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Lagado studi Collana di testi universitari diretta da Giuseppe Sertoli & Fabio Cleto STEFANO ROSSO Rapsodie della Frontiera Sulla narrativa western contemporanea ECIG Progetto grafico e impaginazione di Stefania Consonni Tutti i diritti sono riservati. Nessuna parte del libro può essere ri- prodotta o trasmessa sotto qualsiasi forma e con qualsiasi mezzo elettronico o meccanico, comprese fotocopie, registrazioni su nastro o mediante memorizzazione, senza il permesso scritto dell’Editore. Le eventuali trasgressioni saranno perseguite ai sensi di legge. distribuzione CLU I nostri testi sono reperibili in libreria, nella distribuzione in rete (www.clu.it, www.ibs.it, www.amazon.it, ecc.) o direttamente presso la Casa editrice ECIG © 2012 Stefano Rosso ECIG – Edizioni Culturali Internazionali Genova Via Brignole De Ferrari 9 – 16125 Genova Tel.: 010-2512399/010-2512395 Fax: 010-2512398 e-mail: [email protected] www.clu.it / www.ecig.it I edizione 2012 – ISBN 978-88-7544-266-8 Stampato da PRIMA – Genova, per conto della ECIG Every hero becomes a bore at last Ralph Waldo Emerson, Representative Men, 1845 Eastward I go only by force; but westward I go free […] We go eastward to realize history, and study the works of art and literature, retracing the steps of the race, we go westward as into the future, with a spirit of enterprise and adventure. Henry David Thoreau, Walking, 1862 (postumo) But I reckon I got to light out for the Territory ahead of the rest… Mark Twain, Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, 1884 Indice Premessa 9 1. Modelli western 15 2. Strategie di innovazione nel secondo dopoguerra 39 3. Romanzo-enciclopedia 55 4. Violenza post-Vietnam 73 5. Sfide infernali 95 6. Letteratura-Televisione e ritorno 111 7. Note su critica letteraria e western 129 Bibliografia 141 Indice dei nomi 147 Premessa To write a complete and definitive history of the western novel would be a prodigious task… John R. Milton, The Novel of the American West, 1980 In twenty-five years the celebration of the Westerns past has grown enormously. It has grown, however, chiefly in business sagacity and in noise; little increase in knowledge or understanding is visible. The West has found its history a valuable asset but remains widely uninterested in doing anything about it beyond hoking it up for tourists. Bernard A. DeVoto, “The Anxious West”, Harper’s Magazine, 1946 I tentativi di scrivere una storia globale della narrativa western statuni- tense sono scarsi e inevitabilmente parziali. Il motivo principale è l’am- piezza del corpus: i romanzi e i racconti che appartengono a questo ge- nere sono troppi per poterli padroneggiare. Il periodo storico del western riguarda quasi due secoli e se si prendessero in considerazione le “capti- vity narratives” (le storie di prigionia) del Settecento, nonché i riferimenti alla Frontiera e all’incontro con i nativi nei sermoni puritani e nei testi religiosi, bisognerebbe andare molto più indietro nel tempo.1 Inoltre, il fatto che il western della parola scritta si sia espresso fin da metà Otto- cento attraverso forme di serialità ha permesso ad alcuni autori di essere particolarmente prolifici: non mancano, infatti, romanzieri western che abbiano pubblicato oltre cinquanta romanzi ciascuno, come è il caso di Edward Wheeler (l’ideatore del personaggio Deadwood Dick), Zane Grey, William MacLeod Raine o Louis L’Amour, o che abbiano addirit- 1 In italiano si veda Paola Cabibbo, “Indian Captivity Narratives”, in Id., a cura di, La letteratura dell’età coloniale, Nuova Italia Scientifica, Firenze 1993, pp. 127-48. 10 RAPSODIE DELLA FRONTIERA tura superato i duecento volumi come Frederick Faust (alias Max Brand, alias Evan Evans, alias Peter Dawson). E lo stesso vale per i racconti: per fare un unico esempio, Ernest Haycox ne ha scritti trecento. D’altra parte questo non è un fenomeno di cui il western abbia l’esclusiva: la letteratura poliziesca del Novecento, basti pensare a Georges Simenon o all’inglese John Creasey, ha toccato cifre ineguagliabili.2 Le difficoltà a realizzare una storia globale sono accresciute dal fatto che, fin dall’inizio del secolo scorso, il romanzo western ha dimostrato di sapersi collegare molto bene con gli altri media, istituendo complessi intrecci di debito, adattamento, intertestualità: all’inizio con pittura, fotografia, cinema e teatro, poi con fumetti, radio, televisione e videogiochi. Va inoltre osservato che il western ha pagato un grande ritardo in ambito critico a causa del disprezzo high-brow nei confronti delle forme della cultura popolare, un retaggio dell’esteticismo, dell’antistoricismo e dell’anti-culturalismo del New Criticism, corrente critica dominante nel secondo dopoguerra americano.3 Oggi le condizioni sono cambiate non soltanto per le trasformazioni in ambito critico avvenute negli ultimi de- cenni, ma anche grazie alla catalogazione sempre più puntuale dei testi primari e alla digitalizzazione di opere a lungo non disponibili e inoltre per il contributo di vari ricercatori, soprattutto statunitensi, in buona par- 4 te legati alla Western Literature Association (WLA): fare ricerca sulla cul- tura della Frontiera non è più semplice appannaggio dei critici cinemato- grafici come cinquant’anni fa. 2 Si veda John G. Cawelti, Adventure, Mystery, and Romance: Formula Stories as Art and Popular Culture, University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1976, p. 9 e passim. 3 Riprenderò questo argomento nei capitoli 1 e 7. 4 La Western Literature Association (WLA) è stata fondata nel 1965 e compren- de oggi più di quattrocento soci (si veda http:/www.usu.edu/westlit). Ogni anno, in autunno, organizza un simposio di quattro giorni, in cui si alternano conferen- ze plenarie di studiosi di fama internazionale, workshops di ogni tipo e letture di testi western da parte di romanzieri importanti. Nel novembre 2012 si svolgerà a Lubbock, in Texas, e in quell’occasione saranno premiati per il loro contributo allo studio e alla produzione western Richard Slotkin e Annie Proulx. La WLA stampa la Western American Literature, una rivista trimestrale interamente dedica- ta alla letteratura del West e ha prodotto i due migliori volumi collettanei mai rea- lizzati sul western, J. Golden Taylor, a cura di, A Literary History of the American West, Texas Christian University Press, Fort Worth 1987, e Thomas J. Lyon, a cura di, Updating the Literary West, Texas Christian University Press, Fort Worth 1997, che ho descritto brevemente nel capitolo 7. PREMESSA 11 In Italia l’interesse per il genere western, che per un importante periodo della sua storia culturale recente è stato anche un fenomeno autoctono significativo, spesso coincide con le estati sonnolente delle terze pagine dei quotidiani o con passaggi televisivi di film hollywoodiani.5 La ragione che mi ha spinto ad affrontare lo studio di testi narrativi western sta nella consapevolezza che, nel bene e soprattutto nel male, essi hanno più di altri contribuito a costruire l’identità di milioni di lettori e lettrici, spetta- tori e spettatrici, dei primi tre quarti del Novecento, non solo negli Stati Uniti, ma anche in Europa e in Italia, influenzando generi vicini come il noir, la fantascienza, l’avventura esotica e perfino il genere bellico.6 L’argomento del volume è il western contemporaneo. Nel capitolo 1, che ha la funzione di introduzione storica, ho tentato di presentare le prime formulazioni di quello che poi divenne il western classico, pas- sando in rapida rassegna la costruzione dei modelli narrativi, dei perso- naggi e di alcuni temi ricorrenti fin dall’inizio dell’Ottocento. Il punto d’avvio inevitabile è costituito da James Fenimore Cooper, dalla nascita dei dime novels durante la Guerra civile e dall’esplosione del mito della Frontiera alla fine del secolo. Seguono la costruzione del modello nove- centesco “classico” dovuta soprattutto a Owen Wister e Zane Grey, mo- dello che avrebbe presto conquistato anche il cinema, la radio e più tardi, negli anni cinquanta, la televisione. Se in questa parte iniziale metto in primo piano la tendenza alla diffusione di modelli rigidi, ho anche cercato di mostrare come la tendenza alla stereotipia non riguardi tutti i testi in uguale misura. Esistono opere narrative (o parti di esse) “resistenti” all’o- mologazione già nell’Ottocento, che permettono di comprendere certi sviluppi più recenti. Nel capitolo 2 ho affrontato un aspetto di questa eccentricità rispetto al canone classico del western, prendendo in considerazione due tentati- vi del secondo dopoguerra di servirsi del genere quand’era ormai ben 5 Per fare un esempio di questa estate 2012, segnalo la meritevole ristampa da parte delle edizioni Il Sole 24 ore (Milano), di Gino D’Antonio, Storia del West, pregevole opera a fumetti, realizzata nel 1967, in venti volumi, la cui uscita setti- manale in edicola è iniziata nel luglio 2012 e terminerà in dicembre. È un’opera decisamente precoce nel proporre ricostruzioni storiche lontane dagli stereotipi del western diffusi all’epoca. 6 Ho cercato di affrontare questi problemi, prima che in questo libro, in due vo- lumi da me curati negli anni scorsi: Le frontiere del Far West. Forme di rappresenta- zione del grande mito americano, Shake, Milano 2008 e L’invenzione del west(ern). Fortuna di un genere del Novecento, ombre corte, Verona 2010. 12 RAPSODIE DELLA FRONTIERA rodato, per proporre piccole o grandi sovversioni dall’interno. I due scrit- tori su cui si concentra l’analisi sono Elmore Leonard e Charles Portis, narratori la cui carica innovativa ha avuto notevoli effetti anche sul cine- ma e che dimostrano di avere sapientemente appreso le lezioni dei mi- gliori cineasti di Hollywood tanto apprezzati dai Cahiers du Cinéma negli anni cinquanta. Come ho già anticipato sopra, però, il vero oggetto di questo studio è un fenomeno più recente, chiamato “post-western” o “neo-western”, un fenomeno su cui la critica è ancora divisa. Il periodo riguarda gli ultimi trent’anni ed è caratterizzato da evidenti migrazioni di stili, contenuti, ossessioni, da un medium all’altro (letteratura, cinema, televisione), e da un certo interesse per una metanarratività più o meno esplicita, forse di derivazione postmoderna.
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  • The Wives and Times of Al Swearengen - Part 1, Continued from Page 1

    The Wives and Times of Al Swearengen - Part 1, Continued from Page 1

    Volume 5, Number 4 Fall 2004 The Wives and Times of INSIDE Al Swearengen – Part I From the Director’s Desk.......2 Ellis Alfred Swearengen was born in Mahaska, Prince of Sportsmen.” The fight lasted 52 EIowa, on July 8, 1845, to Daniel and Keziah rounds and, in the end, was declared a draw by E.B. Farnum...........................3 Swearengen. Ellis, or Al as he would later be Nuttall. The Black Hills Pioneer, commenting Calendar of Events..................4 known, came from a family of eight children. on every round, devoted two columns of the Ellis and his twin brother Lemuel were the oldest front page to the fight coverage. The Incredible Mrs. Smith.........5 of the children who are named in the 1860 On the evening of April 7, 1877, Swearengen Web Research........................6 census. According to the 1870 census, Al was no opened the Gem Variety Theater. The Black Hills longer living in Iowa. He showed up in the 1880 Daily Pioneer hailed it as being as “neat and census in Dakota Territory. Al was perhaps one tastefully arranged as any place of its kind in the ADAMS BANNER of the earliest non-mining men to enter west.” Al had the new stage drop curtains Deadwood Gulch. His first appearance in designed by Mr. Rhodes, who would later go on SPONSORS Deadwood’s newspapers had nothing to do with to decorate the Bella Union. J. M. Martin painted saloons or entertainment but, rather, was a all the scenery panels and was also the Gem’s first declaration to creditors that he was no longer manager.