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The London School of Economics and Political Science The The London School of Economics and Political Science The contested state and politics of elite continuity in North Maluku, Indonesia (1998-2008) Claire Querida Smith A thesis submitted to the Development Studies Institute of the London School of Economics and Political Science for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, London, November 2009 UMI Number: U615318 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Publishing UMI U615318 Published by ProQuest LLC 2014. Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 -s bo l T o T b Declaration I certify that the thesis I have presented for examination for the PhD degree of the London School of Economics and Political Science is solely my own work other than where I have clearly indicated that it is the work of others (in which case the extent of any work carried out jointly by me and any other person is clearly identified in it). The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. Quotation from it is permitted, provided that frill acknowledgement is made. This thesis may not be reproduced without the prior written consent of the author. I warrant that this authorization does not, to the best of my belief, infringe the rights of any third party. 2 Abstract The thesis investigates the politics behind the survival of members of the local state- based elite from the New Order regime into the new ‘democratic’ era in North Maluku, Indonesia. The research investigates local politics and sub-national government in a new province on the geographic periphery of the Indonesian state, where mass violence followed the fall of Suharto. The core issue examined is how, through a year-long violent conflict, protracted socio-economic crisis, and significant government and electoral reforms, the local state-based political elite in North Maluku survived, even thrived, during this turbulent period. Most literature on the Indonesian democratic transition holds that widespread violence in regions like North Maluku was the result of a weak state and/or rising ethnic, religious and communal tensions. However, this case study reveals that elite factional politics played a central role in the conflict. It was far from a spontaneous communal affair and instead closely linked to rising competition between local elites over state positions and resources during the late New Order and the early democratic era. State officials were not weak in the face of a rising society, but rather played central roles in escalating conflict and ‘communal’ violence. Understanding these dynamics is essential to explaining, not only the violence, but also political dynamics before, during and following the conflict. The thesis considers the political and economic role of state-based elites over a ten- year period and analyses the North Maluku conflict as part of a prolonged political struggle between different factions within the state. The most successful state-based elites maintained their positions through controlling state resources, including ‘post­ conflict’ aid funds, in a contracting regional economy. This control enabled them to distribute important resources to a fragile population - maintaining a popular support base - and to build large election campaign war-chests for ensuing democratic elections. 3 Acknowledgements I would like to thank my doctoral supervisor at the LSE, James Putzel, for his continual support of this project - from his initial interest in 2002, his encouragement through the fieldwork, to his insights during the writing process. Without James’ enthusiasm, I would not have managed to research and write this thesis. The pancake-breakfast supervision meetings also helped. Special thanks are due to my doctoral advisor, John Sidel, whose expertise in Indonesian and comparative politics was invaluable. John’s insights took me down paths I would otherwise not have found and he went well beyond the call of duty in his support of this thesis. The PhD was funded by the Economic Social Research Council (ESRC). The LSE also provided funding support. Field research was sponsored by The Indonesian Institute of Scientific Research (LIPI) and the Sociology Department at the University of Indonesia (UI). Syarif Hidayat at LIPI and Tamrin Amal Tomagola and Iwan Gardono at UI advised the field research. In Temate, I am greatly indebted to M. Syaril Sangaji for his research assistance and friendship. M. Adnan Amal, Saiful Bahry Ruray, Munir Amal Tomagola and Ariswan provided insights into local history and politics and opened many doors. Ibu Gamar and the late Ibrahim Effendi made my long-term stay in their guesthouse a warm and pleasant one. In Tobelo, I am indebted to Oce and Sandra, Alexander Davey, Grace Siregar, and Pastor Patris for their friendship and introductions to local culture. In Makassar, Petrarca Karetji, Richard Manning, John Theodore Weohau, and their colleagues at the BAKTI organisation, were warm hosts, providing many insights into Eastern Indonesian politics. In Ambon, Andreas Sol, former Bishop of Maluku, provided access to the Catholic Church Library, the best surviving archival resource on the Maluku region. Mercy Barendts and Roland Tupamahu were also great resources. In Yogyakarta, I am grateful to my patient Indonesian teachers, Ibu Dyah, Elok, Sitta and Tejo. Novia Cici Anggraini made Yogya feel like home. Thank you also to Astrid, Arief and Adit for their lovely hospitality. In Jakarta, Made Marthini and Amfinn Jacobsen were wonderful hosts. Special thanks to the Woodhouse family for their friendship, and for first enticing me to Indonesia. Sri Kuntari advised me during excursions to Kalimantan and Madura, sharing many experiences during those trips. Scott Guggenheim originally encouraged my research in Indonesia, providing countless introductions to Indonesian culture, food and politics - and many books - along the way. The staff members of BAPPENAS, CARDI and UNDP were always helpful and provided much useful data. In Bali and Singapore, Jason Brown, Jessica Gillmore, Naoko Takanouchi and Marc Webb offered warm and welcome breaks from the field. At Manchester, Michael Woolcock, at the Brooks World Poverty Institute, has been a constant source of advice, encouragement and debate, always bringing new perspectives to my research. At Oxford, Frances Stewart and Graham Brown, at the Centre for Research on Inequality, Security and Ethnicity, enabled me to participate in their doctoral seminars and provided useful feedback. Thanks to Christian Lund, 4 Roskilde University, Denmark, for inviting me to their doctoral workshop on local politics in Southeast Asia, May 2008, which helped me develop the ideas in this thesis. At the National University of Singapore, Maribeth Erb’s invitation to the workshop on direct elections and democratisation in Indonesia, in May 2006, also provided inspiration. At the LSE, Stephanie Davies, Sue Redgrave, Drucilla Daley and Wendy Foulds were huge sources of encouragement. I am especially grateful to Sue for her editorial support on the final draft. Several Development Studies colleagues provided advice at various stages, in particular Jo Beall, Jean Paul Faguet, Elliot Green, David Keen, Jonathan Di John, Dennis Rodgers, Ken Shadlen and Robert Wade. Fellow PhD students were great comrades, in particular Luciano Ciravegna, Stella Cridge, Guilia Ferrari, Lauren Flejzor, Thi Minh Ngo, Borge Wietzke and Eugenia Zorbas. Conversations on Indonesian politics with Michael Buehler and Jacqui Baker generated many ideas. I am grateful to the friends who were so encouraging throughout the PhD, and especially those who read various chapter drafts: Toby Dantzic, Rebecca Joliffe, Nicola Kohn, Su Lin Lewis, Annie Pesskin and John Wakefield. Special thanks are due to Charlotte Moore and Johann Perry, Rachel Krasnow and Matthew Dodd, for their friendship, babysitting and home-cooking over the years. This PhD was only possible because of my family. In particular, the unfailing help of my mother, Hilary Smith, and mother-in-law, Gloria Pollack, meant I was able to write, while they looked after my son (and me). My father, Adrian Smith, whose intrepid travels inspired my own to Indonesia, has given me a lifetime of encouragement. Thank you especially to Fran Andrews, John Day, Kate Joyce, Victoria Mattison, Benny Pollack, Claudio Pollack, Marcelo Pollack, Kieron Smith and Roisin Smith. The thesis is dedicated to Ricardo Pollack, my loyal ojek bule, for being there through the whole adventure - from Singapore to Yogya to Temate to Tobelo to Makassar to Ambon, and back again; to Ruben Pollack - bom halfway through my PhD - for so merrily tolerating ‘Mummy’s colouring’ on the computer when I should have been playing trains; and, finally, to Sofia Pollack, whose happy arrival inspired me to finish writing this thesis, and start the next adventure. London November 2009 5 Table of contents List of Illustrations........................................................................................................... 9 Abbreviations ...................................................................................................................11
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