Aboriginal People See Indigenous People Acid Sulfate Soils, 465

Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-67982-4 - Environmental Biology Edited by Mike Calver, Alan Lymbery, Jen McComb and Mike Bamford Index More information

Index

Aboriginal people tissue formation, 259–65 see Indigenous people transportation of sugars, 273 acid sulfate soils, 465 underground organs, 266 agricultural ecosystems, 9–10, 357 water acquisition and use, 270–1 energy inputs, 11 woody habit, 266–8 productivity of, 11 xylem and phloem, 263 slash-and-burn farming, 10 animals, 286–301 agriculture, 154, 356, 401, 403 adaptation to hot, dry environments, 529 Akaike information criterion, 36 adaptation to low nutrients, 532–3 algae, 422 adaptation to aquatic life, 490–1 brown algae, 213 adaptation to cold environments, 525–7 green algae, 212, 422 adaptation to extreme conditions, 507 macroalgae, 422–3 animal ethics, 26 microphytobenthos, 422 bilateral symmetry, 295, 299 phytoplankton, 422 body plans, 294, 297, 299–300 red algae, 211, 445 classifi cation of, 299–300, 336 Alveolata, 213 coelom, 297, 318 amensalism, 390 common problems faced, 289 amino acids, 92 defi nition, 287–9 amoebozoans, 208–9 dietary strategies, 532 amphibians, 348–50 diversity of, 286–301 chytridiomycosis, 221 domestication of, 9, 116 angiosperms, 231, 254–7 embryonic development, 295 apical meristems, 259–65 excretion of nitrogenous wastes, 294 body form, 258–60 features of, 289 characteristics of, 256 the freshwater environment and, 291–2 classifi cation of, 256 hibernation, 525 dispersal, 273–81 impact of urban development, 30–2 fl ower structure, 273–5 infl uence of the environment on, 289–94 fruit and seed dispersal, 278–9 invertebrates, 304–31 fruit development, 278 lifestyles, 294–6 herbaceous habit, 265 the marine environment and, 290–1 identifi cation of, 256–7 mark-release-recapture techniques, internal transport systems, 270–3 370–72 leaves, 268–70 osmotic regulation in, 291 life cycle, 273 radial symmetry, 295, 299 nutrient uptake, 272 removal methods, 369 pollination, 277 sampling populations of, 367, 369, 370–2, reproduction, 273–81 387 seed development, 27–8 sectional planes of, 288–9 seed germination, 279–81 size of, 297–8 sexual reproduction, 275–7 the terrestrial environment and, 293–4 structure of, 257–68 vertebrates, 335–58 structure of wood, 266–8 water loss by evaporation, 293

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-67982-4 - Environmental Biology Edited by Mike Calver, Alan Lymbery, Jen McComb and Mike Bamford Index More information

654 Index

annelids numerical superiority of, 321 see segmented worms reproduction, 324 antibiotic resistance, 191 respiration and circulation, 323 apicomplexans, 215–16 skeleton and locomotion, 322 aquaculture, 419 asexual reproduction, 106, 439 aquatic environments, inland, 452–77 Atherton to the Alps, 579–80 acidity or alkalinity in, 464–5 atmosphere, circulation of, 502 biodiversity and functionality of, 473, 482 ATP (adenosine triphosphate), 59, 66, chemical stratifi cation, 475–7 67, 77 colour, 459–60 Australia consequences of stratifi cation, 475–7 arid ecosystems of, 153, 611 density of, 473 arrival of Aboriginal people, 152–5 dissolved oxygen, 463–4 Atherton to the Alps project, 579–80 diversity of, 453–7 biodiversity, 138, 304 ecology of, 481–97 biomes, 509 environmental factors in, 458–77 Bush Heritage Australia, 566 eutrophication, 472 cave spiders, 395 human impacts on, 461, 462, 465, 467, climate, 507 472–3 climate change, 358 importance of, 482 conservation of vertebrates, 356–8 lakes, 464, 475, 477 declining ecosystems in, 405 lentic environments, 482–91 desert frogs, 529 light, 458 deserts, 152 lotic environments, 491–6 dingo, 380 nutrients, 468–73 effi ciency of water use of fl ora, 271 osmoregulation in, 467 endemic fauna, 507 salinity, 466–7 endemic fl ora, 249 stratifi cation, 473–7 Environment Protection and Biodiversity temperature, 462 Conservation Act 1999 (Cth), 357, 542, thermal stratifi cation, 464–75 545, 572, 573, 604 threats to, 482 environmental awareness and turbidity, 460–61 responsibility, 613 vulnerability to secondary salinisation, 467 eudicotyledons, 256 archaea, 185–6 extinctions, 610 cell walls, 185 extinctions of Australian fl ora, 249, 357 plasma membranes, 185 fauna of, 354, 507–8, 513 tRNA, 185 feral pigs, 108 Archaeplastida, 209–212 fi re, 153, 357, 402–3, 501 chloroplastids (green algae), 212 fl oods and droughts, 493 glaucophytes, 211 fl ora of, 507 rhodophyceae (red algae), 211 fossil record, 152 Armistead, Rodney, 526 fossils, 336 arthropods, 321–4 Gondwanalink, 579–80 body plan, 322 granite rock formations, 519 classifi cation of, 322 grasslands, 513 excretion, 323 habitat degradation and loss, 356 exoskeleton, 322 history of Australian biota, 151–2 feeding and digestion, 323 hunting, 357 nervous and endocrine systems, 323–4 Intertidal Protected Areas, 567

Index 655

introduced species, 198, 249, 357, 363, 378, bioaccumulation, 401 379, 508 biodiversity, 361 isolation of, 506 arguments for conservation of, 561–3, Kakadu wetlands, 452 563–5 Landcare acrivities, 566 defi nitions of, 160 lizards, 351 and urban development, 30 mallee growth form, 528 biodiversity conservation, 155, 598 management of small macropods, 381 biodiversity hotspots, 550 Marine Protected Areas in Victoria, 444 biogeography, 114, 139–44 Martu people of Western Australia, 9 biological control, 198 megafauna, 154, 155 population ecology and, 379–80 Mount Hotham, 526 virally vectored immunocontraception, 198 Murray-Darling river system, 614 biomes, 508–16 National Strategy for the Conservation of changes in, 515–16 Australia’s Biological Diversity, 604 southern and northern views of, 509 nectar-feeding honey possum, 108 BIOPAT, 175 plant adaptation to fi re-prone bioregions, 141 environments, 501 biosphere, 3 Project Aware on the Rocks, 567–8 ecosystems and, 405 rainforest, 151, 153, 511 energy fl ow in, 81–4 reptiles, 352 Birch, Charles, 609 Riversleigh fauna, 153 birds savannas, 513 endothermy, 353 seagrasses, 424 features of, 352–3 sheep, 609 habitats of, 353 smoke and germination, 279–81 migration, 353, 573 soils, 272, 507 parental care of young, 353 susceptibility to ENSO, 507, 527 removal of excess salt, 435 tree ferns, 241 reproduction, 353 wetlands, 490–1 Birds Australia, 616 Australian Conservation Foundation, 444, 566 black-footed rock-wallabies, 28–9 Australian Marine Conservation Society, 444 Blumenbach, Johnan, 335 autotrophs, 67, 82, 187, 389 bogong moths, 601 brine shrimp, 291 bacillariophyta, 213 broad-toothed rat, 37 Bacillus thuringiensis, 198 Brock, Thomas, 182 bacteria, 185–6 Brooks, Shane, 589 cell walls, 185 brown algae, 213, 422 extremophilic, 186 Brown, Robert, 45 plasma membranes, 185 brush-tailed phascogale, 32 thermophilic, 182 bryophytes, 231, 232–3 tRNA, 185 Bush Heritage Australia, 566 bacteriophages, 57 Baltimore, David, 195 Californian condor, 53 basidomycetes, 225 Calvin cycle, 73–6 Bayesian approach to science, 36–8 CAM plants, 75–6, 528 Beadle, Noel, 531 camoufl age, 390–1 bettong, 363, 381 cane toads, 128, 380 Biejerinck, Martinus, 193 Cape Range National Park, 395

656 Index

Capel Wetlands Centre, Western Australia, 481 chondrichthyes, 345–6 captive breeding programs, 113, 126, 331 chordates, 335–58 carbohydrates, 44 defi nition, 336 carbon cycle, 399 features of, 336 Catchment Management Authorities, Victoria, Chromalveolata, 212–16 589–90 apicomplexans, 215–16 cats, and wildlife, 216 bacillariophyta (diatoms), 213 cave spiders, 395 ciliates, 215 cell theory, 43–61, 65–84, 88–109 dinofl agellates, 214 cells oomycetes (water moulds), 213–14 cell cycle, 100 phaeophyceae (brown algae), 213 cell division, 61, 100 chromosomes, 89, 103, 106 characteristics of, 48 see also DNA, genes chloroplasts, 59 chytridiomycosis, 221 control of cell function, 94–9 chytrids, 223–4 cytoskeleton and movement, 60 ciliates, 215 division of, 100–7 citric acid cycle, 78 DNA in chloroplasts and mitochondria, 60 cladistic analysis, 167, 169 energy conversion, 59–60 classifi cation, 160–6, 171 eukaryotic cells, 49–51 domains, 178 fungal cells, 50 evolutionary, 163–5, 166, 171 mitochondrion, 59–60 importance of, 165 nucleus, 56–7 kingdoms, 178 organelles, 56–9 molecular, 301 photosynthesis, 68–76 phylogenetic approach, 171, 300 plant cells, 50 political ramifi cations of, 165 prokaryotic cells, 49 superkingdoms, 178 respiration, 76–81 taxa, 176–7 ribosomes, 60 taxonomy, 161–3 size of cells, 46–8 classifi cation and identifi cation, Chagas disease, 218 160–178 characters, 117 climate analogous, 168, 170 El Niño-Southern Oscillation, 504 ancestral, 169 infl uence of isolation and seasons, 502–3 continuous, 121, 122, 129 landscape and, 503 derived, 169 Code of Practice for the Care and Use of Animals discrete, 121, 122 for Scientifi c Purposes, 26 homologous, 168, 170 commensalism, 390 molecular, 169–70 communities, 380–405 Chase, Martha, 57 animal communities, 387 chemosysthesis, 66 characteristics of, 385–9 China-Australia Migratory Bird Agreement, comparing communities, 387 572, 573 competition, 392 chlorophyll, 72 conservation of, 549 chloroplastids (green algae), 212 and ecosystems, 393–401 life cycle, 212 and environmental restoration, 592 chloroplasts, 59–60, 72, 229 interactions in, 389–92 endosymbiosis and, 209 pioneer communities, 402 Choanomonada, 218 plant communities, 385

Index 657

quantifying the composition of, 385–7 digestion, 437 recovery and threat abatement planning, ecosystem engineers, 308 574–7 genetic structure of populations, 443 resilience in, 401–3 intracellular algae, 309, 418 soils and plant communities, 505–6 synchronised spawning, 440 species richness and diversity, 385–88 zooxanthellae, 309, 418 succession in, 401–3 Corrigin grevillea, 15–18, 126, 606–8 trophic relationships, 389 genetic diversity of, 607 conifers, 246–9 habitat destruction and, 607 characteristics of, 249 reproduction, 606 conservation status of, 249 Crick, Francis, 90 habitat of, 248 crown-of-thorns starfi sh, 13–15, 106, life cycle, 246 605–6 conservation biology, 538–55, 598 causes of outbreaks, 606 code of conduct for debate between human impacts on population, 605 scientists, 570 reproduction, 605 community participation in, 566–70 culture, 6, 10 conservation of communities, 549 development of human culture, 6–12 cultural, 559–77 cyanobacteria, 144, 146, 198 cultural nature of, 560–91 cycads, 242 defi nition, 539 conservation status of, 246 dialogue between stakeholders in, 569–70 habitat of, 245–46 and economic activity, 564–5 life cycles, 243 establishing protected areas, 550 neurotoxins in, 244, 245 legislative and regulatory approaches, 572–3 cytokinesis, 102 management outside protected areas, 554–5 cytoskeletons, 60 reasons for, 561–5 recovery and threat abatement planning, 574 Darwin, Charles, 23, 116, 129, 133, 138, recovery plans, 574 155, 335 responsibility for, 565–73 diatoms, 213 role of government, 566 dieback in trees, 202, 214, 405 role of international bodies, treaties and dingo, 508 conventions, 571–2 dinofl agellates, 214 scope of the problem, 539–40 ‘blooms’ of, 214 single species approaches, 548–9 disease, 184, 193, 197 and society, 560 amoebic dysentery, 209 treaties and conventions, 571–2 amoebic meningitis, 209 conservation, ex situ and in situ, 545 and apicomplexans, 216 Conservation International, 571 fungal, 219 conservation status, 545–6 hydatid tapeworm, 315 continents, 142 infectious disease, 197 Convention on Biodiversity, 572, 573 malaria, 215 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Tay-Sachs disease, 58 Species, 242, 571 toxins and, 198 Cookson, Isobel, 231 trypanosomes and, 218 Cooksonia, 231, 238 water moulds and, 214 corals, 13 dispersion patterns, types of, 367 brooding species, 443 DNA, 57, 89–92 and the crown-of-thorns starfi sh, 605 and cell division, 100

658 Index

chloroplast DNA, 109 ecosystem engineers, 308, 592 in chloroplasts and mitochondria, 60 energy fl ow in, 7, 9, 198 control of cell function, 94–9 eutrophication, 404 genetic code, 92–3 human impacts on, 403–4, 583 microsatellite markers, 108 inertia in, 581–2 mitochondrial, 109 inland aquatic ecosystems, 481–97 mutations, 99 management of, 554 non-coding, 95 marine ecosystems, 160 replication of, 100 nitrogen cycle, 399 splicing, 95 nutrient capital in, 400 structure of, 90 pollution in aquatic environments, 292 transcription of, 94–5, 96 pre-agricultural, 7–8 translation of, 95–9 primary processes, 591 Dobzhansky, Thodosius, 117, 133 prokaryotes in, 198 Domin scale, 385 recycling of matter in, 7, 9 Doushantuo Formation, 147 repairing primary processes, 591 Dunn, Irina, 612, 613, 614 resilience in, 581–2 and soils, 521–2 Earth stability of, 583 atmospheric carbon dioxide, 149 succession in, 582–3 beginnings of life on, 144–5 thresholds, 583 continents on, 142, 147 trophic cascades, 404 history of life on, 138–56 urban ecosystems, 10–12, 29–31, 404 multicellular life on, 145 water cycle, 399 oxygen levels, 145 water quality, 176 Eberhardt’s method, 369 Ediacaran fauna, 147 echinoderms, 327–30 Einstein, Albert, 23 body plan, 328 El Niño-Southern Oscillation, 504, 507, classifi cation of, 328 527 excretion, 330 embryology, comparative, evidence for features of, 327 evolution, 116 feeding and digestion, 328 endocytosis, 56 nervous and endocrine systems, 330 endoplasmic reticulum, 58 reproduction, 330 endosymbiosis, 206, 209, 212 respiration and circulation, 329–30 and chloroplasts, 209 skeleton and locomotion, 328 energy, 7, 9, 81–4, 198 ECOSUB program, 425 Calvin cycle, 73–6 ecosystem engineers 308, 592 effi ciency of transformation of, 394 ecosystem function, 393 from fat and protein, 80–81 ecosystem services, 405, 554, 562 and food chains and food webs, 393–5 ecosystems, 3, 380–405, 548 from glucose, 78–81 agricultural ecosystems, 9–10, 11 light-dependent reactions, 72–3 bioaccumulation and biomagnifi cation, light-independent reactions, 73–6 400–1 pyramid of, 395 biosphere and, 405 uses and sources of in organisms, 66–8 carbon cycle, 399 Engelmann, Theodor, 69 and communities, 393–401 Environment Protection and Biodiversity cycling of nutrients in, 397–9 Conservation Act 1999, 357, 542, 545, disturbances of, 401–3, 581–3 572, 573, 604

Index 659

environmental biology, 2–18 DNA of, 92, 95 animal ethics and, 27 endoplasmic reticulum, 58 and genetic diversity, 107–9 energy conversions in, 59–60 and human cultural development, 6–12 evolution of, 145 humans and the environment, 3–4, Golgi apparatus, 58 12–18 lysosomes, 58 role of politics in, 615 meiosis, 102–5 environmental degradation, causes of, 581 metabolism, 187 environmental ethics, 612–16 mitochondria, 59–60 environmental fl ows, 457 mitosis, 102 environmental impacts, assessment of, 613 morphology, 257 environmental problems, humans and, 3–4 nucleus, 56–7 environmental restoration, 579–98 organelles, 52–60 community participation in, 594–6 passive transport in, 52–5 conservation and, 598 phylogenetic reconstruction, 167–70 defi nitions and reasons for, 580–1 plasma membranes, 52 directing vegetation change, 591–2 ribosomes, 60, 125–8 establishing vegetation and habitat for fauna, vacuoles, 58–9 587–8 vascular tissue, 265 fauna and restoration, 592 eutherians, 354, 356 goals of, 584, 586 eutrophication, 404, 472 key steps in, 583–90 evolution, 114–17, 300 landform design and the soil profi le, 587 evidence for, 114–16 landscape-scale restoration, 592–4 Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, 124, 438 limiting or degrading factors, 584–5 macroevolution, 132–3 long-term management, 588 microevolution, 123–8 and management, 585 ‘red queen’ hypothesis of, 392 monitoring progress, 585–6 speciation, 129–32 policy instruments for, 596–8 evolutionary theory, 113–33 repairing primary processes, 591 Excavata, 218 river restoration, 588–90 euglena, 218 role of government, 596 trypanosomes, 218 environmental tourism, 4 exocytosis, 56 environmental variation, and genetic variation, experiments 122–3 controls, 33–4 ethics, 4 designs for, 32 animal ethics, 27 measuring and monitoring, 35 eucalypt forests, 403 placement of treatments and controls, 34 resistance to fi re, 512 replication design, 32–3 eudicotyledons, 256 exponential growth, 376 roots, 259, 263 extinction, 88, 156, 539 vascular cambium, 266 mass extinctions, 144, 149 euglena, 218 as a natural process, 563 eukaryotic cells, 49–51, 183 extremophiles, 186 active transport in, 56 cell cycle, 100–1 feeding relationships, study of, 394 cell division, 100–5 ferns and their allies, 231, 237–42 cytokinesis, 102 conservation status of, 241–2 cytoskeleton, 60 habitat of, 241

660 Index

morphology, 238 kingdom of, 219–25 rhizomes, 239 lichens, 225 roots, 240 life cycles, 220 tree ferns, 241 mycorrhiza, 221 vascular bundle, 239 reproduction, 220 fi re, 153, 357, 501, 611 spores, 220 fi sh truffl es, 223, 224 bony fi sh, 346, 436 zygomycetes, 224 classifi cation of, 345 deep-ocean fi sh, 409 gap analysis, 550 dispersion patterns, 443 garden skinks, 30–2 fi sh with jaws, 345 gastric-brooding frogs, 343 success of, 346 Gauch, Hugh, 21 tagging studies, 443 genes, 89 Fisher, Ronald, 133 quantitative trait loci (QTLs), 121 fi shing, 160, 444 genetic code, 92–6 fjeldmark, 515 mapping of, 99 fl atworms, 310–15 mutations in, 99 body plan, 311 genetic diversity, 106, 107 classifi cation of, 310 and DNA sequencing, 109 excretion, 312 and environmental biology, 107–9 feeding and digestion, 312 and tracing breeding patterns, 108 nervous and endocrine systems, and the tree of life, 108–9 312–13 genetic variation, 99, 113–33, 543 reproduction, 313–15 barriers to, 130 respiration and circulation, 312 and environmental variation, 122–3 skeleton and locomotion, 311–12 inheritance of, 118–19, 121 fl uoroacetate, 43, 60, 391, 532 mechanisms of, 132 fl ying foxes, 22 origin of, 117–23 food chains, 393–5 phenotypic characters, 117–18 aquatic, 485 sources of, 104, 118 food webs, 393–395 genetics, terminology of, 89 aquatic, 484–6 genotype, 94 consequences of changes in, 486–7 geological eras, 139 foraminiferans, 209 glaucophytes, 211 fossils, 114, 231, 238, 336 global warming, 82–3, 614 foxes, red, 27–8, 363, 375, 380 glomeromycetes, 224 Franklin, Rosalind, 90 glucose, 78–81 fungi, 202–25, 219–25 glycolysis, 78 ascomycetes, 224 Golgi apparatus, 58 basidomycetes, 225 Gondwanalink, 579–80 chytrids, 223–4 grasses, 259 classifi cation of, 223–5 grasstrees, 260 disease and, 219 Great Barrier Reef, 13–15, 106, diversity of form and lifestyle, 219–20 605–6 environmental roles of, 221–3 great white sharks, 368, 445 glomeromycetes, 224 green algae, 212, 422 Hartig net, 221 greenhouse effect, 83 and humans, 219 Greenpeace, 616

Index 661

groups India, air pollution in cities, 11–12 monophyletic, 171 Indigenous Australians, 152–5 paraphyletic, 171 hunting, 392 polyphyletic, 171 Martu people of Western Australia, 9 gymnosperms, 231, 242–9 use of cycads, 245 classifi cation of, 242 use of fi re, 357, 501 conifers, 246–9 use of underground plant parts, 265 cycads, 243–6, 245 Industrial Revolution, 10, 83, 154 information-theoretic approach to science, 36–8 Haldane, J. B. S., 133 inheritance, Mendelian, 118–19 Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, 124, 438 insecticides, 601 deviations from, 125–8 International Code of Botanical Nomenclature, 173 migration and, 127 International Code of Nomenclature of mutations and, 127 Bacteria, 173 non-random mating and, 126 International Code of Zoological selection and, 127 Nomenclature, 173 small population size and, 125–6 International Commission on Zoological Haynes, Roslynn, 611 Nomenclature, 175, 453 Hennig, Willi, 167 International Convention for the Regulation of hereditary material, 57, 89–92 Whaling, 571 and cell division, 100–7 International Union for the Conservation of and cell function, 94–9 Nature heritability, 123 categories for threat and endangerment of Hershey, Alfred, 57 species, 545 heterotrophs, 67, 82, 187, 389 criteria for assessment of critical, endangered Hobbs, Richard, 579–98 and vulnerable species, 546 Holdaway, Richard, 373 Red List, 165, 541, 545, 571 Hooke, Robert, 45 invertebrates, 149, 304–31 Hopper, stephen, 138–56 in aquatic ecosystems, 482 Horwitz, Pierre, 538–55, 559–77 arthropods, 321–4 Human Genome Project, 99 conservation of, 304, 330–31 humans, 4–6 diversity of, 330 characteristics of modern humans, 5–6 fl atworms, 310–315 cultures, 6–12 importance of, 330 environmental impacts of, 3–4, 12–18, 139, jellyfi sh and relatives, 306–10 403–4, 457, 583 marine invertebrates, 437 evolution of, 4–5 molluscs, 324–7 and fungi, 219 roundworms, 315–18 language, 5 sea stars, 327–30 population density, 3, 12 segmented worms, 318–21 tools use, 5 sponges, 305–6 hydrology, 453–6 isotopes, 50 hypothesis testing Ivanovsky, Dmitri, 193 Akaike information criterion, 37 designs for, 33 Jackson, Stephen, 405 interpretation of results, 36 Jacomb, Chris, 373 Japan-Australia Migratory Bird Agreement, identifi cation, 176–7 572, 573 keys, 176, 177, 257 jellyfi sh and their relatives, 306–10

662 Index

body plan, 307 transpiration, 271 classifi cation of, 306 water loss from, 270 feeding and digestion, 308–9 leeches, 320 nematocysts, 308 Leeuwenhoek, Anton van, 45 nervous and endocrine systems, 309–10 Leeuwin current, 417, 503, 521 reproduction, 310 lentic and lotic waters, ecology of, 481–96 respiration, circulation and lentic environments, 482–91 excretion, 309 algal blooms, 486 skeleton and locomotion, 307–8 aquatic food webs, 484–6 zooxanthellae, 309 aquatic plants and wetland function, 487–90 Johnson, Marc, 361 biodiversity in, 486 Jolly-Seber MRR models, 371 consequences of changes in, 486–7 Jusaitis, Manfred, 547 fringing vegetation, 490 habitats in wetlands and lakes, 482–4 Kakadu wetlands, 452 human impacts on, 486 keystone species, 389, 548 limitations of for plants, 488 Kimberley region, Western Australia, oxygen concentrations, 487, 489 551–2 pollution in, 487 King, Dennis, 106 sedimentation, 488 kingdoms, Protista, 203 zonation of, 483–4 Kinnear, Jack, 28 lichens, 225 Kirkpatrick, Jamie, 569, 570 mutualism, 390 koalas, and retroviruses, 196 life Krebs cycle, 78 Cambrian explosion, 147 Kuhn, Thomas, 24 chemical components, 44–5 classifi cation and identifi cation, 160–78 Lake Pedder, 559–60 defi nition, 44–5 Lake, Sam, 590 evolution of, 144–5, 150–55 lakes, 464, 475, 477 history of, 138–56 see also lentic environments kingdoms, 178 lampreys, 342–4 on land, 146, 147–9 Land and Water Australia, 304 marine life, 147 land, life on, 146 molecular basis of, 44–5 see also terrestrial habitats, terrestrial multicellular, 145 lifestyles properties of living things, 44–5 landscape-scale restoration static life table, 374 experimenting with treatments, 594 life tables, 373–6 interventions needed, 593 cohort life table, 374 Lane Poole, Charles, 564 static life table, 374 Lavoisier, Antoine, 76 light, attenuation in wetlands, 458 lead poisoning of California condors, 53 Lincoln index, 371 Leadbeater’s possum, 12–13, 603–5 Linneaus, Carolus, 163 knowledge of its biology, 603 lipids, 44–5 population dynamics, 603 liverworts, 233–4 population viability analysis, 604 conservation status of, 237 leaves, 71, 239, 527, 531–2 environmental value of, 236 gas exchange, 270 habitat of, 236–7 stomates, 271 lotic environments, 491–6 structure of, 268–70 adaptations for life in fl owing waters, 493

Index 663

catchment, 493 salt marshes, 426 ecological models of, 493–6 seagrasses, 423–4 fl ood pulse model of, 496 marine ecosystems patch dynamics model of, 496 diversity in, 160 physical features of streams and rivers, 492 stability of, 230 river continuum concept, 494–6 marine habitats, 409–27 riverine productivity model, 496 artifi cial substrates, 419 stream order, 492 coral reefs, 418 Lunney, Dan, 608–12 food intake and removal of solid wastes, luxury diet, 84 437–48 lysosomes, 58 mud, 420 open-water and coastal habitats, 417 macroevolution, 132–3 rocky substrates, 417–18 Madigan, Cecil, 610 rubble, 418 malaria, 215 sand, 419 Malthus, Thomas, 377 soft substrates, 419 mammals, 354 marine lifestyles, 431–48 classifi cation of, 350, 354 marine producers, 420–27 features of, 354 Marine Protected Areas in Victoria, 444 marine mammals, 435 mark-release-recapture techniques, 370–2 reproduction, 356 problems of, 371 size of, 354 marsupials, 152, 354 mangroves Martin, John, 208 constraints on distribution, 425 materialism, 24 functions of, 426 Mayer, Adolf, 193 productivity of, 425 Mayr, Ernst, 129, 133 salinity constraints, 426 McFadden, Geoff, 216 marine animals McLean, Ian, 381 asexual reproduction, 439 medicinal use of leeches, 320 digestion, 437 meiosis, 100, 102–5 dispersion patterns, 438–45, 443 phases of, 103–5 external fertilisation, 438 membranes, 52 fi lter feeding, 437 active transport, 56 hermaphroditic, 439 exocytosis and endocytosis, 56 internal fertilisation, 442 organelles of the endomembrane lungs, 448 system, 56–9 modular structure, 439 passive transport, 52–5 osmoregulation and waste removal, 435 structure of, 52 removing liquid wastes, 433–7 Mendel, Gregor, 118, 133 reproduction, 438–45, 438–42 metabolism respiration, 445 aerobic, 145 sedentary, 440 prokaryote, 187–8 temperature regulation, 432–7 metatherians, 354, 356 water balance, 433–7 methoprene, 324 marine communities, 420–27, 442–5 microevolution, 123–8 algae, 422 Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, 124, 125–8 bacteria, 427 microscopy, 45, 46–7 biomass and productivity, 420 Miller, Gifford, 155 mangroves, 424–6 mimicry, 390–91

664 Index

minimum viable population, 542–3 natural theology, 24 mining industry, 581, 586–8 nectar-feeding honey possum, 108 mitochondria, 59–60 nematodes, 315–18 mitosis, 100, 102, 105 see roundworms moas, 8, 373 neutralism, 390 molluscs, 324–7 New Zealand, moas of, 8, 373 as bioindicators, 326 Newsome, Alan, 380 body plan, 324–7 Newton, Mark, 293–4 classifi cation of, 324 nitrifi cation, 472 excretion, 327 nitrogen, 470 feeding and digestion, 325–6 total Kjeldahl nitrogen, 472 nervous and endocrine systems, 327 nitrogen cycle, 397–8, 470 reproduction, 327 nitrogen fi xation, 198, 398, 470, 530 respiration and circulation, 326 Noble, David, 228 skeleton and locomotion, 325 nomenclature, 162, 173–5 Monarto mintbush, 547 codes of, 173, 175 monocotyledons, 256 fund-raising and, 175 morphology, 257, 268 nominative determinism, 589, 590 roots, 259, 263 non-government organisations, 571 vascular tissue, 265 North, Marianne, 138, 155 mosses, 234–7, 515 nucleic acids, 45, 91 conservation status of, 237 nucleotides, 90 environmental value of, 236 nucleus, 56–7 gametophyte stem, 235 null hypothesis, 26–7, 36 habitat of, 236–7 nutrients, cycling of, 397–9 mountain ash, 254 mountain pygmy possum, 526 oceans mulgara, 38 Coriolis effect and upwelling, 415–17 Mullis, Kary, 182 density of water, 411 multicellular life, 145 factors affecting water level and motion, 415–17 Murray cod, 357 light-independent reactions, 412 Murray-Darling river system, 614 photosynthetic pigments, 412 Murray, Frank, 11–12 physical features of, 410–17 mutations, 99, 118 salinity and circulation, 410–11 effects of, 118 temperature, 411–12 and the Hardy-Weinberg variation, tides, 412–14 127 tsunamis, 415 rate of, 118 waves, 415 mutualism, 390, 530 wind setup, 415 mycorrhiza, 221 O’Hara, Graham, 182–98 oomycetes (water moulds), 213–14 NADPH molecules, 73 diseases caused by, 214 Naeem, Shahid, 564 Opisthokonta (choanomonads), 218 National Farmers’ Federation, 566 organelles of the endomembrane system National Strategy for Economically Sustainable endoplasmic reticulum, 58 Development, 604 Golgi apparatus, 58 National Strategy for the Conservation of lysosomes, 58 Australia’s Biological Diversity, 604 nucleus, 56–7 natural selection, 116–17, 127, 129, 132 vacuoles, 58–9

Index 665

Ortelius, Abraham, 142 plants, 228–49, 249–81 osmosis, 54 adaptation to hot, dry environments, 527–8 and organisms, 54–5, 291, 467 adaptation to low nutrients, 529 out-group comparison, 169 adaptation to soil toxins, 533–4 oxygen, 82 adaptation to aquatic life, 487–90 concentration in sea water, 445, 446 adaptation to cold environments, 522–5 dissolved oxygen in wetlands, 463–4 angiosperms, 231, 254–7 loss from water, 464 aquatic vegetation, 482 Australian fl ora, 507 Pacifi c Ocean CAM plants, 75–6, 528 Pacifi c warm pool, 504 carnivorous, 531 Walker circulation, 504 conservation of, 255 parasites, 286, 391, 530–31 deterrence of herbivory, 391, 532 apicomplexans, 215 diversity of, 228–49, 249–81 in captive-bred animals, 331 domestication of, 6, 9, 116 fungi, 221 evolution of land plants, 230–32 indicators of environmental quality, 286 evolution of spores and seeds, 148 pathogens extinctions of, 144 see diseases features of land plants, 230 Pedder galaxias, 559–60 fl owering plants, 254–7 Peterson method, 371 gymnosperms, 242–9 phaeophyceae (brown algae), 213 internal transport systems, 237 phenotype, 94, 117–18 leaves, 239 Phillips, Ben, 128 life cycles, 524 philosophy of science, 22 life form and growth form, 522–4 phosphorus, 401, 470, 529 ‘luxury uptake’, 488 phosphorylation, 68, 79–80 mutualism, 391 photorespiration, 75 non-fl owering, 242–9 photosynthesis, 66, 68–76, 82, 229 non-vascular, 232–7

C4 and CAM plants, 75–6 nutrients, 272, 521 characteristics of, 70 oomycetes (water moulds), 213–14 and global warming, 82–3 quadrat sampling, 385 glucose and, 74–6 radiation during the Carboniferous leaf shape and, 270 period, 238 photosynthetic pigments, 412 roots, 529 photosystems I and II, 72–3 sclerophylly, 531–2 structures and organelles for, 71–2, 268–70 sectional planes of, 258 study of, 68–70 seed plants, 149, 150, 242–9 wavelengths of light for, 69 seedless, 232–7, 237–42 phylogenetic reconstruction, 167–170 specialised forms associated with cladistic analysis of molecular characters, aridity, 528 169–170 structure of seedlings, 258–60 derived and ancestral character states, 169 succulents, 528 homologous and analogous characters, 168 terrestrial, 229–32 Phytophthora cinnamomi, 202, 214, 405 transition from ocean to land, 229–30 phytoplankton, 84, 207, 417, 422, 422 vascular, 237–42, 242–9 in ﬂ owing waters, 493 vascular tissue, 229, 521 role in the oceans, 208 plants, seed (vascular, non-ﬂ owering), 242–9 Pianka, Eric, 351 gymnosperms, 242–9

666 Index

plants, seedless (vascular), 237–42 infl uence on growth, 376–9 ferns and their allies, 237–42 life tables, 372–3 plants, seedless (non-vascular), 232–7 marine populations, 442–5 bryophytes, 232–3 mark-release-recapture techniques, 370–2 liverworts, 233–4, 236–7 migration, 127 mosses, 234–7, 236–7, 237 plant populations, 364–5 plants, terrestrial, 229–32 properties of, 364–76 features of, 230 quantifying birth, death and survivorship, evolution of, 230–2 372–3 plate tectonics, 141, 142, 147 removal methods, 369 platypus, 335 selection, 127 poikilothermy, 432 size of, 369 point-quarter method of estimating tree small-populations, 125–6, 542–6 density, 365 study of, 364–76 pollution, 198, 292 survivorship, 374 polymerase chain reaction (PCR), 182 Porifera, 305–6 polyploidy, 131 positivism, 23 Popper, Karl, 23 potato blight, 214 population ecology, 363–81 precautionary principle, 562 applications, 379–81 predation, 390–2, 530–1 biological control, 379–80 adaptations for, 390–1 defi nition, 364 herbivory, 391 harvesting, 380 and parasites, 530–1 recovering endangered species, 381 parasitism, 391 population growth plant carnivory, 531 exponential growth, 376 removal of large predators, 404 and life history, 378–9 types of, 390 limiting factors, 378 probability, 37 logistic growth model, 377–8, 380 prokaryotes, 182–98 population viability analysis, 542–3, 544, 604 archaea, 185–6 populations bacteria, 185–6 age distribution, 372 classifi cation of, 183–6 age pyramids, 373 environmental infl uences, 192, 197–8 animal populations, 367 identifi cation, 183–6 bottleneck effect, 126 metabolism, 187–8 catch per unit effort, 370 reproduction, 188–91 conservation of, 539–49 structure of, 183–6, 184 ‘declining population paradigm’, 542 prokaryotic cells, 49, 183 demographic uncertainties, 543 antibiotic resistance, 191 density of, 364 asexual reproduction, 188 dispersion in time, 368 binary fi ssion, 188 dispersion patterns, 367–8 and biological control, 198 environmental uncertainty, 543–4 cell division, 100 and evolution, 123 cell walls, 183, 184 exponential growth, 188 diversity of metabolism, 187 founder effect, 125 DNA of, 91 genes in, 123–4 DNA transfer in, 189 genetic exchange between, 108 in ecosystems, 198 genetic uncertainties, 543 exponential growth, 188

Index 667

lack of organelles, 184 rarity metabolism, 187–8 concept of, 540–1 nitrogen metabolism, 188 evaluation of, 541–2 nutrition, 187 forms of, 541 and oxygen, 192 rationalism, 23 and pH, 192 Raunkiaer, C., 522 plasma membranes, 183 Recher, Harry, 612–16 and remediation of pollution, 198 recovery plans, 574 reproduction, 188–91 red algae, 211, 423 shapes of, 184 reproduction sporulation, 188 asexual, 106, 439 and temperature, 192 external fertilisation, 343 toxins, 198 internal fertilisation, 343 and water, 192 K-selection, 379, 380 protected areas in marine habitats, 438–45 choice of, 550–2 non-random mating, 126 designing networks of, 552–3 r-selection, 378, 380 gap analysis, 550 sexual, 106–7 habitat corridors, 553 reptiles, 350–52 management of, 553–4 classiﬁ cation of, 171, 348, 351–2 shape of, 553 ectothermy, 351 size of, 552–3 features of, 350–1 proteins, 45, 80–1, 92 removal of excess salt, 435 synthesis of, 95–9 resilience protists, 202–25, 203 characteristics of, 581–2 alternation of generations, 204 equilibrium concepts, 582 amoebozoans, 208–9 respiration, 67, 76–81, 82 Archaeplastida, 209–12 aerobic, 472 Chromalveolata, 212–16 anaerobic, 81 classiﬁ cation of, 206 glycolysis, 78 diversity of form and lifestyle, 203, 206 Krebs cycle, 78 endosymbiosis, 206 in marine habitats, 445 environemntally important protists, 206–8 role of mitochondria, 77–8 Excavata, 218 oxidative phosphorylation, 79–80 evolution of, 206 study of, 76–7 kingdom Protista, 203 retroviruses, 195 Opisthokonta, 10, 56 rhizarians, 209 reproduction, 203 rhizomes, 239 rhizarians, 209 rhodophytes (red algae), 211 toxoplasmosis, 216 life cycles, 212 Punnett squares, 119 ribosomes, 60 Rio Declaration on Environment and quadrat sampling, 364 Development, 572 river continuum concept rabbits, 363 feeding groups in, 494 radioactive isotopes, 50 nutrient spiralling, 495 rainforest, 150 rivers Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, see also lotic environments 572, 573 human disturbances of, 589

668 Index

restoration of, 588–90 sea anemones, reproduction, 442 stream order, 492 seagrasses, 423–4 RNA, 60, 92 functions of, 424 genetic code, 93 rehabilitation of meadows, 425 messenger RNA, 97 seeds ribosomal RNA, 108, 299 dormancy, 279 tranfer RNA, 95, 185 evolution of, 242 translation of, 95–9 smoke and germination, 279–81 roundworms, 315–18 segmented worms, 318–21 body plan, 316 body plan, 319 classifi cation of, 315 classifi cation of, 318 excretion, 316 excretion, 320 feeding and digestion, 316 feeding and digestion, 319–20 nervous and endocrine systems, 318 nervous and endocrine systems, 320–1 reproduction, 318 reproduction, 321 respiration and circulation, 316 respiration and circulation, 320 skeleton and locomotion, 315 skeleton and locomotion, 318–19 selection saprophytes, 221 artifi cial, 127 sampling populations of animals natural, 116–17, 127, 129 catch per unit effort, 370 sexual reproduction, reasons for, 106–7 mark-release-recapture techniques, 370–2 sharks and their allies, 345–6 removal methods, 369 great white sharks, 368, 445 trapping, 367 Shaw, George, 335 sampling populations of plants shipping, 431 point-quarter method, 365 Shire, Richard, 128 quadrat sampling, 364 Simpson, George Gaylord, 133 Schleiden, Matthias, 45 slash-and-burn farming, 10 Schwann, Theodor, 45 sleeping sickness, 218 science, 22–38 snails Bayesian approach, 36–8 see molluscs before-after, control-impact (BACI) design of soils, 504–6 experiments, 31 and ecosystems, 521–2 development of, 23–5 factors in soil formation, 504–5 experiments, 26 and plant communities, 505–6 history of, 23–5 saline, 533 hypothesis-testing approach, 24, 25–36 soil formation and structure, 504–5 information-theoretic approach, 36–8 toxins in, 533–4 objectivity of, 25 solar energy, 7, 65 philosophy of science, 23 South Africa, Working for Water program, 596, resources for, 21 597–8 statistical and mathematical methods, 36 South America scientifi c method, 24, 25–36, 361 biodiversity in, 138 controls, 34–5 marsupials, 354 interpretation of results, 36 South Australia, Monarto mintbush, 547 publication of research fi ndings, 39 speciation, 129–32 replication, 33–4 allopatric, 130 scorpions, 293–4 process of, 130–31, 132 Scott, G. M., 236 sympatric, 130

Index 669

species, 164 Northern Hemisphere forests, 511 arguments for conservation of, 563–4 open forests, 511–12 competition, 392 patterns of, 502–8 concepts of, 129–30 savannas, 512–13 conservation of, 539–49 scrub and heathlands, 514–15 dominant/keystone species, 389, 548 soils and, 504–6 endemic, 550 Southern Hemisphere closed forests, names of, 174 510–11 pioneer species, 404 structural classifi cation of vegetation, 509 rare and threatened, 540–2 woodlands, 512–13 recovery and threat abatement planning, terrestrial lifestyles, 519–34 574–7 adaptation to hot, dry environments, 527–9 threatened species, 541 adaptation for living on land, 520–22 types of interaction between, 389–92 adaptation to cold environments, 522–7 species diversity, 388 adaptation to low nutrients, 529–33 species richness, 388 nutrients, 521–2 sponges, 296, 305–6 thermoregulation, 520 body plan, 305 water balance, 520–21 classifi cation of, 305 tetrapods, 369, 346–56 feeding and digestion, 306 threatened species, 541 reproduction, 306 evaluation of, 541–2 skeleton and locomotion, 306 management of, 545–8 Stanley, Wendell, 193 reintroduction of, 31–2, 548 starfi sh, 327–30 thylacine, 357, 392 see also sea stars, crown-of-thorns starfi sh tides, 412–14 Stinchcombe, John, 361 ‘barometric’ tides, 414 stygofauna, 395 centrifugal motion, 413 subviral particles, 197 gravity, 413 sugar, synthesis of, 73–6 interaction between the Earth and the survivorship, 376 sun, 413 systematics, 162, 167 tobacco mosaic virus, 193 toxins, 43, 53, 244 Tasmania, Lake Pedder, 559–60 toxoplasmosis, 216 taxonomic diversity, 388 tree density, point-quarter method of taxonomy, 160–78 estimating, 365 identifi cation, 176–7 trees, size of, 254–5 standardised endings of names of taxa, 174 tricaroxylic acid cycle, 78 type specimens, 175 trilobites, 147 technology, 22, 65, 154–6, 611 trypanosomes, 218 Temin, Howard, 195 tsunamis, 415 terrestrial habitats, 501–16 turtles, marine, 165 biomes, 508–16 type specimens, 175 climate and, 502–4 closed forests, 510–11 United Nations, 571 evolutionary history, 506–8 United Nations Conference on Environment and grasslands, 513–14 Development, 410 herbfi elds, 515 United States Environmental Protection infl uence of oceanic circulation on, 503 Agency, 614 landscape and climate, 503 urban ecosystems

670 Index

air pollution in, 11–12 and evolution, 194–6 energy consumption, 11 replication of, 194 impacts on wildlife, 29–31 structure of, 193 subviral particles, 197 vacuoles, 58–9 vertebrates, 335–58 Warburg, Otto, 69, 76 agnathans, 342–4 Ward, Peter, 1 amphibians, 348–50 water budgets, 453, 455 birds, 352–4 water cycle, 399 bony fi sh, 346 water moulds, 213–14 chondrichthyes, 345–6 water quality, 458 conservation of, 356–8 Waterwatch Australia, 176 defi nition, 336–8 Watson, James, 90 development of hinged jaws, 369 Wegener, Alfred, 142 development of legs, 339–340 Western Australia development of lungs, 342 bauxite mining, 586 development of the amniotic egg, Capel Wetlands Centre, 481 340–2 Cheynes Beach, 564 development of three- and four-chambered Corrigin grevillea, 606–8 hearts, 342 jarrah forest, 586–8 diversity of, 336 Leeuwin current, 417, 503, 521 evolution of, 338–42 Martu people, 9 features of, 336–8 protected areas in the Kimberley fi sh with jaws, 345 region, 551–2 gnathostomes, 345 protection of forests, 564 lampreys, 342–4 seagrasses, 424 land vertebrates, 150 white-bellied and orange-bellied frogs, 538, mammals, 354 544, 568–9, 575–7 marine vertebrates, 435 woodland restoration, 593–4 metabolism, 344 wetland diversity, 452–77 overview of, 342–56 wetlands parental care of young, 343 acidity or alkalinity in, 464–5 reproduction, 343 chemical stratifi cation, 475–7 reptiles, 350–52 colour, 459–60 resting metabolism, 344 consequences of stratifi cation, 475–7 sharks and their allies, 345–6 created, 481 temperature regulation, 343–4, 344 defi nition, 453 tetrapods, 346–56 environmental fl ows, 457 Victoria eutrophication, 472 Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988, human impacts on, 457 604 human impacts on nutrients, 472–3 river restoration projects, 589–90 human impacts on pH, 465 Victorian National Parks Association, 444 human impacts on salinity, 467 Virchow, Rudolf, 46 human impacts on temperature, 462 viruses, 57, 193–7 human impacts on turbidity, 461 classifi cation of, 196 hydrology and, 453–6 defi nition, 193 impact of climate and geomorphology, 453 and disease, 197 meromictic lakes, 477 environmental importance of, 197–8 monomictic lakes, 475

Index 671

nutrients, 468–73 Wilderness Society, 616 osmoregulation in, 467 Wilson, E. O., 198, 563 photosynthesis, 458 Woese, Carl, 178, 185 physical and chemical processes in, 452–77 Wollemi pine, 228, 249 polymictic lakes, 475 wolves, 404 rate or periodicity of fl ow, 456 wood, 266–8 salinity, 466–7 Woodford, James, 610 stratifi cation, 473–7 World Health Organization, 466 temperature, 462 World Wildlife Fund, 571 thermal stratifi cation, 464–75 Wright, Sewell, 133 turbidity, 460–61 types of, 454 Yellowstone National Park, 182, 404 water budgets, 454 whales, 108 zygomycetes, 224