TRIBHUVAN UNIVERSITY

DESCRIPTION OF ASOKAN STUPAS OF PATAN

A Thesis Submitted to Central Department of Buddhist Studies for the Fulfillment of the Tenth Paper of Master of Arts in Buddhist Studies

Submitted by:

Rashmi Shakya Roll No.: 11 TU Reg. No.: 3-2-23-103-2004 Batch No. 2067/68

Central Department of Buddhist Studies Tribhuvan University Kirtipur, Kathmandu

2017 LETTER OF RECOMMENDATION

This is to certify that Ms. Rashmi Shakya has prepared this dissertation entitled “Description of Asokan Stupas of Patan” for the partial fulfillment of the Tenth paper of Master of Arts in Buddhist Studies under my supervision. She has successfully completed this dissertation by consulting available sources.

I hereby recommend the thesis for approval.

Dr. Milan Ratna Shakya

Thesis Supervisor

Associate Professor

Head of Department

Central Department of Buddhist Studies

Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu Date:

i LETTER OF APPROVAL

This dissertation entitled “Description of Asokan Stupas of Patan” submitted by Ms. Rashmi Shakya has been approved for the partial fulfillment of the tenth paper of Master of Arts in Buddhist Studies.

Evaluation Committee

Associate Professor Dr. Milan Ratna Shakya

(Head of Department/ Head of the Evaluation Committee)

Prof. Nirmal Man Tuladhar

(External Examiner)

Associate Professor Dr. Milan Ratna Shakya

(Thesis Supervisor)

Date:

ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Assoc- Prof. Dr. Milan Ratna Shakya, Head of the Department, Kirtipur for providing me an opportunity to conduct research on the topic “Description of Asokan Stupas of Patan”. I also extend my sincere regards and thanks to him for his valuable guidance and supervision in accomplishment of the study. Without his support, the research would not have been completed.

I am indebted to my uncle Mr. Surendra Kumar Shakya (Secretary of “Asoka Chaitya Nitya Puja Samuha” of Pulchowk stupa), for his motivation to study this course and helping me by giving relevant books to complete the research work. I would like to thank my father Mr. Rup Kumar Shakya, member of “Asoka Chaitya Nitya Puja Samuha” of Pulchowk stupa, for his support and guidance about research.

It is my pleasure and I take this opportunity to thank Ar. Gyanendra Shakya, Er. Ishwor Man Maharjan for helping me in measurement and to prepare drawings of Asokan Stupas of Patan.

At the end, I take this opportunity to thank all my teachers, colleagues, friends, relatives and family members for their moral support in carrying out this study.

Rashmi Shakya

Roll no.: 11

TU Reg. No.: 3-2-23-103-2004 April, 2017

iii MAPS

LALITPUR DISTRICT NEPAL

Pimbahal Asokan Ibahi Stupa Stupa Pulchowk Historic city Stupa boundary

Treta Stupa Lagan Stupa

Map of Historical city of Patan

iv City map of Patan showing the sites of four Asokan Stupas (Gutschow 2011, I:195)

v TABLE OF CONTENTS

LETTER OF RECOMMENDATION ...... i LETTER OF APPROVAL...... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... iii MAPS ...... iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... vi LIST OF FIGURES ...... viii LIST OF PLATES ...... ix CHAPTER-I ...... 1-7 1. Introduction...... 1 1.1 General Background...... 1 1.2 Statement of Problem ...... 2 1.3 Objective of the study...... 3 1.4 Literature Review ...... 3 1.5 Significance of the Study...... 5 1.6 Limitation of Study...... 5 1.7 Research Methodology ...... 5 1.8 Language ...... 7 1.9 Expected outputs...... 7 CHAPTER – II...... 8-21 2.1 Origin and Development of Stupas in Nepal:...... 8 2.2 Types of Buddhist Stupas...... 13 2.3 The Architecture of Mahachaitya ...... 13 2.4 Asoka’s visit to Nepal (Valley) ...... 18 CHAPTER – III ...... 22-46 3. Description of Asokan Stupas of Patan ...... 22 3.1 The Northern Stupa (Yampi / Ibahi Thur) ...... 26 3.1.1 Location ...... 26 3.1.2 Historic Data ...... 27 3.1.3 Architectural features of the Northern Stupa ...... 27 3.1.4 Construction materials used in the Northern Stupa ...... 30 3.2 The Eastern Stupa (Teta Thur)...... 30 vi 3.2.1 Location ...... 30 3.2.2 Historical data ...... 31 3.2.3 Architectural features of the Eastern Stupa ...... 32 3.2.4 Construction materials used in the Eastern Stupa...... 34 3.3 The Southern Stupa (Lagan Thur)...... 34 3.3.1 Location ...... 34 3.3.2 Historic data...... 35 3.3.3 Architectural features of the Southern Stupa ...... 36 3.3.4 Construction materials used in the Southern Stupa ...... 38 3.4 The Western Stupa (Pulchowk Thur)...... 38 3.4.1 Location ...... 38 3.4.2 Historic data...... 39 3.4.3 Architectural features of the Western Stupa ...... 39 3.4.4 Construction materials used in the Western Stupa ...... 41 3.4.5 Group formation for the preservation of the Stupa...... 42 3.4.6 Impact due to Earthquake ...... 42 3.5 The Pimbahal Asokan Stupa ...... 43 3.5.1 Location ...... 43 3.5.2 Historic data...... 43 3.5.3 Architectural features of the Pimbahal Stupa ...... 44 3.6 Some typical features of these stupas:...... 46 CHAPTER – IV...... 47-54 4. Icons and Rituals of Asokan stupas ...... 47 4.1 Icons of Asokan Stupas ...... 47 4.2 Rituals of Asokan Stupas...... 51 CHAPTER – V ...... 55-57 5. Conclusion and Recommendations...... 55 5.1. Conclusion...... 55 5.2. Recommendations ...... 56 BIBLOGRAPHY...... 58 APPENDIX I ...... 61 APPENDIX II...... 71

vii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. 1 Research Methodology...... 7 Figure 2. 1 Steps of development of the early Indian stupa to the typical Nepalese stupa (systematic drawings)…………………………………………………….……12

Figure 2. 2 The three essential elements: finial (A), dome (B) and drum (C) ...... 14 Figure 2. 3 Systematic sketch of a finial...... 15 Figure 2. 4 Systematic sketch of a pinnacle...... 15 Figure 2. 5 Series of systematic representations of the finials of the four Asokan stupas of Patan (top row) and sketch of one of the gates of Stupa of Sanchi (E), its finial (F) and finial of the Great Stupa of Nagarjunakonda (G) ...... 16 Figure 2. 6 Sketch of typical eyes placed on one side of a finial's cube...... 16 Figure 2. 7 Systematic drawing of a symbolic man placed within a stupa...... 17 Figure 2. 8 Domes of the stupas of Swayambhu (above) and Boudha (below)...... 17 Figure 2. 9 Elevation and cross section through a classical Nepalese drum...... 18 Figure 3. 1 Sketches of four stupas (Hogdson collection 1820-1845, Guimet Museum, Paris)………………………………………………………………………….………23

Figure 3. 2 Site Plan of Northern Stupa (Pruscha 1975, 2: 170) ...... 26 Figure 3. 3 Sketches of the finials after Oldfield's water colour painting dated 1855 and presently condition (2017) ...... 28 Figure 3. 4 Plan of Northern Stupa (Ibahi Thur) ...... 29 Figure 3. 5 Eastern elevation of Northern stupa ...... 30 Figure 3. 6 Site Plan of Traitas Thur (Pruscha 1975, 2:189) ...... 31 Figure 3. 7 Sketches of the former finials and the present one (2017) ...... 33 Figure 3. 8 Plan of Eastern stupa (Teta Thur)...... 33 Figure 3. 9 East elevation of eastern stupa (Teta Thur)...... 34 Figure 3. 10 Site Plan of Lagan Stupa (Purscha 1975, 2: 131)...... 34 Figure 3. 11 Finials according to Wright's sketch (left) and present- 2017 (right)...... 36 Figure 3. 12 Plan of Southern stupa (Lagan Thur) ...... 37 Figure 3. 13 East elevation of Southern stupa (Lagan Thur)...... 38 Figure 3. 14 Site plan of Pulchowk stupa (Purscha 1975)...... 38 Figure 3. 15 Sketches of the finials as found before 2009 and after 2009 with the new umbrella (chaatra) ...... 40 Figure 3. 16 Plan of Western Stupa (Pulchowk Thur)...... 41 Figure 3. 17 East elevation of western stupa (Pulchowk Thur)...... 41 Figure 3. 18 Site Plan of Pimbahal Asoka Stupa (Pruscha 1975, 2:147)...... 43 Figure 3. 19 Plan of Pimbahal Asokan Stupa ...... 45 Figure 3. 20 South elevation of Pimbahal Asokan Stupa ...... …………….45

viii LIST OF PLATES

Plate no. I Elevation of Stupa I of Sanchi, with balustrade (left), without balustrade (right) ...... 61 Plate no. II View of Ibahi Stupa in 1855 (Oldfield's water colour dated 1855) ...... 61 Plate no. III Ibahi Stupa in present condition (2017)...... 62 Plate no. IV East view of Ibahi Stupa (2017) ...... 62 Plate no. V Gate of Ibahi Stupa ...... 63 Plate no. VI Elongated stone in the west direction of Stupa which is worship as snake.. 63 Plate no. VII Chaityas in NE direction of Ibahi Stupa...... 63 Plate no. VIII Chaityas in SE direction of Ibahi Stupa ...... 63 Plate no. IX East and South elevation of Teta Thur before 2005 ...... 64 Plate no. X Southern view of Teta Thur in present condition (2017)...... 64 Plate no. XI Elements infront of shrine of Akshobhya in Teta Stupa...... 64 Plate no. XII Sketch of Lagan Thur by Wright in 1877...... 65 Plate no. XIII Lagan Stupa in 1950 taken by Tony Hagen...... 65 Plate no. XIV View of Lagan Thur in 2017...... 65 Plate no. XV Lagan stupa complex...... 66 Plate no. XVI Bhajan area in Lagan stupa complex ...... 66 Plate no. XVII View of entry gate of Lagan Stupa...... 66 Plate no. XVIII Mandala chaitya infront of the shrine ...... 66 Plate no. XIX Dhyani Buddhas of Lagan Stupa ...... 66 Plate no. XX Pulchowk Stupa, Circa 1960 AD (Ganesh Man Chitrakar) ...... 67 Plate no. XXI Pulchowk Stupa before mega earthquake of 2015...... 67 Plate no. XXII Pulchowk Asokan stupa in present condition (2017) ...... 68 Plate no. XXIII Structural damage of finial of Pulchowk stupa due to devastating mega earthquake of 25th April, 2015 ...... 68 Plate no. XXIV Sketch of Pimbahal Asokan Stupa by Oldfield...... 69 Plate no. XXV East view of Pimbahal Asokan Stupa (2017)...... 70 Plate no. XXVI Chaityas in four corner of main chaitya...... 70 Plate no. XXVII Cost estimate for the renovation of Pulchowk Asoka Stupa ...... 71

ix CHAPTER-I

1. Introduction

1.1 General Background

Nepal is renowned as the birth place of Buddha (light of Asia) throughout the whole world. It is the land of external fascination with colorful culture and people. Never less, it is blessed land of Buddhism. Buddhism is one of the greatest religions of the world which teaches us the way of living through spiritual. It is a unique path of enlightens. Nepal is rich in culture and religion. We should conserve our culture.

Buddhism practiced in Nepal especially in Kathmandu Valley, also called Newar Buddhism, and has some characteristic features.

In Nepal, people believe that emperor Asoka visited the ancient Nepal with his daughter Chārumati after embracing Buddhism and he had established two cities Deopātana in the East of the valley and Lalitapātana in south of the valley. It is also believed that he had erected four Stupa surrounding the city of Lalitapātana and one Stupa in the center and constructed a Vihāra in the city of Deopātana called Chārumati Vihāra in the name of her daughter Chārumati then she settled in the Vihāra as Bhichuni. But there is no mention of the name Chārumati in any of Asoka inscription.1 So it makes his travel in the Nepal Mandala doubtful. But there is highly possibility of visit of his missioners, Kasyapāgotra and Majjhima, to spread Buddhism in the valley because according to Mahāvamsha they went to Himalayan region and most probably it was the ancient Nepal. The architecture of the five Stupa found in the valley which resemble the Asokan Stupa also supports this point. The excavation of these Stupa are not been executed, so the reality is still not unmasked.

A city known as Lalitapattan or Patan is situated close to Kathmandu. It is located in the south-central part of Kathmandu Valley which is a new metropolitan city of Nepal. The city is said to have been built by Emperor Asoka and its old name was Asokapattana. In four corners of this city, there are four Buddhist stupas which are popularly known as Asoka stupas. The four ‘stupas’ or ‘simple, hemispherical mounds’ which are located at the four cardinal points of the town of Lalitpur and standing for ages as sentinels of the historic past of Buddhist sculpture have always

1 Min Bahadur Shakya, Princess Bhrikuti Devi, (Delhi: Book Faith India, 1997), P. 20 1 commanded respect and devotion of the Buddhist in the entire Buddhist world. The ‘stupas’ are called ‘Thuda’ or simply ‘Thur’ in Nepal Bhasa (Newari), ‘Thuda’ meaning a ‘mound’ or ‘heap’. Locally these stupas are called ‘Asoka stupa’ and are supposed to have been built by the Emperor Asoka of India who is supposed to have visited Nepal in the middle of the 5th century. He embraced and patronized Buddhism as the chief state religion and carried on extensive tour in his kingdom and sent emissaries for the propagation of Buddhism and the message of the Buddha2.

Now a day, these stupas are remarkable for their simplicity of shape and construction. Hence no one can deny the feeling of peace and reverence which engenders in our hearts as we look at these elevated mounds.

1.2 Statement of Problem

Patan, an artistic city feel like a museum while walking around it. Many architectural elements of this city surprise everyone about the features of Newari lively hood. Lalitpur is also known as Manigal. It is best known for its rich cultural heritage, particularly its tradition of arts and crafts. It is also called city of festival and feast, fine ancient art, making of metallic and stone carving statue. Though most of the roads are in grid iron pattern but they are not perfectly straight. So, while walking around the slight jig jag roads, one will gets surprised by the immediate elements at squares and road crossings which could be a temple, an open space or water spout (Ga:hiti). There are number of chowks with a caitya in its center. Rest houses, pati, can be seen everywhere for pedestrians. The traditional Newari houses displaying windows such as san jhya or ga: jhya attract the attention of passersby. Also there are large number of baha and bahi. The city received extensive damage from an earthquake on 25 April 2015.

This Patan city is surrounded by four stupas in four cardinal directions with their unique and huge structure and architectural design. Each stupa consists of idol of Buddha in four directions. According to Nepalese historians, these stupas were built by Emperor Asoka. It is said that he also constructed fifth stupa in the centre of Patan city which is called Pimbahal chaitya.

2 Karunakar Vaidya, Buddhist Traditions and Culture of the Kathmandu Valley,(Kathmandu: Sajha Prakashan, 1986), P.185 2 In today’s generation, people are less interested in the religious art and their importance due to lack of their knowledge and limited scope of these arts and the invention of modern technologies. They are more focused in modern arts and in the study of modern technologies. It is believed that emperor Asoka had constructed these five stupas in the beautiful city of Patan during Kirat period but till now there is no any genuine evidence.

These stupas are very important in Buddhism regarding the detail architectural features of these stupas. Therefore the present study will help to focus on the details of the architectural and artistic elements of these stupas.

1.3 Objective of the study

The main objectives of this study are as follows:  To describe architectural components of Asokan stupas.  To describe Buddhist cultural impact of Asokan stupas of Patan.  To identify historical development of Asokan stupas of Patan.

1.4 Literature Review

There are lots of books dealing with Asokan stupas of Patan. Some of these books have mentioned a short description of its art and architecture along with its history. The available publications that have been studied are as follows: i. The Traditional Newar Architecture of the Kathmandu Valley: The Stupas and the Chaityas (2015): The author of this book is Wolfgang Korn who is exclusively concerned with the large and small Buddhist monuments. It contains the historical development of stupas or chaityas that are main symbols exclusively belonging to Buddhism and characteristic of building structures of stupas. So this book is taken as main reference for this study. It includes a collective description of all stupas along with photographs.

3 ii. Ancient Stone Image of Buddha & Bodhisattva in Nepal (2011)

The author of this book is Milan Ratna Shakya who expresses his knowledge of stone arts in this book. This book informs about the development of Buddhist stone icon about Buddha and Bodhisattva of ancient Nepal. The concept and metamorphosis of Nepalese Buddhist arts are mentioned in this book. So this book is useful to fulfill the information about Buddhist stone sculpture.

iii. Buddhism in Nepal (1998):

The writer of this book is Naresh Man Bajracharya. This book deals with period from the pre-history of Nepal to the present day which contains entire study of ancient Nepal, medieval period and period of modern Nepal. It has described about Asoka’s visit to Nepal i.e. Kathmandu valley which describes evidence about stupas.

iv. The Nepalese Caitya (1997):

The author of this book is Niels Gutshow who explains various caityas of different periods that are found within the Kathmandu Valley with text and drawings to scale. The minute detailing of every part of caityas are really beneficial for everyone who is interested in the detailed art of caityas. I also took reference of this book to prepare my drawings.

v. Buddhist Traditions and Culture of the Kathmandu Valley (1986):

The author of this book is Karunakar Vaidya in which he explains about various Buddhist socio-religious and culture celebrated in Kathmandu valley. This book contains location and description of four Asoka stupas of Patan which was very helpful for study.

vi. Buddhist Monasteries of Nepal (1985):

The writer of this book is John K. Locke. This book deals on Buddhist monasteries, daily rituals, annual festivals organized in the bahas and branch bahas. It has mentioned the importance of stupas and chaityas.

4 1.5 Significance of the Study

In this 21st century, most of people are attracted on modern technology and industrialization than the ancient heritage. People are less interested to accept religion and religious objects. There is risk of disappearance of the richness of our cultural heritage and belief that we always need for humanity, ethics and our identity.

In the course of time, there is chance of missing the importance and meaning of Buddhist culture and architectural features. Now a day, these are only the objects of worship. As the time passed, many Buddhist monuments have been broken down due to negligence of the community and the local people. Also devastating earthquake has destroyed many monuments. Some are still in existence and functioning.

The study of Asokan stupas of Patan is very essential and fruitful for conservation which helps to protect our richness and heritage. Besides giving information on its history, it adds architectural features of Asokan stupas by sketches and drawings. The dissertation will be helpful to those scholars who are interested in the study of Asokan stupas of Patan. It will also be fruitful to the local community as this will be a compilation of all details regarding Asokan stupas.

1.6 Limitation of Study

The scope of Master’s Degree thesis was limited to the study of the original architectural planning and the components added till now. The main focus of this study is the description of the present scenario along with illustrations. Besides these, the study of its history and cultural background was done. Some details of the stupas are presented in drawings.

1.7 Research Methodology

For the purpose conducting research, following methodology was carried out:

Topic Selection

Topic for this research has been selected after consultation with professors. Topic has been finalized after reviewing documents and consultations.

Literature review 5 This research has been instigated with reviewing the relevant literatures on the basis of different published and unpublished documents, books, journals, internet and visiting different library to collect relevant documents for the study. Further, consultation with the experts has been carried out regarding the importance of this study and related documents.

Data collection

Field survey was done for the collection of data with site measurement and photographs. Similarly, interview was taken with the related persons.

Conclusion and Recommendation

After comparative analysis of the data and gap analysis based on literature review and study analysis, appropriate conclusion was drag out from the study. In this chapter, the importance of these stupas, the salient features that are found after the study are described here. The suggestion for the betterment and to maintain its originality, the role of the preservation committee for its preservation is mentioned here in this chapter.

Report Preparation

Taking in account of all the information, the draft report was submitted. The work is presented in descriptive and analytic research design with the help of acquired data. Thus, with required suggestions the final report will be submitted.

6 The overall research methodology of the study has been presented in the figure below:

Topic Selection

Formulation of objectives

Literature review

Data collection (Field survey)

Data Analysis (Compilation, drawings)

Conclusion and Recommendation

Figure 1. 1 Research Methodology

1.8 Language

The study is in English Language.

1.9 Expected outputs

The expected outputs from this thesis work are as follows:

 Report on the location, design and architectural features of all Asokan stupas of Patan in the present conditions.

 Report on Buddhist cultural impact of Asokan stupas of Patan.

 Identification of historical development of Asokan stupas of Patan.

7 CHAPTER – II

2.1 Origin and Development of Stupas in Nepal:

Study of stupa architecture is very important in Nepalese architecture. The word 'Stupa' is said to have been derived from the Sanskrit root 'Stu' meaning 'to worship' or 'to praise'. It is also said that stupa is derived from ASTU (relics) and YUPA (mound), or the mound with relics is called Stupa. The Stupa developed as the nucleus of Buddhist faith and worship, but its origin cannot be regarded as Buddhist for evidence of its roots date back to c. 2000 B.C.

Structures called stupas or chaityas are the chief symbols belonging exclusively to Buddhism. They are the most important and most characteristic Buddhist building structures. In many parts of the world, such as India, mainly rulers were buried in earthen mounds which developed different shapes in the course of time because of lasting materials such as brick and stone. Originally, stupa is structure having a hemispherical dome like water bubble and compared to a rising flame of fire.

Burial mounds containing relics were raised from earth and rock according to an age old custom that had survived from as early as Neolithic times. These burial mounds were also common during the lifetime of the Buddha and he instructed his disciples to erect them at cross-roads to commemorate great kings, sages and heroes. According to the mahaparinibban sutta, when Buddha’s favorite disciple inquiry with the disposal of the Tathagata body after his demise, Buddha recommended the creation of Stupa for the symbolism of great demise. Naturally, after the death of the Buddha, a Stupa was raised in his honor, and eight of the mightiest princes fought for his ashes and bones. These relics were thus distributed to eight different kingdoms and Stupas were erected over them. During Asoka's reign (c. 273-232 B.C.), they were redistributed and a portion is said to have been enshrined in the Great Stupa at Sanchi (Pl.no.I).

In very ancient time, Stupa is a simple round tumulus. It is symbolic monuments of Buddhism, which is made of mud, bricks and stone of mound. In the Vedic literatures, stupa is known as a burial mound made by earth with commemorative wooden post in center called Yasthi. Stupa was originally a burial mound which was developed and elaborated by the Buddhists. In the second millennium BCE, highly developed funerary cult of making graves with stone cists covered with earth in India were existed. The corporal relics of the Buddha (563-483 BCE) are also said to be have

8 been buried in an earthen mound, which might have been covered with unburned bricks, not lasting materials. Similar structures are called stupas in Sanskrit. They contain relics of prominent teachers or followers of the Buddhist doctrine or even personal effects. They became the centers of adoration. The relics of the Buddha were divided up and handed over to seven noble families’ viz. Kushinagar, Pava, Vaisali, Kapilvastu, Ramgram, Vanarash, Magadh, Sravasti and a Brahmin who had carried out the cremation ceremony. All the recipients of the relics enshrined their shares in buried mounds in their respective localities. In the 2nd century BCE, these stupas were renovated and enlarged in such a way that the mound was reshaped into an almost hemispherical dome with its apex highlighted by a wooden shaft carrying a wooden umbrella. The wooden shaft piercing through the dome down to the base rested on a low drum. The drum was a new invention, lifting not only the dome from the unclean ground but also creating an ambulatory as its diameter was larger than the one of the dome. Again the dome’s diameter of about 20m was enlarged to a diameter of 36.6m in about 150 BCE. At that time, the enclosing materials were made of dressed stone3.

The space between the two hulls was filled by rubble. A container of relics, an umbrella and protecting fence, all made of stone were placed on the top of the flattened dome. The prototype of many stupas, built in India and Nepal was thus created. The enlargements were implemented by keeping the existing structure unchanged, only by encased in layers.

The Stupas were neither originates from the Buddhist architecture or solely associated with aspect of indo- Aryan religion through the effect of Asoka ardent propaganda of the cult of the Shakyamuni which was much more common to the others. During the 2nd and 3rd centuries, numerous stupas were built even in Nagarjunakonda. Their ruins tell us about the construction of the domes by erecting vertical and redial walls similar to the spokes of wheels. The chambers resulting by this design were filled with rubble and earth. Many of the relic’s caskets were not placed in the centre or on top of the domes but in one of the chambers as seen in the plan of Nagarjunaonda4.

According to Mahaparinibbana Sutta, after death of Gautam Buddha, he was cremated and the ashes divided among his followers. Originally his ashes were to go

3 Wolfgang Korn, The Traditional Newar Architecture of the Kathmandu Valley- The Stupas and the Chaityas, (Kathmandu: Ratna Pustak Bhandar,2015), P.4 4 Ibid, P.6 9 only to the Shakya clan, to which Buddha belonged; however, six clans and a king, demanded the body relics. To avoid fighting, a Brahmin Drona divided the relics into ten portions, eight from the body relics, one from the ashes of Buddha's cremation pyre and one from the pot used to divide the relics, which he kept for himself. After The Buddha's Parinibbāna, his relics were enshrined and worshipped in stupas by the royals of eight countries: to Ajatasattu, king of Magadha; to the Licchavis of Vaishali; to the Shakyas of Kapilvastu; to the Bulis of Allakappa; to the Koliyas of Ramagrama; to the Brahmin of Vethadipa; to the Mallas of Pava; and to the Mallas of Kushinagar. A stupa is a monument specifically to house such relics. Often they were enclosed in caskets (such as the Kanishka casket or the Bimaran casket).

The stupa architecture is widely popularized by the Mouryan Emperor during 3rd century BC. The relics of these stupas were later dug up by Emperor Asoka and divided into 84,000 portions. He had built stupas over them throughout the region he rules. Many of the remains were taken to other countries also.

Basic ideas of sculpture and architecture came with the spread of Buddhism from the Gangetic plains to central and south India and to Sri Lanka in the last centuries BCE, to Nepal in the 4th century and to Tibet, China, Japan and others in the following centuries.

As of early Buddhism, the stupa proliferated as the doctrine spread. Based on Indian models, the stupa underwent radical changes in all Buddhist countries which comprised that the principal element, the mound or dome, lost its structural dominance to multi-stepped plinth and multi-tiered finials. The basic design of a Stupa is a raised plinth, dome, steeple, and spires with a number of discs tapering off as they go to a wheel. The earliest stupas were low circular brick mounds resembling in outline their humble prototypes of the pre Buddhist period. The conjugal twins Stupa in Piparva of 52 feet and 26 feet diameter were found of the very simple structure. There are no remains of archaeological indication which was which was excavated in the year of 1968-69 by department of archaeology, Nepal.

Most of the stupas erected during the reign of the Asoka (272 – 242 BC) were made of brick and plaster structure surrounded by the wooden railing with open gateways facing cardinal points. A good description of early stupas of this kind was found in ‘The Bhilsa Topes’. The following accounts of the little Andher Stupa have the low

10 circular platform 23 feet in diameter and 3 feet 9 inches in height. The Stupa itself is only 15 feet diameter which was originally about 17 feet height.

The systematic drawings show the development from the simple earthen mound highlighted by an umbrella (A) to a solid structure (B). The drum below the dome was used for laying down offerings (C) and later as the base for the sculptures of the Buddha around the turn of eras, orientated to the four principal directions north, east, south and west. Along with the growing number of worshippers, the sculptures also grew and were posed onto altar-like platforms (D) (Fig. 2.1.).

In Nepal, drums with altar-like platforms of type D were not copied. Therefore there is no true evidence whether the first sculptures posed on drums were protected by roots or similar structures. Niches or shrines have been erected for the four Dhyani Buddhas which is also called tathagatas. This was occurs since 15th – 16th centuries (E). Later in some stupas, shrines of the four female counterparts of the tathagatas, the saktis or taras were place between the shrines of the tathagatas (F). Similarly, Dhyani Buddha, Vairocana was placed just to the right of the eastern shrine of Aksobhya. In this way, typical ‘Nepalease stupa’ was developed (F)5 (Fig. 2.1.).

Now a day, the stupa itself is worshipped as the symbol of the Buddha in Nepal and at the same time often of particular Buddhas. In addition to being in effect an image, the stupa is also a temple of the Vajrayana pendant and their consorts. The stupa is viewed as a sacred reliquary enclosing a perpetual flame, jewels of great worth (the four Patan stupas) or the corporal relics of Buddhas, Bodhisattvas and saints.

5 Korn, op.cit., (f.n.3), P.6 11 Figure1 2.Steps1 Stepsof development of development of the early ofIndian the stupaearly to Indian the typical stupa Nepalese to the stupa typical Nepalese stupa (systematic drawings)

12 2.2 Types of Buddhist Stupas

Built for a variety of reasons, Buddhist stupas are classified based on form and function into four types6:

 Relic (Saririk) stupa: Stupa which contains the relics or remains (teeth, hair or any parts of body) of the Buddha, his disciples, and lay saints are interred.

 Object (Paribhogik) stupa: Stupa in which the items interred are objects, belonged to the Buddha or his disciples, such as a begging bowl or robe, or important Buddhist scriptures.

 Commemorative (Uddesika) stupa: Stupa which is built to commemorate events in the lives of Buddha or his disciples.

 Ritual (Bratanusthit) stupa: Stupa which is constructed to commemorate visits or to gain spiritual benefits. It contains Buddhist philosophy or believes like tripitaka.

In the Buddhist religion, it is believed that a stupa brings enlightenment to the one who builds and owns it. In addition, the stupa is considered a place of worship, and many Buddhists complete pilgrimages to significant stupas. Relic and Object stupas are Hinayana stupa whereas Commemorative and Ritual stupas are Mahayana stupas.

2.3 The Architecture of Mahachaitya

The original configuration of Licchavi chaityas consists of three primary elements: finial, dome and sub-structure which is called ‘primary trio’7. (Fig. 2.2)

6 Manik Ratna (Manish) Shakya, “ Nepal ma Asoka Chaitya”, (ed.) Bhikkhu Dharmamurti, Ananda Bhoomi, Vol.No.6, 2061B.S., P. 11 7 Korn, op.cit., (f.n.3), P.7 13 Figure 2. 2 The three essential elements: finial (A), dome (B) and drum (C)

The finial

The typical finial of stupas of the Kathmandu Valley is composed of a square cube, a pyramid and an umbrella.

The cube (harmika) is solidly made of brick, plastered or covered by gilt metal sheets and displaying the typical and unique ‘eyes of the Buddha’ at each side of the cube. A flat plate with up-turned corners represents a roof. The cube also fixes the long wooden mast which penetrates the dome below almost down to the drum.

In most cases, a pyramid of 13 steps (trayodasha bhuvana) represents the 13-stepped sky (five, seven, nine and 11 steps occur on small number too). The pyramid can be of two main types. One is solidly made of bricks and plastered, or being covered by gilt metal sheets; the other is a wooden construction with the central mast keeping 13 umbrellas of different diameter in position. These umbrellas (chhattravali) are made of wood and are covered by gilt metal sheets. The number of steps or umbrellas (chhattras) cannot be used as a chronological indication (Fig.2.3).

14 The pinnacle is also a wooden construction, covered by gilt metal sheets and consists of the top of the central beam, the umbrella and the gajur, the top of all roots of different sacral buildings and shrines (Fig.2.4).

Despite the modern alterations, and complete reconstructions, aside, the four finials have been similar in design and size until modern times. This is proven by sketches and photos prepared and taken by Oldfield, Wright etc in between about 1850 and 19208.

Figure 2. 3 Systematic sketch of Figure 2. 4 Systematic sketch of a pinnacle a finial

The typical finial is a 13-stepped, solid brick-pyramid out of which is a central stone shaft emerges (Fig.2.5C). The pyramid is framed by a wooden construction. The attention must be directed to the central stone shaft, accompanied by two vertical wooden posts (Fig. 2.5D) which if compared with the finial of Great Stupa of Nagarjunakonda are enlarged to its form by stone dated to the 2nd century BCE. This finial is made of stone and contains a central box and two umbrellas, both surrounded by a stone fence (Fig.2.5G).

8 Korn, op.cit., (f.n.3), P.8

15 Furthermore, the three horizontal bars of the Nepalese version remind us of the large stone gates of the Sanchi Stupa, which is assembled of two vertical and three horizontal stones (Fig.2.5G)9.

Figure 2. 5 Series of systematic representations of the finials of the four Asokan stupas of Patan (top row) and sketch of one of the gates of Stupa of Sanchi (E), its finial (F) and finial of the Great Stupa of Nagarjunakonda (G)

Similarly, the eyes found on the cube of the finials are very typical elements only on Nepalese stupas. In common Nepalese parlance, the eyes represent the ‘all seeing eyes of the Buddha’ (Fig.2.6)10.

It stands in connection with sepulchral rites Figure 2. 6 Sketch of typical eyes making ‘a world of the dead in miniature form’ placed on one side of a finial's cube out of the sepulcher and at the same tie imitating the existing universe in the form of the cosmic purusa with it, i.e. a model of the universe is built on the form of a symbolic man, a miniature form of the great purusa (Fig.2.7). So the sepulcher becomes a substitute for the ephemeral body of the dead person where his mystic being continues to exist. It is also said that the body of the Buddha seen from outside is a stupa. Stupa is also called as the nirvana body of the Buddha.

9 Korn, op.cit., (f.n.3), P.9 10 Ibid, P.9 16 It is also identifies a human figure sitting within the stupa, but at the same time explains that the cube represents ‘fire’ which again correspondents to the eyes of the Nepalese stupa11.

Figure 2. 7 Systematic drawing of a symbolic man placed within a stupa

The dome

The dome is most important part of a stupa, the ‘heart’ of the edifice, as it contains the relic. In its classical form it is solid and hemispherical which is called anda (egg) or garbha (womb, embryo and container), Dhatu garbha was used for the container or chamber containing relics and later for the dome itself. Thus, the stupa as a whole was called dhatu garbha, ‘womb of the elements’12. The shape of four Asokan stupas of Patan cannot Figure 2. 8 Domes of the stupas of be described as domes but they are Swayambhu (above) and Boudha (below)

11 Korn, op.cit., (f.n.3), P.10

12 Ibid, P.11 17 more or less mounds.

Plinth/ drum

The plinth is the lowest element of a chaitya, which functions firstly to mediate between the sub-structure and the (invisible) foundation and secondly to separate the divine chaitya away from the unclean ground. The earliest form of a plinth was the round drum. Its diameter is generally larger than that of the dome. Depending on the size of the stupa, either an elevated walkway or circumambulatory around the dome or the possibility of laying dome offerings onto the bench like surface was created13. Figure 2. 9 Elevation and cross section through a classical Nepalese drum Shrines and niches for the deities

Shrines as protective structures for deities were added to Nepalese stupas only since the 15th century CE. Special podiums which serves as altars of ancient Indian stupas, marking the four cardinal directions which were not added to the drums of early Nepalese stupas. Idols might have been placed on top of the drums without any structure before that time14.

2.4 Asoka’s visit to Nepal (Valley)

Asoka is a celebrated king of Maurya dynasty of Magadh, son of Bindusar and grandson of the first Mauryan emperor Chandra Gupta, who unified all of the small states against the warrior king of Alexander Sikandar of Unan. The first three Maurya emperors Chandra Gupta, Bindusar and Asoka were great conquerors. There were various date mentioned by the various historian about the Asoka. His coronation date was c. 272 BC and death date was c. 265BC. After fully establishing himself as the most powerful Emperor in the dynasty of the Mauryas, Asoka started his spree of

13 Korn, op.cit., (f.n.3), P.16 14 Ibid, P.18 18 conquering adjacent independent states or kingdoms and when he invaded Kalinga, the capital of Orrissa in India; hundreds of innocent men, women and children were killed. He started repenting for his misdeeds in killing his own brothers and people in Kalinga. Emperor Asoka went to the Maha Sangha Nayaka. He was then advised to initiate the campaign of establishing 84,000 stupas in different parts of the world with Buddha’s relics enshrined in them to symbolize the 84000 sermons collected in the Tripitaka by the first Synod held under the chairmanship of Ven. Maha Kashyapa Mahasthavir at the Saptaparni Cave of the Mt. Vebhara in Rajgriha. Asoka gave up the campaign of military conquest and followed the policy of bringing other countries within the sphere of his influence by propagating the Buddhist religion15.

Many historians or vansavalikars have written articles on these stupas and their origin but they are divided in their opinion so much as that some historians say that Asoka did not visit the valley of Kathmandu at all. It is a historically proved fact that Asoka in course of his campaign of building chaitya or stupas for the propagation of Buddhism, he visited Lumbini and Kapilvastu of Nepal. But it required on archaeologist like George Cuningham, to unearth these old pillars and stupas and edits which lays in the womb of the earth to be exposed to light and to prove the visit of Asoka to Lumbini.

Some historians refuse to believe that there is any striking resemblance between the stupas of Lalitpur and those found at Sanchi or Sarnath or Kushinagar (Rambhar) but if one closely examine the old stupas of Lalitpur and those of India same resemblance cannot escape our notice.

The main stupa of Sanchi is said to have been built in 3rd century to 1st century B.C. the original brick stupa was constructed by Asoka and encased in stone about a century later. If we are able to do more vigorous scientific excavations on these stupas, we could have certainly discovered valuable articles which may be of conclusive evidence. But since the excavation of these stupas will be a thing which the religious conscience of the people will resist, it cannot be said that these stupas are not of Asokan origin.

15 Asha Ram Shakya, “The Four Ashoka Stupas of Patan, the most ancient city of Kathmandu Valley”, (ed.) Bhikkhu Dharmamurti, Ananda Bhoomi, Vol.No.6, (2061), P.23

19 It is believed that emperor Asoka came to Lumbini in 249 B.C. to worship the spot where Lord Buddha was born in 623 B.C. Ven. Mogaliputtatissa, his spiritual mentor had also came with him. This mission of Emperor Asoka was undertaken to offer worship to the Buddha in the auspicious occasion of the 20th year of his ascendancy to the throne of the Mauryan Empire. He then set up a stone pillar by the spot of the site of the Buddha’s birth with the inscription clearly mentioned that here verily was that the Shakya Muni Buddha was born on the sacred day of the full moon day of Baisakh. From Lumbini, Emperor Asoka visited the site of the birth place of Kanak Muni Buddha in Niglihawa and the birth place of the Krakuchhanda Buddha in Gotihawa in Kapilvastu district of modern Nepal16.

Princess Charumati, second daughter of Asoka visited a small but beautiful city in the southern side of Deva Pattan. Besides, as the Charumati vihar is attributed to Charumati, one may also be inclined to say that these stupas may have been built by some people connected with the visit of Asoka (272-136 B.C.) to Lumbini which the great Emperor definitely visited. He also visited to Kusinagar where he is said to have erected many stupas as well as Asokan pillars with inscription. In 399-414 B.C. a famous Chinese traveller named Fa-heien visited Kushinagar, and in his accounts he has stated to have seen many stupas and sangharam17.

Beside old historical manuscripts in Ceylon viz Dharma Vamsa Mahavamsa, it is mentioned that the Priya Jeeva Asoka accompanied by his wife Tikkhya Rakshita, daughter Charumati, his Guru Upagupat Bhikkhu visited Nepal and erected the four stupa18. At that time, fouth kirat king Sthungo was the king of the Kathmandu valley. The name stupa is derived from the name of the king Sthungo. A well-known historian of Nepal, the late Babu Ram Acharya admits that a certain group of emissaries deputed by the Emperor Asoka did visit Kathmandu valley under the leadership of Kashyap Sthavir19

The very word: thudo” (local Newari name) derived from the Pali word ‘thube’ which is found engraved in the Asokan pillar discovered at Niglihawa. It seems therefore the word ‘thur’ or ‘Thudo’ seem to belong to Asokan period20. So these facts bring us

16 Shakya, op.cit., (f.n.15), P.24 17 Bharatiya Puratatwa Bibhag, Sri D. R. Palt, Kusinagara, pp. 10-11 18 Hem Raj Shakya, Swayambhu Maha Chaitya, (Kathmandu: Swayambhu Vikas Mandal, 1978), P.113 19 Bhuvan Lal Pradhan, Santi Vijaya Article on four Stupas of Lalitpur , P.11 20 Shakya, op.cit., (f.n.15), P.81 20 very near the conclusion that possibly Emperor Asoka himself or someone closely connected or deputed by him may have been responsible for the erection of these mystery stupas of Patan, but so long as systematic excavation are not done on these stupas, no conclusive evidence is possible.

21 CHAPTER – III

3. Description of Asokan Stupas of Patan

The four Asokan stupas are located in four cardinal directions and one stupa at the centre of the Patan city (Map). The four ‘Asokan Stupas’ occupy a special status within the group of monumental stupas. Due to their shape and architectural layout, they constitute their own distinguishable features. It is found that until the mid of 20th century, the four stupas were shaped as tumuli and as large mounds covered by turf. Instead of the almost semi-circular dome of all the other stupas and chaityas, as the most important element of stupas, the mounds display rather flattened hemispheres. These chaityas are named Asokan stupas in commemoration of the four ‘Yugas’ or ages viz21 ;

I. Ibahi Thudo is called Sri Dwapara Yuga Bhabena Asoka Nirpa Samskrit Stula Rasi Chaitya i.e. Ibahi thudo is commemoration of Dwapara yuga. II. Treta Thudo is called Sri Tretayagiya Bhabena Asoka Nripa Sanskrita Sthula Rasi Chaitya i.e. treta thudo is commemoration of Treta yuga. III. Pucho Thudo is called Sri Satya Yuga Bhabena Asoka Nripa Sanskrita Sthula Rasi Chaitya i.e. it is commemoration of Satya yuga. IV. Lagan Thudo is called Sri Kaliyuga Bhabena Asoka Nripa Sanskrit a Sthula Rasi Chaitya i.e. it is commemoration of Kali yuga.

Further, the city of Lalitpur is still called Asoka Patan perhaps because he wanted to build the city after having fixed up the four points in four cardinal directions.

According to sketches and photos taken from the middle of the 19th century onwards, these stupas were covered by bricks. Due to aging and negligence over many centuries their surfaces became uneven and covered with grass and weed, giving the impression of ‘earthen’ mounds.

The sketches of Hodgson are the oldest figures of these stupas. From the figure 3.1, it shows that domes of the stupas are being clearly super-elevated. Since many centuries ago, the three stupas of eastern, western and southern may not have been fundamentally altered except for the northern one. Until the mid of 20th century, rather

21 Vaidya, op.cit.,(f.n.2), P.191

22 primitive wooden ladders and very stout pinnacles made of brick represented the finials, and only low walls fenced the bases of the mounds in.

Figure 3. 1 Sketches of four stupas (Hogdson collection 1820-1845, Guimet Museum, Paris) For centuries, they seem to have been more archaeological monuments than sites of religious importance to the locals. Only twice a year, processions occur in these stupas. The Tibetans have been having them renovated and altered to some extend since 1990s. Now a day, the rapid urbanization and expansion of high rise buildings in Patan are surrounding these sites.

Until the end of the last century, they were lying rather desolately outside the historic boundaries of Patan in different distances not only to the periphery but also to the city centre, the royal palace. The connecting lines form a cross (with rather different lengths of the four arms) and follow the two main historic trade routes passing through the city and intersecting just south of the royal palace22.

Historic data

There is no archaeological evidence to prove their foundations before the turn of the eras, as these mounds never have been opened. Also there is no old inscriptions which

22 Korn, op.cit., (f.n.3), P.48 23 describes their interior or about their age. But the legends shows that these stupas was erected by the Indian (Mauryan) emperor Asoka in the 3rd century BCE23.

It is also believed that after princess Charumati visited the southern side of Deva Pattan, she had set up a big stupa with Buddha’s relics enshrined in it as a sentinel of the teachings of the Buddha. This first stupa is known till today by the name ‘Empi Stupa’ as the word Empi denotes northern side of the city of Patan. It was at that time very much near the confluence of three rivers: Bagmati, Manohara and Rudramati which is coming up from inside the river bed. This confluence of these three rivers are considered to be very sacred and in Swayanbhu Maha Purana it is recognized as the third most sacred confluences under the name Shankara Tirtha where a Brahmin suffering from deadly disease got cured because of his daily bath taken in the confluence and prayer to Lord Buddha. Besides, the site of this Empi stupa had attracted the attention of Princess Charumati because of the abundance of wood stretching nearby. In the local language of those days, ‘Empi’ is northern side24.

Originally it was only a mound of earth shaped into a dome gradually tapering towards the top and a brick structure of four sided square in form and size of about five or six feet in height with a canopy over it to save it from rain etc was set. This Empi stupa being the first of its kind after the Swayambhu Maha chaitya commands a very wide popularity to understand the teachings of Lord Buddha.

Later a Guthi, an endowment fund was set up by the local devotees to continue the sacred intention of princess Charumati to redeem the sufferings of the sentient people. Since then this stupa became one of the most historical Buddhist pilgrimage for the Buddhist pilgrims from Nepal and outside. Three hundred years after, the three Buddhist learned monk- Sunaya Shree Mishra came from Kapilvastu to pay homage to this Asoka stupa. His two brothers who were also monks came with him and established two monasteries in the nearby place by the side of a sacred spring self- originating from the earth and this site too is mentioned as a very sacred place in the Swayambhu Purana. It is known as Kumbheswara as the people later believed that Mahadeva had come out of this spring. Hence this sacred spring is known by the name of Kumbheswara. Here a Brahmin suffering from a deadly skin disease got

23 Korn, op.cit., (f.n.3), P.49 24 Shakya, op.cit., (f.n.15), P.24 24 completely relief by taking baths and daily prayer to lord Buddha in the form of Mahadeva25.

It can be easily surmised that the attraction of Patan city to Princess Charumati was because of the development of the city of Patan as burgeoning city inside the Kathmandu valley. Princess Charumati then constructed another stupa called Treta stupa as meaning of treta is probably the eastern side of the city. It was also a mound of earth tapering as in the Empi stupa with its pinnacle of thirteen layers representing ten heavens and three more pure heavens namely Tushita, Akaniata and Sukhavati. The highest heaven of the Buddha Amitabha was later conceived by the Mahayana scholars26.

After construction of two stupas, princess Charumati constructed another stupa named Lagan stupa of earth in south which is bigger in size than that of Empi and Treta. As a result of the Asokan Buddhist mission, the learned monks were busy in delivering sermons as per buddha’s teachings. According to the Lotus Sutra that appeared in the 1st century A.D., it is suggests that there is only one Yana- the Buddha Yana. Lord Buddha is always seated above the lotus flower which though coming out of mud does remain completely untouched to the mud. This is symbolical expression of the Buddha to remain always untouched by the mud of greed, lust and delusion27.

The Stupa in Pulchowk (Pura Cho) meaning the highest place in the city of Patan was then set by Princess Charumati. It is already set up in the four cardinal directions of the city of Pattan from which we have got Patan as the abridged form of Pattan meaning a city.

After completing the establishment of the stupas in the four cardinal directions of the city, princess Charumati set up one more stupa in a little smaller size in Pimbahal tole which is called Asokan Dharma Chaitya. Later the Buddhist of Patan created a big pond of lotus flower to offer the lotus flowers to the Buddha in front of this Dharma Chaitya28.

The historical dating is available only since the 17th century. Modern experts assume that, these structures might be the oldest found in the Kathmandu valley and pre-date

25 Ibid, P.25 26 Shakya, op.cit., (f.n.16), P.25 27 Ibid, P.26 28 Ibid, P.26 25 the emergence of the Licchavi Kings who came from the Indian Gangetic plains in the 3rd century CE to the valley. The valley was certainly familiar to the Mauryans. It would not be surprising to find Mauryan evidence in the valley.

Names

They are named after the region in connection to the historic boundaries of the city of Patan: east: Tetas, Traita, Treta (Treta for one of the yugas); south: Lagan (name of the area); west: Pulcho, Pulchowk (name of the area or tole); north: Yampi (Yam for North), Zimpi, Epi- most often combined with the Newar word ‘thur’ or ‘thupa’, ‘thudva’, ‘thudvan’ for the term ‘stupa’29.

Except for the thoroughly renovated North stupa, which received its cemented new look in this century while all other are simple in look.

3.1 The Northern Stupa (Yampi / Ibahi Thur)

3.1.1 Location

The North stupa lies to the north of the town of Lalitpur, ward no. 22 and are called the ‘Ibahi Thura’. According to Hodgson, it is situated just within the walls of the city (Lalitpur) whereas the other three stupas stand at some distance outside the city. On the opposite side of this stupa are the famous and old monasteries which have been built by Sunaya Sri Misra who became a Buddhist monk. Figure 3. 2 Site Plan of Northern Name Stupa (Pruscha 1975, 2: 170)

The local name of this stupa is I Bahil Thur or I Bahil Taudu. Oldfield presents it as Epi or Zimpi Taudu30 and Bendall as Yampi Stupa.

29 Korn, op.cit., (f.n.3), P.51 30 Henry Ambrose Oldfield, Sketches from Nipal- 2 vols., (London: W.H. Allen and Co., 1880), P.248 26 3.1.2 Historic Data

Some fifty years ago, these stupas were only a simple mound of earth and some brickwork and later it was renovated and plastered all over with a coating of lime and brick powder by some benevolent person named Lama Aju of Ikuli, Lalitpur. The first historical inscription informs that it was repaired in 1616 A.D.31. In 1690 A.D., the shrines of the tathagatas were added32. Each of the four cardinal shrines contained an image of the Buddhas; but in Vairochana’s shrine an unhewn stone was placed33. In 1751, when the temple and spire were repaired by some Jyapu Newars, this unhewn stone was removed and the present image of Dipaditya Dipankara Buddha was put in place34. The stupa was reshaped and repaired in 1957 which was noted through verbal information in 2006.

According to Hodgson, the earliest record starts in the year 1690 A.D., the five shrines for the divine Buddhas were constructed round its base by the Newars, one Bhikkhu inhabiting the Yampi vihar, and the other a Shrestha Newar35. There are some inscriptions but they have become quite defaced and no other records related to the stupa can be found.

Presently the stupa is surrounded by rest houses, stone mandalas, chaityas and statues and is fenced. Three of the chaityas and two of the Buddha sculptures were created in the Licchavi time.

3.1.3 Architectural features of the Northern Stupa

Oldfield’s painting (Pl.no.II) depicts the stupa’s dome in a bad state of repair as grass covers most of the uneven surface made of bricks. The retaining wall at its base and the five shrines are made of brick whereas the domed roofs of the shrines are plastered. The circular path around the dome seems to be paved with large burnt brick tiles.

31 Dilli Raman Regmi, Medival Nepal Part II: A History of the Three Kingdoms 1530-1768 A.D., (Calcutta: Firma K.L. Mukhopadhyaya, 1966), P.48 32 Ibid.P.48 33 Oldfield, op.cit, (f.n.30), P.248 34 Ibid.P.249 35 Vaidya, op.cit., (f.n.2), P. 186 27 The spire in the form of a stepped pyramid topped by a central stone post and framed by a wooden construction with a three – railed wooden gate36. This wooden structure of two vertical posts connected horizontally by three beams reminds us of being simplified copies of the masterly executed stone gates (torana) of Indian stupas at Sanchi. This finial existed at least up to 1928, as photo shown by Landon37. (Fig.3.3)

The stupa receive its present shape in 1957 in which the dome was covered by concrete, the old finial replaced by a finial as in the design of the finial of the Boudha Stupa and the brick built shrines were remodeled and plastered. The whole structure was finally plastered and white washed (Pl.no.III).

Figure 3. 3 Sketches of the finials after Oldfield's water colour painting dated 1855 and presently condition (2017)

This Stupa is comparatively more complex and smaller than other three Stupas. This is similar in structure of Swayambhu Mahachaitya in Kathmandu. The eastern shrine is the largest and even the shrine of the central tathagata, Vairochana is largest than the other shrine. Later other shrines of the taras are added which is rather simple copies of those of the male tathagatas. This stupa is the smallest of the set of four with ca 24 m in diameter, 60.62 m in perimeter. It has a Vedika of 1.5 meters and dome of 5.5 meters in height. A square Harmika is constructed over the dome with 13 steps Cakravali and a parasol. It has five Buddha in the Vedika with their consorts except the Tathagata Vairocana. There is presence of stone steps infront of the Vairocana and Akshobhya. Two lions are present as guardian in the steps of

36 Perceval Landon, Nepal. 2 vols.,(London:Constable and Co.Ltd.,1928), P.209 37 Ibid, P.209 28 Vairocana. Vairocana and Akshobhya are taken as main shrine of this stupa. In front of stupa, there is bajra dhatu mandala. There is traditional mane and dallu pacha all around the stupa (Pl.no.IV).

The circumambulatory path is almost 3m wide and is paved with tiles which are probably the same as depicted by Oldfield shortly before 186438.

Gate lies in the eastern part with arch and above the gate, there are three small form of chaitya representing Buddha, Dharma and Sangha. Astamangal and two dragons are representing in the gate (Pl.no.V).

In this stupa complex, there are three chaityas in the north east corner (Pl.no.VII), two chaityas in the south east corner (Pl.no.VIII) and one chaitya in the south west corner. These stupas are fenced using metal. In the western side, there is stone representing snake and people worship as snake god (Naagraj) (Pl.no.VI).

Figure 3. 4 Plan of Northern Stupa (Ibahi Thur)

38 Korn, op.cit., (f.n.3), P.60 29 Figure 3. 5 Eastern elevation of Northern stupa

3.1.4 Construction materials used in the Northern Stupa

There are various construction materials used in this stupa. Vedica is made up of brick with cement mortar. The dome is made up of cement concrete and above the dome; harmika is placed with thirteen steps which is made up of brick, lime, maa appa and stone as vertical post in the centre. The whole structure is white washed. Above the finial, there is umbrella (Chatra) made up of copper and gold plating is done. The five dyani Buddha and their consorts were made up of stone and their structure is made up of brick, lime and cement mortar. The gajur of each dyani Buddha and their consorts were golden colour. The structure above the vairocana is dome shape as of mugal architecture whereas other structures are of slope roof. For the protection, the whole stupa is fenced using metal bars.

3.2 The Eastern Stupa (Teta Thur)

3.2.1 Location

The eastern stupa is located at the distance of 880 m to the historical city boarder and ca 1400 m to the city center. It is located about 200 meters east of Tyagal Tole of Patan near the Eastern ring road. Until the 1980s in the countryside, this stupa is surrounded by rice terraces, next to the rivulet Kodkan and next to the formerly important trade grass- grown brick mounds to which the shrines of the directional Buddhas were later attached. The eastern stupa lies quite a good distance (about 4

30 miles east of Lalitpur) and is called the Teta Thura. B.H.Hodgson writes “the eastern of Asoka’s temple is situated about a quarter of a mile outside the walls of the city, as is called by the Newars ‘Traitas Tauda”, but the walls are nowhere now-a-days. There is main highway road in the southern side whereas it is surrounded by residential area in the on the other three sides. Figure 3. 6 Site Plan of Traitas Thur Name (Pruscha 1975, 2:189) Oldfield calls this stupa as Traitas Tauda39; it is termed as Teta Stupa by Kathmandu Valley40 and is often called as Teta Thur by local people.

3.2.2 Historical data

A legend, forwarded by Wright tells of an event in pre-historic times resulting in the naming of this chaitya as Imado Chaitya – from ima, meaning an eagle in Newar41. There is no any data about construction of the foundation. There is only historic information mentions about the renovation of the dome, the construction of the retaining wall, the erection of the four shrines and re-designing of the finial in 1846 A.D.42. It is reported to have been repaired in 1846 A.D. (according to Hodgson’ account). Within recent times, this stupa was again refined and plastered white with lime and brick powder.

For the most part, the finials have been considerably altered from those described or pictured by early observers43.

The sketch is based on finials as observed by Wright, Oldfield, etc. (from the mid-19th century onward) or reproduced from photos (taken about the mid-20th century), prepared by the author. In the following presentations, these four stupas will be

39 Oldfield, op.cit, (f.n.30), P.250 40 Carl Pruscha, Kathmandu Valley: The Preservation of Physical Environment and Cultural Heritage: A Protective Inventory, (Vienna: Anton Schroll and Co. Publishers,1975), P.189 41 Daniel Wright, History of Nepal, (Calcutta: Ranjan Gupta, 1877), P.69 42 Carl Pruscha, op.cit., (f.n.40), P.189 43 Mary Shepherd Slusser, Nepal Mandala : A Cultural Study of the Kathmandu Valley. 2 vols., (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press,1982), P.279 31 depicted according to their appearance in the end of the 1970s route to Tibet, in the north. But nowadays, it is surrounded by multi-storey buildings, a curious object of times gone past.

3.2.3 Architectural features of the Eastern Stupa

The perimeter of Teta Thur is 75.83 meters with the diameter of 24.5m and height 10.4 meters. Teta Thur is smallest with 24.5 m diameter while the height of the retaining wall is 1.6 m which is highest height among other stupas. Until the end of the last century, the turf covered stupa was surrounded by a tile- paved circumambulatory path.

The photo taken by Landon in 1928 shows that the stupa was in a good state until the end of the last century. In the present condition the mound is covered by turf. There are four shrines in the four cardinal directions. The size of eastern shrine named Akshobhaya is larger than other three shrines i.e. Ratnasambhava in the south, Amitabha in the west and Amoghasiddhi in the north. There are no niches added for Vairochana or for the five taras of these tathagatas. In the front of the shrine of Akshobhaya, mandala, there is mandala chaitya and structure with small chaitya in the east side.

The height of the dome is 4.5m which is covered by turf. A square shaped Harmika enshrines the dome. No pre 18th century inscription can be found on the structure. There are three stone inscriptions led in the Vedika. Two inscriptions are completely damaged and not legible and the one inscription on the left of Tathagata Ratnasambhava is hardly readable.

The solid finial is a solid, rectangular, covered by a heaped block roof, measuring 1.6m in height. The center of the roof is accentuated by a stone post accomplished to its left and right by a short stone post. These short posts replace the original wooden, vertical post of the wooden construction found also at the southern and western stupas. Landon’s photo of 1928 still shows one horizontal beam connecting the vertical posts later the height of vertical post are reduced till end of 2005. In 2006, the finial was replaced by a new structure in chaitya style (Fig.3.7). The plastering and white washing of the retaining wall, the shrines and the finial are usually done by a Tibetan every year.

32 At the present condition, there were 285 manes and dallu pachas were installed all around the stupa (Pl.no.X). Many monuments of hindu god and goddess like ganesh, saraswoti, shiva, bhagwati were installed in the western side of the stupa. This shows that the area of this stupa has been occupied by hindu temples.

Figure 3. 7 Sketches of the former finials and the present one (2017)

.

Figure 3. 8 Plan of Eastern stupa (Teta Thur)

33 Figure 3. 9 East elevation of eastern stupa (Teta Thur)

3.2.4 Construction materials used in the Eastern Stupa

There is various construction materials used in this stupa. In the vedica, brick is used and plaster is done using cement. The dome is of the soil with turf. The shrines in the four cardinal points are all plastered and white washed. The statues of the four directions are made up of stone and they are destroyed due to offering of tika over the statue. The finials are made up of maa appa brick in which white wash is done using lime. Yellow colour is done to the 13 steps circular finial. The metal umbrella above the finial is made up of copper which is gold plated. The mane and dallu pacha are made up of the metal. (Pl.no.X)

3.3 The Southern Stupa (Lagan Thur)

3.3.1 Location

The Lagan Thur lies in the southern part of the town just near the Matiko Bhairab shrine, ward no. 15 of Lalitpur metropolitan city. The Lagan Thur dominates a flat area about 600m distance from the former southern city gate and about 900m away from the city centre, the Durbar Square. Until the 1980s, a quite irregular wide and deep moat, partly forming a pond, enclosed the structure. It is an old setting, as the Figure 3. 10 Site Plan of Lagan Stupa (Purscha 1975, 2: 131)

34 sketch by Wright substantiates: like a round island, the stupa, along with its wide circumambulatory are visibly elevated from the ground44. A large rectangular tank exists and a military camp uses a wide part of the adjoining area. The lotus pond surrounding this Lagan stupa is for the lotus flowers to be offered to the Buddha.

Name

Lagan Thur, Lagan Tauda or Lagan Stupa is named after Lagankhel. In newari “La” means water, “gaa” means dry and “khel” means open area. As in this open area, land is dry; the place is named as Lagankhel. This wide area seems to have not been used for agriculture for a long time. The part of it was and still is an open ground, partly used by the military. This stupa is called the ‘Lagan Thura’ locally but in the long past, this part of the county is supposed to have formed what used to be called ‘Matirajya’ (the kingdom of Mati Desha) ruled by a certain king Brisha Deva Varma. Hence the stupa used to be also named Mati Rajya Chaitya in former times.45

3.3.2 Historic data

A legend connected to this stupa speaks of the Kirat king, Brikha Deva, visiting the stupa at a time long before the Licchavis took over power in the valley, sometime in the 4th century CE46.

Historical information is rare and begins only in the 19th century:

 Instead of an unhewn stone, representing Vairochana, a sculpture was installed in the eastern shrine in 1833 A.D.47.  It was repaired in 1846 A.D., and is in very good order. The four shrines might have been added at this time too48.  The cardinals Buddha were consecrated in 1878 A.D.49. The shrines were remodeled, and the retaining wall might have been erected as it is not shown on Wright’s sketch.

44 Wright, op.cit.,(f.n.41),P.116 45 D. Wright, History of Nepal, Matiko Stupa picture. 46 Landon, op.cit., (f.n.36), P.22 47 Oldfield, op.cit., (f.n.30), P.251 48 Ibid, P.251 49 Pruscha, op.cit., (f.n.40), P.131 35 3.3.3 Architectural features of the Southern Stupa

The Lagan Thur is the largest stupa among the four Asokan stupas which has a diameter of ca 47.40 m and a height of about 11.80 m. It is surrounded by wide circular ambulatory path paved by bricks. The gentle curve of the dome creates the impression of an earthen mound- despite the rather new retaining wall at its base. The photo taken in 1930s, depicts the stupa as a turfed terrace for onlookers of a Buddhist ceremony (Pl.no.XII). The retaining wall did not exist until then or was overlaid by earth. In some one hundred years before, this stupa had some wooden scaffolding which is not to be seen now. At the present condition, the mound is crowned by structure of a miniature cenotaph which is added on the top.

The finial of the stupa was a white cube carrying a low pyramid topped by a stone shaft. A wooden structure consisting of two vertical posts, connected by three horizontal beams, crowned the solid finial. In the mid of 20th century, the finial was altered in which the wooden structure was taken away and the low pyramid was replaced by a hemispherical dome topped by a then typical spire. At present time, umbrella of copper with gold plated is topped over the structure (Fig.3.11).

Figure 3. 11 Finials according to Wright's sketch (left) and present- 2017 (right)

Now days, the five shrines are plastered. The eastern shrine is accentuated by niches for Vairochana and the saktis of the other tathagatas. Since the beginning of 21st century, Tibetans have beautified the stupa by adding prayer wheels, flags (Ghacho: Tibetian word) and fence. Many chaityas have been added in the Lagan stupa 36 complex. In the front of every dhyani Buddha (Ratnasambhabha, Amitabh and Amoghsiddha), bajra dhatu mandala are present with two chaityas on both side of it (Pl.no.XVIII).

In the western shrine of Amitabha, three sculptures of Amitabha are found, one behind the other. It is not customary to replace, remove or even destroy the existing idols when a new one is offered to a shrine. The shrine of Amitabha is bigger than other dyani buddhas.

There is big gate made up of terracotta brick, slope roof with small stupa on it. It is guardian by two lions. As we entered into the complex, there is stone chaitya in the front and Tibetan gumba (Pl.no.XVII). Just behind the chaitya, there is big prayer wheel which seems to be installed by Tibetan Buddhism (Pl.no.XV). Behind the prayer wheel, there is stambha with the statue of Siddhartha Gautam following two stone chaitya.

In the front of eastern side, there is big chaitya which is white washed and lighting area. On the south side of this stupa, there is pati which is used for doing bhajan during the Gunla (Pl.no.XVI). The stupa complex is very big with park for resting.

Figure 3. 12 Plan of Southern stupa (Lagan Thur)

37 Figure 3. 13 East elevation of Southern stupa (Lagan Thur)

3.3.4 Construction materials used in the Southern Stupa

The construction materials used in this stupa is similar to that of western and eastern stupa. In the vedica, brick is used using mud mortar. The dome is of the soil with turf. The shrines in the four cardinal points are all plastered and white washed. The statues of the four directions are made up of stone of different sizes. The finials are made up of maa appa brick in which white wash is done using lime. Yellow colour is done to the 13 steps circular finial. The metal umbrella above the finial is made up of copper which is gold plated. The mane and dallu pacha are made up of the metal.

3.4 The Western Stupa (Pulchowk Thur)

3.4.1 Location

The western stupa is located at 300m west of the former western gate of the historic city wall and about 1000m away from the city center, just at the roadside of Pulchowk Bus stand, ward no. 3 of Lalitpur metropolitan city. It stands at the eastern side of a hillock where the monastery Pulchowk Bahil was erected and named after Pulchowk. On the west cardinal point stands the ‘Pucho’ stupa or Figure 3. 14 Site plan of Pulchowk stupa (Purscha 1975) 38 ‘Pucho Thura’.

Just near this stupa to the south lies the Pucho vihar on a small elevated hillock (Danagiri hill), the highest vihar of Lalitpur called the Aksheshwora Mahavihar, which contains a square courtyards with double roofed building on all sides. To the right of this vihar, lies the famous temple of Vajrajogini one of the four Joginis of Kathmandu valley.

3.4.2 Historic data

No historical information was found before 1455 A.D. According to the inscription, the cardinal Buddhas were set up in 145550. On the contrary, Gutschow (1997: 87) states that an inscription tells that tathagatas were already in place by 1455.

In 1561 A.D., the shrine of Aksobhaya was erected on the stupa’s eastern side by a certain Banda (Bare)51 and in 1759 A.D., the brick plinth and the retaining wall were repaired and the brick spire added by some benevolent Newars in 1759 A.D.52(Pl.no.XX)

3.4.3 Architectural features of the Western Stupa

The dome of the monument was made up of brick in the past but now it is covered by turf whose diameter is approximately 25 m, perimeter is 75.52 meters and height of 12m from the ground level. It seems not to have been altered for a long time (Fig.3.16). However, the size and the quality of the tiles of the circumambulatory path i.e. diameter of the mound was assume to be reduced in 1759 A.D. At this time, retaining wall was added to the base of it. Now a day, this path is paved with by stone slabs. The retaining wall or firebrick vedika is about 1.1 m in height with one Tathagata in each direction i.e. four dhyani Buddha in 4 direction and the shrines are all plastered and white washed. The shrines do not learn against the wall and are not structurally integrated into it but are placed on the top of it and their base cut into the mound. The dome that is 6.5 meters tall is too paved by firebrick. It has no Harmika.

50 Pruscha, op.cit., (f.n.40), P.144 51 Oldfield, op.cit., (f.n.30), P.252 52 Pruscha, op.cit., (f.n.40), P.144

39 A photo taken by Landon, depicts a finial in the shape of a solid, plastered and white- washed pyramid consisting of 13 steps, covered by a stone slab and crowned by a short stone mast53. The thirteen rings Cakravalis are constructed directly over the dome in square shaped pyramid structure. A Yasti is placed on the top of the spire with a parasol. A large, metal/ golden umbrella was added to the finial in the early 21st century by Juju Dhakwa in 2009 A.D. (Fig.3.15)

Figure 3. 15 Sketches of the finials as found before 2009 and after 2009 with the new gold plated umbrella (chaatra)

The contour is slightly curved which is not regular in shape due to soil erosion (Pl.no.XXI). There is no any inscription available earlier that 20th century A.D. There are two stone inscriptions led in the Vedica i.e. left and right side of the Akshobhaya which is thick and it was coated by lime due to which it is difficult to read. Mane and lighting palcha are placed around the stupa. In the front of the stupa, there are bajra dhatu chaitya and metal bell on right and left side of it. Two lions are present in the front of the Akshobhaya. There are rest house (pati) in both right and left side of stupa which has got many god and goddess. There is two other inscription of the 80th decade of the last century placed in the wall of the rest house. This rest house is used for singing religious song ‘bhajan’ and praying ‘totra’. The religious song is sing by a group of singers and musicians formed by the local people, on the important days for praying Buddha.

These inscriptions clearly indicate the fame of the stupa at that time. The icons present in these pati are Ganesh, Mahalakshi, Saraswoti, Shaktidevi, Radha-krishna, Sitaram and others.

In this stupa, the Tibetans look after and beautify it with flags (Ghacho), prayer wheels and the erection of metal roof over the eastern shrine. One of the big prayer

53 Landon, op.cit., (f.n.36), P.16 40 wheel (mane) was installed by the “Rakeshwor Sangrachan Samiti” whereas other prayer wheels were installed by the Tibetan followers.

Figure 3. 16 Plan of Western Stupa (Pulchowk Thur)

Figure 3. 17 East elevation of western stupa (Pulchowk Thur)

3.4.4 Construction materials used in the Western Stupa

There are various building materials used in this stupa. In the vedica, brick is used and plaster is done using cement. In the front steps, marble is used whereas stones are used in the steps of other three dyani Buddha. Though, the dome was made of the brick in the past but at the present condition, dome is of the soil with the turf of grasses. The shrines in the four cardinal points are all plastered and white washed using lime. The statues of the four directions are made up of stone and they are painted by the artist representing their colour. This stupa doesnot have harmika and

41 the finials of 13 steps are made up of Maa appa brick with the motar of 1:1:3 ratio of lime, surkhi, soil. These steps are plastered by 12.5 mm lime surkhi in the ratio of 1:3. It is white washed by using lime. The vertical post above the 13 steps is yellow colour. A large metal umbrella above the finial is made up of copper which is gold plated.

3.4.5 Group formation for the preservation of the Stupa

For the preservation of the Pulchowk stupa, one legal samuha was made which is named as “Asoka Chaitya Nitya Puja Samuha” in 2065 B.S. The members of this samuha are responsible to conduct all the activities related to Pulchowk Stupa. This Samuha includes following members:

i. Rajendra Shakya – President ii. Surendra Kumar Shakya – Secretary iii. Sanu Kaji Shakya – Tresurer iv. Rup Kumar Shakya – Member v. Narendra Shakya – Member vi. Sunil Shakya – Member vii. Nabin Shrestha – Member

3.4.6 Impact due to Earthquake

Gorkha earthquake of 25th April, 2015 of magnitude 7.8 Mw has destroyed finial of the Pulchowk thura. Structural crack is found in the finial whereas external cracks are found in the vedica (Pl.no.XXIII). Therefore, “Asoka Chaitya Nitya Puja Samuha” has initiated some works for renovation of this stupa. They had already taken the approval from the Lalitpur Metropolitan city for the renovation of this stupa. Drawings and cost estimation was completed. The total estimated cost for reconstruction is Nrs.472,314.37. For this, Lalitpur metropolitan will provide the amount of Nrs.366,851.50, help from the public participation, amount of Nrs.47,232 will be fulfill and the labour cost from public people is amount of Nrs. 47,230.87 (Pl.no.XXVII).

42 3.5 The Pimbahal Asokan Stupa

3.5.1 Location

The fifth of Asoka’s own temples was erected exactly in the centre of the site selected for the city of Patan. It is now standing opposite the southern side of the Durbar and is said to be exactly in the centre. It is situated in the west of the large pond called “Chayavaha pukhu” which dominates the largest open space of Patan, ward no. 21 of Lalitpur metropolitan city.

To the east, a monastery called Pimbahal is Figure 3. 18 Site Plan of Pimbahal Asoka Stupa (Pruscha 1975, 2:147) found which gives the whole area named as Pimbahal tole.

3.5.2 Historic data

After the construction of Asokan stupas in four cardinal directions, Emperor Asoka built this Pimbahal chaitya at the centre. This stupa was completely destroyed in 1350 CE (N.S. 470) by the attack of Muslim invaders Bengal Sultan Shams-ud-din in Nepal. This stupa was restored by a newar, Meghapal Burma and Raja Harswa Bhaluk which was described in the inscription of N.S. 479. Meghapal Burma was most powerful first prime minister of Nepal. The reconstruction was started from 1357 CE (N.S. 477) Chaitra Sukla Nawami and completed on N.S. 479 Aswin Sukla Trayodashi. Other renovation seems to have been executed between 1457-1459. Some writer says that this fifth stupa is the ‘Chaitya’ which stands on the western side of the large tank at Chaya Baha Pukhu (Tank). According to inscription, this stupa was named as Khalu Chaitya (Chaitya Langa). Now days, this chaitya is named as “Chillandeo”54.

About the state of repair, Landon writes that some years ago this was in bad repair and maiden fern was growing in abundance wherever roothold could be found upon

54 Lok Ratna Shakya, “Pimbaha”, Matina, Vol.No.14, 1132 N.S., pp.30-32 43 it55 (Pl.no.XXIV). An accompanying photo shows the stupas in a good state of repair. It shows that the monument must have been repaired at the beginning of the 20th century. As the photo reveals, the pyramidal sub-structures show their natural, red brown colour of the terracotta bricks and their domes have been plastered and white washed. Another photo proves that at the beginning of the 1930s, the five stupas appear plastered and white washed. The complex was renovated in 1972 A.D.56

3.5.3 Architectural features of the Pimbahal Stupa

Pimbahal Asoka chaitya was constructed in the area of one ropani. The style of this Chaitya is different that it is difficult to be called a stupa of Asokan period. This stupa consists of a large chaitya in the middle with four smaller chaityas at the four corners and placed in the square platform which follows mandala concept (Fig.3.19). This is called the ‘Chillandeo’ Bhagwan by the local Buddhist. A guarding pair of lions flank at the platform’s eastern side with the access to the central stupa whereas the pyramidal sub-structure of the large central stupa is adorned with the shrines of the five tathagatas, the four sub-ordinate chaityas are much smaller owning only one shrine at their eastern sides. A crowing umbrella is only found on the central stupa and the thirteen tiers of the finial are different in material. The central tiers are guilt and those of the sub-ordinate ones are made of stone slabs. This one at Lalitpur bears an inscription on stone on the east side of the shrine (Pl.no.XXVI).

55 Landon, op.cit., (f.n.36), P.209 56 Korn, op.cit., (f.n.3), P.85 44 Figure 3. 19 Plan of Pimbahal Asokan Stupa

Figure 3. 20 South elevation of Pimbahal Asokan Stupa

45 3.6 Some typical features of these stupas:

All the four stupas exhibit some special features which are typically Asokan type, very much similar in style to many other stupas scattered elsewhere in Bodhgaya, Nalanda, Sanchi, Sarnath and other Buddhist places. They are simply hemispherical mounds of clay. A. K. Kumaraswami writes “the four are still intact and in any case, are of the old Indian Hemispherical type”. The mound itself forms the chief feature or the ‘Garbha’ or womb of the stupa and contains the consecrated articles embedded inside. On the top of the mound is erected the four sided brick structure over the top of which again is the pyramidal finial which generally consists of thirteen layers or segments in gradual diminishing sizes. Finally, at the top is the pointed stone spire indicative of the Jyoti or flame or self- existing ‘Adi Buddha’ (Primordial Buddha).

At the base of the stupa is erected some sort of low cylindrical plinth without any projecting basement of brickwork for the monks or nuns in those days to walk round in prayer.

Over the top is generally erected the wooden frame work or scaffolding which is typical in those days. But later on these wooden frame works must have decayed and during further renovation these seem to have been entirely left out. During Mr. C. Bendall’s visit to Nepal on 9th Nov. 1884, he saw these wooden frames on the ivahi Thido and writes “the form is a simple form and preserves the wooden poles which appear in Mr. Hodgson’s sketch of the place.”

These wooden scaffolding serves the purpose of protecting the spire from weather erosion. So, till the raining season is over some matting is placed over the scaffolding. Formally on the full moon day (Purnima) of the month of Ashwin, these mat coverings are removed. A temporary wooden or cloth finiale or Chhatra is fixed over the spire and secured lightly to the wooden scaffolding or frame work. This is called the rites of “Chau Chhayegu” or dedicating the Chhatra or finiale. It (Chhatra) is kept there for eight days and then removed on deposited in the custody of the Deopala.

Round the base of the stupa are erected small brick work niches usually on the four cardinal points of the stupa wherein are housed the stone shrines or images of the Divine Buddha or Adi-Buddha viz. Akskhobhya, Amogasidha etc.

46 CHAPTER – IV

4. Icons and Rituals of Asokan stupas

4.1 Icons of Asokan Stupas

Initially, Asokan stupas were just a mould of soil and later Dhyani Buddha was added in the stupa. The word Dhyani is derived from the Sanskrit dhyana, meaning “meditation.” The Dhyani Buddhas are also called Jinas (“Victors” or “Conquerors”). They are not historical figures, like Gautama Buddha, but transcendent beings who symbolize universal divine principles or forces. Many different forms of each deity exist, and different tantras can have slightly different explanations (for example, in the Kalachakra tantra, six Dhyani-Buddhas are mentioned, and most have different colors and shapes). Each displays different characteristics, mudras, each of them is associated with a different direction, rides a different animal, denotes a particular moment in the life of the historical Buddha, and has a different color.

The five Dhyani Buddhas represent the five basic types of human personality and demonstrate the absolutely perfected form of these personality types. Most importantly, each of them represents a negative quality as well as the completely transformed aspect of that failing, manifested as an enlightened wisdom. Each and every aspect and religious ceremonial people respectably worshiped. The pantheons of northern Buddhists revolve the theory of the five Dhyani Buddha’s. The Buddhist believes that the worls is composed of five cosmic elements; Rupa (form), Vedana (sensation), Sanjya (name), Sanskar (conformation) and Vijyana (consciousness). These elements are eternal cosmic forces, without a beginning or an end and are defines in vajrayana as the five dyani Buddha. The five Buddhas are Aksobhya, Amitabha, Amoghasiddhi, Ratnasaṃbhava and Vairocana.

47 Panchadhyani Buddha and their consorts

Name Consort Location Vairochan Vairochani Sanctum Akshobhya Lochana East Ratnasambhava Mamaki South Amitābh Pandura West Amoghsiddhi Tara North

I. Vairochana

Vairocana (also Vairochana or Mahavairocana) is a Buddha who is the embodiment of Dharmakaya (the ‘Truth-body’ or the ‘Embodiment of Truth’), and which therefore can be seen as the universal aspect of the historical Gautama Buddha. In Sino- Japanese Buddhism, Vairocana is also seen as the embodiment of the Buddhist concept of shunyata or Emptiness. Vairocana Buddha is a cosmic buddha and central figure in esoteric, or tantric, Buddhist practice. He represents the truth body, a non- physical, abstract body that is wisdom itself. The name Vairocana means “luminous” or “embodiment of light” in Sanskrit while in Japanese, Dainichi means “great sun.” He is often referred to as the “Life force that illuminates the universe,” the “great illuminating one,” and most importantly, the “all-encompassing Buddha.” Vairocana is believed to be everywhere and in everything; he is omniscient and omnipresent. All buddhas are thought to be emanations of him because he represents “transcendental” wisdom, the most clear and powerful form of wisdom. More specifically, he represents the conversion of ignorance into wisdom. In mandalas, he is often depicted sitting at the center while the other buddhas sit at the four cardinal directions. His wisdom is the wisdom of the essence of the dharma-realm meditation mudra.

In the Mahavairocana Sutra, Vairocana appears as the universal buddha from whom all buddhas emanate. He is the source of enlightenment who resides free from causes and conditions.

Vairochan originates from the white syllable placed on the sphere of the moon on the eastern part of the lotus and is white in colour. His recognition symbol is white. He exhibits the Bodhyangi mudra and represents the cosmic element of Rupa. He exhibits

48 mudra of Dharmachakra whose vahan is dragon. He sits in Vajraparyankasan aasan. As it cannot represent outside the stupa but in Swayambhu Nath and I-bahi Stupa, Vairochan is assigned in between East-South.

II. Akshobhya

Akshobhya The name Akshobhya means “Immovable” or “Unshakable.” Akshobhya’s Mirror-like Wisdom reflects all things calmly and uncritically, and reveals their true nature. Mirror-like wisdom antidotes the poison of hatred and anger. In the mandalas, Akshobhya is usually positioned to the east, but he is sometimes placed in the center. He is believed to transform the human failing of anger into a clear mirror-like wisdom. With this wisdom, we see things just as they are, impartially and unaffectedly. The Buddha Akshobhya established the enlightened intention that all sentient beings could purify any degree of non-virtue. Even the extreme nonvirtue of hatred, violence, and killing can be cleansed through relying on him as the focus of meditation, acknowledging and abandoning nonvirtuous actions, and invoking his blessings of purification. Akshobhya’s paradise is Abhirati, the Land of Exceeding Great Delight. Buddhists believe that whoever is reborn there cannot fall back to a lower level of consciousness.

Akshobhya originate from the blue syllable Hum i.e. placed on the orb of the sun i.e. he is blue in colour. He is two armed and one-faced, exhibits the Bhusparsa (earth- touching) mudra and sits in the Vajraparyankasan (adamantine seat) pose. He represents the primordial cosmic element of Vijnana (consciousness). It is located in the east direction which has symbol of vajra and the vahan is elephant.

III. Ratnasambhava

Ratnasambhava means “the Jewel-born One” or “Origin of Jewels.” Ratnasambhava transmutes the poison of spiritual, intellectual and human pride into the Wisdom of Equality. Tibetan Buddhists teach that with the Wisdom of Equality one sees all things with divine impartiality and recognizes the divine equality of all beings. One sees all beings and the Buddha as having the same nature. Ratnasambhava is the Dhyani Buddha of the south. Ratnasambhava is sometimes shown holding his symbol, the ratna (jewel) or chintamani (wish-fulfilling jewel that grants all right desires). The 49 chintamani is a symbol of the liberated mind. The ratna is often depicted in a threefold form as the triratna, signifying the union of Buddha, Dharma and Sangha. Ratnasambhava’s mudra is the varada mudra, the gesture of giving, or charity, which portrays him offering compassion and protection to his disciples. His wisdom is the wisdom of equality.

Ratnasambhava originates from the yellow syllable Tram place on the orb of the sun on the southern petal. He is yellow in colour, his recognition symbol is jewel and exhibits the Varada (gift-bestowing) mudra. He represents the cosmic element of Vedana (sensation). It is located in the south direction which has symbol of jewel; the vahan is lion and sits in the Vajraparyankasan aasan.

IV. Amitābha

Amitabha means “Infinite Light.” Amitabha’s Discriminating Wisdom conquers the poison of the passions - all cravings, covetousness, greed and lust. With this wisdom, the disciple discerns all beings separately yet knows every being as an individual expression of the One. In the mandala of the Dhyani Buddhas, Amitabha is positioned to the west. He personifies the skandha of perception, thus, the eye and the faculty of seeing is associated with Amitabha. His throne-bearer is the peacock, with “eyes” on its plumes. The peacock symbolizes grace. Lotus Flower Amitabha’s symbol is the padma, or lotus. In Buddhism, the lotus can symbolize many things, including spiritual unfoldment, purity, the true nature of beings realized through enlightenment, and compassion, the purified form of passion. Devotees aspire to be reborn in Amitabha’s Western Paradise, known as Sukhavati, where conditions are ideal for attaining enlightenment. His wisdom is the wisdom of observation.

On the western petal on the disk of the sun, there is Amitabh of red colour originating from the red syllable Hrih. He has a lotus as his sign exhibits the Samadhi (meditation) in his two hands. He is nature of the cosmic element of Samjnya (name). It is located in the west direction which has symbol of lotus; the vahan is peocock and sits in the Vajraparyankasanm which exhibits in Samadhi mudra.

50 V.Amoghasiddhi

Amoghasiddhi means “Almighty Conqueror” or “He Who Unerringly Achieves His Goal.” Amogasiddhi’s All-Accomplishing Wisdom, or Wisdom of Perfected Action, antidotes the poison of envy and jealousy. This wisdom confers perseverance, infallible judgment and unerring action. Amoghasiddhi represents the practical realization of the wisdom of the other Dhyani Buddhas. He is described as the Dhyani Buddha of the realization of the Bodhisattva Path. A Bodhisattva is one who has forgone the bliss of nirvana with a vow to first liberate all beings. Amoghasiddhi is the Dhyani Buddha of the north. He embodies the skandha of volition, also called the skandha of mental phenomena or tendencies of mind. His symbol is the vishvavajra, or double vajra. It is made of two crossed vajras and symbolizes the highest comprehension of truth and the spiritual power of a Buddha. The throne of Amoghasiddhi is supported by garudas. A garuda is a mythical figure, half man and half bird. Amoghasiddhi’s mudra is the abhaya mudra, the gesture of fearlessness and protection. His wisdom is the wisdom of perfect practice.

Amoghasiddhi originates from the green syllable Kham place on the orb of the sun on the northern petal of the lotus, and is of green colour. His recognition symbolism of the Visvavajra or the double thunderbolt. He exhibits the Abhaya (protection) mudra and represents the cosmic element of Samskara (conformation). It is located in north which has Garuda vahan and sits in the Vajraparyankasanm.

4.2 Rituals of Asokan Stupas

All the Asokan stupas are important regarding rituals. Daily ritual “nitya puja” is done in all the stupas by their own ‘dyo: pala’. Most of the rituals are common in all Asokan stupas. They are as follows:

On the second day of the full moon day of Shrawan, the festival name Gai Jatra occurs. In this festival, people take part in memory of their dead near and dear ones, by offering wheat or rice to the Buddha images of all the Asokan stupas so that their departed souls may find peace and solace and attain heaven or Sukhavati Bhuban. This worship is done from the family of Shakya, Bajracharya and Maharjan of newar family.

51 On the third day of the full moon day of Shrawan, i.e. the Duitiya day according to Lunar tithi-the month of holy Gunla occurs the festival of Mataya which is purely of Buddhist origin and culture that is inhabitants of Lalitpur. During this festival, offering of lights or ‘mata’ is giving to all four Asokan stupa including Pimbahal Asokan Stupa. Buddhist as well as hindus people actively participate in this festival with devotion and faith. People take part in memory of their deceased near and dear ones, by lights to the Buddha images so that their departed soul may find peace and solace and attain heaven or Sukhavati Bhuban.

Similarly on the day of Yugadi Nawami (Jwaa: Nawami), Baa: Puja is offered in all the Asokan stupas.

In Patan, there is ritual of lighting 108 lights in all four Asokan stupas from the house/ family members of dead people within a year for the goodness and peace of departed soul.

The other rituals which are different in each stupas are as follows:

Northern Stupa (Ibahi Thur)

Besides above annual festival, every year on the full moon day of the month of Aswin, a ceremony to put an umbrella over the pinnacle of the stupa occurs to save from rainy season. It is offered by guthi of Maharjan family and big annual puja is done infront of the god Vairocana of this stupa.

Eastern Stupa (Teta Thur)

Main priest of this stupa are Bajracharyas from the Bhinche Bahal. Annual there is biggest puja called Chhatra Kyoyegu Puja which occurs in the month of Shrawan.

Southern Stupa (Lagan Thur)

Just on the southern side of this stupa, there is very big lawn to accommodate the Buddhist monks for Dana and lunch following the tradition of celebrating Sammek Ceremony by the devoted Upasakas and Upasikas. The grand sammek ceremony was organized by emperor Harshavardhan of Varanasi in which all the Buddhist monks from far and near were invited. All the Buddhist figures established in many Buddhist monasteries were invited for lunch and dana. This sort of Sammeka offering used to be organized by the devotees of the Buddha.

52 A tradition later developed says that after the conclusion of the chariot festival of Aryavalokiteswara Karunamaya or Matsendra Nath and the Jata Dhari Lokeshwora also known as Min Nath, a special worship is undertaken in this mound on the northern side to release a pair of fish by way of informing the Karkotaka Naga about successful conclusion of the Chariot festival both of Matsendra Nath and Min Nath. A special worship is then offered to the Batuka Bhairaba situated nearby for successfully managing the Chariot festival by releasing a pair of pigeons symbolizing peace in the country.

Western Stupa (Pulchowk Thur)

There is separate guthi of Pulchowk stupa which consists of four family members for the procession of the priest (dyo-pala) of the Pulchowk stupa. As there is formation of “Asoka Chaitya Nitya Puja Samuha”, each family member will be responsible for the daily puja procession for 2 years and handover to another member. Daily puja is done by dyo-pala in the morning.

The biggest annual puja is done on the auspicious day of Janai Purnima i.e. full moon day of Shrawan. In this day, all the guthi members come together for performing puja in front of the stupa which is called Bu:saraa.

Pimbahal Asokan Stupa

Just behind this stupa in the western side, there is vihar which was constructed by Meghapal Burma after re-construction of Pimbahal Asokan chaitya. The name of this vihar is “Mulasri Vihar” in Sanskrit and “Mu:baha” in newari. This vihar is also named as “Garbhapintha Mahavihar”. This vihar is sub-vihar of Hiranyavarna Mahabihar. During the ceremony of “chudakarma” and “Aaju Luigu”, the ritual activities are done infront of this stupa. After this ritual, their names are registered in “Sarva sangha”. Daily ritual “nitya puja” is conducted by every member of “Sarva Sangha” which is transfer from senior to junior for one year by each member.

Other rituals and guthi of this stupa are as follows57:

 Sangha Bhojan is done on Kartik Sukla Dasami  Chauchhyagu guthi is done in Aswin Purnima  Asoka Chaita Busadhan is done in chaitra sukla nawami

57 Shakya, op.cit., (f.n.54), P.32 53  Mula dyo puja is done in Baisakh Purnima

In Patan, there is ritual of lighting 108 lights in Swayambhu, Boudha, Namra and Badegaun from the house of dead people within a year for the goodness of dead aatma. Incase if the family members from dead people are unable to go in these four places, they can give 108 lights in this chaitya as the four chaityas represents Swayambhu, Boudha, Namra and Badegaun.

54 CHAPTER – V

5. Conclusion and Recommendations

5.1. Conclusion The popular belief among the Buddhists of the valley believe that four stupas in the four cardinal direction and one at the centre were built by Maurya King Emperor Asoka during his visit to the Kathmandu valley in the reign of the fourteenth Kirati king Sthunko who was crowned king about 265 B.C. according to Dr. Jaiswal while the Emperor Asoka was crowned king at 269 B.C. (a fact admitted by most of the Indian historians). Being a staunch follower of the Shakya Muni Buddha, after the inspiration from Bhikkhu Uppagupta, he was supposed to have started the holy mission of building 84,000 chaityas or stupas in various parts of India and Nepal to spread Buddhism.

After the parinirvana of Buddha, the relic of Buddha was distributed to seven noble king and Brahmin who had carried out the cremation ceremony. From the relic of Buddha, stupas were built in their own kingdom and later Emperor Asoka demolished these stupas and constructed 84,000 chaityas in various parts of India and Nepal using relic of Buddha.

In course of his mission he visited the holy places related to the Buddha such as Kusinagar, Kapilvastu, Lumbini with Bhikkhu Uppagupta and his daughter Charumati. He erected stone pillars with inscription in the dedication of the Buddha that he came over to the Town of Lalitpur where he had built up these simple mounds at the four directions.

Again history says that Asoka got his daughter Charumati married to one Devapal Khyatri Kumar. After his departure to his own kingdom, his daughter who herself was a staunch devotes of Lord Buddha, erected a vihar called Charumati vihar (now called Chabahil) near Deopatan. This town is supposed to have been built by Devpal. Though the original form of this very antique vihar must have undergone vast changes, yet, it can be supposed that it must have retained some of the old typical ‘vihar’ features.

The four stupas are named Asokan stupas in commemoration of the four ‘Yugas’ or ages.Ibahi Thur, Teta Thur, Lagan Thur and Pulchowk Thur are built in

55 commemoration of Dwapara yuga, Treta yuga, Kali yuga and Satya yuga respectively. Initially northern stupa was built in northern part of the Patan which is called Ibahi Thur. After completion of Ibahi Thur, another stupa was built in east direction called Teta Thura following the construction of stupa in south and west direction named Lagan Thur and Pulchowk Thura respectively. Initially all four stupas are mound of soil which has similar finials but later stupa of Ibahi was reconstructed using cement concrete. There is altered in design of finials with the passess of time. People have added many elements to the stupa for beautifying like gold plated umbrella, flags, praying wheel and lighting stand. The statues of dyani Buddhas were added later in these stupas. Only four dyani Buddhas: Aksobhya, Amitabha, Amoghasiddhi and Ratnasaṃbhava are present in the Pulchowk and Treta Thura in their own direction whereas shrine of Vairocana is present in the Ibahi and Lagan Thur.

During the construction of four stupas, another chaitya called Pimbahal Asoka chaitya was built at the centre of the Patan. Thus these five stupas are of great important which was built by Emperor Asoka. The architecture feature of Pimbahal Stupa is just like chaitya in the mandala pattern which has four chaityas in four corners and main shrine is in the centre. It was destroyed by Muslim invader Sultan Shams-ud-din which was reconstructed by Meghapal Shrestha.

Due to devastating mega earthquake of 2015 A.D., structural cracks are found in the finial of the Pulchowk stupa which will be reconstructed soon whereas there are no any damages found in other stupas.

Thus these five Asokan stupas are very important in Buddhism.

5.2. Recommendations Due to urbanization of Kathmandu valley, residential areas are surrounded in the stupa area and no cultural importance is given to these sites.

Ibahi Thur lies in the core area of Patan city which is surrounded by residential building whose height is taller than the height of stupa. This will distract the importance of the stupa. There is lack of rules or bylaws for the construction of the building. People construct their building in haphazard way.

56 Treta Thur lies outside the ring road area and due to expansion of road from Gwarko to Lubhu; the area of this stupa has been converted into road. Therefore, this stupa is adjoined to the main highway road of Imadol. Due to urbanization, this area is full of many haphazard houses. The areas in the west side of the stupa are captured with many hindu temples. Thus there is lack of open space in this area and the priests are not giving importance to this area.

Lagan Thur has more open space compare to other stupas. Most of the area has been used by the military and park has been constructed in this area. Many elements of chaityas, statues, praying wheel have been added in the front of this complex which has destroyed the beauty of main stupa from road side.

Pulchowk stupa is surrounded by residential area in south and west side with busy vehicle road in the east. The previous area in the east side has been converted into main road where heavy vehicle flows daily and destroyed the cultural area. In the north side, building of Pulchowk Tole sudhar committee has been constructed making the area cozier. In this area, there should be strict rule about construction of traditional building using Dacchi appa with terracotta slope roof and traditional windows with the restricted bylaws regarding height. There are many electrical wires infront of the stupa that destroyed the beauty from road side. There is no demarcation of the site of stupa area.

Pimbahal Asokan stupa is preserved but people are unaware of importance of this chaitya. There is big pond infront of the chaitya which shows beauty in this area.

Government should encourage local people about conservation of cultural heritage site providing ample beauty of architecture. Strict bylaws are needed for the conservation which should be initiated by government as well as local people and giving importance of all stupas.

57 BIBLOGRAPHY

BOOKS

(English)

Bajracharya, N. M., 1998. Buddhism in Nepal (465 B.C. to 1199 A.D.), Delhi: Eastern Book Linkers.

Bendall, C., 1975. A Journey of Literacy and Archaeological Research in Nepal and Northern India During the Winter of 1884-85, Kathmandu: Ratna Pustak Bhandar.

Gutschow, N., 2011. Architecture of the Newars: A History of Building Typologies and Details in Nepal. 3 vols., Chicago: Serindia Publication Inc.

Gutschow, N., 1997. The Nepalese Caitya: 1500 years of Buddhist Votive Architecture in Kathmandu valley, Korea: Daehan Printing and Publishing Co.Ltd.

Hagon, T., 1980. Nepal: The Kingdom in the Himalayas, U.S.A: Kulmmerly and Frey.

Korn, W., 2015. The Traditional Newar Architecture of the Kathmandu Valley- The Stupas and the Chaityas, Kathmandu: Ratna Pustak Bhandar.

Korn, W., 2076. The Traditional Architecture of the Kathmandu Valley, Kathmandu: Ratna Pustak Bhandar.

Landon, P., 1928. Nepal. 2 vols., London:Constable and Co.Ltd.

Locke, J.K., 1985. Buddhist Monasteries of Nepal, Kathmandu: Sahayogi Press Pvt. Ltd.

Oldfield, H.A., 1880. Sketches from Nipal- 2 vols., London: W.H. Allen and Co

Pruscha, C., 1975. Kathmandu Valley: The Preservation of Physical Environment and Cultural Heritage: A Protective Inventory, Vienna: Anton Schroll and Co. Publishers.

Regmi, D.R., 1966. Medival Nepal Part II: A History of the Three Kingdoms 1530- 1768 A.D., Calcutta: Firma K.L. Mukhopadhyaya.

58 Sandy, J., 1989. An illustrated Guide to The Kathmandu Valley, Hong Kong: The Guidebook Company Limited.

Shakya, H.R., 1978. Swayambhu Maha Chaitya, Kathmandu: Swayambhu Vikas Mandal.

Shakya, M.B., 1986. A Short History of Buddhism in Nepal, Lalitpur: Young Men’s Buddhist Association.

Shakya, M.B., 1997. Princess Bhrikuti Devi, Delhi: Book Faith India.

Shakya, S.K., 2071 B.S. Pulchowk Tole Sudhar Samiti Ek Parichhaya, Lalitpur: New Karmacharya Press.

Slusser, M.S., 1982. Nepal Mandala:A Cultural Study of the Kathmandu Valley. 2 vols., Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.

Vaidya, K., 1986. Buddhist Traditions and Culture of the Kathmandu Valley (Nepal). Kathmandu: Sajha Prakashan.

Wright, D., 1877. History of Nepal, Calcutta: Ranjan Gupta.

(Nepali)

Bhikhu, N., 2014. Tathagataya Aasthidhatu, Gwarko: Ideal Printing Press

Dahal, P. & S.P. Khatiwada, 2060. Nepal ko Kala ra Vaastukala, Kathmandu: M.K. Publishers and Distributors.

Shrestha, P., N.S. 1035. Nepal Mandal Sampada, Kathmandu: Print Sky

DISSERTATIONS/REPORTS

Thapa, S.H., 2001. An Analytical Sudy of the Asokan Stupas of Lalitpur, A dissertation submitted to Central Department of Arts Faculty of Nepalese History Culture and Archeology Tribhuvan University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the Master Degree of Nepalese History Culture and Archeology. Kathmandu, Nepal.

59 Shrestha, K.M., 2008. Buddhist Culture of The Kathmandu Valley. Kathmandu: Association of Vajrayan Buddhist & Mahavihara- Nepal (Vajrayan mahasangha)

JOURNAL/ARTICLES

Shakya, A.R., “The Four Ashoka Stupas of Patan, the most ancient city of Kathmandu Valley”, (ed.) Bhikkhu Dharmamurti, Ananda Bhoomi, Vol. No.6, 2061 B.S., pp.21- 28.

Shakya, L.R., “Pimbaha”, Matina, Vol. No.14, 1132 N.S., pp.30-33.

Shakya, M.R., “Nepal ma Asoka Chaitya”, (ed.) Bhikkhu Dharmamurti, Ananda Bhoomi, Vol. No.6, 2061 B.S., pp.9-12.

Shakya, N.M., “Stupa: ek parichhya”, (ed.) Dharma Ratna Shakya, Boudha Vihar Sangha, Lalitpur, Aksheshwor Mahabihar. Pulchowk, 2062 B.S., pp.76-82.

60 APPENDIX I Plates/ Figures

Plate no. I Elevation of Stupa I of Sanchi, with balustrade (left), without balustrade (right)

Plate no. II View of Ibahi Stupa in 1855 (Oldfield's water colour dated 1855)

61 Plate no. III Ibahi Stupa in present condition (2017)

Plate no.IV East view of Ibahi Stupa (2017)

62 Plate no. V Gate of Ibahi Stupa Plate no. VI Elongated stone in the west direction of Stupa which is worship as snake

Plate no. VII Chaityas in NE direction of Ibahi Stupa

Plate no. VIII Chaityas in SE direction of Ibahi Stupa

63 Plate no. IX East and South elevation of Teta Thur before 2005

Plate no. X Southern view of Teta Thur in present condition (2017)

Plate no. XI Elements infront of shrine of Akshobhya in Teta Stupa 64 Plate no. XII Sketch of Lagan Thur by Wright in 1877

Plate no.XIII Lagan Stupa in 1950 taken by Tony Hagen

Plate no. XIV View of Lagan Thur in 2017 65 Plate no. XV Lagan stupa complex Plate no. XVI Bhajan area in Lagan stupa complex

Plate no. XVII View of entry gate of Plate no. XVIII Mandala chaitya Lagan Stupa infront of the shrine

Plate no. XIX Dhyani Buddhas of Lagan Stupa

66 Plate no. XX Pulchowk Stupa, Circa 1960 AD (Ganesh Man Chitrakar)

Plate no. XXI Pulchowk Stupa before mega earthquake of 2015

67 Plate no. XXII Pulchowk Asokan stupa in present condition (2017)

Plate no. XXIII Structural damage of finial of Pulchowk stupa due to devastating mega earthquake of 25th April, 2015

68 Plate no. XXIV Sketch of Pimbahal Asokan Stupa by Oldfield

69 Plate no. XXV East view of Pimbahal Asokan Stupa (2017)

Plate no. XXVI Chaityas in four corner of main chaitya

70 APPENDIX II

Plate no. XXVII Cost estimate for the renovation of Pulchowk Asokan Stupa

71