). Interlanguage pragmatic development: The Study Abroad Context: London: MPG Books Group. Smith, P. J. O. (2017). Ệ ku… Yoruba Greetings- A Protocol.In Falola, T., Akinyemi, A. (Eds.) Culture and Customs of the Yoruba. Pan-African University Press, Austin (pp 69- 83). Uthman, I. O. (2008).Muslim Women of Nigeria and the Feminist Discourse of Shaykh Al-Albani.International Islamic University Malaysia Press. Zagorka, G. (2010). An Anthropological Conceptualization of Identity. Journal of Preliminary Communication.UDC Vol. 7 (4).
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Role of the Mass Media in Community Development in Nigeria:A Study of Ushafa and Amaigbo Communities Josephine OBIAJULU Department of Mass Communication Igbinedion University Okada and Daniel Ewomazino AKPO Department of Mass Communication Igbinedion University Okada Abstract
nformation is central to all forms of human activities irrespective of the field or profession, be it medicine, agriculture, tourism, Itrading, business or engineering, communication plays a vital role in circulation of information. The mass media are veritable tools in the hands of informed society therefore all strata of society including government, the business world, the political class and virtually all members of a given society or community avail themselves of this powerful tool of communication. There is the need for exchange of information to ensure completion of tasks. The question now, is to what extent has the mass media in their new high tech form affected community development? Can it be said with every sense of conviction and without equivocation that the mass media have played any role in community development? Anchored on Agenda Setting and the Development Media theories, the study was carried out using two communities in Nigeria, one close to an urban area and the other
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far from city. The study found that the media perform the roles of encouraging rural dwellers to participate in the political process, give them security tips and mobilize them for development. The study recommends that that the mass media should be made to perform strategic role in community development.
Keywords: Community Development, Rural Development, Agenda Setting Theory, Development Media Theory, Communication
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Information is central to all forms of human activities irrespective of the field or profession, be it medicine, agriculture, tourism, trading, business or engineering. Communication plays a vital role in circulation of information. There is the need for exchange of information to ensure completion of tasks. Inefficiency will be the results, where this exchange of information is slow or there is a break down. For this reason, information is regarded as a vital resource that needs to be properly developed, because it has boomerang effect on society.
According to Moemeka (1985), a society that has poor communication and information infrastructure perpetually lags behind others that have efficient information infrastructure.
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Broadcasting, thus communication, is a powerful, efficient and effective medium for widespread of education in rural areas. Rural broadcasting, in its own capacity, can be used to bring about positive attitudinal changes and relationship amongst the rural areas. Rural broadcasting contributes toward the development of rural women by educating them about banking, children’s health, government policies and many other issues. In this aspect, Iyer (2011) states that rural communication impacts knowledge of new technologies to rural dwellers helps them improve their earnings and increase development.
Communication is central to the development of any society, be it rural or urban, developed or developing societies. Thus, Nwosu (1990) observes that development experienced in other parts of the world have continued to point to the fact that communication is central to rural and national development. This underscores the strategic role communication plays in rural development. Majority of Nigerian population reside in the rural areas where access to basic amenities is grossly in short supply. Hence majority of people are living in abject poverty and deprivation, and as a result they are completely cut off from government intervention programmes. This is where communication comes in.
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Communication, that is transmission of information from a point called origin or source to another called destination or receiver (audience), is the life wire of every society. No wonder people continue to value at the continued relevance of African indigenous media, otherwise, known as African traditional folk media, despite the manifestation of Marshall McLuhan’s theory of “Global Village”. The first significant recognition of the traditional media in the communication and development strategies of developing countries came in the year 1972 when the International Parenthood Federation and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) organized series of meetings in London relating to integrated use of traditional folk media in family planning communication programmes. The interest generated by this meeting and the continued efforts to highlight folk media as effective form of conveying developmental messages resulted in a number of seminars and workshops around the world (Mohanty, 2011). UNESCO (1999) also organized a seminar to provide a forum for the discussion and formulation of strategies for promoting and enhancing the development of traditional media in African countries. The importance of the seminar resided in the priority given by UNESCO in its communication strategy and programmes in Africa, to encourage and support the development of folk media which helps to
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expand access to news and information and provide more opportunities for communities to express themselves.
Radio is one of the oldest and most relied on sources of media for information exchange. Over time nations and community groups have utilized radio as a tool for national development. Its uses are broad, spanning literacy gaps, geographic distances and language barriers; and it remains an affordable source of information that reaches the masses. These are some of the basic reasons radio has been adopted as a viable medium for communication as well as for information transfer to incite social change, to impart knowledge, and to exchange ideas. Its varied uses have enabled radio’s sustainability even through explosions in information technology, such as the advent of advanced two way communication systems and the Internet. For some time now there has been an upsurge in community media. This is partly due to the need for a more effective and widespread information of the relevant audiences. Again, this is understandable because democracy necessarily requires a measure of information on the part of the citizens in order to meaningfully participate in the process. It is thought that the bourgeoning of community or local publications is a natural development in a democratic dispensation. On a general note, community media are crucial agents in
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development communication among the rural dwellers where majority of Nigerians reside.
Statement of Problem There is no doubt that there is a strong link between the mass media and development. The mass media play strategic roles in the development of any society, but studies have shown that there are still several places in Nigeria that do not have anything to do with mass media.
The mass media are veritable toolsin the hands of informed society. Therefore, all strata of society including government, the business world, the political class and virtually all members of a given society or community avail themselves of this powerful tool of communication. This is in contrast to the anachronistic method previously employed and deployed by communities before the advent of technology. The question now is, to what extent has the mass media in its new high tech form affected community development? Can it be said with every sense of conviction and without equivocation that the mass media have played any role in community development? These questions become necessary because, to some people, the mass media are only tools in the hands of the bourgeois for the suppression of the down trodden while to others, the mass
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media are important aspects of socio economic development of the society at large, and of our communities in particular. This is the problem which this study tended to pry into. In order to do this, two communities one close to an urban settlement and the other away from the city were studied.
Research Questions
The research questions to be answered at the end of the study include:
1 Do the people of these communities know of the role of mass media in development? 2 Have the mass media brought about any form of development? 3 Is there any way the mass media can be harnessed to foster development in communities? 4 What development have the mass media brought to the communities under study?
2.0 REVIEW OF LITERATURE
It is widely recognised among communication scholars that broadcasting is a powerful and effective medium for widespread of education in rural and urban centres. The ability of rural media to achieve this feat lies in the fact that availability, accessibility and
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affordability factors which formally narrowed the reach of the media or restricted them to urban areas, are no longer constituting hindrance at least with regards to radio as reported by Nwabueze (2007). Acknowledging the potency of mass media with specific reference to radio broadcasting, Moemeka (2000) asserts that in developing countries, the greater parts of the people live in remote areas and are frequently isolated by illiteracy and lack of transport, but effective communication with rural people and their participation in the life of their country are essential for developing societies. Radio broadcasting, when skilfully used, has proved to be the effective medium of communication with these populations.
Studies have shown that the mass media have been extensively used to communicate development programmes to the rural people. According to Soola (2003), on a global scale, but particularly in developing countries, radio as a medium of mass communication has been man’s most potent communication innovation since the development of the printing press. Its monumental success in rural development projects in several developing countries is a loud testimony of its potentials. Radio has been used, with varying degrees of success to promote rural development in India, Kenya, Mali, Tanzania, South Africa, Nigeria and other developing countries of
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Africa. However, the concern of many development communication experts is that most developing nations, especially Nigeria, are yet to fully explore the benefits of rural media in regards to rural development. Explaining why rural mass media is yet to be fully implemented in Nigeria, Okonkwo (2007) attributes it to the “Trusteeship Model” whereby governments had held the mass media in “trust” for the people. According to him, based on this arrangement, the governments determine the programme content of what is to be produced. As a result of this, majority of the rural folks are completely cut off from programme conceptualisation and execution. This has further led to the problem of media contents tilted towards been elitist and urban based. Udoaka (1998) notes that “The rural interest cannot be anything other than what gives the rural residents hope, a sense of belonging and what they can identify with. Thus, the reports about actions to better their living would be of interest to the rural people. It would be of interest to them to read about their own efforts to improve their lots, the problems they encounter daily, their ingenuities in tackling problems and facts in the different facets of life”. He adds that “It would be of interest to the rural people to learn about struggles for the citing of certain community projects in their villages or clans and the spread of social amenities in their local government areas, as well as, patterns of
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political support in their communities. Stories on accounts of community funds and reports of any embezzlement would also appeal to them. So, it would be of interest to them to read about robbery incidents in their village. A lot of these happen and are not reported in the media.”
Community Media Lobulu (2011) notes that the issues revolving around the establishment and operations of community media include lack of an enabling environment. There are policies and regulations that supposedly do adversely affect the establishment and operation of the community media, for example, registration, coverage and language use regulations. The government also seems not to be supportive to widespread establishment of community media structures.
Udoaka’s assertion aptly captures the relevant of rural media in sustainable development of the rural areas. This shows that rural media have roles to play in development. Thus, the role of communication in rural development is that of providing access to information from the urban areas where modern ideas would be diffused to the rural sectors. Thus, there is the need to report the activities of the villages so that there will be an increased knowledge and understanding of the events taking place in the rural areas. This
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explains why Udoaka(1998) says that increased knowledge and understanding of rural conditions through media reports will lead to action. It will lead to a decision as to whether rural conditions should be considered as problems of the different areas they exist or as social problems, which need measures of a general kind.
Media scholars and experts in Nigeria, Africa and around the world agree that the media have some form of impact, influence and effect on its audiences and hence, the community. However, what they all disagreed on is the case of the direction, nature and extent of this influence, impact and effect. Edie (2001) notes that the mass media all over the world have established themselves as new channel - a third channel for political, (socioeconomic) influence - and in many aspects also as an independent power broker. Thompson (1995) believes that the media have played a central role in the development of modern institutions. On the contrary, Kupe (1999) claimes that in the African scenario the media have always been peripheral to the lives of most people in the continent. But Tettey (2001) argues strongly that the media are among the forces that have shaped, and continues to define the establishment of democracy in Africa.
Udoaka (1998) notes that every country has its own national goals. One of such goals is always the welfare of its citizens and this has its
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root in human rights. Thus, reporting the rural areas serves as a barometer for gauging achievements in the area of citizens’ welfare, since it is there that the majority of the population is found. Media reports of the rural areas will confer a social problem status on the rural condition through their analysis of the effects of the continuation of the rural condition on society and educate the social mind to see it as constituting a problem. Salter (2011) puts the role of community mass media, particularly in a multi-ethnic society like Nigeria in a better perspective when she said:
Community mass media are designed to fulfil social and cultural needs, by allowing members of the audience to participate in decisions about programming and in the case of radio, in the ownership of stations; it serves local communities, reflecting the diversity of their views and needs, and provides access to volunteer participants. It is public media, but it is not operated by a government or a government agency.
To the rural people, the mass media proved only to be glamorous, impersonal and unbelievable in comparison with the familiar performance of traditional artist whom the villagers could see and hear and even touch emotionally. Obviously, the traditional media are the right choice of media to carry messages to the rural community
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or the purpose, and process of change and development (Stichele, 2000). It is also viewed that dialogue is the essence of any work in communication for development. As a matter of fact, traditional media have a remarkable impact on rural areas because of their acceptable idioms, functional significance and entertainment component. It can overcome language difficulty, speech, words and other barriers of communication like interest, understanding, interpretation, attitude and perception. Folk media are the most important vehicle of social change. It is used for educational purposes and as a tool to reform society. They help to convey educational messages through entertainment, costume, music, dance etc.
Development Communication
The topic of development communication has been explored for over half a decade by academics in communication studies, political science, sociology and anthropology, among other fields. The literature is extensive and diverse, yet over time, scholars still do not share many common perspectives on how to approach development communication as an academic area of study, including its theoretical application to field settings.
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Following the innovation of radio and its wide spread use in the beginning of the 20th century, scholars began to study the role of communication in development in an attempt to figure out how technology and mass media could be used to advance less developed countries. Over time, researchers have realized that the introduction of media technology alone was not sufficient to help integrate such systems into everyday life, and this changed the focus to the content of the message. As the perspective offered by participatory development theories has become more widely accepted and adopted, more attention has been given to the importance of a bottom-up approach where people in developing countries are determining their needs and setting project agendas.
In the early periods of 1950–1970, the dominant paradigm perspective characterized the period where Western benefits of mass media (print, radio and TV broadcasting) and the communication technology used in this medium prevailed in development approaches. The concept of modernization of society vis-à-vis the mass media was viewed through dominant society lens, in other words, from a western point of view. Schramm (1964) shares the view of bringing modern technology to developing countries as a way to open the door to further development, otherwise thought of as
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advancement. Lerner (1962) emphasizes the need to bring ideas of democracy and modernity to the developing world by adopting the following approach to increase urbanization which would lead to higher rates of literacy, then disseminate information via the media, which leads to political participation and economic growth, as quoted by Singh(2002).
Schramm was largely influenced by Lerner’s works and expanded on his views of modernizing less developed nations through the media, emphasizing that knowledge is power and productivity is the key to achieving economic development. Schramm’s belief in media technology is confirmed in the following statement, “There is little doubt that modern communication can be influential in a developing culture”. He considered communication tasks to be utilized in order to realize social change. First, the people must be provided with information about national development and why changes are needed; second, there must be opportunities for people to participate in decision making where leaders can lead and people can voice their opinions; and third, skills that are needed must be taught (Schramm, 1964). This process and Schramm’s overall perspective focused on the flow of information. On the surface this sounds participatory in nature, however, Schramm had high hopes for the ability of the mass
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media to achieve many of these functions independently or as a support system to “help to bridge the transition between the traditional and modern society” (1964), as well as raise aspirations, create a climate for development, feed interpersonal channels and enforce social norms. Nonetheless, Schramm’s Mass Media and National Development (1964) was highly influential “in recommending and planning mass media programmes in the developing world during the 1960s” and he understood the need to consider local conditions for mass media efforts to be efficacious (Singh, 2002).
Community Development
Scholars who formed the alternative perspective of development communication theory at this time responded to the Eurocentric views presented by Lerner and Schramm.
Major of the academics who critiqued the dominant perspective were Schiller and Smythe, who warned against the application of Western- based models and programmes without accounting for the political economy of developing nations and how it would influence the acceptance of mass media information and technological systems.
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This goes further to show how important community mass media is as Alumuku (2005) avers that the essence of having and locating community radio and by extension television, in a given community, is because they “respond to the needs of the local people, contributing to their development within progressive perspective in favour of social change”. In essence therefore, the idea behind community media is participation that is when the people participate and contribute in issues that affect their lives, they will come up with the solution to the problem, and work towards executing such decisions more than when such solutions were forced upon them. In light of this, the opportunities provided by community mass media stations in conflict situations are numerous. Based on the foregoing, it can be said that rural mass media are important for the following reasons: to inform and educate rural dwellers; to promote peace, to dialogue and reconciliation; to combat crime and corruption; to empower women, and to promote peace through active participation of women, to stimulate economic development.
Role of the Median in Community Development
McCombs (2005) claims that people are quite able to determine the basic relevance to themselves and to the larger public the topics and
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attributes advanced by the news media. The media set the agenda only when citizens perceive their news stories as relevant. Folarin (1998) on his part identifies four elements involved in Agenda-Setting to include:
The amount or frequency of reporting The level of prominence given to the issue reported The degree of conflict generated by the reports and The cumulative media-specific effect over time.
Wood (1983) in his contribution observes that virtually all communication researchers and writers seem to agree that the media possess the power and prestige to determine for its audience what is important. The media do this in three distinct ways:
1. Establishing materialistic goals 2. Status conferral and 3. Agenda setting.
Describing the concept of status conferral, Ngoa (2006) indicates that it is closely related to the concept of agenda setting and added that status conferral refers to the media's ability to confer or bestow prestige as well as enhance the authority of individuals, groups,
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organizations and even issues by legitimizing their status in the public's eye.
As agenda setting on the other hand refers generally to the ability of the media to raise the importance of an issue in the public's mind, Dearing & Rogers (1992) refer to agenda setting as “an ongoing competition among issue proponents to gain attention of the media professionals, the public and policy elites.
Ngoa (2006) further explains that the idea of people desiring media assistance to be able to order their priorities, especially in determining political reality had been in existence but without the name agenda setting. Consequently White (1973) describes the ability of the media to shape election campaigns as a primordial and sweeping political power unrestrained by any law.
The pressing problem is of awareness of the role of community media in national development. Despite the increasing number of media outlets and enhanced flow of information in urban areas, communities at grassroots levels are to a large extent without a voice or forum for exchange of information. They can hardly use the existing mass media to hold their local authorities accountable or to address issues that relate to their development, nor access important information that would enable them arrive at rational decisions.
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According to data provided by Kawonise (2012), there are presently in Nigeria, at least, thirty (30) newspapers published daily; the weekly magazines that are about fifteen (15), while the soft sells are not less than fifty (50). Nigeria currently has more than 150 radio and television stations publicly and privately owned. Five (5) of the television stations are on the satellite and are, thus, watched beyond the shores of the country. Quite a number of the television and radio stations that broadcast on the terrestrial space are available online and could be accessed wherever there is broadband Internet access.
Empirical Cases of Media for Rural Development
In the Democratic Republic of Congo, Interactive Radio for Justice with its operations fashioned after community media has been used to make goals of the International Criminal Court understandable and relevant to the people whom they affect. Through the radio which was established in 2008 after a civil war during which 4 million people died, a safe connect and interaction between justice givers and those who justice was meant for was established as narrated by Pain (2011). People were free to raise concerns and questions on issues that state or commercial broadcasters would ignore and get answers from the authorities.
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To establish the fact that government pay attention to the event of the media, history points out that the influence of government is seen in the unflinching support government media organizations give the government of the day. Government officials do not hesitate to remove anyone in charge who fails to offer unquestioned support. A sloppy government official named by the public risks being sacked with immediate effect or faces other punishments for such heinous acts. It was observed that within one year of the elected civilian government assuming office in 1990, no less than ten chief executive officers of state-owned broadcasting stations were sacked. It was on this that Uche (1989) based his argument that private media proprietors also exert significant control over their media organizations. Proprietors have been known to demand self- censorship by their editors. The proprietors expect those working in their media organizations to understand and protect their interests. Often a proprietor's economic and/or political interests are very influential in how they want their media to relate to the government of the day. Media practitioners have never failed to denounce these controls, except for journalists who have been co-opted. There have been instances when the government has been taken to court. In 1975, a reporter was arrested, flogged and his hair and beard shaved on the orders of a military governor who found his articles offensive, Nwosu (1990). Obiajulu & Akpo, 2018
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The reporter instituted a court action and won and the government was asked to pay him damages.
The need for rural development has been widely acknowledged, irrespective of the kind of government in place in any environment. It was in pursuance of this that the General Ibrahim Babangida regime (1985 and 1993) in Nigeria set up the Directorate of Food, Road and Rural Infrastructure (DIFRI) and made Larry Koinyan, a senior Air Force officer at that time, the chairman. With the death of that administration the Directorate went into a limbo and have never been heard of since then.
With the world spending the first few years of the second decade of the 21st century, the challenges of national development, particularly rural level, have remained daunting. Rural dwellers still suffer acute infrastructural inadequacies. On the economic scene, where the problems seems most debilitating, access roads to evacuate farm produce to a hungry urban population, have in many cases remained a poor. But how do community media feature in this equation?
Community media have the advantage of being intimate with the rural people to the extent that they feel the people’s heart beat and therefore, better placed to prescribe solutions to their problems.
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One of such activities is centred on political participation where the rural dwellers appear acutely disadvantaged. Community media have been in the forefront of mobilizing the rural populace for participation in the political process. This they have done through presentation of candidates and exposing candidates of dubious antecedents. Okoye (2008) alludes to this fact when he observes that Africa had been witnessing a steady decline in civil engagement and political participation by the educated groups. If the educated groups could be ‘infected’ by the ‘virus’ of decline in political participation, then it must be worse with rural dwellers who are clearly at a disadvantage.
Besides, community media provide a measure of assurance and a feeling of being part of a huge, often impersonal federation. Thus, it is achieved through the constant reflection of personalities from the locality and publication of stories and features from the environment. Moemeke (1981) was probably referring to this phenomenon with his observation that rural radio audience remained passive largely because of differences between the providing personnel from the receiving audience. Indeed, this is a major shortcoming when messages are beamed from ‘outside’ or when those running community media are removed from the people they are supposed to be serving. Essentially, the media must be perceived to be part and
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parcel of a community to enable the people to relate well with them and possibly benefit from them.
Theoretical Framework
Two theories are adopted for the work, the Agenda Setting theory and the Development Media theory:
Agenda Setting Theory
The power of the media to set society’s agenda by focusing public attention on few key public issues is an immense and well- documented phenomenon. The first systematic study of the Agenda- Setting theory was carried out by McCombs and Shaw (McCombs, 1972). The theory posits that what the media find important will eventually be mirrored by what members of society will come to think are important. It facilitates the formation of public opinion and the distribution of pros and cons of a particular issue. Agenda-Setting shifts the focus of attention away from immediate effects on attitudes and opinions to long term effects on cognitions (Protess, 1991). Lang (1959) agrees that not only do people acquire factual information about public affairs from the media, readers and viewers also learn how much importance to attach to a topic on the basis of the emphasis
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placed on it in the news. Newspapers provide a host of cues about the salience of the topics in the daily news, like lead story on page one, other front page displays and large headlines, etc. Television news also offers numerous cues about salience as well as the opening story on the newscast and length of time devoted to the story.
Agenda Setting theory describes the ability of the news media to influence the salience of topics on the public agenda. This implies that if a news item is covered frequently and prominently, the audience will regard the issue as more important. Agenda setting occurred through a cognitive process known as accessibility which in turn implies that the more frequently and prominently the news media cover an issue, the instances of that issue is accessible in the memories of the audiences. In this sense, when the members of the community are asked what the most important problem facing them is, they tend to answer with the most accessible information in their memories which is typically the issue the news media focused on the most.
A typical example is during the period of elections when the government tries to implant in the memories of the community, the positive of the regime than the otherwise experiences from the reign of the regime.
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In this case, every media outlet has her own political support and this is what they put in the mind of the public. This goes on and on until after election when many people might even gets blind to see the truth to their choice.
1. Development Media Theory Development media theory refers to the use of communication to facilitate social development. Development communication engages stakeholders and policy makers, establishes conducive environments, assesses risks and opportunities and promotes information exchanges to bring about positive social change through sustainable development. Development communication methods include dissemination of information and education, behavioural changes, social marketing and mobilisation, communication media advocacy, and community participation in these methods.
Quebral (2001) defines development communication as the art and science of human communication linked to a society’s planned transformation from a state of poverty to a dynamic socioeconomic growth that makes way for a greater equality and larger unfolding of individual potentials.
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An example of the situation in which this theory was used was Farm Radio Forums in Canada from 1941 to 1965 when farmers met weekly to listen to radio programmes, supplemented by printed materials and prepared questions to encourage discussion. Basically, this was as a response to the Great Depression and need for increased food production in World War II. Later, the Forums dealt with social and economic issues. This model of adult education was later adopted in India and Ghana.
Another example is in 1999 when the United States and DC Comics planned to distribute 600,000 comic books to children affected by the Kosovo War. The books were in Albanian and featured the comic Legends Superman and Wonder Woman to teach children what to do when they find an unexploded land mine left over from the Kosovo’s civil war. The comic books instructed children not to touch and not to move, but instead to call an adult for help.
3.0 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
To elicit data for the study, survey research method was used and questionnaire as a design. From the 150 copies of the questionnaire administered in the two communities under study, 93 correspondents were male while the remaining (57) were female. The implication of this is shown in the table below.
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Gender Distribution Gender Frequency Percentage Female 57 38% Male 93 62% Total 150 100% Source: Field Survey 2018 Media Reach in the Communities Location Yes Percentage No Percentage Total Ushafa 63 84% 12 16% 75 community Amaigbo 59 78.7% 16 21.2% 75 community Total 122 28 150 Source: Field Survey 2018
It could be deduced that both communities agreed that there exist at least one mass media outlet within their reach but they seemed to be very used and participative in responsive form mass media in the likes of Radio and Television as shown by the result.
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Type of mass media system Mass Media Frequency Percentage Radio 67 54.9% Television 45 36.9% Newspaper 10 8.2% Total 122 100% Source: Field Survey 2018 The result above is further analysed pictorially with the Pie Chart below.
MASS MEDIA SYSTEM
10
45 67
RADIO TELEVISION DAILIES
On how type of media available in their communities as showed in the pie chart above the respondents admitted that they are familiar
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with one mass medium or another. They all seemed to have a good follow up on the activities of these mass media available to them.
Readership as well as listenership of the mass media Radio Television Dailies Total Value % Frequently 70 10 7 87 71.3% Once A While 1 3 3 7 5.7% Never 0 0 0 0 0% When I Have 5 10 13 28 23% Access TOTAL 122 100% As indicated in the table above 87 of the respondents amounting to 71.3 percent read and listen to the media frequently, 7 representing 5.7 percent said they read or listen once a while and 28 representing 23 said they do when they have access.
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Mass Media Activities in the Communities STRONGLY AGREE AGREE DISAGREE STRONGLY DISAGREE MEDIS ACTIVITIES FREQ. PERCENT FREQ. % FREQ. % FREQ. % TOTAL/%
COMMUNITY 93 62 26 17.3 28 18.7 3 2 150/100 DEVELOPMENT
ENLIGHTENMENT 41 27.3 83 55.3 26 17.4 0 0 150/100
PROGRAMMES MEDIA CONTRIBUTION 110 73.3 39 26 1 0.1 0 0 150/100
DEVELOPMENT 60 40 72 48 11 7.3 7 4.4 150/100 MATTERS
Source: Field Survey 2018
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MASS MEDIA ACTIVITIES
120 110
100 93 83 80 72
60 60
41 40 39
26 28 26 20 11 7 3 1 0 COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT ENLIGHTENMENT MEDIA CONTRIBUTION DEVELOPMENT MATTERS PROGRAMMES STRONGLY AGREE AGREE DISAGREE STRONGLY DISAGREE
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From the information in the table and the pictorial representation above, it can be deduced that a high percentage of the respondents agreed that the rural mass media have participated in the development planning, albeit little that the communities have witnessed so far. The enlightenment programmes notable in the rural mass media include educational programmes on health, entrepreneurship, security and many other. For better understanding, some of these programmes are even hosted in native languages or the common “pidgin”. According to the information available as presented above, the communities seem to have encouraging trust in the information the rural mass media and in this aspect, more efforts can be put on the rural mass media to assist the community more on development prospects.
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Mass Media Contribution to Developmental Issues STRONGLY AGREE AGREE DISAGREE STRONGLY DISAGREE MEDIS FREQ. PERCENT FREQ. % FREQ. % FREQ. % TOTAL/% ACTIVITIES INFORMATION 80 53.3 53 35.3 10 6.7 7 4.7 150/100 DISSEMINATION
LIFE 103 68.7 42 28 5 3.3 0 0 150/100 IMPROVEMENT
PUBLIC 123 82 20 13.3 7 4.7 0 0 150/100 CONTRIBUTION
GOVERNMENT 20 13.3 13 8.6 109 72.6 10 5.5 150/100
AWARENESS Source: Field Survey 2018
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The pictorial representation of the numerical information above is shown below by the multiple Bar Chart.
MASS MEDIA CONTRIBUTION
140 123 120 109 103 100 80 80
60 53 43 40 20 20 20 10 13 10 7 5 7 0 INFORMATION LIFE IMPROVEMENT PUBLIC CONTRIBUTION GOVERNMENT AWARENESS DISSEMINATION
STRONGLY AGREE AGREE DISAGREE STRONGLY DISAGREE
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From the foregoing, the respondents showed that the rural media have impacted in their day-to-day life activities and thus, helped them improved their wellbeing. They rely on the rural media for genuine information and when allowed, they call in on the programmes by the media to make their contribution.
Conclusion
From the foregoing, it is clear that rural mass media occupy a central place in rural development. This is owing to the fact that broadcasting facilitates the dissemination of information on a variety of issues that concern the rural people. However, the study discovered that rural or community mass media have not been given due attention by the government. This is attributed to several factors like ownership and commercialization of the mass media, lack of adequate communication policy, corruption in government circles, and the non- inclusion of the rural dwellers in the conceptualization and execution of development programmes by development agents. It is a high time for both states and federal governments show commitment in changing this situation so that the rural dwellers can be reached with development messages. It is equally important to note that government’s efforts at reaching the rural folks with development
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programmes fail due to the neglect of rural media in the country. The Nigeria media system accommodates private and government owned media outlets and in this regards, the government can use the number of media available in the country to their advantages.
The concept of “news making” by “news makers” which largely revolves around this same group of people (the ruling elite) and the control they exert both directly and indirectly on the mass media undermines the ability of the media to, on its own, perform its agenda setting function. Instead, the media function to regurgitate they imposed agenda of its owners, their friends and associates and those they can benefit from.
Recommendations
Arising from the study the following recommendations are made:
1. Government should provide enough facilities such as good road network, power supply, drinkable water, etc which will make journalists to stay in rural communities so that they can be bridge builders. 2. Government, at all levels, and the private sector should provide adequate infrastructural facilities in the rural areas to enable the full take off of community media.
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3. Government should use appropriate methods through the media to communicate with the public particularly communities in the rural areas. 4. The government through the Ministry of Information and Culture should improve the role of indigenous folk media by organizing regular workshops and seminars for the training of stakeholders in indigenous media operation].
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REFERENCES
Alumuku, P.T. (2005). Community radio: Emerging democratic communication.Africa Journal of the National Broadcasting Commission (NBC News).
Kupe , A. (1999).Media and Democracy: unpublished paper, Department and Journalism and Media Studies. Rhodes University.
Lang, G. E. (1983). The Battle for Public Opinion: The President, the Press and the Pollduring Watergate. New York: Columbia University Press.
Lobulu, W. (2011).The Role Of Community Media in Tanzania: Challenges and Opportunities for Democratization and National Development, Research commissioned by the Media Council in Tanzania.
McCombs, M.E. (2005). Explores and surveyors: Expanding strategies for agenda-setting research. Journalism Quarterly, 69(4): 813-824.
McCombs, M. E.& Shaw, D.L. (1972). The agenda-setting function of the mass media. Public Opinion Quarterly, 36:176 -187.
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Moemeka, A. (2000). Communication for development: A new pan- disciplinary perspective. New York: State University of New York Press.
Moemeke, A. (1989). Perspectives on Development Communication. Africa Media Review. New York: State University of New York Press.
Ngoa, S. N. (2006). Agenda Setting: The Neglected Role of Some Agents of Power as Structures of Community. A Published PhD Thesis of Ngoa, S. N.
Nwabueze, C. (2005). Mass media and community mobilisation for development: An analytical approach. International Journal of Communication.
Nwosu, I. (1990). An overview of the relationship between communication and rural development. Aba, Nigeria: Frontier Publishers Ltd.
Protess, L. D. (1991).Agenda setting: Readings on media, public opinion and policy making. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Saltar, L (2011) Local Journalism: The Decline of Newspaper and the rise of Digital media, European Journal of Communication, Sage Publication.
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Soola, E.O (2003), Perspectives in Development Journalism, In Soola (Ed), Communicating for Development Purpose, Ibadan: Kraft Books.
Stichele, P.V. (2000). Folk and traditional media for rural development. Retrieved: January 12th, from www.fao.org/sd/KDdirect/CDre0052.htm.
Thompson, J.B (1995).The Media and Modernity: A Social Theory of the Media, Stanford: Stanford University Press.
UNESCO, (1999). Regional Seminar on Promoting Community Media in Africa: Synthesis, Proceedings and Recommendations. Kampala, Uganda.
Udoaka, N. (1998). Development communication.Ibadan, Nigeria: Stirling–Horden Publishers.
Wilbur, S. (1964). Mass Media and National Development. Stanford: California Stanford University Press.
Wimmer, R. D. (1987). Mass Media Research: An Introduction. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, Inc.
Wilson, D. (1997). Communication and Social Action. Port-Harcourt: Footsteps Publication.
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Employability of Journalism Graduates of Open and Distance Learning (ODL) Institutions: A Tracer Study of National Open University of Nigeria Graduates (2009-2014)
Chidinma Henrietta ONWUBERE, Ph.D, LL.B
Department of Mass Communication National Open University of Nigeria, Abuja
Abstract
Educational institutions use Tracer Studies to track the records of their graduates and follow up these graduates’ progresses up to the time they get jobs. Tracers also help ascertain the level of their acceptability within the workforce. The aim of this study is to assess the quality, availability and acceptability of NOUN journalism graduates in the labour market. The whole essence is to elicit feedback from both the graduates and their employers on the quality and impact of the programme on workplace performance.) The study tried to ascertain whether identified skills-gaps have been closed and it also sought to identify new competencies acquired by NOUN graduates, using survey research method (through Google forms online survey. This study is the pilot run of the survey of 198 journalism graduates of NOUN (2009-2014) in Lagos. About 15% of the respondents were used as a test run of a larger study, essentially, to validate the research instrument. Data gathered were primarily analysed through Google forms. Statistical analysis was done using SPSS and results were duly interpreted. Findings of the qualitative data showed that the NOUN PGD Journalism Programme enhances employability; while the findings from the qualitative responses indicated that the programme adequately prepared the graduates for their current jobs. The study concluded that Tracer Studies are important instruments for managerial decisions since they can be effectively used for monitoring trends in the labour market and for determining the performance of institutional output. it was recommended that learner support provisions for the programmes in {370}
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NOUN need to be improved upon to further address the problem of this study; course contents which are labour-market related should be massively endorsed by NOUN and that NOUN should maintain and constantly update a data base for all her past graduates to ensure easy access for similar studies.
Keywords: Competencies, Employability, Journalism, ODL, NOUN, Skills, Tracer
1.0 INTRODUCTION
A crucial aspect of Open Distance Learning (ODL) is the assurance of acceptability of the graduates into the economic mainstream. This can be achieved through the capability of ODL graduates to march their counterparts from the face to face universities. Measurement of performances is determined by employer attestations and through the results of tracer studies. Value of employers’ feedback on performances of ODL graduates remains a vital instrument for future restructuring of programmes for enhanced effectiveness both in the relevant ODL institutions and in the work places. It became imperative to conduct a tracer study of Journalism graduates of the National Open University of Nigeria, because having run the programme for over five years; the institution is expected to provide viable feedback for programme reviews and for accurate assessment of NOUN products. The essence of this study, therefore, is to keep a
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track record of journalism graduates of NOUN, measure the skills acquired by the PGD Journalism graduates, ascertain the relevance of the practical aspects of the training to their jobs, determine the viability of the acquired skills, provide information on the employability of PGD Journalism graduates of NOUN and provide requisite information for evaluation of the entire Mass Communication Programme of the institution. If results generated from the analyses of quantitative and qualitative data are positive they are likely to engender increase in students’ enrolment.
By its structure and composition, NOUN programmes and course contents require periodic reviews – about five-yearly audit. This has not been done for the journalism programme within this period under study. This is partly because of lack of adequate information for ascertaining areas of strength and weaknesses as well as opportunities and threats; and also due to lack of feedback from the employers. Without any empirical study, these reviews may be difficult to conduct. In addition, it may be difficult for NOUN to continuously produce graduates without adequate and reliable data to confirm their usefulness and appropriateness to the society and the University in particular. The non-availability of requisite information for the assessment of the NOUN Journalism graduates is, thus, the problem
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of this study. Of vital importance to the viability of the NOUN Journalism Programme is establishing the demand for the journalism graduates, ascertaining their usefulness and identifying their possible areas of need even after graduation. This study is, thus, intended to address these issues.
The overall aim of this study is to assist the university make necessary adjustments and changes to her educational programmes by effectively using the findings of this tracer study, so that, NOUN programmes would be more relevant to the needs of the economy. It is also aimed at determining the employability statuses of the journalism graduates of NOUN between 2009 and 2014, the impact of the programme on their jobs, as well as their workplace performances.
The specific objectives of this study are to:
Ascertain the validity and effectiveness of NOUN programmes on the trainees and the efficacy in the workplaces after graduation. Determine the extent of employability of NOUN Journalism graduates in the labour market,
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To identify the professional skills acquired and spot any gaps worth filling. Determine their job-placement opportunities and the enabling factors.
This study was delineated in scope to the PGD Journalism graduates only, those whose training was geared towards acquiring practical skills to enhance their on-the-job competences after graduation. Being the first of its kind for this programme, it is expected to allow for easy management and reduction in challenges that could confront a much larger study.
Research Questions
Five research questions were asked to guide this study. They are:
1. To what extent are NOUN journalism post-graduates being employed in the labour market?
2. To what extent is the journalism post-graduate degree relevant to the graduates’ present jobs?
3. What opportunities are available in the job market for journalism postgraduates?
4. What professional skills have these postgraduates acquired and what gaps need to be filled?
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5. What are the views of employers of NOUN journalism postgraduates employed within their organisation?
2.0 CONCEPTUAL REVIEW
An Overview of National Open University of Nigeria The National Open University of Nigeria was originally established on 22,1983 by an Act of the National Assembly, but was suspended on April 25, 1984, by the then Military Head of the State, General Muhammadu Buhari, while delivering a National Broadcast on the 1984/85 budget. Over the period, the need to brace up with new trends in developments in communication and information technology for economically funding education, filling the gaps in education occasioned by social status, marginalization and lack of resources became imminent. In recognition of its role of handling Nigeria’s educational problems and providing access to education for all, NOUN was resuscitated by the government of Gen Olusegun Obasanjo on October 1, 2002. Its main goal is to adopt distance education as a desirable and inevitable mode for providing access to all and achieve equitable representation by taking the distance out of education. The declaration of 2001-2010 as a decade of distance education in Nigeria by stake- holders in education in Abuja on 29th September, 2000 had already set the pace for NOUN to take off. The whole essence was to take the distance out of education.
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The National Open University of Nigeria being the tertiary institution for Open and Distant Learning in Nigeria has no doubt, taken gallant strides towards the provision of highly accessible and enhanced quality education anchored on social justice, equity, equality and national cohesion, through a comprehensive reach that transcends all barriers. Through the appropriate and effective use of Information Communication Technology (ICT), NOUN provides a good blend of academic professionals, continuing education extension and training programmes through the ODL system. With 71 study centres spread all over the Federation and a total number of 269,857 students enrolled, NOUN can be considered as a success story in the Nigerian educational system. The imperative role of ICT in the production of knowledge, the i-learn services, the on-line and learner support services as well as standard virtual libraries combine to make NOUN a name to be reckoned with in the Nigerian educational system.
NOUN programmes are unique in the sense that the mode of study is very flexible as it allows the students to carry their loads bit by bit. This means that the students can extend the programme duration by twice the normal length of time. This, however, does not make it a part-time programmes, rather, they constitute full-fledged university programmes. Her uniqueness encourages full employment and
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learning at the same time. Accordingly, the motto of NOUN is “Work and Learn”. Programme types includes: Certificates, Diplomas, First Degrees, Post Graduates, Master Degrees and PhDs. Feedback is through Tutor Marked assignments (TMAS) and periodic face to face tutorials sessions. Quality is the watchword for building confidence in students, the public and employees. NOUN’s enrolment as a member of the Open Course Ware Consortium and her subsequent contributions by placing her educational resources online would advance the cause of the Abuja Declaration of 2010.
Tracer Studies
Tracer study is an instrument for assessing the impact of programmes on target audience for the purposes of future reviews and upgrading of the programmes/targets. It is an effort to study the performance of graduates in the job market upon completion of their study. Scholars such as Millington (2001), Adelaida (2014), Gicana, et al (2006), Gines, (2004) agree that tracer studies, through qualitative survey provide information on employment and career characteristics of work and competencies gained. Tracer studies, according to Millington (2001), provide quantitative structural data on employment, career and related competencies and information on the professional orientation and experiences of their graduates.
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Tracer studies according to Garcia (2003) as cited by Gines (2004) is an important source of information to know what happened to graduates of academic programmes in Higher Education Institutions (HEIs). The essence is thus to obtain basic information on the status of graduates upon completion of study. NOUN Postgraduate Journalism Programme was mounted for over 10 years now and there is need to access the impact and usefulness of the programme on the graduates. This would be helpful in future reviews of the programme in accordance with the established and known concepts of tracer studies.
Tracer studies constitute an important tool for educational planners as they can provide valuable information for evaluating the results of the higher education and training institutions. This information may be used for minimizing any possible deficits in a given educational programme in terms of content, delivery and relevance and for further development of the institution in the context of quality assurance. Tracer studies are also important because they help to follow up the status of an institution’s graduates after graduating and equally measure the relevance of vocational training courses. They help to document the number of trainees finding employment in their trained occupations. Accordingly, Gane (2015) observes that “…gathering
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and documenting feedback from trainee graduates can help improve project planning, revise and reinforce interventions, demonstrate results and contribute towards improving public confidence in vocational training”.
Tracer study will aid NOUN to evaluate the quality of education given to her graduates by ascertaining the graduates placements and positions in the society. This can later be used as a benchmark in producing more qualified and competitive graduates. However, tracer studies have some disadvantages. They include low questionnaire response rate, huge cost of collection of information and attrition of respondents. These factors affected this particular study as only 32 respondents’ responses could be harvested from the online survey three months after the questionnaire was posted online. This compelled the researcher to conduct only a pilot study, hoping to conduct the full survey when the response rate improves. Besides, a lot of funds are needed to contact some of them on face-to-face basis.
Empirical Reviews To collaborate the effort of this study, similar researches were looked into to ascertain their relevance to it.
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RUPP Students’ Employability 2004 tracer study was done by the Quality Assurance Unit of the Royal University of Phnom Penh (RUPP) to investigate the graduate employment conditions in Cambodian context. The study assessed the supply of human resources produced by the University; its findings were to inform the policy makers and the University curriculum Committee on how to update the course contents which would provide the graduates more job opportunities in the labour market (Roth, 2004).
Similarly, IFL-Tracer Study Report 2007 done by the Institute of Foreign Languages (IFL) to identify the effectiveness of their English Language Programme run by local staff. The study attempted to provide information to upgrade the curriculum and course contents which could help graduates meet the changes in market needs. (Anonymous, 2007) cited in Vong (2015).
A tracer study of students of Philippine Normal University, aimed at identifying curriculum weaknesses and strengths and to provide data for the review and evaluation of the curricular programmes of PNU. In that study, Adelaida (2014) discovered that the majority of the PNU graduates were predominantly females in their early twenties and were employed immediately after graduation based on their qualifications and not by political connections. He also discovered
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that the graduates exhibited satisfaction for the opportunity offered them by the University.
In Nigeria, the demand for a new cadre of workforce with inter- disciplinary skills has strengthened the need for tracer studies. Getting into contact with NOUN’s ex-trainees and providing them with supports will improve the institution’s public image as well as provide information for review of the training curriculum. The findings of the study would help the University identify its learning outcomes, the strengths and weaknesses of the University programmes, and the relationship between education/training and the labor market needs. As a tool designed to measure the relevance of training to job placements, the responses from analyzed data are indicators of the quality of NOUN programmes.
3.0 METHOD Research Design
[ The study adopted the descriptive survey research method. It was designed to obtain both qualitative and quantitative data from journalism postgraduates of NOUN. However, only quantitative data could be fully assessed for the study since it turned out to be only a pilot of the main study. Only a qualitative few responses were got from the questionnaires returned online. The study made use of a
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survey research and questionnaire as a design, comprising of some 24 questions, drawn from a population list got from the academic registry of the institution which provided details of the names and addresses of graduates by programme of study and year of graduation. Online questionnaire was sent to the graduates in the sample list, together with a covering letter providing the link through which they could return their responses, while explaining the objectives of the study in a brief mail attached to the questionnaire. Main themes surveyed are: academic knowledge, problem-solving skills, Research skills, information technology skills, Learning efficiency, Team spirit and Job opportunities.
Tracing the Graduates Using the authentic list of intakes generated from the ICT department of NOUN, and the list of graduates from the Academic Registry, the target group was extracted and contacted through telephone calls and short message services (SMS). This procedure involved, first contacting them with the available contact details to ascertain and verify their current addresses, phone contacts, emails and social media addresses. In these days of multiple media channels, this approach was to ensure that as many as possible are included in the survey, knowing that some of them may have changed contacts over
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time. Subsequently, the questionnaire was sent to the respondents. Having confirmed their current addresses and social media contacts/platforms, the tool as sent to them via all relevant channels as detailed above stating how they would fill and return to the researcher within a time frame. With a clear idea of their various locations, any physical meeting for the purpose of more in-depth interview would be easily achieved.
Population The target population was the entire postgraduate students of the Department Mass Communication who graduated between 2009 and 2014. These will include both the MSc. and the PGD journalism graduates. This group is considered most likely to get employed soon after graduation, (either on account of their being on the job before studies or having gained new leverage as a result of their newly acquired skills), unlike their undergraduate counterparts.
Sample A sample size of 32 graduates (15.5%) percent of the total population was used for the study. This number is small because of the inability of the researcher to get enough responses from the graduates (even three months after the questionnaire was posted online). This is one of the major problems of Tracer studies.
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A bigger sample would have been ideal since it would ensure the inclusion of such characteristics as sex, employment status, year of graduation, and guaranteed representativeness of each category. This will hopefully be achieved with the larger study.
Instrument for Data Collection This questionnaire was a 24-item instrument containing both demographic questions relating to their present day location, job and gender, as well as, the research questions which focus on the key subject of the research, i.e., the relevance of their course to their present job and how satisfactory their training was in relation to the present job. In addition, a questionnaire and question guide for the employers was designed to ask particular and specific questions regarding the relevance and usefulness of the employees in question. The 24-item questionnaire administered online was meant to elicit information on the training satisfaction and job opportunities of about 194 graduates. As at time of report, only 32 graduates had responded. These served as 15.5% which the researcher considered just adequate for a pilot run of the study. Similarly, their responses were analysed online using the Google forms and consolidated with the SPSS. The instruments was validated through testing and pilot study on two percent (5%) of the population. The result of this pilot
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study would help to fine-tune the methodology and eventual execution of the main study
Reliability of the Instrument This was done through internal and external evaluation mechanisms of the University. The reliability and validity of the instrument were determined by RETRIDAL through blind reviews of the proposal, including the questionnaire. In addition, a pilot study using the same instrument was conducted on 5 percent of the sample size ahead of this pilot study. It was successful.
Data Collection After pre-testing the structured questionnaire was administered directly to the respondents electronically and via other social media platforms as preferred by the candidates. In addition, a special portal was opened for online, real time participation by the graduates. Online surveys have become quite useful for completing questionnaire in the case of multitude respondents in a country-wide survey of this magnitude and the knowledge and practice are growing by the day.
Data for the Larger Study Using purpose-made software that will guarantee easy and immediate
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participation and feedback from respondents, the larger study would benefit from modern technology which will ensure high return of the questionnaire. For the FGD, a question guide would be used to help in collecting in-depth information on the general experiences of the graduates while in training, especially on the values of the courses, adequacy of programme in relation to their field experiences after training. Researcher will travel to meet these graduates where ever they may be in each of the three chosen research locations of Lagos, Benin and Abuja. This will be preceded by a proper arrangement with them with regard to date, time and place of the interviews. After the agreed dates for the FGDs, any misses by the graduates would be taken care of via telephone discussions afterwards. Researcher and research assistants will allow between three to four weeks for the respondents to respond to requests. Programme planners will assist in the project to ensure objectivity. To accomplish this far, the researcher had initially set up a directory of the graduates covered by this study. It took some time before they were tracked. They would be further requested to participate in the web-based questionnaire.
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4.0 DATA ANALYSIS Data was electronically analysed using frequency counts, percentages, and higher statistical techniques such as the Pearson’s Chi-square and Logistic Regression. The study will additionally employ the use of the SPSS PC+ Version11 for the larger study to further analyse the co- relational data. Interpretations were based on the results of the analysis.
Limitations This study faced a number of challenges during data collection. These included poor records of students’ profiles which was the biggest challenge of the study. Collecting the graduate’s contacts was time- consuming because the student lists provided by the academic office contained only students’ names, matriculation numbers and obsolete telephone numbers. Most of them had no contact addresses or phone numbers. In many cases, the telephone numbers listed were unreliable. Besides, the online survey responses were not promptly received when required. A full attempt was made to get the completed questionnaire from all the target journalism graduates of NOUN within the study period. However, only 32 out of the 198 respondents sampled returned their online questionnaire. It frustrated attempt to contact them through their physical addresses so as to collect the hard
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copies failed. This is because some of their addresses have changed over the times. Unfortunately, this rate of response could not be increased due to several limitations related to time, budget and contact addresses. A larger survey will be conducted as soon as the full responses are got.
Instrumentation: The research instrument was presented in 5 (five) Sections viz: • Participant profiles • Current job • Personal views about programme and course • Employer’s Details. Employers’ Identity verification information was received but these will be used during the main study • Employability of NOUN Journalism Graduates after Graduation Paradigm for Analysis is the Interpretive approach since this is the Pilot study
RESPONSES GOT FROM SURVEYED THEMES Academic knowledge 92% Problem solving skills 70% Research skills 86.7% Information technology skills 77.8% Team spirit 60.3% Communication skills 82.3% Job opportunities 78%
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Employability of NOUN Journalism Graduates after Graduation
4% 7% 7% Two to three years One to two years Six months to one year 21% Less than six months Less than one month 50% Remained in my old job 11% other
0%
The pie chart above shows that Many of the respondents (32%) (21%+11%) got jobs within one (1) year of graduation; while Fifty (50%) of them remained in their previous jobs. Only a very few (4%) did not get jobs within the first two years after graduation.
Summary of Findings Results and Discussions (a) Main Findings: Quantitative Responses RQ.1: To what extent are NOUN journalism post-graduates being employed in the labour market?
Response: Majority of the respondents (32%) got job within one (1) year of graduation; while Fifty (50%) of them remained in their old jobs. Onwubere, 2018
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Interpretation: The NOUN PGD Journalism Programme enhances employability
RQ.2: To what extent is the journalism post-graduate degree relevant to the graduates’ present jobs? (Qualitative) (Reason for undertaking the Programme according to the respondents range from career progression to upgrade of qualification to enhanced professionalism)
Response: Majority (82%) of the respondents reported that the PG programme was relevant to their present jobs. Only a few (18%) reported that the programme is a little relevant to their jobs. Interpretation: The NOUN PGD Journalism Programme is relevant to the graduates’ present jobs. Interestingly, while only 18% indicated that their jobs require a post graduate qualification, 80% claimed that the programme is relevant to their present jobs. This suggests personal preference in terms of relevance.
RQ.3: What opportunities are available in the job market for journalism postgraduates and what factors drive these opportunities? Response: Majority of the respondents (78%) reported that the Postgraduate Journalism Programme strengthened their chances of getting employment after graduation.
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Determining the job Placement Opportunities Based on information got from the respondents, there is indication that the following job placements are available after graduation – Sales and Marketing Information Services - Media, News and Programmes - Administration and Operations
Interpretation: Several Opportunities are available in the job market for NOUN PG Journalism upon graduation.
RQ.4: What professional skills have these postgraduates acquired and what gaps need to be filled?
Response: Majority (80%) of the respondents reported that the PGD programme improved their Information Tech Skills. However, only 60% indicated enhanced team spirit after the programme. Interpretation: The graduates acquired relevant professional skills from the programme. The percentage of those that indicated that they acquired these professional skills through the programme was significantly higher than those that indicated otherwise.
The GAP: The analysis showed that some of the graduates did not imbibe team spirit as a skill. This calls for concern as this is a core journalistic requirement. There is need to pay attention to skills that will enhance the students’ team spirit as this is the core of the journalism profession.
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RQ.5: What are the views of employers of NOUN journalism postgraduates employed within their organisation?
This particular research question could not be answered now because the responses have to come for from the employers which will be got from the main study.
(b) Main Findings: Qualitative Response The qualitative responses got from the respondents indicated that the programme adequately prepared them for their current jobs by:
(i) Widening their perceptions (ii) Improving problem solving skills (iii) Providing theoretical background to their practical work experience and giving them insight to their profession (iv) Providing additional qualifications for career upgrade.
5.0 CONCLUSION Tracer studies are important instruments for managerial decisions since they can be effectively used for monitoring trends in the labour market and determining the performance of institutional output. The result of this study will significantly address the issues of curriculum adequacy, quality of programmes and relevance of training to labour market requirements. This study is therefore germane to the current
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Quality Assurance needs of NOUN as well as encourages documentation of performance records of graduates.
Majority of the NOUN journalism graduates are males who enrolled because of the need to enhance their academic standards for the purposes of upgrading themselves in their work places so as to earn better job positions and career advancement; also because of the uniqueness of the programme and student-friendly programme fees.
The graduates’ level of satisfaction with the University’s services, learning programmes and facilities were generally of high satisfaction, but the learning environment still requires some improvement. A great number of them were employed immediately after graduation and many others remained in their previous jobs as upgraded personnel. The fact that there are no 100% positive responses suggests that there are still some gaps to be filled. The main study will address this.
The pool of information derived from this tracer study is important indicators of the quality of NOUN programmes. The result would hopefully enhance efforts to bring NOUN journalism programme to international standards while enhancing their students’ capacity to gain relevant competencies for lifelong learning.
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Recommendations The following recommendations are made based on the findings and conclusion of the study. Learner support provisions for the programme in NOUN need to be improved upon in line with the findings of the study. 1. Course contents which are labour market related should be massively endorsed
2. A link should be created between undergraduates and employers such that IT/SIWES programmes will be maintained.
3. There is need to maintain and constantly update a data base for all the past graduates of NOUN to ensure easy access for similar studies.
Further recommendations will be made on how to robustly improve the NOUN journalism programme using these preliminary results to complement new results that will emerge from the main study.
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Anonymous. (2007). “IFL Tracer Study Report”: RUPP, IFL in Vong, Chorvy (2015), Tracer Study 2014: Graduates of Year 2012.
Anyanwu, G. A. (2000). Graduates Transition from study to employment. A study of the Arts and Agriculture graduates of University of Nigeria on the world of work. From http://66.218.69.11/seearch/cashe?ei=UTF8and p= Graduate and Tracer Study.
Gicana, R., Sapul, S. and Penetrante, M. O. (2006). A Tracer Study for the CPU College of Computer Studies Graduates from 2001 To 2005.
Gines, A. C. (2004). Towards relevance and sustainable quality in teacher education, In M. Fremerey; S. Amini, M. Wesseler (Ed.) Promoting Relevance and Quality in International Higher Education, 207-208 . Witzenhausen; Germany: ISOS University of Kassel Pres
Lange, R. (2001). Manual Tracer Studies. Consult for Management, Training and Technologies. www.fakt- Consult.de.
Millington, J. (2001). The Effect of Competition on the Efficiency of Secondary Schools in England. EJOR 135(3): 545-568.
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Roth, C. (2004). RUPP Students’ Employability : RUPP, Quality Assurance Unit. in Vong, Chorvy. 2015, Tracer Study 2014:Graduates of Year 2012.
Ugwounah, G. E. & Omeje, K. C. (1998). Final Report of Tracer Study Research Project on Higher Education and Work. Institute for Development Studies, University of Nigeria, Enugu Campus. .
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