Father Divine's Peace Mission Movement in Los Angeles During the Great Depression Author(S): Jill Watts Source: Pacific Historical Review, Vol

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"This Was the Way": Father Divine's Peace Mission Movement in Los Angeles during the Great Depression Author(s): Jill Watts Source: Pacific Historical Review, Vol. 60, No. 4 (Nov., 1991), pp. 475-496 Published by: University of California Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3639873 . Accessed: 22/10/2014 20:40

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This content downloaded from 66.31.143.47 on Wed, 22 Oct 2014 20:40:10 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions "THIS WAS THE WAY": Father Divine's Peace Mission Movement in Los Angeles during the Great Depression

JILL WATTS

The authoris a memberof the historydepartment in CaliforniaState University,San Marcos.

"For more than a quarterof a centuryI have labored in vain, tryingto do certain thingsand findingno success," lamented Hugh MacBeth, one of southernCalifornia's most prominentAfrican-American attorneys, as he addressed an audience in Los Angeles's Epic Auditorium in August 1936. MacBeth was serving as the vice chairman of the California Righteous Government Convention, an auxiliary of the Peace Mission Movement founded in New York by the dynamic black minister,Father Divine. A vocal community activist,MacBeth had dedicated his life to combatingracism and experimentingwith organizations ranging fromMarcus Garvey's Universal Negro ImprovementAssociation to the Utopian Societyof America. But he had concluded that"there was no way to solve the problemby PURE INTELLECTUAL WORK,... BY ORDINARY BUSINESS METHODS," or "BY THE ORDINARY POLITICAL METHODS." Rather,Mac- Beth claimed that the solutions resided withinthe theology

I would like to thank Susan Neel, Richard Newman, Margaret Washington, and Richard Weiss for their invaluable comments and criticism of an early draftof this article.

PacificHistorical Review ? 1991by the PacificCoast Branch AmericanHistorical Association 475

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of the Peace Mission Movement, and in a ringing endorse- ment he announced: "when I firstlearned of the work of Father Divine I came to the conclusion that THIS WAS THE WAY."' Enigmatic and sensational, Father Divine has long in- trigued the American public. Attemptingto unravel his appeal, the scholarlycommunity has produced a significant collection of works on the ministerand his movement.The firststudies of Father Divine, which appeared between 1936 and 1953,were biographical and generally cast his ministry in a derogatorylight. These early worksportrayed the Peace Mission Movement as an aberrationalreligious cult confined predominantlyto the African-Americanghettos of the north- eastern United States and contended that Father Divine's appeal rested primarily on the free meals he provided to parishionersand the emotional impactof his sermons.2More recent scholarship has attemptedto overturnthis view, not- ing the interracialcharacter of the Peace Mission Movement, its dispersal throughoutthe United States,and the similarity of many of Father Divine's ideas to New Thought, a philosophy centered on the notion that salvation, prosperity,and health could be attainedthrough positive thinkingand mind power. With the exception of Charles LeWarne's work on followersin the stateof Washington,however, most examina- tions have continued to focus on the activitiesof Peace Mis- sions in and around Father Divine's Harlem headquarters and none of the inquiries has explored the relationship between Father Divine's version of New Thought and his popularity,instead continuingto attributehis appeal to the secular facets of his ministryand highlightinghis charis- matic leadership and his campaigns against racism.3

1. Spoken Word,Aug. 15, 1936, p. 15; Charles J. Lang, ed., Who's Whoin Los Angeles County: 1932-1933(Los Angeles, 1933), 167; Utopian News, Feb. 5, 1934, p. 1; Feb. 11, 1935, pp. 1, 2; Emory J. Tolbert, The UNIA and Black Los Angeles (Los Angeles, 1980), 31, 39, 66-67. 2. Sara Harris, Father Divine: Holy Husband (Garden City, N.Y., 1953); John Hoshor, God in a Rolls Royce: The Rise ofFather Divine, Madman, Menace or Messiah (New York, 1936); Robert Allerton Parker, IncredibleMessiah: The Deifi- cationof Father Divine (Boston, 1937). 3. Charles Le Warne, "Vendovi Island: Father Divine's Peaceful Paradise of the Pacific," PacificNorthwest Quarterly, LXXV (1984), 2-12; Charles Samuel

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The followingexamination probes the natureof the Peace Mission Movementin Los Angeles during the 1930sby assess- ing the origins of thatbranch and the contributionsmade by followers from Los Angeles to the movement as a whole. While the majorityof Father Divine's disciples were concen- trated in the urban centers of the Northeast,an active and sizable followingdeveloped in Californiaduring the 1930s.A study of the Los Angeles wing reveals not only that New Thought played a keyrole in attractingfollowers from diverse backgrounds into the fold, but also that these disciples con- tributedsignificantly to the disseminationof Father Divine's teachings,the restructuringof his ministry,and the politici- zation of the movement. The Los Angeles branch,like the parentorganizations on the East Coast,carried the indelible imprintof FatherDivine's leadership. Born George Baker in 1879,in Rockville, Mary- land, he was raised in an impoverished neighborhood of ex-slaves.As a youthhe attendedan African-AmericanMeth- odist church,but may have also been exposed to Catholicism and Quakerism passed down to him throughhis parentspre- viously enslaved to masterswho subscribedto or were influ- enced by these doctrines.4His theological experiences were broadened afterhe leftRockville. From 1899to 1912,he lived in Baltimore,but occasionally traveledaround the countryas an itinerant preacher. During these years, he worshipped and preached in African-Americanstorefront churches and participatedin the Azusa StreetRevival in Los Angeles, rec- ognized by many as the inception of Pentecostalismin the United States. It was also during this time thathe fell under the influence of New Thought philosophy and became an avid reader of proto-New Age literature. New Thought

Braden, These Also Believe: A Study of Modern American Cults and MinorityReli- gious Movements(New York, 1949), 1-77; Kenneth Burnham, God Comes toAmer- ica: FatherDivine (Boston, 1979); Robert Weisbrot, FatherDivine and theStruggle for Racial Equality (Urbana, 1983); William M. Kephart, ExtraordinaryGroups: The Sociology of UnconventionalLifestyles (New York, 1976), 107-158; Joseph R. Washington, Jr.,Black Sectsand Cults: The Power Axis in an EthnicEthic (Garden City, N.Y., 1973). 4. For background on Father Divine's early years, see chapter one in Jill Watts, God, Harlem U.S.A.: The Father Divine Story (Berkeley, scheduled for publication in 1992).

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ideology had been popular throughout American society during the early twentiethcentury. Derived fromthe mind power philosophy of an antebellum New England hypnotist, Phineas Quimby,New Thought had seeped into theAmerican religious scene, producing a variety of sects, some bitterly competing for ascendency and othersjoining cooperatively in the International New Thought Alliance. New Thought emerged in highly institutionalizedforms, such as Christian Science or the Churchof Religious Science,but also appeared in loosely organized and informalassociations ranging from sects to study groups. Baker would have discovered the variations among advocates of New Thought and out of the assortmenthe would emerge withhis own interpretation.5 By 1912, spiritual revelation had transformedGeorge Baker into "The Messenger,"who had come to believe that he had achieved oneness withGod and, as a result,was God. The Messenger leftBaltimore to build a movementbased on his syncretictheology, comprised of the various religious traditionsthat had touched his life. His teachingsfocused on the notion that, as God, he had come to bring heaven on earth. He taught followersto seek and channel God's spirit withinthemselves and to striveto approximatedivine status. He refusedto recognize racial divisions and demanded that followerscease identifyingpeople according to race in order to create an integratedAmerica. He also offeredfollowers salvation, which the Messenger defined as immortality,and promised to eradicate illness and produce prosperity.He presided over massive Holy Communion Banquets with numerous courses of meats, vegetables, salads, breads, and desserts--a celebrationdesigned to exhibithis abilityto gen- erate abundance. He also insistedthat his followersadhere to strictmoral codes and refrainfrom alcohol, drugs,profanity,

5. Watts,God, Harlem U.S.A.,chap. 2; St. Clair McKelway and A. J. Liebling, "Who Is This King of Glory?" New Yorker,pt. 1, June 13, 1936, pp. 21-28; New Day, Dec. 12, 1940, p. 18; James J. Tinney, "William J. Seymour: Father of Modern Day Pentecostalism" in Randall K. Burkett and Richard Newman, eds., Black Apostles:Afro-American Clergy Confront the TwentiethCentury (Boston, 1978), 213-225. Father Divine frequentlycited New Thought authors and used New Thought terminology. New Day, Nov. 2, 1939, pp. 34-35; July 20, 1974, p. 20; July 6, 1974, p. 19; Charles Samuel Braden, Spiritsin Rebellion: The Rise and Developmentof New Thought(Dallas, 1963).

This content downloaded from 66.31.143.47 on Wed, 22 Oct 2014 20:40:10 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions FatherDivine in Los Angeles 479 and sex. His most loyal disciples were expected to cut family ties and adopt new names, like Grace Joyor Ray Bright,to symbolizetheir new and more positive lives.6 By 1919,the Messenger,now called Father Divine by his disciples, settledwith a small band of followersin the exclu- sive Long Island resortcommunity of Sayville. The colony subsistedon members'pooled wages thatFather Divine care- fullybudgeted and wisely spent. For several years, he lived in obscurity,feeding, sheltering, and clothingthe poor from his home. By the early thirtieshe had attractedover 3,000 worshippersto holiday services,prompting his arrestin 1931 for disturbingthe peace.7 Shortly after Father Divine was convictedof these charges,the judge who had presided over the trial suddenly died. The press catapulted Father Divine into the limelightwith speculation thatthe judge's death was an act of retribution,indicative of the evangelist's mystical powers. ThereafterAmerican journalists transformed Father Divine into a depression era media figure with articles on him appearing frequentlythroughout the 1930s in national newspapers and magazines.8 The publicity increased membership in the Peace Mis- sion Movement, and Father Divine relocated his headquarters to Harlem, where his congregations sponsored mass meetings,parades, reliefhomes, businesses,newspapers, and missionaryactivities.9 It was one ofthese missionaries, Brother Alexander, a black Jamaican fromNew York City,who first broughtthe Peace Mission Movementto Los Angeles in 1932.10 Soon his missionon Compton Avenue was attractingconverts

6. Reverend M. J. Divine, The Peace Mission Movement as Explained by FatherDivine (Philadelphia, N.d.); Spoken Word,Aug. 15, 1936, p. 26; Aug. 22, 1936, p. 9; Oct. 3, 1936, p. 7; SuffolkCounty News, April 25, 1930, p. 7. 7. SuffolkCounty News, April 25, 1930, p. 7; Bart Bing, "Sayville Religious Teaching Draws Big Crowds," Island News, Oct. 1, 1931, reprinted in New Day, June 15, 1974, pp. 18-20. See also Watts, God, Harlem U.S.A.,chap. 4. 8. New Day, July 27, 1974, p. 17; Aug. 24, 1974, p. 17; SuffolkCounty News, June 10, 1932, p. 1; New YorkAmsterdam News, June 8, 1932, p. 8; Nassau Daily Review,June 9, 1932, reprinted in New Day, Aug. 31, 1974, p. 17; Negro World, June 18, 1932, pp. 1, 2. 9. New Day, Aug. 9, 1974, pp. 17-20; Aug. 17, 1974, p. 18; New YorkAmster- dam News, March 30, 1932, p. 11; BaltimoreAfro-American, July 9, 1932, p. 1. 10. Interview with Hezekiah Craig, Aug. 27, 1986, Feb. 3, 1987, Los Ange- les, California.

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from all economic sectors of black Los Angeles-ranging fromsingle working-class mothers who struggledagainst great hardships to provide for their families,to prosperous attorneys like Hugh MacBeth,who liberallyinvested in land development projects." How was Alexander able to make FatherDivine's philosophy appealing to such diverse segmentsof southernCalifor- nia's African-Americanpopulation? Clearly the relief and employmentthat he provided lured many,but much of the attractionderived from Father Divine's New Thought ori- ented teachings.New Thought had already made significant headway into the black communitythrough such denomina- tions as the Unity School and the Holiness Church. Unity School, based in Kansas City,had spread to African-American neighborhoods throughoutthe nation as had the Holiness sects with their mind power doctrines similar to Father Divine's version of New Thought. Many of Father Divine's African-Americandisciples were convertsfrom Unity, Holi- ness churches,and other like-mindedgroups.12 Marcus Garvey's UNIA had also spread New Thought to African Americans. On the surface the philosophy of the separatist UNIA clashed with the integrationistPeace Mis- sion Movement. Yet the core ideologies of the two organizations were strikinglysimilar. Both FatherDivine and Marcus Garvey championed capitalism,encouraging blacks to open businesses,and both also shared a faithin the power of New Thought. According to Garvey, mind power and positive thinkingencouraged racial uplift and were powerfulweap- ons againstwhite oppression. Garvey's UNIA paper,the Negro World,frequently ran advertisementsand articles on Unity, Rosicrucianism,spiritualism, and the power of positivethink- ing. In FatherDivine, such prominentex-Garveyites as Hugh MacBeth and Carlotta Bass, who edited the CaliforniaEagle, discovered a leader who had risen above racial and economic

11. Lang, Who's Who,167. 12. New Day, July 13, 1974, p. 17; Benjamin Mays and Joseph W. Nicholson, The Negro's Church (New York, 1933), 222; Faithful Mary, "God," He's Justa Natural Man (New York, 1937), 8.

This content downloaded from 66.31.143.47 on Wed, 22 Oct 2014 20:40:10 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions FatherDivine in Los Angeles 481 barriers and seemingly achieved the success promised by New Thought'3 Father Divine's advocacy of New Thought carried powerful messages that spoke directly to the needs of black Angelenos. By utilizingmind power and achieving oneness with God, anyone, regardless of race, had the potential to achieve spiritual and social equality.African Americans possessed just as much divinityas whitesand, by applying positive thinking, could overcome oppression and reap the benefitsof American capitalism. Father Divine's theology, which linked salvation withwealth, encouraged black followers to participate fully in the economic arena. Like their counterpartsin the East, Los Angeles devotees pooled their capital and labor to open joint business endeavors. There was more to FatherDivine's message,however. He demanded that followersaspire not only to material success but also to civil rights.Without directly mentioning race, he promoted the notion that God was black, which inspired pride among African Americans. The Peace Mission Movement's attack on racism appealed to black Angelenos who daily endured the stingof discrimination.Overall the Peace Mission Move- ment in Los Angeles promoted a sense of self-mastery,confi- dence, and controlover one's destiny,and provided an outlet forAfrican-American protest against white bigotry.14 Though the movementin Los Angeles throughout1932 remained confined to the African-American community, Father Divine by this time had recruitedseveral white West Coast followers dedicated to spreading his teachings. The most valuable of these new disciples was formerChristian Science practitionerHenry Joernsof Seattle.Since 1929Joerns had published the MetaphysicalNews, a weekly that carried messages from popular New Thought leaders, updates on various metaphysicalorganizations, and a national directory

13. NegroWorld, June 6, 1932,p. 2; June 18, 1932,pp. 1, 2; Dec. 12, 1931, p. 2; July2, 1932,pp. 1,2; Oct. 17,1933, pp. 2, 6; interviewwith Hezekiah Craig, Aug. 24, 1987,Los Angeles; RobertHill and BarbaraBair, eds., Marcus Garvey: Lifeand Lessons (Berkeley, 1987), iii-iv; Tolbert, UNIA, 31, 51. 14. Advertisementsin SpokenWord, 1934-1937.

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of "Truth Centers."In early December 1931,Joerns received a letterfrom one of FatherDivine's secretariesdescribing the Sayville arrest,and in March 1932 he began to reprintpor- tionsof the clergyman'smessages. The MetaphysicalNews may have reached readers across the nation but primarilycircu- lated in Washington,Oregon, and California. Most likely, some issues appeared in the Los Angeles area familiarizing membersof the whitemetaphysical community with the plight and theologyof Father Divine.15 In late 1932,two of Joerns'swhite colleagues, Thomas J. Hampton of San Franciscoand Ross Humble of Seattle,made a pilgrimage to Harlem to meet Father Divine. The clergyman's engaging preaching captivated both men, who, like Joerns, were also former Christian Science Practitioners. Hampton and Humble now hit the lecture circuiton Father Divine's behalf,racing around the countryspeaking to various white New Thought and metaphysicalalliances and suc- cessfullystirring interest among whiteAmericans.'6 Due to their effortsthe Peace Mission Movement began spreading into whitecommunities. Father Divine's teachings also continued to travel through literarychannels and in addition to the MetaphysicalNews, white Angelenos in 1932 and 1933 may have also learned of his activities through Joerns'spamphlet "Father"Divine: The Essenceof His Message to the Worldor in Reverend Albert C. Grier's FatherDivine: An Interpretationwith Appreciations and Comments,printed in Santa Barbara. Probably familiarized with Father Divine throughthese sources,in early 1933,a Beverly Hills matron, identifiedonly as "Sister Betty,"held the firstwhite Peace Mission meetings in her home, which became known as a "Father Divine Shrine." Shortly afterward,Ross Humble swungthrough Los Angeles and delivered a series of lectures that "filled one of the largest auditoriums" in the city. In- spired by Humble, another local resident organized public

15. The MetaphysicalNews contained a directory of "Truth Centers," most of the listings located in California and the Pacific Northwest. Metaphysical News, March 16, 1932, pp. 1, 3, 7; LeWarne, "Vendovi Island," 2-12. 16. MetaphysicalNews, July 20, 1932, p. 1; Nov. 9, 1932, p. 1; Dec. 7, 1932, p. 2; Jan. 18, 1933, p. 5; LeWarne, "Vendovi Island," 2-12.

This content downloaded from 66.31.143.47 on Wed, 22 Oct 2014 20:40:10 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Father Divine in Los Angeles 483 meetings and soon Peace Mission gatheringswere drawing over a hundred worshipperseach nightof the week.17 In contrastto the disseminationof Father Divine's theology to black Angelenos through Peace Missions and social relief,his teachings reached the white communitythrough publications and lectures that attracted literate, well edu- cated, and financiallysecure adherents.Among the affluent whiteswho followed"Sister Betty" into the fold was Florence Wuest Hunt, a formerChristian Scientistand heiress to a dairy fortune.She and several other prosperous Angelenos financedPeace Mission reliefhomes, dormitories,businesses, and auditoriums.With such support,the Los Angeles wing of the Peace Mission Movement progressed rapidly. Black and white devotees joined in numerous business endeavors and many disciples moved into racially mixed hostels. By the spring of 1935, there were eighteen branches of the Peace Mission Movement in California,second in number only to those in Father Divine's home base in New York state. The majority of the branches in California were located in and around Los Angeles County, establishing this area as the strongholdof the movementin the West.'8 While de factosegregation divided Peace Mission congre- gationsin severaloutposts isolated from Father Divine's super- vision,black and whitefollowers in Los Angeles determinedly worked to surmountracial barriers.Their most strikingvic- torycame withthe purchase of the Dunbar Hotel. Built by a black dentistin 1928,the Dunbar was one of the firsthotels in Los Angeles to accommodateAfrican Americans. In the summer of 1934, disciples transformedthis showplace into an interracial Peace Mission colony. The one-hundred room hotel became a home and hostel where black and white followers labored, worshiped, and lived together.The elegant

17. SpokenWord, Aug. 15, 1936,pp. 26-27;Oct. 13, 1936,p. 21; True Idea Association, "Father"Divine: The Essence of His Message to the World (Seattle, n.d.); Albert C. Grier et al., FatherDivine: An Interpretationwith Appreciations and Comments(Santa Barbara,n.d.); MetaphysicalNews, Oct. 5, 1932,p. 2; Jan. 18, 1933,p. 2; April 19, 1933,p. 5; NewDay, Oct. 20, 1938,p. 100. 18. FBI FatherDivine file31-46627: Florence W. Hunt file87-27, March 27,1937, pp. 1-5;Spoken Word, Nov. 3, 1934,pp. 6, 21; Nov. 10, 1934,p. 4; April 20, 1935,p. 21; Aug. 15, 1936,pp. 26-27;Oct. 13, 1936,p. 21.

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facilityprovided a large dining room for Holy Communion Banquets and officespace to house Peace Mission activities.19 In October 1934, disciples at the Dunbar published the firstissue of the Spoken Word:The PositiveMagazine, printed by the local AfricanAmerican newspaper,the CaliforniaEagle. Although the SpokenWord was explicitlynot Father Divine's officialorgan, the magazine vigorouslypromoted the minister's teachings. The letters"A.D.FD." followed the date on each copy,signifying "anno domini FatherDivine." The front page carried a pictureof the Peace Mission's founderand the caption: "AND GOD SAID: LET THERE BE LIGHT AND THERE WAS LIGHT-AND GOD SAW THE LIGHT THAT IT WAS GOOD-AND THE WORD WAS WITH GOD AND THE WORD WAS GOD-AND THE WORD WAS MADE FLESH."20 The obvious implication: Father Divine was God. Although Father Divine's messages domi- nated the publication, editors also included Peace Mission news and hymns dedicated to their leader, articles on sci- entific curiosities, positive thinking,and religious affairs. Advertisementsfor businesses and products were scattered throughout,many ending with"I Thank You Father"printed in bold type.21 The Spoken Wordwas an importantcontribution to the Peace Mission Movement, for previous journalistic endeavors by followersin othercities had eitherfolded or ran inter- mittently.The Spoken Wordappeared regularlyand reached a national audience, expanding its circulationfrom 5,000 to 10,000within the firstsix monthsof publication. In this way, the Los Angeles branchplayed a significantrole in spreading Father Divine's teachings nationwide and greatly influenc- ing the directionof the Peace Mission Movement.22 The editorial staffconceived of the Spoken Wordas a

19. WorldEcho, Feb. 3, 1934,p. 3; FBI FatherDivine file31-46627: Delight Jewettdeposition, March 22, 1937; SpokenWord, Oct. 20, 1934,p. 6; Aug. 15, 1936,p. 26; Los AngelesTimes, Aug. 23, 1987,pt. II, pp. 1-2. 20. See frontpage of the SpokenWord, 1934-1037. Spoken Word, Oct. 20, 1934,p. 6; Nov. 10, 1934,p. 13; Aug. 25, 1936,p. 23; Veri Sweeteto JillWatts, March 7, 1983. 21. Spoken Word,1934-1937. 22. SpokenWord, Aug. 25, 1936,pp. 23-24.

This content downloaded from 66.31.143.47 on Wed, 22 Oct 2014 20:40:10 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions FatherDivine in Los Angeles 485 political as well as religious paper dedicated to "liberal truth and thought"and to providing coverage of local, state,and national news.23There were featurearticles on race relations and in supportof anti-lynchinglegislation, and criticalassess- ments of the social, political, and economic climate of the depression-ridden United States. Frequently,the paper at- tacked Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal; one editor asked "If man can imagine a dole systemand give it being, why can't men envision a cooperative state where wealth is created forthe use and not forhoarding?" During local and statecampaigns, the SpokenWord served as a forumfor political debate, and many candidates advertisedin its pages.24 It is not surprisingthat Californian followers exhibited a preoccupation with politics. During the depression Califor- nia was a hotbed of political activismand produced outspo- ken advocatesof alternativesto the New Deal. Many of Father Divine's followers in Los Angeles, including some on the staffof theSpoken Word, supported the TownsendPlan's efforts to prime the economy with pension money garnered from increased taxes levied on businesses.Even more popular was Upton Sinclair's EPIC program that called for government purchase of closed factoriesand fallowfarmland for transfor- mation into collective enterprisesoperated by unemployed Americans. Several influentialmembers of the Los Angeles flockwere active members of the Utopian Society of Amer- ica, an interracial and "semi-secret"political alliance that agitated for more job opportunitiesand the equal distribution of national wealth among all Americans.25 Though Father Divine advocated collectivism,he also maintainedrespect for capitalism and the Americaneconomic system.Despite its militantring, the Spoken Worddeviated little from Father Divine's social, political, and economic pronouncements.Like Father Divine, the editorsenvisioned

23. Ibid.,May 4, 1935,p. 15; Aug. 18, 1936,p. 15. 24. Ibid.,May 20, 1935,p. 12; Aug. 18, 1936,pp. 23-24. 25. William E. Leuchtenburg, FranklinD. Rooseveltand theNew Deal (New York, 1963), 103-115; Newton Van Dalsem, History of the Utopian Society(Los Angeles,1942); UtopianNews, Sept. 13, 1934,pp. 2, 8; Feb. 18, 1935,p. 3; Spoken Word,Oct. 20, 1934,pp. 3, 4; June29, 1935,p. 4; April 7, 1936,p. 5; Aug. 25, 1936,p. 24.

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a statebased on competitivecollective enterprise where work- ers labored in cooperatives and evenly divided the profits. Using language directlylifted from Utopian Society literature, a commentatorin one issue called for a "share of the opportunity"over a "share of the wealth."26The staffdid not reject capitalism,but called fora renovationof the American economic system: "Rugged individualism"of the super greed type,(the present brand of capitalism),is dying;the rewardof everyman according to his severalabilities and the functionof hiring a man may conceivablyfind a place in the new state. Capitalism,in its inherentsense, should not be confusedwith stiflingspecial privilege. The editors believed that if lawmakersrepealed legislation that favored the elite and promoted racism,the standard of living for all Americans would rise throughunfettered com- petitionand hard work.27 During this era of scarcity,Father Divine's promise of prosperityand his approval ofcapitalism possessed a magnetic appeal to some whites as well as blacks in Los Angeles. He encouraged followersto undertakebusiness ventures, a prop- osition thatseemed incrediblegiven the economic constraints of the depression, but his own opulent lifestyle,enormous homes, and expensive cars seemed to testifyto the success of mind power.His image and teachingsattracted not only many followerssearching to improve theireconomic statusbut also some disciples attemptingto rationalize their wealth in the midst of widespread poverty.He successfullycriticized the state of the economy withoutundermining popular faithin the American system.As one Los Angeles followerobserved: "We never suspected that we would have 'business' in the Kingdom of Heaven, but truebusiness is just beginning in a wonderfulway. For the activityof God is practical and not mystical."28

26. Spoken Word,June 29, 1935, p. 4; Van Dalsem, Historyof the Utopian Society,10, 11-19; Weisbrot, FatherDivine, 66; Watts, God, Harlem U.S.A.,chap. 7. 27. Spoken Word,June 29, 1935, p. 4. 28. Spoken Word,Aug. 22, 1936, p. 29.

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FatherDivine's teachingsalso appealed to thosewho expe- rienced discriminationbecause of their gender. Most of his Angeleno followers,like those in other parts of the nation, were women. His teachings invited female followersto participate in the public sphere, and with his blessing these women enthusiasticallyopened up businesses.Both black and white women in Los Angeles believed that Father Divine's teachingsfacilitated their struggle against inequality and for independencefrom unfair family burdens. For example,while he demanded that mothers assume responsibilityfor child rearing, he insisted that maternal obligations ended when offspringreached adulthood. Though his celibacy require- ment broke up marriages, for many women, especially the poor who were denied proper medical care, sexual absti- nence protectedthem from the dangers of childbirth.29 A characteristicof many whiteAngeleno male as well as femalefollowers was theirpast associationwith New Thought sects. Since the late nineteenthcentury, southern California had hosted a varietyof New Thought and metaphysicalsoci- eties popular among whites. During the depression, these groups (Theosophy, Rosicrucianism,the Vendanta Society, the Church of Religious Science, ChristianScience, the Unity School, and others) thrivedin Los Angeles. The abundance of religious alternativesin the cityfascinated southern Cali- forniajournalist Carey McWilliams, who suggested that the presence of a large migrantpopulation stimulatedthe forma- tion of new faiths. McWilliams also contended that New Thought's healing doctrinelured the infirmand elderly who had been drawn to Los Angeles by the promise of a mild climate and warm weather.30Similar forces probably drew Angelenos from all sectors of the community to Father Divine's version of New Thought.

29. New Day, Aug. 13, 1974, p. 18; Reverend M. J. Divine, A Treatiseon OverpopulationTaken from Interviews, Sermons and Lecturesof Father Divine (Phil- adelphia, 1967), 1. 30. Carey McWilliams, SouthernCalifornia Country, An Island on the Land (New York, 1946), 249-313; Gregory Singleton, Religion in the City of Angels: American ProtestantCulture and Urbanization,Los Angeles (Ann Arbor, 1979), 159-171; Braden, Spiritsin Rebellion,261-298.

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NewThought provided a bridgefor the crossover between theUtopian society and thePeace MissionMovement. Father Divine offeredUtopians not only a compatiblepolitical out- look butalso a familiartheological orientation. The society's newspaper,the UtopianNews, featured a columndedicated to Theosophy,Christian Science, and othervariants of New Thought.In one articlea Utopianeditor commented, "many Theosophistsare Utopiansand theUtopian Movement obvi- ously objectifiesthe theosophicalpredictions and expecta- tions,"implying that some Utopians maintained ties to many NewThought sects thriving in Los Angeles.31Therefore, even a politicalorganization like the Utopian Societyembraced New Thoughtand furnishedits members with a foundation forthe potential acceptance of Father Divine's theology.32 To a degree,the Los Angelescongregations resembled theircounterparts in the East. A majorityof the African- Americanand Euro-Americanfollowers living withinthe vicinityof FatherDivine's headquartersalso had previous ties to New Thought. Yet importantdistinctions existed betweenthe Los Angelesbranches and thosein and around Harlem. In 1933Ross Humble told theNew YorkTimes that themovement in Californiahad a higherpercentage of white followers,probably resulting from the manner in whichFather Divine's teachingsspread west.However, the mostcritical distinctionthat existed between the Los Angelesand theNew York wingswas the intensepoliticization displayed by the Californiamembership. This probablydeveloped in part becauseof thepresence of the largenumber of white followers who, unlike manyof theirblack comrades,had never sufferedfrom disfranchisement and had alwaysparticipated fullyin the electoralprocess. During the earlyyears of the depressionFather Divine and his followersin the East ex- pressedonly secondaryinterest in politicalaction, Father Divine remarkingduring one appearance,"Now I am nota politician.I don'twant you to makeme that."In New York,

31. UtopianNews, Dec. 27, 1934, p. 11; Dec. 27, 1934, p. 7; Jan. 14, 1935, p. 8; Van Dalsem, Historyof the Utopian,24-35. 32. FBI Father Divine file 31-46627: Florence W. Hunt file 87-27, March 27, 1937; John Wuest Hunt file 31-3418,April 30, 1937: depositions by Elizabeth Peters and Agnes Gardner, 2-9; New Day, July 9, 1936, p. 12.

This content downloaded from 66.31.143.47 on Wed, 22 Oct 2014 20:40:10 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Father Divine in Los Angeles 489 after1933, probably due to the presence of formerGarveyites within the Peace Mission membershipand the movement's association with several civil rights activist organizations, Father Divine's pronouncementson worldlyaffairs began to increase.But his blueprintfor secular change remainedvague and grounded in a sacred vision of America.33 The staffof the Spoken Wordsuccessfully transformed Father Divine's theology into a structuredprogram calling for the revitalizationof America. Los Angeles followersini- tiated political forums that attracted local activists,office seekers, and elected officials.Striving to promote political awareness and participation,these meetings oftenincluded lectures on American historyand government.In the summer of 1935,the Spoken Wordrelocated to New York "where firsthandnews of FatherDivine and his movementwas more available." The move not only brought the editorial staff closer to theirleader, but also incorporatedthe highlypoliti- cized Californian disciples into the leadership of the Peace Mission Movement. The integrationof the Spoken Word's editorsand writersinto the hierarchyaltered the movement's approach to secular reform.34 The Spoken Word'sstaff arrived in Harlem to find that their co-religionistshad launched a voter registrationdrive. The Angelenos moved quicklyto harnessthis growing political awareness. Father Divine's previous policy had been to offerpiecemeal support to outside groups that pressed for changes compatible with Peace Mission philosophy. Under the influenceof the disciples fromthe West Coast, however, the Peace Mission required endorsements and conformity from the organizations that had earlier enjoyed the Peace Mission's allegiance. Placing the Peace Mission's agenda at the center,the Angeleno disciples thrustFather Divine into the most politically active phase of his career.35 Nowhere could the politicalizing influence of the Los

33. New YorkNews, Oct. 8, 1932, p. 3; New YorkTimes, Nov. 7, 1933, p. 18; Watts, God, Harlem US.A., chap. 6; Weisbrot, FatherDivine, 145-152. 34. Spoken Word,Aug. 25, 1935, p. 24; May 4, 1934, p. 11; New YorkTimes, May 2, 1935, p. 3; May 3, 1935, p. 18. 35. SuffolkCounty News, July 5, 1935, pp. 1, 8; Aug. 7, 1935, pp. 1, 8; New YorkTimes, July 2, 1935, p. 46; Nov. 5, 1935, p. 2; Dec. 8, 1935, pt. II, p. 9.

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Angeles members be more clearly seen than in the Interna- tional Righteousness Government Convention. A commit- tee, which included several Californiansand the staffof the SpokenWord, organized the three-dayaffair held in New York at the beginning of the election year of 1936. Five thousand delegates from across the country and around the world attended the conventionand heard speeches fromcandidates forlocal office,community leaders, and representativesfrom the national parties. The major purpose of the convention was to transformFather Divine's teachings into a political program. The resultingplatform directly reflected the inspi- ration of the Los Angeles members.The documentcalled for the desegregationof American societyand, echoing the Uto- pian Society,for "EQUAL DISTRIBUTION OF OPPOR- TUNITY; a chance forevery man; plentyof workwith good wages; prices reduced to a minimum." It also contained a plea, reflectingthe influenceof EPIC, forgovernment acquisition of idle factoriesand farmsto be allocated to the unemployed who would operate them collectively.The platform received the approval of the conventiondelegates, and Father Divine pledged to support any presidentialcandidate whose party endorsed the document. Following the practice initi- ated in Los Angeles, Peace Missions across the nation sponsored forumsanticipating the acceptance of their credo by the major political parties.36 By the summer of 1936, none of those acceptances had been obtained. In desperation,Angelenos staged a statecon- vention hoping to accelerate approval of the document.The organizingcommittee faced stiffresistance from many in Los Angeles. City officialsrefused to process the Peace Mission's parade permit. The local white clergy launched a drive to block a meetingscheduled forthe Hollywood Bowl, one min- isteralleging thatthe Peace Mission Movement was a Soviet puppet.37 The Californian disciples succeeded in holding the convention as well as a mass meeting in the Hollywood Bowl.

36. Spoken Word,Jan. 14, 1936, pp. 1-29; New YorkAge, Jan. 18, 1936, p. 1. 37. Spoken Word,Aug. 1, 1936, pp. 15, 18; Aug. 15, 1936, pp. 11-15; Sept. 12, 1936, p. 21; CaliforniaEagle, July 17, 1936, p. 1.

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For three days in midsummer,five thousand followersand sympathizersconverged on Los Angeles and participatedin a varietyof events that culminated with a Hollywood Bowl meeting at which master of ceremonies Hugh MacBeth warned: "if you thinkthat the thingyou are fightingis ordinary maudlin religious frenzyfounded upon ignorance,you are due for an awakening."Following MacBeth's remarks,a variety of dignitaries and political activists addressed the delegates. A majorityof the speakers representedthe liberal sector of California's political community.Robert Noble, a radio personalitywho had previouslyled California'sfollow- ers of Huey Long, called for an anti-lynchingbill. Noted pro-labor lawyer Leo Gallagher scolded public officialsfor ignoringthe needs of common people. Representativesfrom the Women's International League of Peace, the American League against War and Fascism, and the CommunistParty also addressed the convention.From each speaker,MacBeth elicited full support forthe Peace Mission Movement'splatform.Despite thoseendorsements, the nationalparties refused to give their approval, promptingFather Divine to instruct his followersto stayhome on electionday in November1936.38 Father Divine's inabilityto influencethe 1936 campaign underminedhis public image,but nothingproved more dam- aging thanthe scandals associatedwith the movement.Among the mostembarrassing episodes was one involvingJohn Wuest Hunt, son of Florence Hunt, and a man who had risen into the highest ranks. Known as "John the Revelator," he had personally presentedthe movement'splatform to the Demo- craticNational Convention in the summerof 1936.An adver- tising executive, he had assisted in the publication of the SpokenWord, produced Peace Mission literature,coordinated publicity for the movement'sCalifornia convention,filmed the proceedings of the movement'sconvention in New York in 1936 and then toured the nation, screening the film for Peace Mission audiences.39

38. Spoken Word,Aug. 15, 1936, pp. 7-16; July 21, 1936, p. 26; New York Times,Nov. 6, 1936, p. 20. 39. FBI Father Divine file 31-46627: Delight Jewettdeposition, March 22, 1937, 3-13; Florence Wuest Hunt file 87-27,March 27, 1937: Reta Reynolds alias

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Before his conversion, Hunt's life had been filled with hedonismand self-indulgence,and at Peace Mission Banquets he openlyconfessed battling alcoholism, an insatiablesex drive, and venereal disease. Gregarious, rich, and flamboyant,he possessedengaging oratory skills that spellbound his audiences. His conversion offereda strikingdemonstration of Father Divine's spiritual talents. Soon John Wuest Hunt began to believe that his spiritual development outdistanced that of his fellowdisciples. And he was not alone in thatconclusion.4" In November of 1936, some sixty members of the Los Angeles Peace Mission Movementcongregated in Hunt's Bev- erly Hills home for a routine Holy Communion Banquet. Suddenly he claimed "vibrations"had seized him, and he fell to the floor."Then," he recalled,"about twentypeople around me got the vibrations and prettysoon they were all laying around, yelling 'The Lord! Shiloh! It's the second coming."' He retreatedto an upstairsbedroom, and when he emerged a half-hourlater, the throngbegan to worshiphim. From the staircase, the Beverly Hills millionaire flung over $10,000 and watched happily as his guests quickly gathered it up.41 Word of Hunt's spectacular devotionals spread, and on sub- sequent evenings over two hundred people gathered at his home. Finally, his incensed neighbors alerted the authori- ties who arrested him. Despite adroit counsel from Hugh MacBeth, he was convictedof disturbingthe peace.42 Surrounded by a band of followerswho now hailed him as "Jesusthe Christ,"in December 1936John set out on a tour of Peace Missions in his Packard, known as the "Golden Chariot."43In Denver he preachedto an audience thatincluded

Quiet Devotion deposition,1-3; John Wuest Hunt file31-3709, April 8, 1937; CaliforniaEagle, Dec. 19, 1936, p. 3; Los Angeles Times,June 26, 1937, pp. 1, 2; June30, 1937,pp. 1, 7; SpokenWord, Jan. 14, 1936,p. 6; May 26, 1936,pp. 3, 28; Aug. 1, 1936,pp. 10-13;Sept. 5, 1936,p. 15,New Day, May 28, 1936,p. 2. 40. FBI Father Divine file 31-46627:John Wuest Hunt to Alpha Tau Omega Fraternity,Feb. 6, 1936;Delight Jewett deposition, March 22, 1937,3-13; CaliforniaEagle, Dec. 19, 1936, p. 3; Los Angeles Times,June 26, 1937,pp. 1, 2. 41. Los Angeles Times,June 30, pp. 1, 7; June 26, 1937, pp. 1, 3; California Eagle,Dec. 19, 1936,p. 3. 42. Los Angeles Times,June 30, pp. 1, 7; June 26, 1937, pp. 1, 3; California Eagle,Dec. 19, 1936,p. 3. 43. SpokenWord, Dec. 19, 1936,pp. 3-5; FBI FatherDivine file31-46627: JohnWuest Hunt file31-3789, April 8, 1937.

This content downloaded from 66.31.143.47 on Wed, 22 Oct 2014 20:40:10 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Father Divine in Los Angeles 493 a seventeen-year-oldnamed Delight Jewett.Later he took the young woman on a shopping spree and for a ride in his car, during which she reportedlyspoke in tongues. Whether or not the Revelator obtained her parents' permission is unclear, but one night the Beverly Hills residentsped away fromDenver withDelight at his side.44 On the trip home to California, John the Revelator renamed the high school studentthe "Virgin Mary" because of her natural spiritualityand holy powers.45Upon arrival in Beverly Hills, Hunt initiatedsexual relations withthe teen- ager and cabled Father Divine a triumphantmessage read- ing, "What God has put together,let no man put asunder."46 John the Revelator then packed Delight into his car and traveled to Father Divine's Harlem headquarters. Father Divine immediatelyreprimanded and separated the couple, sending Delight to a collectivefarm in Kingston,New York.47 Franticwith worry,Delight's parents,Lee and Elizabeth Jewett,journeyed to Harlem in search of their daughter. Father Divine graciously received the couple, helped them locate Delight, and invited the familyto stay at Kingston.48 When the Jewett'srequest for a monetary settlementfor damage inflictedon Delight was refused,the familyfled to New York and offeredDelight's storyto the highestbidder. William Randolph Hearst's New YorkEvening Journal, a long- time foe of the Peace Mission Movement, jumped at the opportunity.The paper provided Delight witha lawyerand

44. FBI Father Divine file 31-46627: John Wuest Hunt file 31-3418, April 30, 1937, depositions by Elizabeth Peters and Agnes Gardner, 2-9; John Wuest Hunt file 31-37889, April 5, 1937: H. B. Smith deposition, 2-5; John Wuest Hunt file 31-3418, May 23, 1937, Richard Peters deposition, 2-5; Delight Jewett deposition, March 22, 1937, 3-13; Spoken Word,Aug. 1, 1936, p. 15; Los Angeles Times,June 30, 1937,pp. 1, 7; June 26, 1937, p. 3. 45. Los Angeles Times, June 24, 1937, pp. 1, 3; FBI Father Divine file 31-46627: Delight Jewettdeposition, March 22, 1937, 5; John Wuest Hunt file 31-3789, April 8, 1937. 46. Los Angeles Times,June 23, 1937, p. 3; FBI Father Divine file 31-46627: Delight Jewettdeposition, March 22, 1937,p. 6. 47. Spoken Word,Dec. 29, 1936, p. 7; Los Angeles Times,June 30, 1937,pp. 1, 7; FBI Father Divine file 31-46627: Delight Jewettdeposition, March 22, 1937, pp. 7, 9; Whitley to Director, March 30, 1937,p. 2. 48. FBI clipping file on Father Divine 31-46627-A: New York Evening Journal,April 5, 1937; FBI Father Divine file 31-46627: Delight Jewettdeposi- tion, March 22, 1937, p. 7.

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promised to pay Lee Jewetta hundred dollars a week until the case was resolved.49 In late March 1937 the authoritiesarrested John Wuest Hunt and charged him with a violation of the Mann Act, whichprohibits the transportationof minorsacross statelines for sexual purposes." The resultingtrial contained periods of levity as Delight testifiedthat "Mr. Hunt was Jesus the Christ. I was the Virgin Mary and I was to have my New Redeemer in Honolulu." However, the courtroomgrew sol- emn as Delight tearfullydescribed being raped and stated her desire to expose Father Divine's cult in order to prevent othersfrom suffering a similar fate.51 Once on the witness stand, Hunt franklyadmitted his guilt. Hugh MacBeth explained to the shocked courtroom thatFather Divine demanded honestyfrom his followersand had instructedhis disciple to confess.In turn,the jury found Hunt guilty and the judge sentenced him to three years in prison. Some speculated thatFather Divine would inflictmis- fortuneon the judge; however,the ministerpublicly praised the judge's decision. In a letter to Hunt, Father Divine observed that it was "a consolation to know that the court's sentence was not as severe as it might have been and that it was lenient by My Spiritwith Mercy and Compassion."52 While the Peace Mission Movement had withstoodear- lier accusations of sexual impropriety,the Hunt/Jewettcase brought the issue to the forefrontand rendered the move- mentmore vulnerable to opposition. Throughout 1937,there were additional blows as internal dissension became public news and a numberof disgruntledformer followers filed suits alleging thatFather Divine had absconded withtheir money. Surprisingly,in an era of intense racism, the movement appeared to be immune to internal racial divisions; strife

49. FBI clipping file on Father Divine 31-46627-A:New YorkEveningJournal April 5, 1937; FBI Father Divine file 31-46627: John Wuest Hunt file 31-3418, April 23, 1937,pp. 2-3; Delight Jewettdeposition, March 22, 1937,pp. 9-10. 50. Los Angeles Times,June 30, 1937, pp. 1, 7; LiteraryDigest (May 1937), 6-7; New YorkTimes, April 3, 1937,p. 16. 51. FBI clipping file on Father Divine 31-46627-A: BrooklynDaily Eagle, June 24, 1937; New YorkPost, June 24, 1937; Los Angeles Times, June 24, 1937, pp. 1, 3. 52. Los Angeles Times,July 2, 1937,p. 3; June 30, 1937,pp. 1, 2.

This content downloaded from 66.31.143.47 on Wed, 22 Oct 2014 20:40:10 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Father Divine in Los Angeles 495 emerged primarilyover personal and financial issues. The Hearst papers exploited these conflictsand withthe support of otherenemies of the Peace Mission Movement,both black and white,assailed the organizationin the courts.53 None of the scandals of 1937 seriouslyeroded the size of the Peace Mission Movement or the credibilityof Father Divine among the faithful.The controversiesnonetheless forcedFather Divine and his advisorsto restructurethe movement.They encouraged followersto relocate to the East so as to be closer to their leader. Gathering disciples in a concen- trated area allowed Father Divine to exert more authority over his flock. At the same time it drained the leadership fromPeace Mission outpostsand led to a decline in regions outside of New York, even in a strongholdlike Los Angeles County. In reorganizing the movement, however, Father Divine drew upon practice established in the West. Califor- nians had created an order of young women who followed strictvows and were knownas the Rosebuds. Impressed with the discipline of the Rosebuds, FatherDivine institutedthree regimentedorders withinthe Peace Mission, each with spe- cificcreeds, duties, and uniforms.Members were encouraged to strive for admission to the orders which became Father Divine's inner circle. This move strengthenedinternal cohe- siveness,but also made sharperthe demarcationbetween sup- porters and followers.As a result,those who existed on the fringeof the movementand had comprisedthe bulk of Father Divine's congregationsfelt less comfortableat Peace Mission functionsand began to driftaway. Furthermore, to protectits financial affairs,the movement incorporated all businesses and missions under three churcheswith John Wuest Hunt's brother,John Devoute, as president of the firstand most powerful church. This restructuringrobbed the movement of much of its flexibility,for previously any followercould open a Peace Mission, but now permission fromone of the parent organizationswas required.54

53. New YorkTimes, April 22, 1937,p. 1; April23, 1937,p. 1; April25, 1937, p. 1; FBI clippingfile on FatherDivine 31-46627-A;Literary Digest (May 1937), 6-7; Time(May 3, 1937),63; FaithfulMary, "God, "81-96. 54. Watts, God, Harlem US.A., chap. 8; New Day, May 28, 1937, p. 2; Oct. 20, 1938,p. 2; Oct. 10, 1941,p. 97; Feb. 20, 1941,p. 1; Dec. 4, 1941,pp. 115-

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While these changes helped make the movementless vulnerable to scandal, they also made it less accessible to the public. In Los Angeles County,the movementpeaked in 1936 and 1937,with thirteen active branchesoperating in the area. During these years Los Angeles County remained home to the Peace Mission's largestwing outside of New York. While the movementdid not maintainmembership rolls, the loss of memberssoon became apparent.By 1938the numberof Peace Missions in the county had declined to eight, an indication that the movement had already begun to sufferfrom the effectsof reorganization.Additionally, as the depressioncame to a close and the American economyrebounded, fewerpeo- ple needed the reliefoffered by Los Angeles Peace Missions. Nevertheless,the Peace Mission Movement remained active in the Los Angeles area and continuedto hold Holy Commu- nion Banquets until 1983.55 Yet in the heyday of the 1930s,Father Divine's version of New Thought carried a special appeal to Angelenos, for he provided a timelytheology to people confrontingthe uncer- taintiesof the Great Depression. Mind power promised that all Americans could become successfuland take control of theirdestiny. The power of positive thinkingallowed Ameri- cans confrontingthe economic crisis and inequalities in society to combat feelingsof helplessness in an unstable society and economy.He extended hope to the poor and justifiedthe acquisition ofwealth by the rich. He encouraged his disciples to strive for a better America, free of racism and poverty. At the California convention in 1936 Hugh MacBeth spoke passionately of the promise made by Father Divine to his Angeleno followers: "Father Divine insists on that highest intelligence,upon the highestin science,and upon the finest and best of everythingfor all people."56

117; Aug. 27, 1942, p. 22; New York Times, Aug. 21, 1937, p. 30; Reverend M. J. Divine, Rosebuds,Lilybuds, Crusaders, Creeds (Philadelphia, n.d.); Mrs. M. J. Divine, The Peace MissionMovement (Philadelphia, 1982), 26-27,32; FBI Father Divine file 62-32932 vol. 3: Affidavit,name censored, n.d. 55. See the back covers of Spoken Word,1934-1937, and New Day, 1936-1940; Happy Word to Jill Watts, Feb. 22, 1983. 56. Spoken Word,Aug. 15, 1936, p. 15.

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