A Growing Stereotype: Prince Farming’s reality of agriculture
by
Jaclyn Roberts B.S.
A Thesis
In
Agricultural Communications
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
Master of Science
Approved
Dr. Erica Irlbeck Chair of Committee
Dr. Courtney Gibson
Dr. Rebecca Ortiz
Mark Sheridan Dean of the Graduate School
May, 2015
Copyright 2015, Jaclyn Roberts
Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
As I began this study, I had no idea of the challenges ahead of me. I am so thankful God guided me through experiences that led to this opportunity. I have grown as an individual and made friendships I will not soon forget. I am grateful for each and every individual who has helped me through this process. These kind words are only a small gesture of my appreciation, and will not repay these individuals for what they have done.
Thank you Dr. Erica Irlbeck, for being my committee chair, unofficial therapist and friend. You took me in as an undergraduate and guided me through two rewarding degrees. Without your encouragement, I would not be where I am today. I am grateful to have an advisor who cares not only of my future career endeavors, but in my personal life as well.
Thank you Dr. Courtney Gibson and Dr. Rebbecca Ortiz for being on my committee. Courtney, thank you for your unending patience. You never failed to be a friendly ear. Dr. Ortiz, thank you for bringing in a new perspective to this study. I appreciate the time you have taken out of your schedule to serve on a strangers’ committee. I look forward to fostering a stronger relationship in the near future.
To the world’s most amazing family, I honestly would not be where I am today without you. Mom, thank you for being my best friend. Thank you for dropping everything when I’ve had a bad day just to get our nails done and have a good lunch.
Although this happened more than it should, you never criticized me. Dad, thank you for your unending support. I truly believe you are the hardest working man I know, and I
ii Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015 look up to your work ethic and dedication. I appreciate each and every phone call to get my mind off of school, and your encouragement for me to do what I love. Dolen thank you for being an amazing roommate, friend, and brother. You put up with and endless array of emotions – from stress, to tears, to laughter, you have been here for it all. Your
‘good lucks’ mean more than you know. Marlen thank you for proofing an overload of papers. (Although I may have been bossy enough you had no choice.) Galen, thank you for encouraging me to pursue my masters. You never fail to have great advice.
My graduate experience would not have been the same without an amazing support system within the department of agricultural education and communications.
Faculty and students alike were continually a friendly face I looked forward to seeing each and every day. This thesis would not have been possible without each and everyone’s support.
Finally, as I look back over this experience, I must thank my incredible set of friends. Each of you encouraged both my focus and distraction through this process – and
I am blessed to have people who knew I needed both. Mallory, Keely, Hallie, Elizabeth and Emily, I am lucky to have you all in my life. You made graduate school fun. Cheers to many more years and many more memories!
iii Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...... ii ABSTRACT ...... vi LIST OF TABLES ...... vii I. INTRODUCTION ...... 1 Reality Television ...... 3 The Bachelor Franchise ...... 4 Need for Study ...... 5 Purpose of the Study ...... 6 Theoretical Framework ...... 7 Limitations ...... 8 Basic Assumptions ...... 9 Definition of Terms ...... 9
II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE ...... 10 Introduction ...... 10 Reality Television ...... 10 Theoretical Framework ...... 21 A Distorted Lens of Agriculture ...... 32
III.METHODOLOGY ...... 40 Introduction ...... 40 Purpose and Objectives ...... 40 Research Design ...... 41 Sample ...... 42 Data Collection ...... 43 Data Analysis ...... 45 Coders ...... 46 Trustworthiness ...... 47 Researcher Bias ...... 50
iv Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015
IV. FINDINGS ...... 52 Introduction ...... 52 Findings in Relation to Research Question One ...... 52 Research Question Two ...... 60 Research Question Three ...... 65
V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 68 Introduction ...... 68 Conclusions and Discussion in Relation to Research Question One ...... 70 Conclusions and Discussion in Relation to Research Question Two ...... 75 Conclusions and Discussion in Relation to Research Question Three ...... 78 Further Discussion ...... 80 Recommendations ...... 82
REFERENCES ...... 85 A. SAMPLE CODE BOOK ...... 93 B. CODER TRAINING DOCUMENT ...... 94
v Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015
ABSTRACT
Reality television has seen an influx in success over the past ten years, exploding into a popular culture phenomenon (Miller, 2013). As reality television appears to present unmediated portrayals of events, audiences believe they are receiving an unfiltered glimpse into the real lives of program participants (Hall, 2005). Thus, creating a believable “reality” to audiences despite the carefully constructed content. With multiple agricultural reality television programming on a variety of networks, it is important to understand how the industry is being portrayed to audiences. This study investigated the portrayal of agricultural stereotypes in Season 19 of The Bachelor and Season 10 of The
Bachelorette, which featured Chris Soules, a corn farmer from Iowa.
A qualitative textual content analysis was conducted to investigate the research questions. Four themes were identified to represent the portrayal of agriculture in Season
19 of The Bachelor and Season 10 of The Bachelorette: the romanticized farmer, the pastoral fantasy, a limited understanding of agriculture, and traditional values. The pastoral fantasy, limited understanding of agriculture, and traditional values were found to reinforce previous stereotypes in agriculture, while the romanticized farmer broke previous stereotypes of the industry. Further, emerging stereotypes focusing on rural style, technology, social culture, gender roles and the farmer mold developed.
vi Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015
LIST OF TABLES
1 Perceptions of Rural America adapted from The Kellogg Foundation
(2002) ...... 35
2 Reinforced or Broken Themes ...... 61
vii Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
“It is commonly understood that there are distinct differences in the personalities of Americans living in different regions of the country” (Rogers & Wood, 2010 p. 704).
No one is born with these regional and cultural conceptions, rather, perceptions are based on one’s beliefs, attitudes, and values, which are developed through cultural, social, and individual circumstances (Koivula, 1999). Less than two percent of the United States population lives on a farm (Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 2013) causing information about agricultural topics to no longer be received first hand. “Society now receives the majority of its information about agriculture-related topics from sources removed from the industry itself, including entertainment media such as films and television programs” (Specht, 2010, p. ii). Eighty-six percent of farmers and ranchers in
America feel that consumers are not aware of modern farming and ranching practices
(U.S. Farmers and Ranchers Alliance, 2011), thus, suggesting such secondary sources are not accurately portraying the industry. This study argues an accurate portrayal of such practices could help decrease the percentage of consumers misinformed about the agricultural industry.
Historically, television has been a major source to share images and messages
(Gerbner, Goss, Morgan, & Signorielli, 1986, p. 17). Television was the most used medium for Americans in 2014, who spent an average of 279 minutes per day watching television (Statista, 2015). As a leading medium, television is a primary source of knowledge for publics about agriculture. The repetition of mass-produced messages and
1 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015 images contributes to the mainstream of a common symbolic environment (Gerbner et al., 1986). The Nielsen Company estimates 116.3 million homes have television in the
United States, reaching mass audiences of varying demographics (The Nielson Company,
2014). Thus, there is a wide scope vulnerable to the mainstream views of agriculture portrayed in television programming.
The Kellogg Foundation (2002) conducted 242 in-depth interviews of rural, urban, and suburban residents in the United States to determine perceptions of rural life.
The study found America views rural life as having a different economy, values, environment, and atmosphere from urban living (Kellogg Foundation, 2002).
Specifically, it was viewed as a predominantly agriculturally-based economy with a strong representation of American values rich in community and family life (Kellogg
Foundation, 2002). Further, the study found rural America appeared relaxed and slower paced, with intensive physical labor, and a lifestyle behind the times (Kellogg
Foundation, 2002).
King and Rhoades (2012) discussed the potential for agricultural stereotypes in society and found animals, food, and nature represented images associated with the agricultural industry by college students. “Food” and “farms” were words commonly associated with agriculture (King & Rhoades, 2012). The study found stereotypes supported themes found in the 2002 Kellogg study, specifically a pastoral view of agriculture and descriptors such as “hard working” and “moral” being associated with the industry (King & Rhoades, 2012).
2 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015
Specht (2010) studied how entertainment media influenced societal perceptions of the food and fiber industry by comparing media texts to the Kellogg Foundation’s findings (2002). Specht (2010) concluded a strong correlation among entertainment media text and the themes identified through the Kellogg Institute study. Specifically, the study determined text portrayed an idyllic frame to the pastoral fantasy, traditional values, and an agrarian life preserved through a depiction of the early stages of the agricultural industrial revolution (Specht, 2010).
This research sought to describe the portrayal of agricultural stereotypes in entertainment media, an area in need of further investigation (Specht, 2002; Ruth et al.,
2005; Lundy et al., 2007). Reality television is a genre yet to be studied in depth within the agricultural field, and should be analyzed by agricultural communicators to understand the current portrayal of the industry in the media.
Reality Television
Reiss and Wiltz (2004) identified reality television as employing ordinary people, not actors, as central characters. Reality television places attention on personal thoughts, behaviors, and interactions of participants, and the show’s structure further allows the audience to access characters’ personal thoughts and feelings, breaking down traditional privacy barriers (Stefanone & Lackaff, 2009).
“In the USA, reality is more than a TV genre; it has become a way of life for many people,” (Euromonitor, 2012). Stemming from its beginnings in 1948 with Candid
Camera (Clissold, 2004), the genre has taken on a pop-culture phenomenon, growing in popularity in recent years (Hillard, 2014). Long-standing reality programs such as Cops,
3 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015
Real World, and A Wedding Story were joined by programs such as Survivor, Big
Brother, Making the Band, Fear Factor, Temptation Island, Blind Date, and many more after the media landscape picked up the reality programming trend in the early 2000s
(Nabi, Biely, Morgan, & Stitt, 2003).
The Bachelor Franchise
The first season of The Bachelor aired in March 2002 on ABC. Hosted by Chris
Harrison, the reality television show followed an eligible bachelor as he searched for a wife among 25 women. Each week the bachelor selects women to take on dates. Based on relationships, which are developed through these encounters, women are eliminated each episode.
“The Bachelor is one of the earliest contemporary RTV [Reality Television] shows—one of the original shows focusing on romance and the most enduring of these”
(Dubrofsky & Hardy, 2008). The television show has since expanded to include The
Bachelorette, The Bachelor Pad, and Bachelor in Paradise to The Bachelor franchise.
These shows market to a primarily female audience by allowing a glimpse into the real lives and romantic relationships of participants.
The 19th season of The Bachelor premiered January 5, 2015. This season featured an Iowa corn farmer, Chris Soules, as he searched for love. The 32-year-old farmer grew up in Arlington, Iowa, a rural farming community with a population under 500. He studied agronomy at Iowa State University before returning to his family farm operation.
As the first ‘farming bachelor’, Soules has become a novelty among the reality television show’s audience. Soules’ popularity began on Season 10 of The Bachelorette,
4 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015 where he competed against other contestants to win Andi Dorfman’s heart. Soules was among the final three contestants left during Season 10, which led to Soules being chosen as the Season 19 bachelor. Agriculture will be a focus of the season due to Soules’ background in the agricultural industry.
Need for Study
As stated above, agricultural stereotypes are present in today’s society (King &
Rhoades, 2012). Research suggests the mass media helps form how the public perceives the world around them through their representation of ideas (Hall, 2005). Views of agriculture may have been swayed by coverage from mass media (Specht, 2010).
These perceptions, whether accurate or inaccurate, develop among viewers based on one’s beliefs, attitudes, and values, while further being shaped through cultural, social, and individual circumstances of the viewers, allowing for differing interpretations
(Koivula, 1999). The media’s role in molding these interpretations is referred to as the mediatization of society, the process of the public placing dependency on the logic of the media (Esser, 2013). These interpretations are defined as media logic, focusing on how communication is constructed to an audience by a particular media source (Hepp, 2013).
Few reality television programs have incorporated farming, agriculture and natural resources in their content. However, those that did, such as The Simple Life, Here
Comes Honey Boo Boo, and Buckwild, raised concern of public perceptions of the agriculture industry (Specht, 2010; Miller, 2013; Ruth, Lundy, & Park, 2005). Research is needed to analyze and monitor the portrayal of agriculture through reality television.
Reality television prides itself on its ‘accurate’ portrayal of real events. Thus, such
5 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015 content is perceived as more realistic than other programming. Audiences removed from rural America potentially will form their view of the agricultural industry from such media texts.
This type of research will provide knowledge on the present portrayal of agricultural stereotypes in entertainment media. Furthermore, socially powerful groups such as the mass media can be traced back to the source of individual stereotypes and have rarely been examined (Seiter, 1986). Thus, there is a need to analyze how media and producers frame agricultural content. This knowledge will aid agricultural communicators in strategically responding to misconceptions of the industry. Further, this knowledge can build upon the foundation for understanding media’s portrayal of the food and fiber industry through entertainment media.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to describe the portrayal of agricultural stereotypes in entertainment media. For this study, the focus was narrowed to reality television by analyzing the portrayal of agriculture in select episodes and promotional videos from
Season 19 of The Bachelor and Season 10 of The Bachelorette which featured Iowa corn farmer, Chris Soules.
A qualitative textual content analysis was conducted using a researcher-developed codebook. The study was guided by the following research questions:
1. What themes were found in the portrayal of agriculture throughout the
select episodes and promotional videos from Season 19 of The Bachelor
and Season 10 of The Bachelorette?
6 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015
2. Do the identified themes from the select episodes and promotional videos
from Season 19 of The Bachelor and Season 10 of The Bachelorette
reinforce or break a cultural stereotype in agriculture?
3. What other potential agricultural stereotypes are present in select episodes
and promotional videos from Season 19 of The Bachelor and Season 10 of
The Bachelorette?
Theoretical Framework
The knowledge gap theory can be applied when examining social perceptions of agriculture (Specht, 2010). This framework provides an explanation for unequal distribution of knowledge (Wei, 2011). Consumers have continued to become more disconnected from the farm; therefore, without first-hand knowledge of agriculture, it is rational that the media, one of the largest forms of communication, holds some responsibility for many consumer perceptions of agriculture.
Framing is a concept that refers to the ability of media to extract patterns of thoughts, attitudes, and opinions through message attributes (De Vreese, 2003). It can be applied in a variety of ways including through information processing, attitudes, decision-making, and behavior (De Vreese, 2003). Frames are achieved through communicators choosing what and how to express content through the presence or absence of words, images, and sources (De Vreese, 2003). In turn, the receiver may interpret frames in various ways due to cultural factors, allowing frames to be received differently between groups (De Vreese, 2003).
7 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015
“The social construction of reality is a very basic premise for how and why individuals view the world in a certain manner and what role the media play in shaping that view” (Block, 1996, para. 1). Social construction of reality suggests life is presented as a reality and interpreted by individuals who assign meaning to such ideas (Berger,
Luckman & Zifonun, 2007). For individuals removed from agriculture, realities of the industry likely can be created from media’s portrayal.
Limitations
The audience of The Bachelor has a skewed demographic, attracting primarily a
18 - 49 year old female audience (TV By the Numbers, 2012; Wet Paint, 2014). This limitation could influence the generalization of collected data, as producers may package information to appeal to the female population. Thus, producers now may have motivation to create content that focuses on female interest, making the program less appealing with less balance in its portrayal of agriculture.
Due to time constraints, the researcher was only able to analyze select episodes and promotional videos from Season 19 of The Bachelor and Season 10 of The
Bachelorette. Both offered additional content likely to influence the researchers’ findings. Further, the researcher was not able to analyze other instances of agricultural portrayals in the media. Season 19 of The Bachelor and Season 10 of The Bachelorette are only one instance of the agriculture industry in today’s reality television.
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Basic Assumptions
It was assumed that the researcher-developed codebook was accurate and reliable among selected coders. Furthermore, it is assumed the demographic of the 2014 season is comparable to recent years as the data is not readily available this early in the season.
Definition of Terms
Reality Television (RTV): “Offerings that present the most private stories of nonprominent people to a mass audience, crossing traditional borders of privacy and intimacy” (Bente & Feist, 2000, p. 114).
Stereotypes: “Constitute people’s beliefs about groups—beliefs that may be positive or negative, accurate or inaccurate” (Jussim, McCauley & Lee, 1995, p. 6).
9 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Introduction
The purpose of this study is to describe the portrayal of agricultural stereotypes in entertainment media. For this study, the focus was narrowed to reality television by analyzing the portrayal of agriculture in select episodes and promotional videos from
Season 19 of The Bachelor and Season 10 of The Bachelorette. The study was guided by the following research questions:
1. What themes were found in the portrayal of agriculture throughout the
select episodes and promotional videos from Season 19 of The Bachelor
and Season 10 of The Bachelorette?
2. Do the identified themes from the select episodes and promotional videos
from Season 19 of The Bachelor and Season 10 of The Bachelorette
reinforce or break a cultural stereotype in agriculture?
3. What other potential agricultural stereotypes are present in select episodes
and promotional videos from Season 19 of The Bachelor and Season 10 of
The Bachelorette?
The literature review below allows a comprehensive overview into areas of reality television, the theoretical framework used in this study, and stereotypes in agriculture.
Reality Television
In 2014, Americans spent an average of 279 minutes watching television each day
(Statista, 2015). This made television the most widely used medium in the United States
10 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015 surpassing tablet, smartphone, radio, newspaper, and magazine consumption. Television viewing is a pervasive part of our everyday lives, its popularity driven by the creation of widely accepted television genres across viewing networks.
One genre revolves around an unmediated production trend: reality television.
“While the premise of reality television programs appears to be simple, to present reality upon a deeper examination it is not so” (Hall, 2005, p. 9). This television genre is created on the notion that viewers are given an unfiltered glimpse into the “real” lives of participants (Hall, 2005), allowing viewers a chance to explore other lifestyles and realities outside of their own (Lundy et al., 2008). Stefanone, Lackaff, and Rosen (2010) argue personal thoughts behaviors and interactions of characters must be the focus of an audiences’ attention. Further, the genre differs from scripted television in its ability to capture its participants in a “natural” setting (Lundy et al., 2008). Others add that the basis of the reality television format requires individuals forfeit claims to privacy, placing themselves on public display (Papacharissi & Mendelson, 2007). For this study, reality television will refer to television portraying non-celebrities and allowing access to private and intimate details of a participant’s life to a mass audience (Bente & Feist, 2000, p.
114).
Reality television’s origins are often credited to Candid Camera’s 1948 premiere
(Clissold, 2004). The genre has seen success over the years as reality-based shows have exploded into mainstream popular culture within the past decade (Miller, 2013). These programs are no longer a novelty, making an appearance in programming across
11 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015 networks from MTV to The History Channel (Miller, 2013). Many of these networks host some form of agricultural reality programming.
Programs such as the ones listed above managed to spin reality programming in order to keep viewers’ interest. This is a result of more original forms of reality television seeing a decline in popularity. “While reality shows like Survivor and The Real World struggle to maintain ratings, reality shows still enjoy a solid place in the line-ups of network and cable channels” (Lundy et al., 2008, p. 209). Its popularity resurfaced after a decline in ratings when reality programs were seen as a reliable source of entertainment following the Hollywood writers’ strike in 2007 (Lundy et al., 2008). The genre’s low cost of production makes it a popular choice for television line-ups today.
Although styles of reality television vary from program to program, some distinct characteristics help identify the genre. Apart from depicted reality of the program, the genre utilizes a combination of verbal interactions such as group conversations, private confessions, and interviews for participants to express themselves (Aslama & Pantti,
2006). These interactions appear to reveal personal thoughts, feelings, and secrets
(Aslama & Pantti, 2006). The viewer is often ‘all-knowing’ of situations, including opinions and sides of every story. Further, a sense of competition is common among the programing (Hall, 2005). Techniques creating suspense encourage speculation of an outcome, thus making the program feel more real (Galician & Merskin, 2006).
However, reality television is often considered ‘low class’ television (Miller,
2013), frequently reflecting poor morals (Reiss & Wiltz, 2004). “The genre has been equated with junk TV” (Lundy et al., 2008, p. 215) and “trash TV which has been
12 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015 associated predominantly with talk shows, but now included reality dating programs”
(Hall, 2005, p. 13). Junk TV is described as “bad”, “unrealistic”, “misrepresenting reality”, “manipulated and exaggerated”, and “driven by the shock value” (Lundy et al.,
2008, p. 216). Participants accredited dating programming such as Married by America, I
Married a Millionaire, Married a Midget, Average Joe, My Big Fat Obnoxious Fiancé, and several other dating shows as junk TV (Lundy et al., 2008). However, some type of motivation must lie in viewing such reality programming. Hall (2005) summarized the need for analyzing this research in her dissertation:
While audience members may critique the programs they watch, it is necessary to examine why they favor certain programs over others and the reasons audiences keep watching. In addition to addressing these questions of consumption, it is also necessary to analyze the text more specifically to examine the hidden structures of power at play. (p. 14)
One motivation for watching such programming is the connection to ‘real’ characters. “Audiences’ perception that through these shows they can ‘see’ the ‘real’ lives of participants is actually a misconception” (Hall, 2005, p 4). Rather, the show is carefully constructed. The content produced is scripted by a group of production executives (Hall, 2005). In this, an audience is not truly receiving a realistic view of participants’ life. Audiences receive an edited and dramatized idea of a participant’s lives based on a production team’s interpretation (Hall, 2005). Further, motivations for watching reality television programming were determined to be centered on the theme of escapism, providing the viewer an alternate reality apart from their own (Lundy et al.,
2008). Other motivations included a perceived social stigma, boredom, humor, entertainment, and shock factors (Lundy et al., 2008).
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Some audiences recognize the idea of a constructed reality in reality programs.
Lundy et al. (2008) discovered college students indicated they were aware reality television does not reflect a true reality, challenging the excess of editing believed to occur during development. Particularly, a student in the study shared his skepticism when he felt it is “not realistic to find love with 50 people around you” when referring to reality dating shows (Lundy et al., 2008). Additionally, participants were quoted describing reality programming as “real-life, yet edited situations” (Lundy et al., 2008, p. 213).
Although an audience may question the legitimacy of the reality of programming, reality television continually has an influence toward an audience’s attitudes. Reality television can be educational by “offering insights into diverse communities and customs through travel and cultural exchange,” (Pozner, 2010, p 16). Gerbner et al. (1986) discussed the alignment of an audience’s attitudes and beliefs with those seen through television consumption. Research in reality television viewing motivations suggests a theme of social acceptance. As discussed above, Lundy et al. (2008) found a perceived social stigma associated with reality television consumption. Further, a study by Hall
(2005) over The Bachelor revealed study participants began watching The Bachelor because of their friends. Thus, these studies raise the question of changing ones beliefs in an attempt to be more socially accepted.
Agriculture in reality television. Programs featuring “redneck culture” have shown growth in popularity, featuring Southerners often acting ignorant and crude, constructing an unflattering identity for the south (Miller, 2013). “Shows like Here
Comes Honey Boo Boo (TLC), Hillbilly Handfishin' (Animal Planet), Duck Dynasty
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(A&E), and Swamp People (History Channel) are beginning to dominate programming across multiple stations” (Miller, 2013, p 1). Many other programs such as The Simple
Life, Deadliest Catch, and Dirty Jobs, can be added to the list.
Scandals have highlighted some programming, causing added scrutiny of the agricultural industry and/or rural American way of life. Here Comes Honey Boo Boo followed Alana, a young pageant competitor, and her overweight family in their life in rural Georgia (TV Guide, 2015). The program was found to emphasize unintelligent, unhealthy and crude stereotypes (Miller, 2013). TLC cancelled the program after reports that June Shannon, Alana’s mother, rekindled a relationship with sex offender Mark
McDainel (Raftery, 2014). McDaniel allegedly molested one of Shannon’s children years prior (Raftery, 2014). Information also surfaced that Anthony Ford, another sex offender who was featured on a 2005 episode of To Catch a Predator, was the father of two of
Shannon’s children (Raftery, 2014). Such reports give a bad reputation to rural America, suggesting poor morals, and eliciting ill feelings toward characters.
Duck Dynasty follows the Robertson family; self-made millionaires from
Louisiana who continue to live a conservative lifestyle running their family business
(Lange, 2014). Duck Dynasty received criticism after GQ Magazine released an interview with Phil Robertson with controversial statements about race and religious beliefs. Phil was quoted as stating:
I never, with my eyes, saw the mistreatment of any black person. Not once. Where we lived was all farmers. The blacks worked for the farmers. I hoed cotton with them. I’m with the blacks, because we’re white trash. We’re going across the field.... They’re singing and happy. I never heard one of them, one black person, say, ‘I tell you what: These doggone white people’—not a word!... Pre-
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entitlement, pre-welfare, you say: Were they happy? They were godly; they were happy; no one was singing the blues. (Magary, 2014, np.)
Further, Phil discussed his views on homosexuality and promiscuous behavior.
He stated that to him, a woman was more desirable than a man, the actions were sinful, and paraphrased scripture to support his statement (Magary, 2014). These comments were brought to the public, including Cracker Barrel, who chose to remove Duck Dynasty merchandise from their stores, and the lesbian, bisexual, gay and transgendered people organization and Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Drunk Driving who petitioned the program (Lange, 2014). A&E chose to suspend Robertson for nine days as a result of the conflict (Lange, 2014).
One of the most notable reality programs centered on agriculture was The Simple
Life, a 2003 series featuring two Hollywood socialites experiencing farm life first hand.
Ruth et al. (2005) cited Rogers (2003) reporting the program attracted 13 million viewers and became the highest-rated program of the night in its primetime timeslot. The program framed farm life as easy and undemanding and further “reinforced stereotypes about agriculture and people who work in the food and fiber industy” (Ruth et al., 2005, p. 29).
The program was summarized as degrading by agricultural participants in the study (Ruth et al., 2005). This feeling may have been elicited through the reinforced “hickish” and
“backwoodsy” stereotypes of rural America further supporting inaccurate perceptions currently present in society (Ruth et al, 2005). Adding to their frustration, “those viewers lacking in agricultural literacy realized that the program did not accurately portray real agricultural life, but could not discern where the program failed in its accurate representation” (Ruth et al., 2005, p. 21).
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Miller (2013) further analyzed stereotypes of Southerners in three reality television programs: Here Comes Honey Boo Boo (TLC), Duck Dynasty (A&E), and
Buckwild (MTV). Results reflected high frequencies of “unintelligent,” “crude,” and
“violent” stereotypes (Miller, 2013). Unintelligence was communicated in part through cultural expressions and accents, hindering the understanding of a communicated message by Southerners (Miller, 2013). Violence was particularly present in Buckwild where violence was encouraged and praised, such as an instance of an unwelcomed guest being physically assaulted (Miller, 2013). Crude behavior was seen through explicit language, vulgar references, and promiscuous sexual behavior (Miller, 2013).
An analysis of Duck Dynasty revealed themes of the program to reflect family, faith, natural resources, and friendship (Lange, 2014). Family was communicated through the strong relationship among the Robertsons, shown through the family business and family meals at the conclusion of each episode (Lange, 2014). Prayer served as a major representation of faith, while friendship was communicated through the strong sense of community within episodes (Lange, 2014). The natural resources theme was developed through the outdoors, hunting, and fishing, which were often the background of a scene
(Lange, 2014).
The Bachelor franchise. The Bachelor’s premise is centered on a single male’s search for a suitable mate among 25 single women. The program is essentially a competition among bachelorettes to be selected as the bachelor’s bride (Hall, 2005). Each episode follows the bachelor and the remaining women as they go on dates and further develop relationships. Hall (2005) credits these dates as an effort to understand the
17 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015 participants’ feelings toward him, intentions for being on the program and an exploration of their compatibility.
Dates are structured in three ways: one-on-one dates, group dates, two-on-one dates or fantasy suite dates. One-on-one dates reflect alone time with the bachelor. These dates often feature an activity along with dinner with the bachelor. Group dates involve multiple women spending time with the bachelor at once. These dates usually encompass a challenge, of which the winners receive additional time alone with the bachelor. During two-on-one dates, two women accompany the bachelor on a date. During the date, the bachelor chooses one woman to stay with him for the remainder of the date, while the other participant is eliminated from the program. Fantasy suite dates occur during the latter part of the season when relationships have developed to deeper levels. The remaining three women of a season have the opportunity to receive and accept a fantasy suite date. This date involves an overnight stay with the bachelor, providing an opportunity to spend alone time without cameras present.
These dates help provide insight into the bachelor’s decision on which women he wants to keep in the competition. At the conclusion of each episode, women are eliminated at a rose ceremony, which has grown to become an iconic identifier for the franchise. The ceremony involves the bachelor handing out roses to the women continuing in the competition, while the women who do not receive this token are dismissed.
Throughout the season, women travel with the bachelor to exotic destinations, their hometown, and to meet his family. The outings lead up to the season finale, where
18 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015 the bachelor chooses the most compatible relationship between the remaining two women, and often results in a marriage proposal. The couple must keep their relationship a secret until the season finale airs.
The Bachelor first premiered in March 2002 on ABC. The program is credited as the original contemporary reality television show focusing on romance (Dubrofsky &
Hardy, 2008). The program’s success grew the franchise, leading to the creation of spin- off programs such as The Bachelorette, Bachelor Pad, and Bachelor in Paradise. The
Bachelorette debuted in January 2003 on ABC, featuring Trista Rehn, a runner-up from the first season of The Bachelor. Since, The Bachelor has followed a similar format, choosing women from previous seasons to star on the show. In 2010, The Bachelor franchise launched Bachelor Pad featuring the return of the most memorable men and women from previous seasons of The Bachelor and The Bachelorette. The program’s participants competed in challenges each week to try and win a prize of $100,000.
Bachelor Pad was canceled in 2013 and replaced by another spin-off, Bachelor in
Paradise. The series centralizes on a second chance at love for previous contestants.
Contestants are isolated on a romantic island where they explore surrounding paradises and romantic partners. All programs are hosted by Chris Harrison.
Season 19 of The Bachelor features Chris Soules, a corn farmer from the Mid- west, as the 2015 bachelor (ABC, 2015). Soules previously competed on Season 10 of
The Bachelorette where he stood out due to his unique background in agriculture in comparison to other participants. After being selected as the new bachelor, Soules was dubbed the sexy and stylish farmer, drumming up support for his upcoming role and
19 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015 further being given the nickname ‘Prince Farming’ (ABC, 2015). The excitement prior to the premiere was successful as The Bachelor was ranked as Monday’s number one television show for adults 18 – 34 and women, bringing in nine million viewers, and as of
February 17, continued to rank number one for four consecutive Monday’s in a row (TV
By the Numbers, 2015a; TV By the Numbers 2015b).
The franchise’s performance is also successful through online platforms. The
Bachelor franchise joined the social TV bandwagon in 2013, encouraging fans to join into conversations about episodes in real-time online (Kelly, 2013). In 2014, The
Bachelor was ranked number two in social TV performance on Twitter with the program sending an average of 215 tweets and reaching an average of 3,842 viewers Monday nights, while The Bachelorette ranked eighth with an average of 104 tweets reaching
2,410 viewers (Nielson, 2015). Prior to The Bachelor franchises’ social TV presence,
ABC included tweets in only one other program, Dancing With The Stars (Kelly, 2013).
The Bachelor’s major theme involves love and romance, stemming from the program’s premise. This particular season featuring Soules allows a sub-theme of agriculture to emerge. Sub-themes have been present in other seasons of The Bachelor. In
Season 18 of The Bachelor, Juan Pablo, a retired soccer player, searched for a relationship. The athlete’s background, soccer and his Spanish culture are highlighted throughout the season in dates, references, and interactions with women. Thus, sports and
Spanish culture arguably emerged as sub-themes of the season.
Previous research has been conducted on the reality television program, The
Bachelor. A study by Hall (2005) investigated the ideological role of the mass media,
20 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015 focusing on the representation of ideas and an audience’s construction of meaning. The study found viewers perceived The Bachelor and similar programs’ production team were motivated to present the true “reality”, but balanced the need to enhance the entertainment through editing (Hall, 2005). The Bachelor, whom is chosen each season, was described in focus groups as always being handsome and masculine and is generally perceived as belonging to the middle to upper class socioeconomic status (Hall, 2005).
Theoretical Framework
The researcher sought to describe the portrayal of agricultural stereotypes in reality television in select episodes and promotional videos from Season 19 of The
Bachelor and Season 10 of The Bachelorette. In order to understand how agriculture was portrayed, the researcher drew from framing theory to analyze the text. In an effort to understand how an audience receives such frames, the researcher employed social construction of reality theory and knowledge gap theory.
Social Construction of Reality. “The Social Construction of Reality is a very basic premise for how and why individuals view the world in a certain manner, and what role the media play in shaping that view” (Block, 1996, para. 1.). The theory’s beginnings build off of the philosophical view of Berger and Luckman (1966), the idea that “all symbolic universes and all legitimations are human products; their existence has its base in the lives of concrete individuals, and has no empirical status apart from these lives” (p. 24). This philosophy has been applied to multiple research frameworks, including theory in relation to communication research. Block (1996) notes three theories in communication which draw directly from the assumptions of social construction of
21 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015 reality theory: Bandura’s (1977) social learning theory, Gerbner’s (1973) cultivation theory, and McCombs and Shaw’s (1972) agenda setting theory.
Social construction of reality theory suggests the media can represent an individual’s knowledge of a phenomenon (Shapiro & Lang, 1991). This can be achieved through the media acting as a “socializing agent by constructing reality and then disseminating this reality to the mass public,” (Block, 1996, Socialization section, para.
4). However, subjectivity is associated with the social construction of reality, as interpretations provide different meanings to individuals (Berger, Luckman, & Zifonun,
2007). Gamson, Croteau, Hoynes, and Sasson (1992) described decoding media imagery as an active process, where context, social location, and prior experience lead to the different interpretations. The theory suggests it is possible to take a reality and a particular phenomena arising with it to determine its foundation, but not without first analyzing the current knowledge and meanings constructed by man (Berger et al., 2007).
Gamson et al. (1992) suggest analyzing these realities and particular phenomenon by treating media images, visual imagery, sound, and language as text.
Political communication and framing research is rich with studies in this theory.
However, “many different disciplines take on this daunting task of decoding media texts”
(Gamson et al., 1992, p. 381). Agricultural research has some findings in this theory, but research specific to reality television lacks depth. Further, even less research focusing on social constructs of agriculture is available. Social construction of reality studies on reality television programming have analyzed the construction of southern stereotypes
22 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015 through the media (Miller, 2003), agriculture’s portrayal through reality television, and its impact on impressions of the industry (Ruth et al., 2005).
Wohn and Bowe (2014) looked at the effects of social construction of reality through social media. “People’s perceptions of reality will develop through their social networks and everyone will perceive that the information their social network produces reflects reality…” (Wohn & Bowe, 2014, p. 261). Logically, exposure to television can create a comparable effect supporting the theory that a program’s portrayal of agriculture will replicate a reality to viewers.
When discussing the impact our media-generated world has on political and social issues, Gamson et al. (1992) stated the public constructs meaning from such images. Images are more powerful than factual information as they convey a broader frame eliciting meaning through audio and visual elements. This system is strategically constructed to appear so fluid and natural that the art of the social construction of reality is disguised (Gamson et al., 1992).
Block (1996) suggested this theory has a hand in developing popular culture, the concept of content created solely for the purpose of distribution and mass consumption by the media. Given this definition, popular culture encompasses entertainment media, including reality television. Block (1996) discussed the relationship among the media and audience leading to the establishment of popular culture:
The media are operating from an economic need to provide content that will appeal to the widest audience. Once an economically successful type of content is found, the media fulfill their end in establishing a mass culture because all current and future media organizations copy the successful content formula, which leads to the homogenization of media content from (a) an economical standpoint [reflected in the spiral of silence (Noelle-Neumann, 1974)]. Through this
23 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015
“standardization” of media content, the audience come to expect certain types of content from the media. Violà: a self-fulfilling prophecy has been put into motion which establishes and perpetuates the notion of a pop culture. (The Media Mainstream section, para. 4)
The development of popular culture limits variety within media content (Block,
1996). Thus, little variety suggests less viewpoints of a given phenomenon, increasing the need for accurate portrayals of ‘realities’ in the media.
As media socially construct the reality of many topics everyday, it is impossible to study the effects as a whole. Rather, Hepp (2013) suggested the concept of ‘mediatized worlds,’ or small social worlds where mediatization can be analyzed empirically by analyzing how particular mediatized worlds are created and depicted by media, and how their personal communication construction can result in a change of the media’s portrayal. Thus, suggesting a change in communication by mediatized worlds can result in a change in how media socially constructs a reality leading to a change in the perceived reality of audiences. For this study, agriculture will narrow the scope of analysis.
Knowledge Gap Theory. “The knowledge gap theory provides a framework for understanding the unequal distribution of knowledge” (Wei & Hindman, 2011, p. 221).
Tichenor, Donohue, and Olien formulated the theory in 1970 (Bonfadelli, 2012). The researchers’ basic hypothesis reads:
As the infusion of mass media information into a social system increases, segments of the population with higher socioeconomic status tend to acquire this information at a faster rate than the lower status segments, so that the gap in knowledge between these segments tends to increase rather than decrease. (Tichenor, Donohue, & Olien, 1970, p. 159)
24 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015
Stated differently, consistent “gaps” in knowledge have been found among varying social groups differing due to the depth of knowledge of individuals and the ability of the media to access specific individuals (Viswanath & Finnegan, 1996) contradicting the belief that the mass media’s information is reaching the public as a whole (Bonfadelli, 2012). This theory relies on SES-based gaps. However, Bonfadelli
(2012) noted that lower SES populations are not completely ignorant, but rather the theory references a relative association among lower SES populations and higher SES populations. Higher SES populations receive knowledge faster and in a more effective way resulting in this lead in knowledge (Bonfadelli, 2012).
A study of rural and urban inner-city high school students’ knowledge and perceptions of agriculture found “Rural High School Student respondents had significantly higher knowledge concepts scores than Urban Inner-City High School respondents in all of the seven areas” (Frick, Birkenholz, Gardner, & Machtmes, 1995, p.
7). Further, focus groups of urban youth found stereotypical views of agriculture prevail
(Holz-Clause & Jost, 1995).
These gaps in educational knowledge can form from a variety of factors.
Bonfadelli (2012) found gaps in educational knowledge could be influenced by motivational factors. “Therefore, it is the task of empirical research to study how cognitive factors like education or pre-existing knowledge as well as motivational factors like personal interest work together in specific situations” (Bonfadelli, 2012, p. 70).
Further, Bonfadelli (2012) identified five factors contributing to the development of
25 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015 knowledge gaps: communication skills, prior knowledge, relevant social contacts, selective use, acceptance and storage of information, and structure of the media system.
In the case of agriculturally-based topics, urban residents removed from the farm may have less motivation and familiarity of the industry leading to a larger knowledge gap. Different social cultures belong to different media environments further set apart by media’s tendency to cater information to specific social cultures (Bonfadelli, 2012). As we apply these factors toward gaps in knowledge of agriculture between rural and urban residents, prior knowledge, acceptance and storage of information, and the structure of the media system all evolve as potential contributing factors. Further, individuals with a higher level of education have greater experience with learning and integrating knowledge (Eveland & Scheufele, 2000).
As discussed above, reality television can be educational through cultural insights
(Pozner, 2010). These insights could help eliminate gaps in knowledge about the industry. Further, Shoemaker and Reese (2011) suggested media content provides realities to an audience when personal experience is lacking in various areas. A study by
Busselle (2001) found television influences social judgments through a heuristic process.
A perception of unmediated reality can occur during television viewing and is supported through rapid point-of-view movement (Lombard, Reich, Grabe, Bracken, & Ditton,
2000), much like the production style of reality television. When applying this to agriculture, it suggests much of an audiences’ perceived reality is derived from media content. Thus, an accurate depiction of agriculture is necessary and could help eliminate knowledge gaps in agriculture.
26 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015
Framing. Framing is a theory of media effects (Scheufele, 1999). “Framing refers to the way events and issues are organized and made sense of, especially by media, media professionals, and their audiences” (Reese, Gandy & Grant, 2001, p. 7). Reese
(2001) adds frames are socially shared, persistent over time, and symbolical, helping structure meaning to society. This meaning is achieved by selecting particular aspects to be more prominent so content that is highlighted becomes more noticeable, meaningful and memorable to an audience (Entman, 1993). Frames can define problems, diagnose causes, make moral judgments, or suggest remedies (Entman, 1993).
Frames are present among the communicator, the text, the receiver and the culture
(Entman, 1993). Frames initially are constructed by a communicator through selection of content, its organization, and their personal beliefs (although their opinions were likely developed by other frames) (Entman, 1993). “The text contains frames, which are manifested by the presence or absence of certain key-words, stock phrases, stereotyped images, sources of information, and sentences that provide thematically reinforcing clusters of facts or judgments” (Entman, 1993, p. 52). The text guides the receiver’s thinking, however it is not always in line with the text developed by the communicator
(Entman, 1993). Thus, the meaning intended by content is not always how it is communicated to an audience.
Scheufele (1999) developed a process model of framing, divided into inputs, processes, and outcomes as a continuous process. The model can be divided into four processes: frame building, frame setting, individual-level effects of framing, and a link
27 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015 between individual frames and media frames, to be used as a guide for future research
(Scheufele, 1999).
Figure 1. A process model of framing research adapted from (Scheufele, 1999).
Scheufele’s (1999) model is designed using news media as an audience borrowed from agenda setting research in political communication. However, the researcher argues the model can be applied to entertainment media as well, as we see framing research in the field. Rather than journalist, a program’s producer serves as the communicator. The model suggested analyzing how media frames are formed through the frame building process, a concept closely related to the agenda building process in political communication (Scheufele, 1999). Research in frame building should ask what kind of organizational, structural factors or characteristics of the communicator impact frames
(Scheufele, 1999). For a producer, this process may be influenced by their background, ideologies, attitudes, and demand for ratings. This link suggests a communicator is as
28 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015 equally susceptible to frames as their audiences (Scheufele, 1999). These factors influence the production process, labeled as frame building in Scheufele’s (1999) model.
Frame building results in media frames employed in a specific program (Scheufele,
1999). These media frames discussed above are received by an audience to develop audience frames. This process is referred to as frame setting (Scheufele, 1999) focusing on attribute salience (McCombs, Llamas et al.,1997). Thus, research should analyze what characteristics of media frames stand out to an audience. Scheufelle (1999) suggested individual-level effects of framing should be researched to examine the link of inputs and outputs and the processes linking key variables. This research does not answer such audience-based effects of framing, but rather analyzes what individual frames are present. Thus, serving as a building block for future research to determine how audiences adopt media frames or how they use such frames in informational processing.
According to Reese et al. (2001), framing research has strong ties to political and agenda-setting phenomenon. Gamson et al. (1992) wrote that a “cultural level analysis tells us that our political world is framed” (p. 384) through organization of events that do not come to the public in a raw form. Frames on culture are commonly invoked frames reflecting the perception of most people in a social group (Entman, 1993). Thus, geographic political affiliations can be argued based on these ideas. In this, frames are fragile and vulnerable to tampering (Gamson et al., 1992), suggesting how such cultural frames, including stereotypes, can develop.
This can be achieved through inclusion and omission (Entman, 1993). Hillard
(2014) expanded upon other techniques to create frames:
29 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015
The television audience can be directed, through a close-up, a zoom, a split screen, or other camera or control board (switcher) movement, to focus on whatever object or occurrence most effectively achieves the purpose of the specific moment in the script. (pg. 8)
These techniques help create a perceived reality, much like the strategies employed by reality television programming. The public is an active processor who receives reality and decodes such reality in different ways (Gamson et al., 1992). Thus, frames are volatile and impact different audiences in different ways. Audiences draw on these fragments of media along with their own experience and knowledge to make sense of issues. Scheufele (1999) expands upon the idea of media frames in comparison to individual frames in an effort to better understand the impact such frames have on an audience. Internal structures of our mind conceptualize individual frames, while embedded frames, which are the intent of the sender, serve as media frames (Scheufele,
1999). Media frames organize the idea within the organization and meaning of a story line and are necessary to attribute meaning to an event (Scheufele, 1999). Individual frames are cognitive devices used to make sense of media frames. As we compare this idea to stereotypes in agriculture, it can be assumed urban and rural residents will not perceive agriculture frames in the same way. Rather, cultural influences will step in to help develop such realities as first-hand experience may not be present in urban residents.
Frames are often used to achieve entertainment factors in television. “You must capture the attention of the audience as soon as possible and hold it. Every picture and every word must be purposeful, directed toward keeping the audience’s interest” (Hillard,
2014, p. 2).
30 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015
Viewers switch to another program, or watch occasional clips, missing the program’s content if their interest is not held (Hillard, 2014). In an effort to achieve an engaged audience discussed by Hillard, television programming utilizes a series of production techniques, or rather, frames.
Frames have structure, imposing a pattern on the social world (Reese et al., 2001).
Therefore, previous frames in agriculture may be more impactful than new frames on the industry. Gamson et al. (1992) supported this idea through his reference of framing as a
“bridging concept between cognition and culture” (p. 384). Previous framing studies in agriculture suggest a simplistic way of life, strong community and family ties, and an uncultured resident differing in educational and social qualities (Miller, 2013; Kellogg
Foundation, 2002). Studies suggest such portrayals of agriculture may have a significant reinforcement of inaccurate portrayals of the agricultural industry (Lundy et al., 2007;
Ruth et al., 2005).
Although framing research is strongly present in political communication, the theory should not be restricted this way. All forms of media may be framed. Much of modern-day reality television styles can be credited to framing techniques. Pozner (2010) stated television is “intentionally cast, edited, and framed,” allowing producers to create the “best” version of “reality” possible (p. 18). This version of reality discussed by
Pozner (2010) often reflects an illusion of non-mediation. Lombard et al. (2000) supported the idea that this non-mediated reality is made possible through modern film formats and techniques, or rather, frames.
31 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015
Producers of reality television, such as The Bachelor, aim to entertain their audience. Therefore, the researcher argues much of the content produced by the network is framed to fulfill ratings and viewer satisfaction. It is important to note that although some content is labeled as entertainment, its cultural force is equally influential
(Shoemaker & Reese, 2011). “Both news and entertainment tell us who is important, how to behave, and what the new trends are in speech, manners, and dress” (Shoemaker &
Reese, 2011). Thus, it can be assumed entertainment media depicting agriculture, such as
The Bachelor, communicate a particular frame of the agricultural industry to audiences.
Audience familiarity of content can be directly related to how producers choose to frame content (Price, Tewksbury, & Powers, 1997). Little knowledge about specific subjects may require screenwriters and producers to focus on more simplistic elements of given subjects. Lundy et al. (2007) summarized findings from their previous 2005 study over reality television and the portrayal of agriculture stating, “Those with agricultural knowledge viewed the portrayal of farm life as inaccurate and disturbing, while those with less agricultural knowledge found the program entertaining, if not exactly ‘real’” (p.
66-67). As we discuss the growing disconnect among urban populations and agriculture, this concept may prove to be an important aspect contributing to agricultural stereotypes.
A Distorted Lens of Agriculture
Agriculture has grown out of its umbrella definition developed 50 years ago.
Once portrayed in a romanticized light, the industry now has a considerable scope and magnitude across the United States. “Americans enjoy a food supply that is abundant,
32 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015 affordable overall and among the world’s safest, thanks in large part to the efficiency and productivity of America’s farm and ranch families” (American Farm Bureau, 2015, np.)
More than 2.2 million farms are scattered across rural America (American Farm
Bureau Federation, 2015). Almost 97 percent of these farms are family owned, and are operated by individuals, family partnerships, or corporations (American Farm Bureau
Federation, 2015). However, family farms should not be limited to a definition of a small operation (EPA, 2013) “Many of the country’s largest agricultural enterprises are family owned” (EPA, 2013).
The livelihoods of farmers are rich with technology and science, moving away from its previous stereotype. The declining farm population saw an increase in demand for agricultural products (EPA, 2013). This demand was met through such technology and scientific advancements. Today, the American farm population produces 262 percent more food than 50 years ago, and uses less labor, seed, feed, and fertilizer (America Farm
Bureau Federation, 2015). Additionally, the average United States farmer is 55 years old or older, with a small number of younger farmers in the industry (EPA, 2013). This age has been growing for the past 30 years making farmers one of America’s oldest workers
(Kurtzleben, 2014).
A study by the Kellogg Foundation (2002) found that Americans identify a distinct culture among rural America. Americans associate a pastoral view of agricultural culture, focusing on a simplistic country life, a communal individual with puritan-like ethics, religion, and traditional values, along with a strong sense of community, contributing to an inner-circle type view of the industry (Kellogg Foundation, 2002). The
33 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015 population saw a decline of an American institution, leading to the end of the family farm
(Kellogg Foundation, 2002). Other economical challenges were associated with the agricultural industry as well (Kellogg Foundation, 2002). The study, Perceptions of Rural
America (Kellogg Foundation, 2002), summarizes these perceptions based on a series of dichotomies:
Rural life represents traditional American values, but is behind the times; rural life is more relaxed and slower than city life, but harder and more grueling; rural life is friendly, but intolerant of outsiders and difference; and rural life is richer in community life, but epitomized by individuals struggling independently to make ends meet. Rural America offers a particular quality of life including serenity and aesthetic surroundings, and yet it is plagued by lack of opportunities, including access to cultural activities. (p. 1)
Specht (2010) organized these perceptions discussed in the Kellogg study, identifying major issues in contemporary agriculture and extracting three major themes: traditional family farm, pastoral fantasy and decline of the agrarian tradition (see Table
1). The idea of a simple life, puritan values, and inner circle discussed above, all contribute to the theme of a traditional family farm. The pastoral fantasy categorizes aesthetic imagery associated with landscapes and objects in agriculture. This includes rolling hills, open countryside and peaceful sunrises. The incorporation of science and technology along with youth and corporate agriculture create a theme of the decline of agrarian tradition. Thus, much of the traditional values acquired through rural life have disappeared with the declining rural populations and the increase in corporate farms.
Specht (2010) concluded a strong correlation among entertainment media text and the themes identified through the Kellogg Institute study. The pastoral fantasy was present in almost every text in the sample and traditional values were present through symbolism
34 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015 and visual language (Specht, 2010). Further, texts were concluded to construct a view of agrarian life preserved during the beginning of the agricultural industrial revolution
(Specht, 2010).
Table 1 Perceptions of Rural America adapted from The Kellogg Foundation (2002)
Theme Examples
Open spaces, green pastures, peaceful Pastoral Fantasy and serene setting, sunsets, etc.
Corporate agriculture, aging farm Decline of the Agrarian Tradition population, science and technology, etc.
Small farms, Puritan values, close-knit Traditional Family Farm families, etc.
A study by Holz-Clause and Jost (1995) found urban youth perceive agriculture with farming, but lacked an understanding of the technical and research areas of the industry. Additionally, both rural and urban youth, associate farmers as wearing bib overalls and chewing on a straw but held a vaguely positive view of farmers and valued their importance (Holz-Clause & Jost, 1995). Additionally, the farmers work was thought by the youth to be a difficult and boring career that was handed down through families
(Holz-Clause & Jost, 1995). These findings continually support a narrow view of agriculture, depicting a very traditional view of the industry.
As noted above, reality programming has been studied to determine inaccurate portrayals of the industry (Lange, 2014; Miller, 2013; Ruth et al., 2005). These studies determined a “backwoodsy” and “hickish” portrayal of the industry (Ruth et al., 2005), 35 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015 crude, violent, and unintelligence in southerners (Miller, 2013), and themes of friendship, family, faith, and natural resources (Lange, 2014). These studies further noted the importance of further analysis into agriculture in reality television (Lange, 2014; Miller,
2013; Ruth et al., 2005).
Lundy, Ruth, and Park (2007) performed a follow up study to Ruth et al.’s 2005 research of stereotypes in reality television. The study examined the portrayal of agriculture in entertainment media, specifically Napoleon Dynamite, a 2004 film (Lundy et al., 2007). Participants described the portrayal of agriculture as a male profession that is difficult work (Ruth et al., 2007). Further, participants described a farmer as young male, rugged, wearing denim or overalls and having a country accent (Ruth et al., 2007).
The researchers found the findings to support Ruth et al.’s (2005) findings of short-term and long-term effects on perceptions of the agricultural industry. Participants of the study agreed that opinions and perceptions of various phenomenon were shaped through the media and agreed agriculture is negatively portrayed (Lundy et al., 2007).
Hillard (2014) suggested a low number of narrowcasting programming is produced due to financial considerations controlling production decisions that are often aimed at reaching and holding a large segment of the viewing audience. The agricultural industry is directly connected to less than two percent of the United States population who live on farms (EPA, 2013). Thus, a low familiarity of content is correlated with producer decisions of content (Price et al., 1997). A small number of programs portraying the industry illustrate the importance of accurately portraying the agricultural industry.
36 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015
Gender Roles in Television
Gender roles have been stereotyped in the media. “Gender roles are socially constructed at an early age” fabricated by family, friends and the media (Hall, 2005, p.
15). “Women are portrayed as nonprofessionals, homemakers, wives or parents, and sexual gatekeepers” (Collins, 2011, p. 290). Men are portrayed as superior, serving as the head of a household. Over the decades, portrayals of males and females have broadly expanded in society, but television lacks this reality (Collins, 2011). Specifically, the media has helped shape expectations for society from heterosexual marriages to behavioral traits.
The media has also defined physical characteristics. Aubrey (2006) suggested repetitive exposure to bodies being objectified in the media lead to a cultivated view of physical appearance. “Mass media are believed to be a pervasive force in shaping physical appearance ideals and have been shown to negatively impact females’ body image” (Agliata & Tantleff-Dunn, 2004, np.). “The ideal body is also associated with the good life” (Myers & Biocca, 1992, p.111). One such example is the consistent trend toward thinner body shapes, or the particular aesthetic standards of the time (Garner,
Garfinkel, Schwartz, & Thompson, 1980). However, males are influenced by such exposure too. Pope, Olivardia, Gruber and Borowiecki (1998) stated men are often dissatisfied with their body image. The ideal male body has appeared more muscular over the years (Pope et al., 1999). The public is exposed to these images daily in magazines, television, and other media (Pope et al., 1999).
37 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015
People Magazine’s sexiest man alive is one example of such exposure. Beginning in 1985, the magazine has annually chosen a male to receive the title of sexiest man alive
(International Business, 2013). Previous winners have been described as having chiseled abs, being sexy and outrageously hot, while almost always being featured shirtless on the magazine cover (International Business, 2013). Further, youth develop such images through action figures. Pope et al. (1999) found action figures have continually become much more muscular over the past 30 years. “Many modern figures display the physiques of advanced body builders and some display levels of muscularity far exceeding the outer limits of actual human attainment” (Pope et al., 1999, p. 70).
Research shows from 1959 to 1978, Playboy centerfold models and Miss America pageant contestants consistently appeared thinner year-to-year (Garner et al., 1980). This angular and lean look shifted from the previously idealized voluptuous and curved female figure of the 1970s (Garner et al., 1980). Myers and Biocca (1992) found as little as 30 minutes of television programming and advertising exposure can alter female perceptions of the shape of her body. Plastic surgery has also added to the trend of imperfection in female body images, increasingly becoming a social norm (Heisse, Leavy, Quinn, &
Zoino, 2006). Females receive liposuction, breast augmentation, and nose reshaping surgeries among many others (Heisse et al., 2006).
Literature related to gender roles in the media suggests sex and gender issues overlap (Collins, 2011). The media frames appearance and bodies for important determinants for sexual desirability (Aubrey, 2006). Further, visual cues have been found to have a strong influence when selecting mates (Foster, 2008). “Conforming to a thin
38 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015 body ideal is crucial to sexual attractiveness,” (Collins, 2011, p. 366) among many other aesthetical characteristics discussed above.
Up to this point, The Bachelor has featured heterosexual relationships among program participants. The male cast as the bachelor is expected to be masculine, handsome, and attractive by viewers (Hall, 2005), in line with the socially constructed view of an ideal male. Similarly, female participants on the program are attractive as well. Gender roles appear traditional in The Bachelor, as the male is seen as in control, deciding the fates of female participants. However, The Bachelorette allows these roles to be reversed, suggesting a more progressive view of gender roles within the programming.
39 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
Introduction
Chapter Two established a framework for the analysis of agricultural stereotypes portrayed through the media. These portrayals are of great importance in today’s society as we see a larger disconnect among urban populations and the farm. Performing a textual content analysis allows a detailed account of select episodes and promotional videos from Season 19 of The Bachelor and Season 10 of The Bachelorette, which can be easily replicated in future studies to identify agricultural stereotypes in reality television.
This chapter will focus on the research design, population and sample, and data collection and analysis.
Purpose and Objectives
The purpose of this study is to describe the portrayal of agricultural stereotypes in entertainment media. For this study, the focus was narrowed to reality television by analyzing the portrayal of agriculture in select episodes and promotional videos from
Season 19 of The Bachelor and Season 10 of The Bachelorette. The researcher conducted a textual content analysis of select episodes and promotional videos from Season 19 of
The Bachelor and Season 10 of The Bachelorette using a researcher-developed codebook.
The study will be guided by the following research questions:
40 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015
1. What themes were found in the portrayal of agriculture throughout the
select episodes and promotional videos from Season 19 of The Bachelor
and Season 10 of The Bachelorette?
2. Do the identified themes from the select episodes and promotional videos
from Season 19 of The Bachelor and Season 10 of The Bachelorette
reinforce or break a cultural stereotype in agriculture?
3. What other potential agricultural stereotypes are present in select episodes
and promotional videos from Season 19 of The Bachelor and Season 10 of
The Bachelorette?
Research Design
This study design used qualitative textual content analysis to determine agricultural stereotypes in select episodes and promotional videos from Season 19 of The
Bachelor and Season 10 of The Bachelorette. Ary, Jacobs, Sorensen, and Walker (2013) suggested evaluating visual materials including films, television programs, and advertisements using content analysis. Content analysis has roots in communication studies, focusing on characteristics that reflect meaning through specific content (Ary et al., 2013). To expand, this form of qualitative research explores meanings constructed by people in an attempt to make sense of their world (Merriam, 2014). Conducting textual analysis is an effort to extract information about sense-making practices, while seeing similarities and differences along with limitations and alternatives (McKee, 2003). The emerging data is collected with the intent of developing themes from the content
(Creswell, 2013). Analyzing media content can help develop inferences related to a
41 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015 phenomenon that is less apparent and help predict content’s impact on an audience
(Shoemaker & Reese, 2011). Further, organizational and cultural elements that help mold the production of media content can be derived from such analysis (Shoemaker & Reese,
2011).
Sample
Chris Soules first appeared on Season 10 of The Bachelorette where he competed with other men for the opportunity to pursue a relationship with Andi Dorfman. Soules appeared on eight episodes during the season before he was eliminated from the show.
Following his dismissal, Soules was named the Season 19 bachelor. This title ensured
Soules’ appearance in 14 episodes throughout the program. With episodes ranging from two to three hours in length, the researcher chose to derive a purposive sample drawing from both Season 10 of The Bachelorette and Season 19 of The Bachelor.
Episode 8 of Season 10 of The Bachelorette, Episode 1 of Season 19 of The
Bachelor, and three promotional videos for Season 19 of The Bachelor comprised the purposive sample. The eighth episode from The Bachelorette featured Dorfman visiting
Soules’ hometown and family in Arlington, Iowa. As this episode provided an in-depth view of Soules’ agricultural background, it was chosen to be included within the purposive sample. Episode one of The Bachelor focused on a behind the scenes red carpet event, along with an introduction to Soules and the women competing. This episode provided a comprehensive look into the upcoming season and Soules’ background in agriculture. Further, three promotional videos were selected to be coded for the study. The promotional videos included Prince Farming, The Quest for Prince
42 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015
Farming, and The Bachelor 2015 Trailer. These promotional videos were chosen as they were featured through various outlets and sources to promote Season 19 of The Bachelor.
Further, the researcher argued the promotional videos give insight into the upcoming episodes, and communicate what viewers should expect throughout the season. Other episodes were not included due to time constraints. Further, the researcher felt the selected episodes best provided an overlook into the season.
Data Collection
A codebook was developed to analyze the sample. To aid in the structure of the instrument, the researcher explored previous literature (Specht, 2010; Lange, 2014;
Chandler, 2000). The codebook was organized using five categories: time, visual and verbal observation, reinforced stereotype, broken stereotype, and notes (See Appendix
A). The time stamp, using an hour: minute: second format for observations, was recorded under the time category of the codebook. This was used for reflection purposes when extracting themes by the researcher. Visual and verbal observations provided a summary of frames within the sample. This section was created to reflect media frames, observing the organization and concepts associated with text by producers. Individual frames were determined using broken stereotypes, reinforced stereotypes, and notes sections of the codebook. These sections provided insight into an audience processing of the text. The broken stereotype category was used to document if an observation went against a coder’s view of agriculture, while the reinforced stereotype category was used to determine if an observation was in line with a coder’s view of agriculture. The notes section of the codebook was used for coders to share opinions and thoughts of a given
43 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015 observation. These notes were expected to provide insight into the thought process of coders.
Three coders were chosen to record their observations, following the recommendation of Lombard et al. (2002). Coders were chosen in an effort to establish diversity among backgrounds in agriculture, gender, and age. Coder training was conducted to ensure consistency and intercoder reliability throughout the content analysis. “It is widely acknowledged that intercoder reliability is a critical component of content analysis and (although it does not ensure validity) when it is not established, the data and interpretations of the data can never be considered valid” (Lombard et al., 2002, p. 589). The researcher provided a guiding document for coders describing the codebook in depth (See Appendix B). Further, examples of codes were provided within a sample codebook based off two promotional videos not used within the sample. The researcher and coders watched the two promotional videos, discussed sample observations, and watched how such observations should be recorded within the codebook. The researcher received verbal confirmation of the coders’ understanding of the process and reviewed coders’ observations for discrepancies before data collection began.
Promotional videos’ URLs were documented within the codebook. The selected episodes were purchased through YouTube to ensure consistent time stamps throughout data collection. During the data collection process, the sample was paused during each observation to allow coders to retrieve a time stamp and record their observation. The visual or verbal observation was then coded as reinforcing a stereotype, breaking a stereotype, or both. If coders could not discern their observation, the reinforced
44 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015 stereotype and broken stereotype selections could be left unfilled. Coders then recorded their opinions and reactions to frames in the notes section. This section was not required for every observation, but encouraged when applicable to help the researcher understand coded themes. Communication among researchers was restricted during the observation period to minimize bias.
Data Analysis
At the conclusion of data collection, the codebooks were analyzed for similar themes. The researcher extracted themes in the portrayal of agriculture by analyzing similarities in visual and verbal observations. Observations were noted and themes in stereotypes were extracted from the information. Glaser and Strauss (2009) discussed the value in comparative analysis. “By comparing where the facts are similar or different, we can generate properties of categories that increase the categories’ generality and explanatory power” (Glaser & Strauss, 2009, p. 24). By only analyzing visual and verbal observations to extract themes of the portrayal of agriculture, the researcher was able to understand the media frames within the sample.
For this study, the researcher utilized socially constructed knowledge claims to understand individual frames. These claims built off socially constructed knowledge theory, with a goal to “rely as much as possible on the participants’ views of the situation being studied” (Creswell, 2013, p. 8). Creswell (2013) described these meanings as
“varied and multiple, leading the researcher to look for the complexity of views rather than narrowing meanings into a few categories or ideas” (p. 8). This validity procedure is
45 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015 achieved by searching for convergence among varying sources of information in an effort to form themes or categories in a study (Creswell & Miller, 2000).
To understand individual frames, or how information is interpreted by an audience, the study utilized the W. K. Kellogg Foundation’s study of perceptions of rural life in America (2001), Holz-Clause and Jost’s (1995) study of youth perceptions of agriculture, Miller’s (2013) study on southern identity stereotypes in reality television, and Ruth, Lundy, and Park’s (2005) study over the portrayal of agriculture in reality television, along with the researcher’s personal knowledge to guide the extraction of such frames. Data from reinforced stereotype, broken stereotype, and notes sections of the codebook were used for the findings. For socially constructed knowledge claims researchers recognize the influence their personal background has on their interpretation of phenomena, and thus, they “position themselves” to acknowledge how their experiences influence their interpretation (Creswell, 2011).
Coders
Three participants were chosen as coders for this study. An effort was given to establish diversity among participants. Knowledge of agriculture, experiences within the industry, age, and gender were considered when selecting coders. Participants were labeled as coder 1, coder 2, and coder 3 to ensure anonymity. Descriptions of each participant is available below.
Coder 1. Coder 1 is a 22-year-old white female, who served as the lead researcher for this study. She grew up in a southwestern U.S. city, where agriculture was a leading industry. She is educated in agricultural communications with an educational
46 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015 background in research. Coder 1 has worked in the agricultural industry with state commodity groups. Additional experience in industry work was in the western U.S. with an agricultural supplier.
Coder 2. Coder 2 is a 52-year-old white female. Coder 2 grew up in a rural area and later moved to a small southwestern U.S. city. She has a background in agriculture, coming from a farming family and continued her involvement in the industry after marrying a farmer. Coder 2 currently owns an agricultural business.
Coder 3. Coder 3 is a 24-year-old white male. Coder 3 grew up in a rural community in the southwestern U.S. Coder 3 has a background in agriculture, coming from a farming family. After receiving a bachelor’s degree, he returned to his hometown to begin farming. Coder 3 currently has two years of experience cultivating his own land.
Trustworthiness
There is a broad consensus that qualitative research needs validation into the study’s trustworthiness (Creswell & Miller, 2000). Much attention is placed on reliability and validity in research methods, as the absence of this rigor results in worthless, fictional research without utility (Morse, Barrett, Mayan, Olson, & Spiers, 2008).
Trustworthiness can be achieved through credibility, transferability, dependability, and conformability (Ary et al., 2013; Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Shenton, 2004). Varying strategies are used to address these issues of rigor in qualitative research. Following the guidance of Ary et al. (2013), “a single strategy may address more than one issue of rigor” (pg. 531).
47 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015
Credibility is the accuracy and truthfulness of findings (Ary et al., 2013). It is a key element of addressing the internal validity of research by ensuring the researcher measures what was intended (Shenton, 2004). Zhang and Wildemuth (2009) account credibility as an evaluation to the validity of the constructed social reality by the researcher. Triangulation is one method to improve the probability of credible research findings (Ary et al., 2013; Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Denzin (1978) identified four methods of triangulation: sources, methods, investigators, and theories. The researcher chose to establish triangulation through multiple investigators. A combination of sources ensures the phenomenon is being understood from various points of view (Ary et al.,
2013). Multiple investigators add to sufficient intra-team communication, keeping all members moving together and “honest” to ensure credibility (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).
“Another procedure for establishing credibility in a study is to describe the setting, the participants, and the themes of a qualitative study in rich detail” (Creswell &
Miller, 2000, p.128). This procedure employs a constructivist perspective, contextualizing the phenomenon (Creswell & Miller, 2000). In turn, readers have the information necessary to apply the findings to similar contexts. The researcher and participants documented their findings using a researcher-developed codebook. These findings provide descriptions necessary for rich details.
Transferability is the ability to apply findings to another study, or rather demonstrate that the results are applicable to a wider population (Shenton, 2004). “The researcher must strive to provide accurate, detailed, and complete descriptions of the context and participants to assist the reader in determining transferability” (Ary et al.,
48 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015
2013, p. 535). The researcher aimed to provide extensive detail through the coding process to cater to this criterion. The purposive sample employed with this study helped to establish transferability. Episodes and promotional materials were chosen in an effort to represent the varying degrees in which agriculture was portrayed throughout the program. Further, it is important to note the probability of variability when replicating this study. Transferability should not be confused with generalizability, as the research does not aim to generalize the findings, but rather describe the phenomenon at hand
(Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Ary et al. (2013) noted transferability to another context depends on the likeness or “goodness of fit” with the study’s findings. Therefore, variability should be expected, as research of a different reality television program will merit different stereotypes due to participants, production and writing techniques that are unique to a particular program.
“Dependability is determined by checking the consistency of the study processes,” (Zhang & Wildemuth, 2009). “Dependability can be demonstrated by showing consistent findings across multiple settings or multiple investigators” (Ary et al,
2013, p. 537). When a study is reliable and has the ability to be replicated achieving the same results, dependability is present (Shenton, 2004). Consistent findings allowed dependability to be established in this study. The use of multiple coders allowed cross- reference of findings. Thus, dependability could be ensured through a method of triangulation. Lincoln and Guba (1985) suggest maintaining all data collected throughout the study. Modern researchers refer to this process as an audit trail. “Audit trails provide a mechanism whereby others can determine how decisions were made and assess the
49 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015 uniqueness of the situation” (Ary et al., 2013, p. 536). The researcher and participants kept digital copies of their codebooks, which were organized and stored for easy reference if needed. Further, the researcher maintained all copies and versions of her thesis, codebook, and other relevant documentation.
Conformability results from findings of a study that are confirmed or supported by others, proving neutrality. Further, conformability can only be established once credibility, transferability, and dependability have been established (Lincoln & Guba,
1985). Proof that inferences are logically based on data, analysis of analytic techniques used, appropriateness of category labels, quality of interpretation of findings, and potential for alternative findings are considered (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Triangulation may also be used to establish this rigor (Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Ary et al., 2013).
Researcher Bias
The researcher brings her personal knowledge about The Bachelor franchise to the study, having previously followed this television programming. Specifically, the researcher followed the 10th season of The Bachelorette where Soule competed for a relationship with Dorfman. As a result, the researcher had previous impressions of Chris
Soules, which she described as positive and progressive in the agricultural industry. The researcher also was exposed to promotional material produced by ABC prior to the premiere of the 19th Season of The Bachelor.
Having been raised with a background in agriculture, the researcher has previous knowledge of the industry. Furthermore, her educational background has allowed her to
50 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015 study the phenomenon of agricultures frame throughout the years. Her personal experiences will likely contribute to the findings within this study.
51 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015
CHAPTER IV
FINDINGS
Introduction
The purpose of this study was to describe the portrayal of agricultural stereotypes in entertainment media. Chapter IV discusses the agricultural themes and stereotypes identified in select episodes and promotional videos from Season 19 of The Bachelor and
Season 10 of The Bachelorette. Themes and stereotypes were extracted through a textual content analysis of researcher codebooks. The study was guided by the following research questions:
1. What themes were found in the portrayal of agriculture throughout the
select episodes and promotional videos from Season 19 of The Bachelor
and Season 10 of The Bachelorette?
2. Do the identified themes from the select episodes and promotional videos
from Season 19 of The Bachelor and Season 10 of The Bachelorette
reinforce or break a cultural stereotype in agriculture?
3. What other potential agricultural stereotypes are present in select episodes
and promotional videos from Season 19 of The Bachelor and Season 10 of
The Bachelorette?
Findings in Relation to Research Question One
Research Question One sought to identify major themes in line with the portrayal of agriculture within the selected episodes and promotional videos of The Bachelor and
The Bachelorette. The researcher extracted four major themes from the textual content
52 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015 analysis: the romanticized farmer, the pastoral fantasy, a limited understanding of agriculture, and traditional values. Detailed descriptions of each theme are provided below.
The romanticized farmer. The romanticized farmer represents the frame placed on male farmers in the agricultural industry. This theme developed around the notion of a farmer as an ideal mate, achieved through both visual and verbal frames. The researcher further divided the theme into two subthemes, physical attraction values and fairytale beliefs, which are described below.
Physical attraction values. The researcher identified a significant pattern of observations in each coder’s codebook relating to appealing attributes of farmers.
Throughout the sample, show participants continually referred to Soules as hot, sexy, beautiful, and handsome. In episode 8 of Season 10 of The Bachelorette, Dorfman says
“Chris is like the epitome of a man when he is driving that tractor, plowing down those fields. He’s hot. He’s manly. He’s burly. He’s the hottest farmer ever.” Michelle from
Season 19 of The Bachelor tells Soules he is a babe during the premiere. Within the same episode, Trina says Soules is an amazing looking guy and follows up the statement by stating, “he’s that hot farmer.”
Soules shows off his physique in a segment during the Season 19 premiere of The
Bachelor. Soules is shown exercising outdoors using unconventional resources such as hay bales and rocks to supplement his workout. Soules says he has been training for the women and shows off his arm muscles while he jokes to the camera about “the gun show”. In the 2015 Season Preview, Soules is shown shirtless in multiple scenes.
53 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015
Further, comments by program participants are sexually suggestive. In a confessional during the Season 19 premiere of The Bachelor, Amanda tells producers
“Chris is dead sexy. His smile is just a panty-dropper.” In the same episode another participant approaches Soules as she exits the limo and informs the Midwestern farmer he can “plow the [explicit] out of my field any day.” This explicit clip is also shown in
The Quest for Prince Farming promotional video.
Strong evidence suggests all female participants feel Soules is an attractive male throughout the Season 19 premiere of The Bachelor and the hometown episode from
Season 10 of The Bachelorette. Additional content takes the romanticized farmer theme beyond Soules specifically. During Soule’s hometown date with Dorfman, Soules’ mother says “when he [Soules’ father] got out of that tractor, it would just stop a heart.”
Fairytale beliefs. Romance was created using fairytale elements throughout promotional videos and episodes in Season 19 of The Bachelor. Soules was consistently coined as Prince Farming, a pun of a common reference for a male hero in fairytales. In
The Quest for Prince Farming promotional video, the narrator refers to the season as
Soules’ quest for happily ever after. Soules’ farmland is referenced as a kingdom. The
Prince Farming promotional video used a whimsical and classic music choice to create a dreamy setting. Additionally, a classic fairytale narrative was used:
Once upon a time in a kingdom far away, Prince Farming lived among bales and bales of hay. And though he loved his land, his heart began to stir, so he headed to the city to become The Bachelor. He was greeted there by maidens, so eager to impress. Some with open hearts, and one in a tiny dress. But to find his happy ending, ‘tis true most girls will go. Because for all his fields of corn, he has but a single rose.
54 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015
Commentary by program participants supported this romanticized frame. Soules stated, “I feel like this is a dream” during The Quest for Prince Farming promotional video. Another woman expressed her excitement, and added she felt “like Cinderella,” as viewers see an ice sculpture of a glass slipper. Other women described their feelings for
Soules using words such as beautiful, amazing, and in love.
The pastoral fantasy. Through this study, the content represented rural America as a carefree, simple lifestyle surrounded by serene open spaces. The researcher condensed these views into a theme of the pastoral fantasy, which was further broken down into two subthemes: landscape and lifestyle.
Landscape. Both selected episodes and all promotional videos from Season 19 of
The Bachelor and Season 10 of The Bachelorette depicted rural areas as an undeveloped, open countryside with idyllic horizons. The extent of these open spaces is summarized in the hometown episode from Season 10 of The Bachelorette. During the hometown episode, Soules tells Andi “Everything that you can basically see here is ours” as the couple looks out to his backyard. Andi appears surprised at the size of Soules’ property and describes the area as “acres upon acres upon acres of farmland.” Additionally, Soules describes Iowa as beautiful and Andi compares it to a Tuscan landscape.
Shots of rural landscapes often panned across fields. Wheat and corn were predominant field crops featured throughout the sample. During the Season 19 premiere of The Bachelor, wheat was shown during its ‘golden’ stage, blowing in the wind. The
Season 10 hometown episode pictured a field of wheat stubble after harvest. Corn crops
55 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015 were featured in varying stages of growth, although all instances featured a green plant.
In addition, soybean plants were shown in moderation.
Horizons occasionally featured a structure, often far in the distance. These structures resembled grain silos, traditional farm homes, barns, or wooden fences.
Structures often had a rustic aesthetic. For example, barns featured chipped red paint and wooden fence post appeared weathered and splintering. Coder two observed one instance of an iconic red barn and described it as “pretty run down.”
Lifestyle. This subtheme emerged through an analysis of social interactions, suggesting a lonely lifestyle for rural residents. Soules said, “Where I’m from, I have a lot of time, and no women,” referencing his need for companionship that is not being fulfilled in his rural community. Soules is repeatedly seen alone gazing into a field horizon, sitting on the steps of a rundown business, or riding his motorcycle down an unpopulated road. When given a look into Soule’s life in Arlington, Iowa during the
Season 19 premiere of The Bachelor, Soules’ social interactions only occurred among his family, other male farmers, and his personal trainer. During the hometown episode from
Season 10 of The Bachelorette, Dorfman commented on the isolation associated with rural living. She referenced the importance of getting along with Soules family, as she would see them “a lot more often being out here [in a rural area].”
The program framed rural living as quiet and slower paced. Soules’ hometown of
Arlington is “20 miles from civilization” with a population in the low 400s. Soules described the area as a place “you can kind of live a slower pace, and still have an awesome quality of life.” During a live audience interview during the Season 19 premiere
56 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015 of The Bachelor, other community members [referred to as farmer’s wives] pointed out the slower-paced life. Further, the farmer’s wives felt the environment of Iowa was
“great place to raise a family” and said, “everybody knows everybody.” Soules put the lifestyle into perspective during the Season 19 premiere of The Bachelor. Soules said Los
Angeles “…is a whole different world. There are more people in a square mile than there is in the entire county that I live in.”
Limiting understanding of agriculture. Coders observed a lack of understanding of the agricultural industry by participants in Season 19 of The Bachelor and Season 10 of The Bachelorette. Many participants of Season 19 were unaware of the scope of the industry, while those that did have knowledge of agriculture had a limited understanding. During the Season 19 premiere of The Bachelor, only one participant admitted to having a rural background. Tara describes herself as a small town girl, who grew up “huntin” and “fishin,” but does not reference to any knowledge of the agricultural industry.
The industry’s scope is framed primarily through production agriculture throughout the sample focusing on Soules’ connection to the cornfield. Soules’ is aware of the scope of agriculture. He shared that he is “feeding the world.” However, apart from
Soules’ comment, program producers give no reference to other sectors of the agricultural industry. During the Season 10 hometown date on The Bachelorette,
Dorfman shows a lack of understanding toward the industry. Dorfman, who was an
Atlanta district attorney, asks Soules what type of work she could do in a rural area. In
57 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015 the Season 19 premiere, Whitney, a fertility nurse from Chicago, Illinois, was aware of insemination in livestock, and felt she could easily work in such a field.
During the Season 10 hometown episode of The Bachelorette, Dorfman was surprised at the size of the equipment used on a farm. She gawked at a tractor tire that was her height. Dorfman asked Soules’ if he drove the tractor in an impressed tone of voice. Another participant mistakenly sees an ‘onion tree’ during the Season 19 premiere of The Bachelor. The ‘onion tree’ is later discovered to be a pomegranate tree. However, the participant is intoxicated, likely impairing her judgment. Within the same episode,
Mackenzie has not heard of one crop produced by Soules. The conversation can be seen below:
Mackenzie: I’ve heard that you grow a lot of corn. Is that all you grow?
Soules: We grow soybeans and some alfalfa, and we raise pigs.
Mackenzie: Wait, what is alfalfa?
Soules: They use it to feed the cattle.
Mackenzie: Hmm. Never heard of it.
Soules: Yeah, it’s green. Yay big.
Mackenzie: Is it organic?
Soules: Uhhh... [Stumbles over words, not sure how to respond.]
Traditional Values. Strong morals and family values were present throughout the sample. This theme was first established through testimonies of Soules’ character.
While on the red carpet before the Season 19 Premiere, Marcus, a previous competitor from The Bachelor franchise, described Soules as “a good ole’ boy with grass roots and
58 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015 morals,” while Dorfman goes on to state Soules was a nice guy and “what you see is what you get.” Harrison, the program host, shared that “Chris is one of the most serious and sincere Bachelors we have ever had”. Additional observations noted characters’ comments of Soules’ sincerity, thoughtfulness, and genuine intentions.
The 2015 Season Preview and Quest for Prince Farming promotional video first suggested Soules’ conservative morals. In the 2015 Season Preview promotional video, a woman proceeds to remove the bottoms of her bathing suit and jump into water. The camera jumps to Soules’ face, where we see a shocked and disapproving expression.
Both promotional videos show Soules kiss multiple women, framing a lustful yet innocent interaction. However, one incident shows a negative side of Soules’ character.
Soules’ tent is unzipped by an unexpected ‘intruder’ during the 2015 Season Preview.
This incident appears to lead to animosity among other participants. Women confront
Soules’ stating “I know what you did,” “that is not how I want to feel around a man I want to marry,” “this is [explicit] ridiculous,” and other outraged responses. Soules’ admits he “has made a huge mistake” but says he is “not perfect” and is “taking responsibility for the situation.” Soules’ appears to remedy the situation by speaking to participants and uplifting their spirits. Whitney said “all the doubts I had went away”.
Kelsey says she trusts Soules and wants to give him a second chance.
Traditional values were also seen on the farm. The Season 19 premiere of The
Bachelor depicted Soules as a hard worker with strong work ethic. Soules was shown performing hands-on manual labor in the Season 19 premiere. In Season 10 of The
Bachelorette, Soules’ sister comments on Soules’ achievements in life. They describe
59 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015 him as phenomenally successful, a hard worker, businessman, and entrepreneur. Dorfman commented that “he [Soules] is so driven.” Moreover, Soules’ reflected on his profession in the Season 19 premiere of The Bachelor, where he shared his feeling of accomplishment to watch his crops grow, referencing the responsibility and dedication of the profession. One statement by Soules from the season premiere brings out the traditional value theme:
So, this will be the first time that I have missed harvest, and I have got a lot of responsibility here. People look to me as a leader and a person who drives things. I’m leaving behind everything that is important to me in order to find my wife. There is really nothing more important to me right now than meeting my true soul mate.
In addition to this sincere approach toward his role in The Bachelor, family is showcased as a priority for Soules. Soules expresses his desire to hand down the farm to his son or daughter one day. The hometown episode from Season 10 of The Bachelorette showcased a positive relationship between Chris and his family, which is evident through their fluid interactions. In the Season 19 premiere of The Bachelor, Soules is seen spending time with his extended family, enjoying meals and engaging in quality time.
The family appears to work as unit – never missing a beat. Soules’ mother and sisters also appear to have good character, through their mannerisms and comments generating approval for their sibling. Dorfman notes that “Chris’ mom has a heart of gold,” and says she would be so happy to call his sisters her family.
Research Question Two
Research Question Two sought to categorize the themes from RQ1 to determine if the themes reinforced or broke a cultural stereotype in agriculture. Three themes were
60 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015 categorized as reinforcing agricultural stereotypes. These themes included the pastoral fantasy, traditional values, and a limited understanding of agriculture. One theme was categorized as breaking an agricultural stereotype: the romanticized farmer. Individual frames were used to analyze data, retrieved from reinforced stereotype, broken stereotype, and notes sections of codebooks. Further, recoding a theme as a stereotype was guided by the Kellogg Foundation’s (2002) study on perceptions of rural America.
Table 2 displays reinforced and broken themes from the sample along with supporting literature.
Table 2 Reinforced or Broken Themes
Theme Reinforce Broke Previous Literature King & Rhoades, 2012; The Pastoral Fantasy ✓ Kellogg Foundation, 2002 Lange, 2014; Miller, 2013; The Traditional Values ✓ Kellogg Foundation, 2002 Limited Holz-Clause & Jost, 1995; Ruth, Understanding of ✓ Lundy & Park, 2005; The Kellogg Agriculture Foundation (2002)
Romanticized ✓ Farmer
Reinforced stereotypes. The Kellogg Foundation’s study (2002) found country life is viewed as “serene, peaceful, and slow-paced” (p. 4). The theme of a pastoral fantasy is in line with this perspective, focusing on the portrayal of a tranquil landscape and simplistic lifestyle throughout Season 19 of The Bachelor and Season 10 of The
Bachelorette. Coder 2 noted this portrayal reinforces a “comfortable, down-to-earth feeling” often associated with rural settings, while Coder 1 observed rocking chairs on
61 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015 the front porch of Soules’ parents’ home suggesting this “simplistic life.” The pastoral fantasy also centralizes around the idea of family life, in line with The Kellogg
Foundation study’s (2002) findings that participants viewed country life as crime free and a great place to raise a family. Soules’ mother further referenced the area as a great location for raising children, eliciting “she believes children thrive in rural areas” according to Coder 2. Soules’ is eager to begin a family of his own and supports this idea through his desire to hand down the farm to his son or daughter. Coder 3 noted a reference made by a community member during a studio interview in the Season 19 premiere of The Bachelor as reinforcing this stereotype, while Coder 1 referenced
Soules’ entire family at the dinner table and noted the scene shows Soules’ is a family man. Further, Coder 2 noted that the program made it look like a “traditional family meal was more prominent in a country setting.” During the Season 19 premiere of The
Bachelor, Soules’ family appeared to live a laidback lifestyle, sitting and enjoying others’ company on their back porch. Soules is often featured gazing into the distance in his own thoughts. However, these positive reflections are also tainted by negative perceptions of the simplistic lifestyle. The sample communicated the isolation of a rural lifestyle and the lonely disconnect that can be associated stemming from a comment from Soules reflecting on his time to dedicate to a significant other and the lack of women in the area.
Coder 2 felt “farmer’s are typically portrayed as working from sun up to sun down, and have no spare time for ‘fun’ activities.” Coder 1 observed this isolated frame and the change in music to a somber mood, noting the tendency to make rural agriculture appear boring and sad.
62 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015
The traditional values theme was extracted from a presence of genuine, religious, and motivational attributes of farmers. The Kellogg Foundation (2002) referred to these principles as Puritan ethic and traditional values, concepts used to describe rural residents. The study found participants perceive rural residents with a solid foundation of morals. Throughout the Season 19 premiere of The Bachelor, farming was depicted as a grueling and physically demanding profession, reinforcing previous stereotypes of the industry outlined by the Kellogg Foundation (2002). Dialogue from Soules stressing the hard work, time, and dedication required for farming reinforced the stereotype.
Additionally, shots of Chris shoveling grain, walking through his fields, and driving a tractor emphasize the labor required. Coder 1 and Coder 3 felt these scenes reinforced that farmers are hard workers. Coder 2 noted these frames show hard work is “required for success” in agriculture. Soules’ family shared with Dorfman that he is an entrepreneur, highlighting his achievement in the industry and the hard work Soules’ put into achieving his successes. Coder 3 noted Soules appears proud of his work.
Throughout the sample, Soules’ character was supported by peers and reflected a positive and trustworthy. Coder 3 noted the producers were “building up Chris as a really nice guy”. Although Soules’ character was built up through these frames, his character appeared to be compromised due to an incident between women during the Season 19 preview promotional video. Details of the conflict are unknown, but Soules is framed to appear as if he is dealing with internal turmoil from the incident and is aware his actions were wrong. The preview also portrays the women giving trust back to Soules.
63 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015
The theme of a limited understanding of agriculture reinforced the perception that urban residents removed from the farm have little knowledge about the industry. Content throughout the sample supported this theme. Dorfman was unaware of the scope of the industry, not understanding how her law degree could fit into an agriculturally-rich area.
Other participants in the Season 19 premiere of The Bachelor showed their limited knowledge of agriculture. Further, the program did not frame agriculture in a wide scope.
The focus of the industry centralized around corn. Coder 1 noted “not all farmers grow corn.” Coder 2 noted “many crops are not easily recognized by non-agriculture background people” suggesting an issue of understanding the variety of crops grown in the industry. Soules noted the reach of the industry when he commented on the satisfaction of “feeding the world,” however this comment was not supported by any visuals. This theme reinforced the concept that urban populations are becoming more and more disconnected from the farm.
Broken stereotypes. Previous research could not be found to support farmers as ideal figure for a romantic relationship. The frame of a farmer as an attractive, desirable mate helped develop the romanticized farmer theme. Soules was continually labeled using attractive descriptors such as hot, sexy and handsome. Specifically, Trina says
“Hello, farmer Chris!” when first meeting Soules. Coder 2 found this humorous and somewhat condescending, stating “If he was a banker would she have said, ‘Hello, banker Chris!’?” Further, some female participant comments had traces of sexual connotations, suggesting a desire to be with Soules. Coder 1 found these comments inappropriate. Further, Coder 2 described the sexualized connotation as a “crude play on
64 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015 words” but noted the attempted humor. As a whole, the content from Season 19 of The
Bachelor suggested a whimsical and passionate relationship between Soules and his chosen mate. This is achieved through terms such as “Prince Farming,” “happily ever after,” and other fairy-tale inspired content. This frame suggests Soules possesses characteristics similar to that or a male hero in fairytales. Coder 3 felt this made a farm
“sound like a magical place, and [is] playing to the hopeless romantics.” Further, the coder felt the program was building Soules up “to be a country version of Cinderella.”
Tara, a Season 19 participant from The Bachelor, exited the limo wearing cutoff shorts, a plaid shirt, and cowboy boots, which was not consistent with the cocktail attire worn by other participants and Soules. Throughout the season premiere, she continually appeared intoxicated. Tara had the hiccups, was shown belching, and had impaired motor skills from alcohol consumption. These scenes were shown in moderation in comparison to Soules’ scenes and were observed little by coders.
Research Question Three
Research Question Three sought to identify potential content that reinforced or broke a cultural stereotype in agriculture that did not fit into themes from RQ1. The researcher discovered trends in observations that suggested a lifestyle in-tune with modern culture.
Rural style. Throughout the sample, Soules’ is shown wearing stylish apparel.
Often, Soules’ wardrobe consisted of a bold plaid button-up shirt, a vest, dark denim jeans, and boots. The farmer sports Ray-Ban brand sunglasses and a leather jacket when riding his motorcycle. Soules wears an unconventional black ‘biker’ boot when riding his
65 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015 motorcycle as well. Tara, a participant on the Season 19 premiere of The Bachelor, described herself as a homegrown small-town girl. Tara wears short cut-off shorts, a plaid shirt, and cowboy boots to meet Soules. Coder 2 noted the wardrobe choice might have been an attempt to appeal to Soules’ rural background. Soules’ family’s style choices reflect modern-day trends. Women in the family wore statement jewelry and styled their hair in modern cuts. Coder 2 noted the absence of long hair, braids or buns, and plain clothes. Older men in the rural community appeared to wear a more traditional rendition of a farmer’s wardrobe, consisting of a button up shirt, jeans, and boots.
Technology. Scenes from the sample provide glimpses into Soules’ possessions.
Soules owns a nice home, with granite counter tops, a flat screen television, and other modern fixtures. Soules drives a new model pick-up truck. Further, his equipment used on the farm contains modern-day technology such as GPS monitors. Coder 3 noted
Soules owned newer model equipment, not “old rustic tractors.” Coder 1 recognized technology in Soules’ farming operation, such as his ability to drive the tractor hands-free through GPS technology, but felt viewers without agricultural backgrounds would not identify with these observations.
Social culture. The women in Soules’ family appeared to be very socially cultured. The women were continually featured sipping red wine. Coder 3 felt this
“makes his family look more classy.” Further, one of Soules’ sisters insists he find a woman who enjoys wine as well. Soules’ mother shares that she has followed The
Bachelor every season, implying her knowledge of entertainment television. Coder 1 felt
66 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015 this observation broke the stereotype that farmer’s are not up to date on pop culture.
Additionally, she shares she grew up in the city.
Gender roles. References to gender roles in agriculture were present throughout the sample. When discussing a life in the country with Dorfman, Soules shared “there is always an opportunity to be a homemaker.” Coder 3 noted this “makes farmers look a little sexist.” Soules goes on to suggest the opportunity to practice law in a slightly larger nearby community. Soules’ mother further encouraged Dorfman to pursue a career as she assured the Atlanta native of possibilities for doing what she loved. Soules’ mother commented on her transition into rural life and how she adapted to the farm and learned to drive a tractor. Soules shares his intentions to hand his farm down to his son or daughter, referencing a gender-neutral opportunity in farming. These comments go against traditional perceptions of female roles in agriculture.
The farmer mold. Soules repetitively shared that he has not always followed the typical mold of a farmer. Coder 2 noted this comment “indicates that even Chris believes farmers don’t have diverse personalities and typically follow a stereotypical behavior.”
Dorfman hinted to this idea during her hometown date referencing Soules’ looks. Coder 3 recognized Soules’ looks are “different from other farmers” due to his more “modern” style and “gelled hair.” Coder 1 and Coder 2 recognized Soules’ interest in motorcycles is not typical for the farming profession. Further, Coder 1 noted Soules’ college education was unconventional.
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CHAPTER V
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Introduction
This chapter discusses the conclusions, implications and recommendations from this study. Drawing from knowledge gap theory, social construction of reality, and framing analysis, the researcher sought to understand the portrayal of agriculture within
Season 19 of The Bachelor and Season 10 of The Bachelorette. Themes and potential stereotypes were extracted through a textual content analysis of researcher codebooks.
The study was guided by the following research questions:
1. What themes were found in the portrayal of agriculture throughout the select
episodes and promotional videos from Season 19 of The Bachelor and
Season 10 of The Bachelorette?
2. Do the identified themes from the select episodes and promotional videos
from Season 19 of The Bachelor and Season 10 of The Bachelorette
reinforce or break a cultural stereotype in agriculture?
3. What other potential agricultural stereotypes are present in select episodes
and promotional videos from Season 19 of The Bachelor and Season 10 of
The Bachelorette?
The study revealed select episodes and promotional videos from Season 19 of The
Bachelor and Season 10 of The Bachelorette portrayed agriculture in four ways. First, the romanticized farmer theme indicated frames suggesting attraction values toward farmers and fairytale beliefs of the profession. The pastoral fantasy theme portrayed the
68 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015 landscape and lifestyle of rural areas to be simplistic and serene. The limited understanding of agriculture theme presented the lack of awareness to the industry’s scope, while the traditional values theme highlighted the strong moral and ethical standards of rural residents.
Extracted themes were compared to existing literature to help guide the findings.
The researcher concluded three themes reinforced previously identified stereotypes in agriculture. The pastoral fantasy theme was in line with findings from the Kellogg
Foundation’s (2002) study suggesting a serene, peaceful, and slow-paced lifestyle. The same study concluded Puritan ethics and traditional values were perceived to be associated with rural residents (Kellogg Foundation, 2002), reinforcing the traditional values theme. The limited understanding of agriculture theme suggested populations removed from the farm have little knowledge about the industry, an idea suggested by previous researchers (Specht, 2010). One extracted theme did not align with previous research findings. The romanticized farmer theme suggested a passionate and whimsical romance between male farmers and women. Previous research identified southern stereotypes about rural residents to possess unintelligent and crude behavior (Miller,
2013) and to appear “hickish” and “backwoodsy” (Ruth et al., 2005).
The researcher further identified five additional potential stereotypes portrayed throughout the sample. Rural style portrayed wardrobes seen on rural residents.
Technology looks into the adaption of modern day advancements, while social culture analyzes the connectedness of rural residents to mainstream culture. Gender roles reference the cultural portrayal of differences in gender responsibilities in rural areas.
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Often placing women in mothering roles while men serve as the primary source of income for the family. The farmer mold portrays rural residents’ perception of the traditional farmer. These findings indicate a more modern depiction of agriculture through reality television, stepping away from previous portrayals.
Conclusions and Discussion in Relation to Research Question One
In analyzing the portrayal of agriculture in the Season 19 premiere of The
Bachelor, Season 10 hometown episode of The Bachelorette, the Prince Farming promotional video, The Quest for Prince Farming promotional video, and the Season 19
Preview promotional video, four themes emerged: the romanticized farmer, the pastoral fantasy, a limited understanding of agriculture, and traditional values. These themes were drawn from media frames, organizing ideas associated among media text (Scheufele,
1999). Analyzing such frames is necessary to assign meaning and associate unrecognizable happenings to media content (Scheufele, 1999).
The romanticized farmer. Throughout the sample, Soules is framed as an attractive male. Producers showcase the farmer’s fit physique. Participants describe
Soules’ as masculine, hot, sexy, and handsome. Participant comments also were sexually suggestive, further implying an attraction to Soules. In addition, Soules was coined as
Prince Farming, suggesting his likeness to the common male hero in fairytales. A relationship with Soules’ is given a whimsical and magical frame as participants describe their feelings using words such as amazing, beautiful and in love.
Hall (2005) found The Bachelor to be credited as the founder of reality programming focusing exclusively on dating and relationships. A strong component of
70 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015 dating involves attraction between a male and female. It is The Bachelor franchise’s intention to create an ‘ideal’ bachelor to foster this attraction value, which is expected by viewers. A focus group discovered viewers have stereotypical expectations of the bachelor, a man described as masculine, handsome, and a hunk (Hall, 2005). According to Eagly, Ashmore, Makhijani, and Longo (1991), attractive individuals generate positive reactions from others, including social acceptance, popularity, and positive qualities.
Season 19 of The Bachelor and Season 10 of The Bachelorette appeared to follow this trend based upon affirmation from participant comments referenced above.
In addition to the reassurance from participants of Soules’ attractiveness, Soules is seen performing physically demanding labor around the farm as well as working out.
His physique is showcased throughout the sample when he is shirtless. Since 1985,
People Magazine has identified the sexiest man alive annually (International Business,
2013). Previous winners have been described as having chiseled abs, being sexy and outrageously hot, while almost always being featured shirtless on the magazine cover
(International Business, 2013). In line with this idea is Soules’ portrayal of a perfected physique.
Further, sexual attraction has been associated with such exposure. Participants referenced Soules using sexually suggestive comments. Likewise, Soules deemed female participants desirable. Such attraction values suggest both men and women are objectified throughout The Bachelor and The Bachelorette. Season 19 participants of The
Bachelor had no knowledge of Soules’ prior to the premiere. Commentary was made before any relationship was present and able to develop. Hence, the comments were
71 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015 derived from visual attraction. “Experimental research has found that it is possible to induce self-objectification in both men and women” (Aubrey, 2006, p. 369). Visual cues are strong predictors of attractiveness judgments used to select mates (Foster, 2008).
Previous research suggested the media often focus on appearance and bodies for important determinants for sexual desirability, and further noted differences among gender objectification (Aubrey, 2006). Aubrey (2006) suggested repetitive exposure to bodies being objectified in the media lead to a cultivated view of physical appearance.
Thus, the affirming words from female participants of Soules’ appearance can help create a mainstream view of attraction values in farmers.
Season 19 created a fairytale frame of Soules’ as Prince Farming. Fairytales are known for happy endings, much like the attempted conclusion of each season of The
Bachelor. Bottinghemer’s book, Fairy Tales: A New History (2009), encompasses the attraction to the fables:
Fairy tales, which speak in a language well understood in the modern world, remain relevant because they allude to deep hopes for material improvement, because they present illusions of happiness to come, and because they provide social paradigms that overlap nearly perfectly with daydreams of a better life. (p. 13)
During the 2015 Season Preview promotional video of The Bachelor, participants describe their experiences with Soules’ as beautiful and amazing, and some share they fell in love. Hall (2005) found Byron, the Season 6 bachelor, as the hero, rescuing a woman from her previously unfulfilled life lacking companionship. Arguably, this fairytale idea is present season to season. However, Season 19 of The Bachelor offers a stronger portrayal with direct frames of fairytale references.
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Pastoral fantasy. Throughout the sample, rural life was portrayed in a romanticized light; open fields, stunning horizons, and a carefree lifestyle characterized the area. The sample allowed a glimpse into Hollywood’s idea of rural life, one portrayed time and time again through the media. A study by Specht (2010) found this theme predominant among the portrayal of agriculture in entertainment media, ranging from picturesque storybook representations of flourishing fields to mountains, hills, and plains of the American West.
Apart from visual representations of rural landscapes throughout the sample, a relaxed lifestyle of rural residents was evident. Emphasis was placed on family, framing rural America as an ideal setting for raising children. Community also served as a centralized aspect of the theme. Participants of a focus group studying agricultural stereotypes in reality television found the portrayal of agriculture as “easy and undemanding” (p. 28) in The Simple Life (Ruth et al., 2004), much like a component of the pastoral fantasy theme. Specht (2010) notes the symbolism of this portrayal of rural life often communicating a geographic disposition from conventional society. This portrayal reinforces an idea of isolation of residents in rural America. In this, the idea of a close-knit family unit as discussed above becomes more realistic. The remote location of rural communities further drives the communal aspect of rural life.
Limited understanding of agriculture. Participants in Season 19 of The
Bachelor and Season 10 of The Bachelorette had a lack of understanding into the scope of the agricultural industry. The industry’s scope is primarily framed through production agriculture, specifically corn farming in the Midwest. During the Season 19 premiere of
73 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015 the The Bachelor and Season 10 of The Bachelorette, participants’ lack of knowledge of agriculture was verbally confirmed through questions or comments, with no individuals appearing to have a comprehensive grasp on the industry as a whole.
Today, we see a large gap in urban knowledge of agriculture (Holz-Clause & Jost,
1995). Holz-Clause and Jost (1995) found youth lacked an understanding of the technical research areas of the agricultural industry. Their views of rural residents were vague, described as hard workers performing physical labor (Holz-Clause & Jost, 1995). A study by Frick et al. (1995) concluded rural high school students have higher knowledge concept than urban inner-city high school students in significance, policy resources, plants, animals, processing and marketing concepts in agriculture. In particular, greater significance in knowledge was found in rural high school students based on animal and plant knowledge areas (Frick et al., 1995).
Furthermore, the United States has a declining farm population, causing the population to become further removed from agriculture. This declining farm population saw an increase in demand for agricultural products (EPA, 2013). Such change required the industry to become rich in technology and science, leading to the current advancements in the industry today.
Traditional values. Participants and peers describe Soules’ character as sincere, genuine, trustworthy, and mature on the Season 19 premiere of The Bachelor. Further, the farmer is depicted as having a strong work ethic and a strong sense of family in both
Season 19 of The Bachelor and Season 10 of The Bachelorette. The majority of Soules’ romantic interactions between participants in the sample appeared lustful and ultimately
74 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015 innocent, comprised of affectionate kisses and physical touch. However, the 2015 Season
Preview of The Bachelor reveals an incident that contradicted these values, causing animosity and negative feelings toward Soules’ among program participants when an
‘intruder’ appears to enter into the bachelor’s tent in the middle of the night.
A strong sense of traditional American values is associated with rural residents
(Kellogg Foundation, 2002). These American values were described as being aligned with family, religion, and a strong work ethic (Kellogg Foundation, 2002). Soules’ family relationship and strong work ethic are evident throughout episodes within the sample.
Although these values are present, Miller (2013) found entertainment media to frame the
American southerner, residents of an agriculturally rich geography, to be unintelligent, crude, violent, and unhealthy, characteristics not prominent throughout the sample.
The glimpse into the 2015 Season Preview of The Bachelor appears to frame
Soules’ as dishonest, based on participant reactions to the incident. This frame offers a new perception of the American farmer – imperfection. Soules’ gained back participants' trust and reaffirmed his sincerity in the promotional video. The stray from his values was only short lived, suggesting his true character reflects the expected perception. These qualities help frame Soules’ as a desirable mate.
Conclusions and Discussion in Relation to Research Question Two
Research Question Two explored if the identified themes from the select episodes and promotional videos from Season 19 premiere of The Bachelor, Season 10 hometown episode of The Bachelorette, Prince Farming promotional video, The Quest for Prince
Farming promotional video, and the Season 19 Preview promotional video reinforced or
75 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015 broke a cultural stereotype in agriculture. The pastoral fantasy theme, traditional values in agriculture theme, and limited understanding of agriculture theme reinforced cultural agricultural stereotypes. The romanticized farmer theme broke a cultural agricultural stereotype in agriculture.
Research Question Two was answered by analyzing impressions of coders in the study, thus focusing on individual frames. Stereotypes develop based on people’s beliefs about groups (Jussim et al., 1995). Individual frames focus on an individual’s information processing of media text (Scheufele, 1999). Thus, individual frames associated to the sample lead to stereotypes in agriculture. The researcher further compared these finings to previous impressions of the industry, specifically The Kellogg
Foundation’s study (2002) of perceptions of rural America.
The Season 19 premiere of The Bachelor, Season 10 hometown episode of The
Bachelorette, and selected Season 19 promotional videos, portrayed agriculture in a romanticized light. Rural life was depicted as serene and peaceful, categorized by genuine character in residents and strong family ties. However, outsiders of rural
America appeared to have little understanding of the agricultural based industry. Farmers were framed to appear as a desirable mate to females, encompassing respectable qualities and courteous manners associated with fairytale-like portrayals of men. Soules’ character appeared compromised once, but was redeemed as he did the ‘right’ thing, suggested by regained trust of program participants in the Season 19 premiere of The Bachelor.
The Kellogg Foundation’s study (2002) found rural America is perceived as a slower-paced and serene lifestyle, characterized as peaceful and stress-free.
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“Respondents’ notions of rural America are dominated by images of the family farm, crops and pastures” (Kellogg Foundation, 2002, p. 4). The study found both rural and non-rural residents believe agriculture is the dominant industry in rural America “despite the fact farming only accounts for less than 11.7% of rural employment” (Kellogg
Foundation, 2002, p. 3). Residents of the tranquil landscape are believed to be hard working, representative of American values, with a strong sense of community and family (Kellogg Foundation, 2002). “Three-quarters of respondents say that rural residents have stronger families than people in the suburbs and cities” and further believe this is due to geographical factors (Kellogg Foundation, 2002, p. 6). Family is also noted as an important theme in another agriculturally based reality television program, Duck
Dynasty (Miller, 2013; Lange, 2014). The theme of family is often communicated by coming together for a meal (Miller, 2013).
Although these perceptions do align with previous stereotypes of the agricultural industry, a new frame appears to be emerging. The agricultural industry is still restrained by views of limiting opportunity, but seen as progressive. Farmers are no longer characterized as unrefined, but rather framed as educated and socialized in The Bachelor.
Rural life is still framed as simplistic and peaceful, but aware of popular culture and trends. Soules’ college education is framed to have led to his success as an entrepreneur and frames farmers as intelligent. Although Soules is seen using some explicit language throughout the sample, it is not framed as crude. Rather, his language is appears to place emphasis on comments, express emotions, or express humor. Additionally, Soules’ is seen exercising, suggesting a healthy lifestyle.
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Conclusions and Discussion in Relation to Research Question Three
Research Question Three explored potential agricultural stereotypes present in select episodes and promotional videos from Season 19 of The Bachelor and Season 10 of The Bachelorette. Research Question Three drew from individual frames to identify the following stereotypes within the sample: rural style, technology, social culture, gender roles and the farmer mold.
Rural style has often been categorized by a dated bib overall look for farmers
(Holz-Clause & Jost, 1995). The researcher found the sample to not reflect this perception. Rather, rural males wore button up shirts with jeans and boots, another take on casual work wear for farmers. Soules’ style saw variety as he wore leather and a biker styled boot to ride his motorcycle, a professional suit to meet women in Hollywood, and
‘regular’ clothes in interactions with women on the promotional videos.
Building off the idea of progressiveness in rural America, the sample showed a glimpse into modern amenities used by Soules. Granite countertops, flat screen televisions, new vehicles, and modern technology in farm equipment were present throughout the sample. These findings suggest the ability to have a high-quality of life in rural America.
Social culture appears up-to-date with urban trends. Soules’ mother shares the family has followed The Bachelor every season, implying their awareness of the entertainment media industry. Women in the family are seen drinking wine, appearing
‘classy,’ as described by Coder 3 in the study. These modern references help frame rural
America with connections to popular culture and less disconnected.
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Gender roles were recognized throughout the sample. The bachelorette was unsure about her career opportunities in a rural area. Soules’ shared the opportunity for
Dorfman to be a homemaker in the Season 10 hometown episode of The Bachelorette, yet Soules’ mother further emphasized the ability to do what you love in a rural area thanks to technology today. Although these references supported not limiting women’s ability to work, it never suggested women were able to farm. Soules’ mother hinted to her ability to drive farm equipment in the Season 10 hometown episode of The
Bachelorette, but the idea was never explored further.
Soules’ referenced a potential stereotype of the “farmer mold” he was breaking.
These comments suggested even Soules was aware of cultural stereotypes associated with the farming industry, and further potentially believed them. Undoubtedly, Soules was referencing his participation on The Bachelor and The Bachelorette, but the researcher feels this comment may have an extended meaning. Soules is an educated farmer who graduated with a four-year degree in agronomy. He is socially cultured, modern, and open to new experiences. Soules’ reference may suggest previous stereotypes of rural residents once held true, but as times have changed, rural culture has adapted too.
These findings help frame rural America as less behind in the times, a conclusion drawn from previous research (Kellogg Foundation, 2002). Further, these new stereotypes suggest a changing perception in rural America and its residents. Rural style, culture, amenities, and roles have all changed on the farm.
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Further Discussion
The purpose of this study was to determine reinforced agricultural stereotypes in reality television by analyzing select episodes and promotional videos from Season 19 of
The Bachelor and Season 10 of The Bachelorette.
Reality television is driven by an entertainment motivation. Literature revealed television intends to create the best version of reality possible through purposeful editing and framing techniques (Pozner, 2010), a strategy utilized to maintain viewer satisfaction and fulfill ratings. Framing allows producers to select particular content to become symbolic and more noticeable, helping structure meaning to an audience (Entman, 1993;
Reese, 2001). As we look at the frame of agriculture in the sample, it is shown as a peaceful, rewarding, and unique way of life. The researcher found agriculture is romanticized to viewers, and framed in a positive light.
Shoemaker and Reese (2011) found entertainment media’s cultural force is influential. Media content provides realities to an audience without personal experience in a particular area (Shoemaker & Reese, 2011). The meanings derived from this content forms social constructions of reality, an idea that suggests life presents itself in a reality to be interpreted by man (Berger et al., 2007). Realities are subjective, and decoded by an individual (Berger et al., 2007). Knowledge gap theory helps understand the varying interpretations of a given content’s meaning (Wei & Hindman, 2011) by analyzing individual’s knowledge of a given subject. Interpretations vary as an individual’s unique experiences help shape this meaning. Therefore, frames can influence varying individuals in different ways. As urban residents are continually becoming removed from the farm,
80 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015 their knowledge of agriculture is secondhand. This lack of knowledge could directly be seen in the sample, as many participants were unaware of the scope of the industry.
For those individuals removed from the agriculture industry, their perception of agriculture derived from The Bachelor likely will be positive. This portrayal is likely in line with the need to frame Soules’ in a golden light, as he is the star character of Season
19 of The Bachelor. The program challenges previous perceptions of the industry, offering a new stereotype for younger generations of rural America. From clothing choices to gender roles, rural America has changed since previously established stereotypes.
Knowledge gap theory allows an understanding for the unequal distribution of knowledge (Wei & Hindman, 2011). The theory relies on SES-based gaps. Viswanth and
Finnegan (1996) acknowledge these gaps in knowledge differ due not only to an individual’s depth of knowledge, but due to the ability of the media to access such individuals. Further, the theory suggests gaps in knowledge based on motivational factors
(Bonfadelli, 2012). For audiences with little understanding of agriculture, the portrayal of the industry within the sample may be the singular influence to creating perceptions of the industry. Thus, it is vital to provide an accurate portrayal of agriculture. Further, lower SES populations have fewer resources to seek accurate knowledge. Resources involve opportunities for travel, taking an urban resident to a rural area, technology to seek out such knowledge, such as iPads, computers, and Internet access, among many others.
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A positive perception of agriculture is important to the agricultural industry. Frick et al. (1995) conceptualizes the basic understanding of the agricultural industry as agriculture literacy. A positive view is a proactive step toward agricultural literacy. Frick et al. (1999) further concluded a need for education to the general public about food and sustained human life as employed by agriculture, which can be achieved through reality television (Pozner, 2010). This level of understanding is the first step in improving knowledge of the current state of the agricultural industry. Understanding entertainment television can help agricultural communicators foster agricultural literacy through such an outlet. The reach and impact of such communication efforts must be analyzed to fully understand its influence. These findings serve as a starting point for further research and more advanced studies.
Recommendations
Research. This study analyzed select episodes and promotional videos of Season
19 of The Bachelor and Season 10 of The Bachelorette. Although conclusions were drawn from the sample, an extended study into the remaining episodes of Season 19 of
The Bachelor would provide a more comprehensive look into the frame placed on agriculture. Additional episodes in Season 19 feature bikini tractor races and agriculture obstacle courses for group date activities—content not seen through the researchers sample—but appear to contain a new frame unidentified by the scope of this study.
An audience study is recommended by the researcher to analyze varying perceptions of the authenticity of the sample, when compared to rural and urban audiences. Focus groups or observational techniques should be employed to better
82 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015 understand audience reactions to the sample. These findings would serve as support for the researcher’s current findings.
Additional qualitative research would further support the study’s findings. An exploration of the current perceptions of the agricultural industry would compliment the
Kellogg Foundation qualitative study (2002) by providing a current look into the industry’s reputation. Since 2002, numerous reality programming featuring agriculturally rich content have been produced. Such research could help provide links into media’s effect in influencing opinion.
A potential topic of interest is gender roles in rural America. The researcher found the study’s findings to suggest a change in previous conceptions of female roles on the farm when Dorfman was encouraged to have any career she desired. “More recent portrayals of women in agriculture, however, seem to have reverted back to interpretations of farm women as passive, subordinate members of the household and business” (Specht, 2010, p. 267). An analysis of gender roles on the farm could provide an intriguing study of female stereotypes in agriculture.
This study serves as a foundation for future investigation of reality television and the portrayal of agricultural stereotypes. The researcher recommends exploring other programming featuring agricultural influences. In particular, the themes and stereotypes identified by the researcher should be further explored to examine if they are reinforced in other programming of this time period.
Practitioners. Reality television has a long history with entertainment media.
Current programing in agriculture and natural resources appears to be a growing trend.
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For many, consumption of these reality programs, such as Season 19 of The Bachelor are an individual’s only resources of agricultural knowledge. It is important to recognize the value in an accurate and positive portrayal of the agricultural industry through these outlets.
Findings from this research provide insight into future practice in the agricultural industry. Understanding an audiences’ perception of an industry is an initial step in developing communication. Thus, reinforced and broken stereotypes of agriculture should be noted. These stereotypes may prove to be useful when developing frames for message content in agriculture.
Entertainment media should be recognized as an outlet for agriculture to spread its message. Agricultural communicators should look for new ways to integrate agriculture into reality television specifically. The ideal program would portray the advancement of the agricultural industry and younger generations of rural America.
Consulting on reality television programs that feature agriculture may be a valuable tool to ensuring the true portrayal of agriculture is seen.
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APPENDIX A SAMPLE CODE BOOK
Title:'Insert'episode'or'promotional'video'title Coder:'Name Program:'Insert*program*name.*e.g.*The'Bachelor'Season'19 URL:'Copy*and*paste*URL*from*online*source
Time Visual'&'Verbal'Observation Broken'Stereotype Reinforced'Stereotpe Notes
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APPENDIX B CODER TRAINING DOCUMENT
Coder Data Collection Guide
As a coder, you will watch a series of promotional videos, an episode from The
Bachelorette, and an episode from The Bachelor. As you watch each of these, you will complete a code sheet. A sample code sheet has been to help guide you. The code sheet is broken up into five categories; time, visual and verbal observation, broken stereotype, reinforced stereotype, and notes. The categories are described below:
• Time – Record the time stamp of an observation using an hour: minute: second
format. Refer to the sample codebook for further examples.
• Visual and Verbal Observation – In this section, imagery, background music,
dialogue, and sound effects which contribute to an agricultural reference are
noted. Detail should be given to the backdrop of a scene, facial expressions,
noticeable pauses in communication, and cultural accents/slang, etc. Be as
detailed as possible in colors, patterns, video styles (e.g. zoom, pan, tilts of the
camera). No opinion should be included within this section.
• Broken Stereotype – Fill in this section if a visual or verbal observation does not
align with a coder’s personal idea of the agricultural industry. Further, describe
why the stereotype does not align. This section is not required for every
observation.
• Reinforced Stereotype – Fill in this section if a visual or verbal observant is
aligned with your view of the agricultural industry. Describe why the
observation supports the idea. This section is not required for every 94 Texas Tech University, Jaclyn Roberts, May 2015
observation.
• Notes: Provide opinion and thoughts related to a visual or verbal observation,
broken stereotype, and reinforced stereotypes here. Commentary is encouraged
but not required for every observation.
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