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pp. 33–39; see also David Ogilvy, Confessions of an Ad- on the Playground,” Wall Street Journal, January 9, 2001, vertising Man (New York: Atheneum, 1964). pp. B1, B4. 11. Zeynep Gurhan-Canli and Rajeev Batra, “When Corpo- 23. Tom Meyvis and Chris Janiszewski, “When Are Broader rate Image Affects Product Evaluations: The Moderating Brands Stronger Brands? An Accessibility Perspective on Role of Perceived Risk,” Journal of Marketing Research, the Success of Brand Extensions,” Journal of Consumer May 2004, pp. 197–205. Research 31, no. 2, 2004, pp. 346–357; Sheri Bridges, 12. Joseph T. Plummer, “How Personality Makes a Differ- Kevin Lane Keller, and Sanjay Sood, “Communication ence,” Journal of Advertising Research, December Strategies for Brand Extensions: Enhancing Perceived 1984–January 1985, pp. 27–31; William D. Wells, Frank Fit by Establishing Explanatory Links,” Journal of Adver- J. Andriuli, Fedele J. 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96. Barbara Mueller, “Refl ections of Culture: An Analysis of 107. Rajeev Batra and Michael L. Ray, “Affective Responses Japanese and American Advertising Appeals,” Journal of Mediating Acceptance of Advertising,” Journal of Advertising Research, June–July 1987, pp. 51–59. Consumer Research, September 1986, pp. 234–249. 97. Paschalina (Lilia) Ziamou and S. Ratneshwar, “Innova- 108. Jooyoung Kim and Jon D. Morris, “The Power of Affec- tions in Product Functionality: When and Why Are Ex- tive Response and Cognitive Structure in Product-Trial plicit Comparisons Effective?” Journal of Marketing, Attitude Formation,” Journal of Advertising 36, no. 1, April 2003, pp. 49–61. Spring 2007, pp. 95–106. 98. H. Onur Bodur, David Brinberg, and Eloïse Coupey, “Be- 109. 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Stuart Elliott, “American Express Gets Specifi c and Asks, Aparna A. Labroo and Angela Y. Lee, “Between Two ‘Are You a Cardmember?’” New York Times, April 6, 2007, Brands: A Goal Fluency Account of Brand Evaluation,” p. C3. Journal of Marketing Research, August 2006, pp. 374– 121. Brian D. Till and Michael Busler, “The Match-Up Hypoth- 385; Junsang Yeo and Jongwon Park, “Effects of Parent- esis: Physical Attractiveness, Expertise, and the Role of Extension Similarity and Self-Regulatory Focus on Fit on Brand Attitude, Purchase Intent, and Brand Be- Evaluations of Brand Extensions,” Journal of Consumer liefs,” Journal of Advertising 29, no. 3, Fall 2000, pp. 1–13. Psychology 16, no. 3, 2006, pp. 272–282. 122. Peter H. Reingen and Jerome B. Kernan, “Social Percep- 106. C. Whan Park and S. Mark Young, “Consumer Response tion and Interpersonal Infl uence: Some Consequences to Television Commercials: The Impact of Involvement of the Physical Attractiveness Stereotype in a Personal and Background Music on Brand Attitude Formation,” Selling Situation,” Journal of Consumer Psychology 2, Journal of Marketing Research, February 1986, pp. 11–24. no. 1, 1993, pp. 25–38.

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Interpersonal Information Sources in Pre-Purchase 23. Jacob Jacoby and Wayne D. Hoyer, “What If Opinion Search,“ Journal of Consumer Behaviour 4, no. 5, 2005, Leaders Didn’t Really Know More: A Question of Nomo- pp. 307–318. logical Validity,” in ed. Kent B. Monroe, Advances in Con- 8. Rebecca Gardyn, “How Does This Work?” American De- sumer Research, vol. 8 (Chicago: Association for mographics, December 2002/January 2003, pp. 18–19. Consumer Research, 1980), pp. 299–302; Robin M. Higie, 9. Frederick Koenig, Rumor in the Marketplace: The Social Lawrence F. Feick, and Linda L. Price, “Types and Amount Psychology of Commercial Hearsay (Dover, Mass.: of Word-of-Mouth Communications about Retailers,” Auburn House, 1985); Paul M. Herr, Frank R. Kardes, Journal of Retailing, Fall 1987, pp. 260–277; regarding in- and John Kim, “Effects of Word-of-Mouth and Product- novativeness, Terry L. 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David Pogue, “Reconsidering Pixel Envy,” New York “The Good Samaritan in the Marketplace: Motives for Times, March 24, 2005, tech.nytimes.com/2005/03/24/ Helpful Behavior,” Paper presented at the Society for technology/circuits/24read.html. Consumer Psychology Conference, St. Petersburg, Fla., 12. Dale Duhan, Scott Johnson, James Wilcox, and Gilbert February 1994. Harrell, “Influences on Consumer Use of Word-of- 26. Lawrence F. Feick, Linda L. Price, and Robin Higie, “Peo- Mouth Recommendation Sources,” Journal of the Acad- ple Who Use People: The Opposite Side of Opinion emy of Marketing Science 25, Fall 1997, pp. 283–295. Leadership,” in ed. Richard J. Lutz, Advances in Con- 13. Vicki Clift, “Systematically Solicit Testimonial Letters,” sumer Research, vol. 13 (Provo, Utah: Association for Marketing News, June 6, 1994, p. 7. Consumer Research, 1986), pp. 301–305; see also 14. Wendy Bounds, “Keeping Teens from Smoking, with Jagdish N. Sheth, “Word-of-Mouth in Low-Risk Innova- Style,” Wall Street Journal, May 6, 1999, p. B6. tions,” Journal of Advertising Research, June–July 1971, 15. Bob Tedeschi, “Readers Are Key Ingredient as Virtual pp. 15–18. Kitchen Heats Up,” New York Times, June 25, 2007, p. C6. 27. Ronald E. Goldsmith, Ronald A. Clark, and Elizabeth 16. See Robert V. Kozinets, “E-Tribalized Marketing? Goldsmith, “Extending the Psychological Profi le of Mar- The Strategic Implications of Virtual Communities of ket Mavenism,” Journal of Consumer Behavior 5, no. 5, Consumption,” European Management Journal, 1999, 2006, pp. 411–419; Lawrence F. Feick and Linda L. Price, pp. 252–264. “The Market Maven: A Diffuser of Marketplace Infor- 17. Susan B. Garland, “So Glad You Could Come. Can I Sell mation,” Journal of Marketing, January 1987, pp. 83–97. You Anything?” New York Times, December 19, 2004, 28. See, for example, Dorothy Leonard-Barton, “Experts as sec. 3, p. 7. Negative Opinion Leaders in the Diffusion of a Techno- 18. Michael Barbaro, “Unbound, Wal-Mart Tastemakers logical Innovation,” Journal of Consumer Research, Write a Blunt and Unfiltered Blog,” New York Times, March 1985, pp. 914–926. March 3, 2008, pp. C1, C8; David Kirkpatrick and Daniel 29. Joanne Kaufman, “Publishers Seek to Mine Book Roth, “Why There’s No Escaping the Blog,” Fortune, Circles,” New York Times, November 19, 2007, p. C5. January 10, 2005, p. 44. 30. Laura Bird, “Consumers Smile on Unilever’s Mentadent,” 19. John W. Milligan, “Choosing Mediums for the Message,” Wall Street Journal, May 31, 1994, p. B9; Joseph R. US Banker, February 1995, pp. 42–45. Mancuso, “Why Not Create Opinion Leaders for New 20. Gangseog Ryu and Lawrence Feick, “A Penny for Your Product Introduction?” Journal of Marketing, July 1969, Thoughts: Referral Reward Programs and Referral Like- pp. 20–25. lihood,” Journal of Marketing, January 2007, pp. 84–94. 31. “Smoking Cessation: GSK Strikes a Chord with Reality 21. Cris Prystay, “Companies Market to India’s Have- Ads,” Chemist and Druggist, March 5, 2005, p. 40. Littles,” Wall Street Journal, June 5, 2003, pp. B1, B12. 32. Christopher Reynolds, “Up on the Envy Meter,” Ameri- 22. Robert McMillan, “Bill Gates Says Internet Censorship can Demographics, June 2004, pp. 6–7. Won’t Work,” Computerworld, February 20, 2008, www 33. Jennifer Edson Escalas and James R. Bettman, “Self- .computerworld.com; “Wave of Internet Surfers Has Construal, Reference Groups, and Brand Meaning,” Jour- Chinese Censors Nervous,” Los Angeles Times, June 26, nal of Consumer Research 32, no. 3, 2005, pp. 378–389. 1995, p. D6; Jeffrey A. Trachtenberg, “Time Warner Unit 34. Albert M. 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60. Gwen Bachmann Achenreiner and Deborah Roedder ior,” Journal of Consumer Research, December 1975, pp. John, “The Meaning of Brand Names to Children: A 206–215; Morton Deutsch and Harold B. Gerard, “A Developmental Investigation,” Journal of Consumer Study of Normative and Informational Infl uence upon Psychology , 13 (3), 2003, pp. 205–219. Individual Judgment,” Journal of Abnormal and Social 61. Gregory M. Rose, Vassilis Dalakas, and Fredric Kropp, Psychology, November 1955, pp. 629–636. “Consumer Socialization and Parental Style Across Cul- 72. Dennis Rook and Robert Fisher, “Normative Infl uences tures: Findings from Australia, Greece, and India,” Jour- on Impulsive Buying Behavior,” Journal of Consumer nal of Consumer Psychology 13 (4), 2003, pp. 366–376. Research,” December 1995, pp. 305–313. 62. John, “Consumer Socialization of Children: A Retro- 73. Paul Rozin and Leher Singh, “The Moralization of Ciga- spective Look at Twenty-Five Years of Research.” rette Smoking in the United States,” Journal of Con- 63. Ann Walsh, Russell Laczniak, and Les Carlson, “Moth- sumer Psychology 8, no. 3, 1999, pp. 321–337. ers’ Preferences for Regulating Children’s Television,” 74. David B. Wooten, “From Labeling Possessions to Pos- Journal of Advertising, Fall 1998, pp. 23–36. sessing Labels: Ridicule and Socialization Among Ado- 64. Dave Howland, “Ads Recruit Grandparents to Help Keep lescents,” Journal of Consumer Research 33, no. 2, 2006, Kids from Drugs,” Marketing News, January 18, 1999, p. 6. pp. 188–198. 65. Moschis, “The Role of Family Communication in Con- 75. Margaret Talbot, “Girls Just Want to Be Mean,” New York sumer Socialization of Children and Adolescents”; Con- Times Magazine, February 24, 2002, p. 24. way Lackman and John M. Lanasa, “Family Decision 76. Peter Reingen, Brian Foster, Jacqueline Brown, and Making Theory: An Overview and Assessment,” Psychol- Stephen B. Seidman, “Brand Congruence in Interper- ogy and Marketing, March–April 1993, pp. 81–93; George sonal Relations: A Social Network Analysis,” Journal of P. Moschis, Acquisition of the Consumer Role by Adoles- Consumer Research, December 1984, pp. 771–783. cents (Atlanta: Georgia State University, 1978). 77. Rajagopal Raghunathan and Kim Corfman, “Is Happi- 66. Beverly A. Browne, “Gender Stereotypes in Advertis- ness Shared Doubled and Sadness Shared Halved? ing on Children’s Television in the 1990s: A Cross- Social Influence on Enjoyment of Hedonic Experi- National Analysis,” Journal of Advertising, Spring ences,” Journal of Marketing Research, August 2006, 1998, pp. 83–96. pp. 386–394. 67. See, for example, Greta Fein, David Johnson, Nancy Kos- 78. Tina M. Lowrey, Cele C. Otnes, and Julie A. 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Calder and Robert E. Burnkrant, 69. Fein et al., “Sex Stereotypes and Preferences in the Toy “Interpersonal Infl uences on Consumer Behavior: An Choices of 20-Month-Old Boys and Girls”; Eisenberg- Attribution Theory Approach,” Journal of Consumer Berg, Boothby, and Matson, “Correlates of Preschool Research, June 1977, pp. 29–38, 71; Solomon E. Asch, Girls’ Feminine and Masculine Toy Preferences”; Sheila “Effects of Group Pressure upon the Modifi cation and Fling and Main Manosevitz, “Sex Typing in Nursery Distortion of Judgment,” in ed. H. Guetzkow, Groups, School Children’s Play,” Developmental Psychology 7, Leadership and Men (Pittsburgh, Pa.: Carnegie Press, September 1972, pp. 146–152. 1951); Sak Onkvisit and John J. Shaw, International 70. Tamara Mangleburg and Terry Bristol, “Socialization Marketing: Analysis and Strategy (Columbus, Ohio: and Adolescents’ Skepticism Toward Advertising,” Jour- Merrill, 1989); see also Chin Tiong Tan and John U. nal of Advertising, Fall 1998, pp. 11–21. Farley, “The Impact of Cultural Patterns on Cognition 71. Robert E. Burnkrant and Alain Cousineau, “Informa- and Intention in Singapore,” Journal of Consumer tional and Normative Social Infl uence in Buyer Behav- Research, March 1987, pp. 540–544.

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“Cross-Functional Product Development Teams, 20. C. Page Moreau, Donald R. Lehmann, and Arthur B. Creativity, and the Innovativeness of New Consumer Markman, “Entrenched Knowledge Structures and Products,” Journal of Marketing Research, February Consumer Response to New Products,” Journal of 2001, pp. 73–85. Marketing Research, February 2001, pp. 14–29. 7. Yumiko Ono, “Overcoming the Stigma of Dishwashers 21. Glen Urban and Gilbert A. Churchill, “Five Dimensions in Japan,” Wall Street Journal, May 19, 2000, pp. B1, B4. of the Industrial Adoption Process,” Journal of Market- 8. Sonoo Singh, “Interactive/Ecommerce: Net Lifts High ing Research, August 1971, pp. 322–327; Charles R. Street Blues,” Marketing Week, February 28, 2008, n.p. O’Neal, Hans B. Thorelli, and James M. Utterback, 9. Thomas S. 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March 10, 2002, p. 38; John C. Jay, “The Valley of the New,” Diane Brady and Christopher Palmeri, “The Pet Econ- American Demographics, March 2000, pp. 58–59; Norihiko omy,” BusinessWeek, August 6, 2007, pp. 44–54; Freder- Shirouzu, “Japan’s High-School Girls Excel in Art of Set- ick Kaufman, “They Eat What We Are,” New York Times ting Trends, Wall Street Journal, April 24, 1998, pp. B1, B7. Magazine, September 2, 2007, pp. 20+; John Fetto, “In 89. Gatignon and Robertson, “A Propositional Inventory for the Doghouse,” American Demographics, January 2002, New Diffusion Research”; Lawrence A. Brown, p. 7; John Fetto, “Pets Can Drive,” American Demo- Edward J. Malecki, and Aron N. Spector, “Adopter Cate- graphics, March 2000, pp. 10–12. gories in a Spatial Context: Alternative Explanations for 2. Grant McCracken, “Culture and Consumption: A Theo- an Empirical Regularity,” Rural Sociology, Spring 1976, retical Account of the Structure and Movement of the pp. 99–117a. Cultural Meaning of Consumer Goods,” Journal of Con- 90. Dorothy Leonard-Barton, “Experts as Negative Opin- sumer Research, June 1986, pp. 71–84; Grant McCracken, ion Leaders in the Diffusion of a Technological Inno- Culture and Consumption (Indianapolis, Ind.: Indiana vation,” Journal of Consumer Research, March 1985, University Press, 1990). pp. 914–926. 3. Lisa Peñaloza, “Consuming the American West: Animat- 91. Everett Rogers and D. Lawrence Kincaid, Communica- ing Cultural Meaning and Memory at a Stock Show and tion Networks: Toward a New Paradigm for Research Rodeo,” Journal of Consumer Research, December 2001, (New York: Free Press, 1981). pp. 369–398. 92. Rogers and Kincaid, Communication Networks. 4. See Craig J. Thompson, “Marketplace Mythology and 93. Frank M. Bass, “The Relationship Between Diffusion Discourses of Power,” Journal of Consumer Research, Curves, Experience Curves, and Demand Elasticities for June 2004, pp. 162–175; Elizabeth C. Hirschman, Linda Consumer Durable Technological Innovations,” Journal Scott, and William B. Wells, “A Model of Product Dis- of Business, July 1980, pp. s51–s57; Dan Horskey and course: Linking Consumer Practice to Cultural Texts,” Leonard S. Simon, “Advertising and the Diffusion of New Journal of Advertising, Spring 1998, pp. 33–50; Barbara Products,” Marketing Science, Winter 1983, pp. 1–17; A. Phillips, “Thinking into It: Consumer Interpretation of Vijay Mahajan and Eitan Muller, “Innovation Diffusion Complex Advertising Images,” Journal of Advertising, and New Product Growth Models in Marketing,” Journal Summer 1997, pp. 77–86; Cele Otnes and Linda Scott, of Marketing, Fall 1979, pp. 55–68; Mahajan, Muller, and “Something Old, Something New: Exploring the Interac- Bass, “New Product Diffusion Models in Marketing.” tion between Ritual and Advertising,” Journal of Adver- 94. Lauriston Sharp, “Steel Axes for Stone Age Australians,” tising, Spring 1996, pp. 33–50; Jonna Holland and James in ed. Edward H. Spicer, Human Problems in Techno- W. Gentry, “The Impact of Cultural Symbols on Advertis- logical Change (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, ing Effectiveness: A Theory of Intercultural Accommoda- 1952). tion,” in eds. Merrie Brucks and Debbie MacInnis, 95. H. David Banta, “The Diffusion of the Computer To- Advances in Consumer Research, vol. 24 (Provo, Utah: mography (CT) Scanner in the United States,” Interna- Association for Consumer Research, 1997), pp. 483–489. tional Journal of Health Services 10, 1980, pp. 251–269, 5. “Sarah Jessica Parker Coming to Town,” Cincinnati as reported in Rogers, The Diffusion of Innovations, Enquirer, March 5, 2008, www.news.enquirer.com. pp. 231–237. 6. Ruth La Ferla, “Young Shoppers Chase Up-from-the- 96. Steven Mufson, “Power Switch: The New Energy Law Will Asphalt Niche Designers,” New York Times, December 21, Change Light Bulbs, Appliances, and How We Save Elec- 2007, pp. G1, G10. tricity in the Home,” Washington Post, January 20, 2008, 7. Elizabeth Weinstein, “Style & Substance: Graffi ti Cleans p. F1; “Utilities: PG&E Giving Away Energy-Saver Bulbs,” Up at Retail,” Wall Street Journal, November 12, 2004, Los Angeles Times, October 4, 2007, p. C6; Jenn Abelson, p. B1; Lauren Goldstein, “Urban Wear Goes Suburban,” “For This Fall, Green Is In: Stores Hope New Products Will Fortune, December 21, 1998, pp. 169–172. Lure Crowds of Eco-Conscious Teens Headed Back to 8. Jennifer Edson Escalas and James R. Bettman, “You Are School,” Boston Globe, August 17, 2007, p. C1; Marc Lifsher What They Eat: The Infl uence of Reference Groups on and Adrian G. 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BU2; for Hot Berets, the Canadian Firm Plans a U.S. Invasion

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After Its Olympic Triumph,” Newsweek, February 25, ture and Consumption”; McCracken, Culture and Con- 2002, p. 36; Larry M. Greenberg, “Marketing the Great sumption. White North, Eh?” Wall Street Journal, April 21, 2000, 25. Alex Taylor III, “America’s Best Car Company,” Fortune, p. B1. March 19, 2007, pp. 98+. 11. Laura R. Oswald, “Culture Swapping: Consumption 26. Solomon, “Building Up and Breaking Down”; James H. and the Ethnogenesis of Middle-Class Haitian Immi- Leigh and Terrace G. Gabel, “Symbolic Interactionism: grants,” Journal of Consumer Research, March 1999, Its Effects on Consumer Behavior and Implications for pp. 303–318. Marketing Strategy,” Journal of Consumer Marketing, 12. Elisabeth Furst, “The Cultural Signifi cance of Food,” Winter 1992, pp. 27–39. in ed. Per Otnes, The Sociology of Consumption: 27. Myrna L. Armstrong and Donata C. Gabriel, “Motivation An Anthology (Oslo, Norway: Solum Forlag, 1988), for Tattoo Removal,” Archives of Dermatology, April pp. 89–100. 1996, pp. 412–416. 13. “Breaching the Grape Wall of China,” BusinessWeek 28. John W. Schouten, “Personal Rites of Passage and the Online, February 10, 2005, www.businessweek.com; Reconstruction of Self,” in eds. Rebecca H. Holman and Kathleen Brewer Doran, “Symbolic Consumption in Michael R. Solomon, Advances in Consumer Research, China: The Color Television as a Life Statement,” in eds. vol. 18 (Provo, Utah: Association for Consumer Re- Merrie Brucks and Debbie MacInnis, Advances in Con- search, 1991), pp. 49–51. sumer Research, vol. 24 (Provo, Utah: Association for 29. Melissa Martin Young, “Dispositions of Possessions Consumer Research, 1997), pp. 128–131. During Role Transitions,” in eds. Rebecca H. Holman 14. Amy Cortese, “My Jet Is Bigger Than Your Jet,” Business- and Michael R. 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Sidney Levy, “Interpreting Consumer Mythology: A 33. James H. McAlexander, John W. Schouten, and Scott D. Structural Approach to Consumer Behavior,” Journal of Roberts, “Consumer Behavior and Divorce,” in eds. Marketing 45, no. 3, 1982, pp. 49–62. Janeen Arnold Costa and Russell W. Belk, Research in 18. David Welch, “Why Toyota Is Afraid of Being Number Consumer Behavior, vol. 6 (Greenwich, Conn.: JAI Press, One,” BusinessWeek, March 5, 2007, pp. 42+. 1993), pp. 162; see also Rita Fullerman and Kathleen 19. Americus Reed II, “Activating the Self-Importance of Debevec, “Till Death Do We Part: Family Dissolution, Consumer Selves: Exploring Identity Salience Effects on Transition, and Consumer Behavior,” in eds. John F. Judgments,” Journal of Consumer Research 31, no. 2, Sherry and Brian Sternthal, Advances in Consumer 2004, pp. 286–295. Research, vol. 19 (Provo, Utah: Association for Con- 20. Jeffrey Ball, “Detroit Worries Some Consumers Are Sour- sumer Research, 1992), pp. 514–521. ing on Big SUVs,” Wall Street Journal, January 8, 2003, 34. Melanie Wallendorf and Michael D. Reilly, “Ethnic Mi- pp. B1, B4. gration, Assimilation, and Consumption,” Journal of 21. Jennifer Edison Escalas, “The Consumption of Insignifi - Consumer Research, December 1983, pp. 292–302; Rohit cant Rituals: A Look at Debutante Balls,” in eds. Leigh Deshpande, Wayne Hoyer, and Naveen Donthu, “The McAlister and Michael L. Rothschild, Advances in Con- Intensity of Ethnic Affi liation: A Study of the Sociology sumer Research, vol. 20 (Provo, Utah: Association for of Hispanic Consumption,” Journal of Consumer Re- Consumer Research, 1993), pp. 709–716. search, September 1986, pp. 214–220; for a discussion of 22. Jon Gertner, “From 0 to 60 to World Domination,” New acculturation of Chinese Americans, see Wei-Na Lee, York Times Magazine, February 18, 2007, pp. 34+. “Acculturation and Advertising Communication Strate- 23. James B. Arndorfer, “Miller Lite: Bob Mikulay,” Advertis- gies: A Cross-Cultural Study of Chinese Americans,” ing Age, November 1, 2004, p. S12; “Miller Lite,” Bever- Psychology and Marketing, September–October 1993, age Dynamics, January–February 2002, p. 40. pp. 381–397; for an interesting study on the immigra- 24. Michael R. Solomon, “Building Up and Breaking Down: tion of Haitian consumers, see Laura R. Oswald, “Cul- The Impact of Cultural Sorting on Symbolic Consump- ture Swapping: Consumption and the Ethnogenesis of tion,” in eds. Elizabeth C. Hirschman and Jagdish N. Middle-Class Haitian Immigrants.” Sheth, Research in Consumer Behavior (Greenwich, 35. Annamma Joy and Ruby Roy Dholakia, “Remembrances Conn.: JAI Press, 1988), pp. 325–351; McCracken, “Cul- of Things Past: The Meaning of Home and Possessions

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of Indian Professionals in Canada,” in ed. Floyd W. Rud- berg, and Richard H. Willis, Social Exchanges: Advances min, To Have Possessions: A Handbook of Ownership in Theory and Research (New York: Plenum, 1980), and Property, Special Issue, Journal of Social Behavior pp. 57–75; Csikszentmihalyi and Rochberg-Halton, The and Personality 6, no. 6, 1991, pp. 385–402; see also Raj Meaning of Things; see also Richins, “Valuing Things.” Mehta and Russell W. Belk, “Artifacts, Identity, and Tran- 48. Gabriel Bar-Haim, “The Meaning of Western Commer- sition: Favorite Possessions of Indians and Indian Im- cial Artifacts for Eastern European Youth,” Journal of migrants to the United States,” Journal of Consumer Contemporary Ethnography, July 1987, pp. 205–226. Research, March 1991, pp. 398–411. 49. Jonah Berger and Chip Heath, “Where Consumers 36. Craig J. Thompson and Siok Kuan Tambyah, “Trying to Diverge from Others: Identity Signaling and Product Be Cosmopolitan,” Journal of Consumer Research 26, Domains,” Journal of Consumer Research, August 2007, December 1999, pp. 214–241. pp. 121–134. 37. Priscilla A. LaBarbera, “The Nouveaux Riches: Conspic- 50. Robert P. Libbon, “Datadog,” American Demographics, uous Consumption and the Issue of Self-Fulfi llment,” in September 2000, p. 26. eds. Elizabeth C. Hirschman and Jagdish N. Sheth, Re- 51. Stacy Baker and Patricia Kennedy, “Death by Nostalgia,” search in Consumer Behavior (Greenwich, Conn.: JAI in Advances in Consumer Research, vol. 21 (Provo, Utah: Press, 1988), pp. 181–182. Association for Consumer Research, 1994), pp.169–174; 38. Sarah Ellison and Carlos Tejada, “Mr., Mrs., Meet Mr. Morris B. Holbrook and Robert Schindler, “Echoes of Clean,” Wall Street Journal, January 30, 2003, pp. B1, B3. the Dear Departed Past,” in Advances in Consumer Re- 39. Blythe Yee, “Ads Remind Women They Have Two Hands,” search, vol. 18 (Provo, Utah: Association for Consumer Wall Street Journal, August 14, 2003, pp. B1, B5; for an Research, 1991), pp. 330–333. extensive discussion of consumer life transitions and 52. Stuart Elliott, “A Two-Wheeled Ride Down Memory related products, see Paula Mergenhagen, Targeting Lane,” New York Times, May 4, 2004, www.nytimes.com. Transitions (Ithaca, N.Y.: American Demographics 53. Vanitha Swaminathan, Karen L. Page, and Zeynep Books, 1995). Gürhan-Canli, “‘My’ Brand or ‘Our’ Brand: The Effects 40. Ian Mount, “Alternative Gift Registries,” Wall Street Jour- of Brand Relationship Dimensions and Self-Construal nal, March 2, 2004, p. D1; Julie Flaherty, “Freedom to on Brand Evaluations,” Journal of Consumer Research, Marry, and to Spend on It,” New York Times, May 16, August 2007, pp. 2348–259; Matthew Thomson, Debo- 2004, sec. 9, p. 2; Miller, “‘Til Death Do They Part.” rah J. MacInnis, and C. Whan Park, “The Ties That Bind: 41. Pamela Paul, “What to Expect When Expecting? A Whole Measuring the Strength of Consumers’ Emotional Attach- Lot of Loot,” New York Times, June 24, 2007, p. BU5. ments to Brands,” Journal of Consumer Psychology 15, 42. Otnes and Scott, “Something Old, Something New.” no. 1, 2005, pp. 77–91; Jennifer Edson Escalas, “Narrative 43. In line with our notion that the meaning of the symbol Processing: Building Consumer Connections to may derive from the culture instead of from the indi- Brands,” Journal of Consumer Psychology 14, no. 1/2, vidual and that symbols may have public or private 2004, pp. 168–180; Jennifer Edson Escalas and James R. meaning, see Marsha L. Richins, “Valuing Things: The Bettman, “Self-Construal, Reference Groups, and Brand Public and Private Meaning of Possessions,” Journal of Meaning,” Journal of Consumer Research 32, no. 3, 2005, Consumer Research, December 1994, pp. 504–521. pp. 378–389; Russell W. Belk, “Possessions and the Ex- 44. N. Laura Kamptner, “Personal Possessions and Their tended Self,” Journal of Consumer Research, September Meanings: A Life Span Perspective,” Journal of Social 1988, pp. 139–168; A. Dwayne Ball and Lori H. Tasaki, Behavior and Personality 6, no. 6, 1991, pp. 209–228; see “The Role and Measurement of Attachment in Con- also Richins, “Valuing Things.” sumer Behavior,” Journal of Consumer Psychology 1, 45. Adam Kuper, “The English Christmas and the Family: no. 2, 1992, pp. 155–172; Robert E. Kleine, Susan Schultz Time Out and Alternative Realities,” in ed. Daniel Miller, Kleine, and Jerome B. Kernan, “Mundane Consumption Unwrapping Christmas (Oxford, England: Oxford Uni- and the Self: A Social Identity Perspective,” Journal of versity Press, 1993), pp. 157–175; Barbara Bodenhorn, Consumer Psychology 2, no. 3, 1993, pp. 209–235. “Christmas Present: Christmas Public,” in ed. Miller, 54. Kleine, Kleine, and Kernan, “Mundane Consumption Unwrapping Christmas, pp. 193–216. and the Self”; see also Sirgy, “Self-Concept and Con- 46. Carolyn Folkman Curasi, Linda L. Price, and Eric J. sumer Behavior”; George M. Zinkhan and J. W. Hong, Arnould, “How Individuals’ Cherished Possessions “Self-Concept and Advertising Effectiveness: A Concep- Become Families’ Inalienable Wealth,” Journal of tual Model of Congruence, Conspicuousness, and Re- Consumer Research, December 2004, pp. 609–622. sponse Mode,” in eds. Rebecca Holman and Michael 47. Kelly Tepper Tian, William O. Bearden, and Gary L. Solomon, Advances in Consumer Research, vol. 18 Hunter, “Consumers’ Need for Uniqueness: Scale (Provo, Utah: Association for Consumer Research, Development and Validation,” Journal of Consumer Re- 1991), pp. 348–354. search 28, June 2001, pp. 50–66; Howard L. Fromkin and 55. For example, see Robert V. Kozinets, “Utopian Enter- C. R. Snyder, “The Search for Uniqueness and Valuation prise: Articulating the Meanings of Star Trek’s Culture of of Scarcity,” in eds. Kenneth Gergen, Martin S. Green- Consumption,” Journal of Consumer Research, June

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Kleine, Robert E. Kleine III, and Chris T. Allen, “How Is 59. Hope Jensen Schau and Mary C. Gilly, “We Are What We a Possession ‘Me’ or ‘Not Me’? Characterizing Types and Post? Self-Presentation in Personal Web Space,” Journal an Antecedent of Material Possession Attachment,” of Consumer Research, December 2003, pp. 385–404. Journal of Consumer Research, December 1995, 60. Stuart Elliott, “Carpet Spots Feature a Confident and pp. 327–343; McAlexander, Schouten, and Roberts, Refl ective Andie MacDowell,” February 24, 2004, www “Consumer Behavior and Divorce”; Lisa L. Love and .nytimes.com. Peter S. Sheldon, “Souvenirs: Messengers of Meaning,” 61. Sirgy, “Self-Concept and Consumer Behavior”; Sirgy, So- in eds. Joseph W. Alba and Wesley Hutchinson, Advances cial Cognition and Consumer Behavior. in Consumer Research, vol. 25 (Provo, Utah: Association 62. Ian Rowley, “Here, Kid, Take the Wheel,” BusinessWeek, for Consumer Research, 1998), pp. 170–175. July 23, 2007, p. 37. 72. Belk, “Possessions and the Sense of Past.” 63. Cheng Lu Wang, Terry Bristol, John C. Mowen, and Gou- 73. Russell W. Belk, “Moving Possessions: An Analysis Based tam Chakraborty, “Alternative Modes of Self-Construal: on Personal Documents from the 1847–1869 Mormon Dimensions of Connectedness–Separateness and Ad- Migration,” Journal of Consumer Research, December vertising Appeals to the Cultural and Gender-Specifi c 1992, pp. 339–361. Self,” Journal of Consumer Psychology 9, no. 2, 2000, 74. Russell W. Belk, Melanie Wallendorf, John F. Sherry Jr., pp. 107–115. and Morris B. Holbrook, “Collecting in a Consumer Cul- 64. Matthew Thomson, Deborah J. MacInnis, and C. Whan ture,” in ed. Belk, Highways and Buyways (Provo, Utah: Park, “The Ties That Bind: Measuring the Strength of Association for Consumer Research), pp.178–215. Consumers’ Emotional Attachments to Brands,” Journal 75. 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Belk, “The Ineluctable Mysteries of Posses- Journal of Consumer Research, December 1994, sions,” in ed. Floyd W. Rudmin, To Have Possessions: A pp. 522–533. Handbook on Ownership and Property; Special Issue, 66. Richins, “Valuing Things.” Journal of Social Behavior and Personality 6, no. 6, 1991, 67. Thomson, MacInnis, and Park, “The Ties that Bind: pp. 17–55. Measuring the Strength of Consumers’ Emotional At- 79. Kent Grayson and David Shulman, “Indexicality and the tachments to Brands; C. W. Park and Deborah J. MacIn- Verification Function of Irreplaceable Possessions: A nis, “What’s In and What’s Out: Questions on the Semiotic Analysis,” Journal of Consumer Research 27, Boundaries of the Attitude Construct,” Journal of Con- June 2000, pp. 17–30. sumer Research 33, no. 1, 2006, pp. 16–18; Rohini Ahlu- 80. Daniel Terdiman, “Curiously High-Tech Hacks for a walia, Robert Burnkrant, and H. Rao Unnava, Classic Tin,” New York Times, February 3, 2005, www “Consumer Response to Negative Publicity: The Moder- .nytimes.com. ating Role of Commitment,” Journal of Marketing Re- 81. Belk et al., “Collecting in a Consumer Culture.” search 37, no. 2, May 2000, pp. 203–214; Michael D. 82. Fournier, “The Development of Intense Consumer– Johnson, Andreas Herrmann, and Frank Huber, “The Product Relationships.” Evolution of Loyalty Intentions,” Journal of Marketing 83. Csikszentmihalyi and Rochberg-Halton, The Meaning 70, April 2006, 122–132; Matthew Thomson, “Human of Things; M. Wallendorf, and E. J. Arnould, “My Fa- Brands: Investigating Antecedents to Consumers’ vorite Things: A Cross-Cultural Inquiry into Object

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Attachment, Possessiveness, and Social Linkage,” Jour- Ownership and Property; Special Issue, Journal of Social nal of Consumer Research, March 1988, pp. 531–547; Behavior and Personality 6, no. 6, 1991, pp. 465–468. Belk, “Moving Possessions.” 102. Robert V. Kozinets, “Utopian Enterprise: Articulating the 84. A. Peter McGraw, Philip E. Tetlock, and Orie V. Kristel, Meanings of Star Trek’s Culture of Consumption,” Jour- “The Limits of Fungibility: Relational Schemata and the nal of Consumer Research 28, June 2001, pp. 67–88. Value of Things,” Journal of Consumer Research, Sep- 103. Jackie Clarke, “Different to ‘Dust Collectors’? The Giving tember 2003, pp. 219–228. and Receiving of Experience Gifts,” Journal of Consumer 85. Csikszentmihalyi and Rochberg-Halton, The Meaning of Behavior 5, no. 6, 2006, pp. 533–549. Things. 104. See, for example, Leigh Schmidt, “The Commercializa- 86. Csikszentmihalyi and Rochberg-Halton, The Meaning of tion of the Calendar,” Journal of American History, Things. December 1991, pp. 887–916. 87. Helga Dittmar, “Meaning of Material Possessions as Re- 105. For fascinating historical and sociological accounts of fl ections of Identity: Gender and Social-Material Posi- Christmas, see Daniel Miller, “A Theory of Christmas,” in tion in Society,” in ed. Rudmin, To Have Possessions, ed. Miller, Unwrapping Christmas, pp. 3–37; Claude pp. 165–186; see also Helga Dittmar, The Social Psychol- Levi-Strauss, “Father Christmas Executed,” in ed. Miller, ogy of Material Possessions (New York: St. Martin’s, 1992). Unwrapping Christmas, pp. 38–54; Belk, “Materialism 88. Jaideep Sengupta, Darren W. Dahl, and Gerald J. Gorn, and the Making of the Modern American Christmas”; “Misrepresentation in the Consumer Context,” Journal Barbara Bodenhorn, “Christmas Present: Christmas Pub- of Consumer Psychology 12 (2), 2002, pp. 69–79. lic,” in ed. Miller, Unwrapping Christmas, pp. 193–216; 89. Dittmar, “Meaning of Material Possessions as Reflec- William B. Waits, The Modern Christmas in America (New tions of Identity”; Kamptner, “Personal Possessions and York: New York University Press, 1993); and Stephen Nis- Their Meanings.” senbaum, The Battle for Christmas (New York: Vantage 90. Wallendorf and Arnould, “My Favorite Things.” Books, 1997). 91. Russell W. Belk and Melanie Wallendorf, “Of Mice and 106. John F. Sherry Jr., “Gift Giving in Anthropological Per- Men: Gender Identity in Collecting,” in eds. K. Ames spective,” Journal of Consumer Research, September and K. Martinez, The Gender of Material Culture (Ann 1983, pp. 157–168. Arbor, Mich.: University of Michigan Press), reprinted in 107. For a discussion of several of these motives, see Sherry, ed. Susan M. 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