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National Integration in Indonesia National Integration in Indonesia PATTERNS and POLICIES National Integration in Indonesia National Integration in Indonesia PATTERNS AND POLICIES Christine Drake Open Access edition funded by the National Endowment for the Humanities / Andrew W. Mellon Foundation Humanities Open Book Program. Licensed under the terms of Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 In- ternational (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0), which permits readers to freely download and share the work in print or electronic format for non-commercial purposes, so long as credit is given to the author. Derivative works and commercial uses require per- mission from the publisher. For details, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/. The Cre- ative Commons license described above does not apply to any material that is separately copyrighted. Open Access ISBNs: 9780824882136 (PDF) 9780824882129 (EPUB) This version created: 17 May, 2019 Please visit www.hawaiiopen.org for more Open Access works from University of Hawai‘i Press. © 1989 University of Hawaii Press All rights reserved Contents Figures v Tables ix Preface xi Acknowledgments xiv 1. Introduction 1 2. The Uneven Effect of Historical and Political Experiences 16 3. The Sociocultural Dimension 64 4. The Interaction Dimension 101 5. The Economic Dimension 136 6. Spatial Patterns 171 7. Government Response to the Need for National Integration 212 8. Retrospect and Prospect 247 Appendixes 264 Appendix 1. Provincial Data for the Sociocultural Dimension 266 Appendix 2. Provincial Data for the Interaction Dimension 268 Appendix 3. Provincial Data for the Economic Dimension 270 Notes 272 Glossary 313 Bibliography 325 About the Author 361 iv Figures The Provinces of Indonesia 1.1. Population density in Indonesia, 1980 8 1.2. Features of the Indonesian archipelago 11 2.1. Modern Indonesia and surrounding states 18 2.2. The extent of the kingdoms of Sri Vijaya and Majapahit 20 2.3. The expansion of Dutch authority in the former Dutch East Indies 31 3.1. Percentage of the population able to speak the national language, Indonesian, 1980 67 3.2. Percentage of the population speaking Indonesian at home, 1980 69 3.3. Percentage of the population classified as Muslim, 1980 71 3.4. Percentage of the population classified as Christian (both Protestant and Catholic), 1980 72 3.5. Percentage of the population ten years of age and over who have completed primary school, 1980 76 3.6. Percentage of seven to twelve year olds in primary school, 1980 76 3.7. Percentage of the population ten years of age and over who are classified as literate, 1980 78 3.8. Indonesia’s national symbol: the garuda 79 3.9. Number of members of agricultural cooperatives per 100 population, 1979–1980 (average) 82 3.10. Number of Scouts per 100 population, 1981 83 3.11. Percentage belonging to a social organization in the three months preceding a survey, 1981 84 3.12. Number of foreigners claiming Asian citizenship per 1,000 population, 1981 87 3.13. Number of people watching an Indonesian-made movie per 100 population, 1981 89 v Figures 3.14. Percentage of households owning a radio, 1980 89 3.15. Percentage of the population ten years of age and over who listened to the radio in the week preceding a survey, 1981 90 3.16. Percentage of households owning a television set, 1980 91 3.17. Percentage of the population ten years of age and over who watched television in the week preceding a survey, 1981 91 3.18. Number of hospital beds per 10,000 population, 1980 93 3.19. Percentage of the population classified as urban, 1980 97 3.20. Location and population size of Indonesia’s thirty largest cities, 1980 98 4.1. Location of railroads in Indonesia, 1980 104 4.2. Length of roads of all types and conditions in kilometers per 1,000 square kilometers, 1982 106 4.3. Length of paved roads in kilometers per 1,000 square kilometers, 1982 106 4.4. Number of registered vehicles per kilometer of road, 1982 107 4.5. Number of registered vehicles per 1,000 population, 1982 108 4.6. Income generated by the ports in each province in rupiahs per capita, 1981–1982 112 4.7. Number of air passengers recorded on domestic flights per 1,000 population, 1981 114 4.8. Number of telephone licenses issued per 1,000 population, 1981 116 4.9. Number of minutes of telephone conversation within Indonesia per 100 population, 1980 117 4.10. Number of telegrams sent to domestic destinations per 1,000 population, 1981 119 4.11. Percentage of the population who read a newspaper or magazine in the week preceding a survey, 1981 119 4.12. Percentage of the population in each province who have lived previously in another province, 1980 121 4.13. Province of last previous residence of interprovincial migrants, 1980 122 4.14. International and domestic exports: cargoes loaded in tons per 100 population, 1982 130 vi Figures 4.15. International exports: cargoes loaded in tons per 100 population, 1982 132 4.16. Value of imports received from international trade in U.S. dollars per capita, 1982 132 4.17. Interprovincial exports: cargoes loaded in tons per 100 population, 1982 135 4.18. Interprovincial imports: cargoes unloaded in tons per 100 population, 1981–1982 (average) 135 5.1. Regional gross domestic product per capita in thousands of rupiahs per capita, at current market prices, without oil, 1980 146 5.2. Consumer price index in the capital city of each province, 1981 148 5.3. Percentage of the population living below the poverty line, 1980 149 5.4. Percentage of the population living in deprivation, 1980 150 5.5. Percentage of households owning a sideboard, 1980 151 5.6. Percentage of households using electricity for lighting, 1980 152 5.7. Percentage of households using kerosene, gas, or electricity for cooking, 1980 153 5.8. Provincial tax contributions to the central government in thousands of rupiahs per capita, 1980–1981 155 5.9. Provincial government expenditures (operating and development) in thousands of rupiahs per capita, 1980–1981 155 5.10. Central government support for provincial development programs in thousands of rupiahs per capita, 1980–1981 156 5.11. Average annual percentage growth rate of regional gross domestic product at constant 1975 market prices, 1976–1980 158 5.12. Approved domestic investment projects, excluding the oil, insurance, and banking sectors, in thousands of rupiahs per capita, 1968–1982 162 5.13. Approved foreign investment projects in U.S. dollars per capita, 1967–1982 162 5.14. Percentage of the labor force employed in agriculture, forestry, fishing, and hunting, 1980 169 6.1. Factor scores of sociocultural factor 1 (urban/ media) 182 vii Figures 6.2. Factor scores of sociocultural factor 2 (religion) 183 6.3. Factor scores of sociocultural factor 3 (literacy/ language) 183 6.4. Factor scores of sociocultural factor 4 (cooperative membership/Asian citizens) 184 6.5. Factor scores of interaction factor 1 (urban-related) 189 6.6. Factor scores of interaction factor 2 (sea transportation/road density) 190 6.7. Factor scores of economic factor 1 (economic development) 196 6.8. Factor scores of economic factor 2 (modernization) 197 6.9. Factor scores of economic factor 3 (growth/ investment) 197 6.10. Provinces grouped according to their common characteristics, 1980 206 7.1. Development regions and growth centers in Indonesia 229 viii Tables 1.1. Area, population, population density, and percentage urban by province, 1980 9 3.1. Percentage urban by province, 1961, 1971, and 1980 95 3.2. Size and growth rates of Indonesia’s thirty largest cities, 1971–1980 99 4.1. Major ports of Indonesia ranked by income recorded, 1981–1982 113 4.2. Migration to Jakarta 123 4.3. Number of government-sponsored transmigrants, 1969–1983 125 5.1. Relative importance of mining and agriculture in each province’s regional gross domestic product, 1979 144 5.2. Per-capita regional gross domestic product (RGDP) and RGDP growth rates by province 160 6.1. Correlation matrix of selected sociocultural variables 0 6.2. Rotated factor loadings in the sociocultural dimension 178 6.3. Eigenvalues and percentages of the variance in the sociocultural dimension 179 6.4. Communalities in the sociocultural dimension 180 6.5. Factor scores of the sociocultural factors 181 6.6. Correlation matrix of selected interaction variables 185 6.7. Rotated factor loadings in the interaction dimension 186 6.8. Eigenvalues and percentages of the variance in the interaction dimension 187 6.9. Communalities in the interaction dimension 187 6.10. Factor scores of the interaction factors 188 ix Tables 6.11. Correlation matrix of selected economic variables 191 6.12. Rotated factor loadings in the economic dimension 193 6.13. Eigenvalues and percentages of the variance in the economic dimension 193 6.14. Communalities in the economic dimension 194 6.15. Factor scores of the economic factors 195 6.16. Correlation coefficients of the nine factors extracted in the analysis of the sociocultural, interaction, and economic dimensions of national integration 199 6.17. Ranks of the provinces based on the factor scores of the six most pertinent factors 204 x Preface ONE of the most important problems confronting developing countries is how to promote national integration—how to bind together the various regions and diverse peoples of a country into a well-functioning and interdependent whole. Cohesive forces are essential not only to ensure the continued existence of the nation-state as one political entity and give political sta- bility, but also to enable economic development to take place. For without some measure of integration, both human and material resources that are needed to raise living standards must be diverted instead toward coping with the centrifugal forces of regional disaffection or rebellion.
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