IEMed. Mediterranean Yearbook 2015 126 Barcelona +20: an Assessment Dossier towards Europe arefromthere,considering thehis- of theMediterranean.Themajority ofmigratoryflows Europe formsamigratoryarea withthesouthshore The MediterraneanMigratory Area death, makingthisseaavastcemetery. nificant clandestinemigrationthatsometimesendsin lished itsborderthere,becomingthesourceofsig- essential migrationflowstotheEU,whichhasestab- the southshoreofMediterraneansupplies In sum, (Macedonia, Cyprus, Western Sahara, etc). mention themanydisputesbetweenneighbours lamists in Europe and in their own countries, not to Israelis andPalestinians,Turks andKurds,radicalIs- and sometimesterrorism:ChristiansMuslims, conflicts intheworld,asourceofstrife,insecurity lands’ istodayalsothearenaforsomeofmajor on theother.Antiquity’s‘seainmiddleof on theonehand,Balkans,Turkey andtheMashreq and confrontation:theMaghrebWestern Europe These canbedivided into various placesofexchange Twenty-two statesbordertheMediterraneanSea. Mediterranean whileopeningitsborderstotheEast. Union, butclosingitssouthernbordersalongthe of movement,residenceandworkwithinthewider gration fromtheSouth,becauseitisbuiltonfreedom ern side. Moreover, theEU has turnedits back to mi- the outer borderofEuropeanUniononitssouth- most border-controlledareas,sinceitconstitutes arenas intheworld.Itisalso,however,oneof The Mediterranean Basin is one of the main migration Paris InstituteofPolitical Studies(SciencesPo), Paris Senior Research Fellow, CNRS Catherine WihtoldeWenden Migrations intheMediterraneanRegion Dossier: Barcelona +20:anAssessment majority ofits emigrants inasinglehostcountry (Al- worker growth, where a single nationality has the colonial pastorrecruitment inyearsofcontract Paired migration countries, often associated with a tion ofmigrationwithintheEuro-Mediterranean area: Various migratoryconfigurations existinthedistribu- France, withMaghrebinationalsintheforefront. Albanians makeuptwothirdsoftheforeigners,and Moroccans arethemostnumerous,Greece,where nationality, Italy, whereRomanians, Albaniansand where Moroccanmigrants are thesecond immigrant sired destination of choice. This is true of Spain, by themedia)continuestoexplainEuropeasde- cultural proximity(languages,particularlytransmitted the globalisationofflows,historic,geographicand tries of departure, transit and destination. Despite Ukraine, the Maghreb and Albania are at once coun- Bulgaria, Romania,Croatia,Macedonia,Turkey, by migrants.TheybeginalongtheedgesofEurope: Today, theMediterraneancontinuestobecrossed transit. have alsonowbecomeregionsofimmigrationand old of Europe, from the Maghreb to Turkey, which immigration, aphenomenonextendingtothethresh- until themid-1980s,havenowbecomecountriesof countries andtheBalkans,ofemigration Over thecourseoftwentyyears,southernEuropean making themtheborderguardsofEurope. countries of immigration, in controlling the flows by countries oftransit,somewhichhavebecome controlling itsborderswhileattemptingtoinvolve the image of a Europe under siege having trouble der, where sub-Saharan Africans flock today, give Canary IslandsandtheEvros(orMaritsa)Riverbor- Gibraltar, MelillaandCeuta,Malta,Lampedusa,the nature ofthetwoareas.ThegatewaystoEurope,i.e. and thecomplimentarydemographiceconomic toric andneighbourhoodtiesithaswiththisregion monde, Paris,Autrement, 2012,3rdedition. for theirexchanges. the Mediterranean and make the border a resource nial, commercialorentrepreneurial naturecross at adistance.Transnational networksof matrimo- gions oforigin;andorganisationreligiousaffairs tions inlocaldevelopmentprogrammesthere- by thecountryoforigin;involvementassocia- compatriots, and not just friendly ones controlled sociations campaigningfortheconditionsoftheir a voteinthecountryoforigin;recognitionas- members ofadiasporathroughconsularvoteor sometimes eventhewilltograntpoliticalrights citizens onthelocallevelinhostcountryand of origin of the political rights exercised by non-EU is thecaseinMorocco;acceptancebycountry with perpetualallegiancetothecountryofbirth,as countries operateontheprincipleofjussanguinis, the course of the 1990s, whereas all the Muslim their nationality laws to elements of instance –manyEuropeancountrieshaveopened host countries:acceptanceofdualnationality, for those countriestoexerciseaninfluenceonthe come highlysolicitedbecausetheycanallow ereignty ofthecountriesorigin,havetodaybe- Diasporas, formerlyconsideredathreattothesov- In Morocco,emigrationhasdoubledin11years. Algeria(onemillion). Egypt(2.7million), (5.3 million), Turkeyemigration: Morocco(3.5millionemigrants), closed borders,constitutesaregionofconsiderable The southernMediterraneanBasin,despitethe — — Europe liveinGermany), key/Germany, where 70% ofTurks immigrating to rians immigratingtoEuropeliveinFrance,andTur- geria/France, forinstance,whereover90%ofAlge- 1 Catherine to Europesincethe1990s. tion offlowscharacterisingmigratorymovement Scattered distribution,reflectingtheglobalisa- cans), of theTurks inEurope,followed by theMoroc- links amongitsdifferentgroups(thisisthecase religious, familial andmatrimonialnetworks and creating strongtransnationaleconomic,cultural, present innumerousEuropeancountriesand Quasi-diasporas, characterisedbyanationality W iht ol

de

W enden

, Faut-il ouvrirlesfrontières ? Paris,Pressesde SciencesPo, 2014,2ndedition, andAtlasdes jus soli over al tothecapacityofcountries ofemigrationto terrorism system(development aidbeingcondition- tion ofanEUexternalborder surveillanceandanti- Hopes weresoondashedduetotheimplementa- Another challenge:Euro-Mediterraneandialogue. along theborders. imburse thecostoftrip,andcasualtiesmount Europe. Illegalimmigrationcontinuesinordertore- heightening migratorypressureatthethresholdof those whocannotreturntotheircountriesof origin, ures tendtoincreasetherandomsettlementof countries. Thesedissuasiveandrepressivemeas- Morocco andLibya,butalsoinMaltaoroutlyingEU with campsnotonlyincountriesoftransitsuchas as inCeuta,ontheinitiativeofEuropeanUnion, of bordercontrolsasthe1990s.Walls werebuilt, and suspicionincreased,withtheEuropeanisation complement theprogrammefornon-EUcitizens nean wasover. immigration pressurefromthesouthernMediterra- ders andopeneditsinnerbordersinthebeliefthat Since 1985,Europehasstrengtheneditsouterbor- ing illegalimmigration. established immigration policies apart from penalis- countries, whichhaveemigrationpolicies,not On theotherhand,southshoreMediterranean ment nichespreviouslyoccupiedbyillegalmigrants. galisation, bilaterallabouragreementsinemploy- the ‘acquiscommunautaire,’ successivewavesofle- countries of immigration: progressive accession to teristics that distinguish them greatly from traditional gan establishingimmigrationpolicieswithcharac- the mid1980s,SouthernEuropeancountriesbe- greatest migrationhumpinthepastfewyears.In It istheEuropeancountrythathasexperienced primary destinationofthesemigrantsfromtheSouth. in theMaghrebandSudaneseEgypt. Spain isthe grants or migrants in transit, including sub-Saharans dition, thereisanunknownnumberofillegalimmi- the OccupiedPalestinianTerritory andJordan.Inad- tries ofimmigration.ThisisthecaseIsrael,Turkey, Mediterranean south shore countries are also coun- as welltheUnitedStatesandCanada.Certain to ArabcountriessuchasLibyaandtheGulfStates, south shoreoftheMediterranean,sincetheyalsogo But Europeonlyattractshalfofthemigrantsfrom 1 Avisasystemwasestablishedto migrations dansle

IEMed. Mediterranean Yearbook 2015 127 Barcelona +20: an Assessment Dossier IEMed. Mediterranean Yearbook 2015 128 Barcelona +20: an Assessment Dossier pressure intheMediterranean areaisdiminishing. there cannotabsorb.The South-North migratory young adultsintheSouththatlabourmarket ability ofavastskilledlabourreserveconsisting with anageingpopulationintheNorthandavail- ation ofcomplementaritybetweenthetwoshores, We arethereforenowinasitu- woman onaverage). al replacement levels (two and a half children per haviours (somesixbirthsperwoman)togeneration- transition from so-called traditional reproductive be- tries intothedemographictransition,thatis, to theentranceofmajoritysouthshorecoun- shore. Thisdisparityisnonethelessdiminishingdue day isforty, ascomparedtotwenty-fiveonthesouth country orgroupintotwoequalparts)inEuropeto- median age (the age separating the population of a nean Basin,whileithasstagnatedintheNorth.The significantly intheeasternandsouthernMediterra- Over thepast sixty years,the population hasgrown The asymmetricpopulationprofilesareafirstdivide. Proximity intheWorld One oftheGreatestLinesDivideand outbreaks ofterrorismhaveaggravatedthedivide. ropean countriesisoftenareciprocalordealand confrontation ofIslamwiththesecularisationEu- was builtwhereMuslimpowersretreated.Butthe Finally, Islamisalsoachallenge.Inthepast,Europe nean Partnershipcontent. which eliminatedmigrationfromtheEuro-Mediterra- for theMediterranean,launchedbyFrancein2007, Process (1995-2005)wassucceededbytheUnion neighbourhood ortheNordicUnion.TheBarcelona some ofthembeingmoreinterestedintheeastern remains farfrominterestingallEUMemberStates, system. IntheNorth,Euro-Mediterraneandialogue in the South,hasrunupagainstaprotectionistEU the onlysectorsproducingatcompetitivelevels by southshorecountries.Agricultureandfishing, ism and the weak appropriationof the partnership corruption,Islamicterror- the MiddleEastconflict), instability intheregion(dialoguedependenceon theasymmetryoftrade, control illegalmigration), 3 2 December 2011. Youssef Raimondo C ourbage C agiano , EmmanuelTodd, Lerendez-vousdescivilisations.Paris,Seuil,2007.

de A zevedo , Cinzia C astagnaro , “Vieillissementet dévieillissement:undébateuropéen,” Gérontologieetsociété,No.139, er withthephenomenonof‘de-ageing’ gration sources.Atthesametime,emergingtogeth- the populationintooldage,whichcallsfornewmi- levels andtheentranceofagrowingproportion number ofchildrenperwomanatsub-replacement entered astageofdemographicageing,withthe terranean, countriessuchasItalyandSpainhave many, Benelux, Switzerland), remittances that, to- many, Benelux,Switzerland), ropean countrieslongago(France, Spain,Italy, Ger- networks builtbymigrantfamiliesthatsettledinEu- transnational migrant ternet, mobiletelephones), by disseminationthroughthemedia(television, in- times associatedwiththecolonialpast,isfacilitated at The South'scountries(French,Italian,Spanish), countries oftransitforsub-Saharans. as wellAlgeriaandLibya,whichhavebecome the North.ThisiscaseofMoroccoandTurkey, the settlementofmigrantsduetoclosedborders tries intocountriesoftransitandimmigration,with transformation ofsouthshoreMediterraneancoun- dus, megapolisation(asinCairoorIstanbul)andthe also involvesthesouthshore,markedbyruralexo- And finally, therampanturbanisationofplanet it hasstagnatedintheNorth southern MediterraneanBasin,while significantly intheeasternand years, thepopulationhasgrown are afirstdivide.Overthepastsixty The asymmetricpopulationprofiles the French). the French). Malta forthe British, andMoroccoTunisia for ish, Spain and Portugal forthe Germans andBritish, with peoplesettlinglong-term(inFrancefortheBrit- that isoftentheextensionofinternationaltourism, age) isthephenomenonofNorth-Southmigration dition thantheprecedinggenerationatsame senior citizens are in better physical and mental con- tries suchasIran. tion, asisindeedalsothecaseinotherIslamiccoun- has nothadanimpactonthedemographictransi- Contrary to popularbelief, the riseof political Islam 2 OnthenorthshoreofMedi- 3 (whereby the 1990s; while Portugal, apart from itsEastern Eu- foreigners, isamosaicofnationalities arrivingsince gration, whichhasreached a populationof5million and Africantropism;Italy, thethirdcountryofimmi- proximity to Morocco, as wellitsSouth American ischaracterisedbyits rope (5.5millionforeigners), second mostpopularcountryofimmigrationinEu- Spain, whichinthepastfewyearshasbecome tionality inFranceaccordingtothe1982census; also bythePortuguese, theleadingimmigrantna- nial pastthroughthepresenceofMaghrebis,but scape: henceFranceisstronglymarkedbyitscolo- proximity totheSouth,hasitsownmigratoryland- Each north-shore Mediterranean country, despite its alternative tomigration. ders oftencombineswiththeabsenceofagenuine states willhavegrownby70%.Theclosingofbor- hardly haveincreased,whereasthatoftheother 2025, thepopulationoftheseEuropeanStateswill average tothatoftheirneighbourstheSouth.By witharevenuetentimessuperioron and Cyprus), gal –evenifitisprimarilyAtlantic–,Greece,Malta States belongtotheEU(France,Italy, Spain,Portu- proximately 400 million inhabitants. Seven of these The 22statesborderingtheMediterraneantotalap- putting upbarrierstomigration. same timetherehasneverbeenagreaterneedfor move freelyhasneverbeengreaterwhileatthe trol productioninaworld where the aspiration to Greece andTurkey. Theseborderscenesareacon- or theEvrosRivermarkingborderbetween Spanish enclavesofCeutaandMelillainMorocco, by Europeanbordersurveillancesystems,asatthe peared, associatedwithmigrationandstrengthened the BalearicIslands.Newbordershavelikewiseap- lands, theCanaryIslandsand,toalesserdegree, case onLampedusa,Malta,Cyprus,theGreekis- the barringofundocumentedmigrants:thisis tween thegreatopennesstotourismandlabour gal immigrants,areattheheartofconfusionbe- tinations fortouristandalsorecurrentarrivalsofille- spring of2011.CertainMediterraneanislands,des- in Tunisia andTunisians inItalyandFrancethe non, aswiththearrivalofSyriansinTurkey, Libyans the trend,haveattimesacceleratedphenome- The Arabrevolutions,thoughtheyhavenotchanged a modernodyssey. Eldorado wheretraversingtheMediterranean is like gether with films, foster the image of a European admission agreements were signed as of 1991 with and travelastouristswithin the SchengenArea.Re- entry visaoflessthanthree months inordertoenter this hasmeanttheobligation ofobtainingasingle- of externalborders.Fornon-EU foreignnationals, nation of internal EU borders and the strengthening sential SchengenAgreementsof1985ontheelimi- the ‘acquiscommunautaire,’ constitutedbythees- The EUsystemtomanagemigratoryflowsiscalled Characterised byClosingOfftheSouth A EuropeanSystemofBorderControlIs nonetheless anintegralpartofthesesocieties. the ideaoflong-termimmigrants,thoughtheyare illegal immigrants. Public opinion is still reticent to ‘massive’ regularisationtoabsorbaproportionofthe ‘black’ labourmarket,andthefrequentrecourseto theexistenceofa derly andEuropeanretirees), domestic servicesfornationalsaswelltheel- business, fishing,agriculture,caringfortheelderly, that cannotbedelocalised(tourism,therestaurant control systems,thedemandforlabourinsectors the implementation, at times deferred, of EU border tries’ locationalongtheexternalbordersofEurope, be ascribedtoacombinationoffactors:thesecoun- countries of immigration. This radical transition can Malta, formercountries of emigration,havebecome In twentyyears,Italy, Spain,Portugal, Greeceand Greece andTurkey River markingtheborderbetween Melilla inMorocco,ortheEvros the SpanishenclavesofCeutaand border surveillancesystems,asat and strengthenedbyEuropean appeared, associatedwithmigration New bordershavelikewise and EasternEuropeans. 2004, ischaracterisedbythepresenceofAlbanians which had no adjoining border with the EU until Portuguese-speaking countries.Andfinally, Greece, dominated byitsmigrationofcolonialorigin,from is ropean workers(RomaniansandUkrainians),

IEMed. Mediterranean Yearbook 2015 129 Barcelona +20: an Assessment Dossier IEMed. Mediterranean Yearbook 2015 130 Barcelona +20: an Assessment Dossier sas areaccompanied bywalls,camps,radars, sen- Rio Grandebetweenitssouth andnorthshores.Vi- The Mediterraneanisincreasingly servingasanew timiglia inspring2011. sians andLibyansinLampedusa andthenVen- national controlofborders after thearrivalofTuni- cation oftheSchengenAgreementandreturnto policies, asdemonstratedbydebatesonthemodifi- ing groundovertheCommunitisationofmigration populism rampanthereandthereinEurope,isgain- In any case, sovereignism, under pressure from the the Frontexsystem camps, radars,sensors,dronesand Visas areaccompaniedbywalls, between itssouthandnorthshores. serving asanewRioGrande The Mediterraneanisincreasingly tance ofshipwreckedindividuals. whose primarymissionisnot,however,theassis- by Triton, a control mechanism belonging to Frontex, thousands of lives and was succeeded in late 2014 rescue operationcalledMareNostrum,whichsaved implement, untiltheendofautumn2014,anational vicinity oftheislandLampedusa,Italydecidedto 2013, following the decease of 366people in the been patrollingthebordersofEuropesince2005.In tion amongEUMemberStatepoliceforceshas EU Member States. The Frontex System of coopera- through aninformationdatabaseaccessibletoall dividuals havingirregularlycrossedanEUborder son of digital fingerprints of asylum-seekers and in- Eurodac Conventiononasylum,facilitatingcompari- been deployed,suchastheadoptionin2000ofa for heightenedcontrolofexternalEUbordershave Treaty roundoffthesystem.Numerousinstruments sation ofthedecisionprocessand2007Lisbon lum, the1997AmsterdamTreaty ontheCommuniti- Dublin ConventionandIIRegulationonasy- refuse theirrighttoresidenceanddeportthem.The obligingallEUMemberStatesto asylum seekers), data on‘undesirables’ (illegalimmigrants,rejected a database for sharing national Information System), computerised controlsystem,theSIS(Schengen an ortheEU,accompaniedbyadoptionofa non-EU MemberStatesborderingtheMediterrane- in anirregular situationtotheircountries oforigin. and departureonreadmission offoreignnationals sist ofagreementsbetween thecountriesofarrival pean bordersarebilateralagreements. Thesecon- Other instrumentsusedto control thesouthEuro- patriate people)isconsidered astrongdeterrent. where variousEUMemberStatesjoineffortstore- of external EU borders, and EU repatriation (that is, ised agencyinWarsaw, ensuresreinforcedcontrol through theFrontexprogrammebasedataspecial- sion clauses.Immigrationandasylumliaisonofficers, African) alreadybeingboundbyobligatoryreadmis- ‘border guards’ oftheEU,otherstates (particularly countries tendtomakenumerousbufferstatesthe ments betweentheEUandsouthMediterranean Spain andtheAfricancoast. Readmission agree- functioningwiththeaidofradarsbetween System), by SIVE(Spain’sIntegratedExternalSurveillance strengthened bordercontrolsarealsosymbolised been defined on an EU level since 1990. The mon regulationstocombatirregularresidencehave terranean areaisadeclaredpriorityoftheEU.Com- The struggleagainstillegalimmigrationintheMedi- while thedepartureofRomaniansforItalycontinued. Greece, where they comprise 60% of foreigners, Albanians ofGreekorigin(theArvanites)movedto nians ofHungarianoriginreturnedtoHungaryand coast of the Black Sea) returned to Greece, Roma- (from theregionofPontus, alongthesouth-eastern turned to Turkey, some 350,000 Pontic Greeks nearly half a million Bulgarians of Turkish origin re- by ‘disentanglements’ inMediterraneanEurope: Europe afterthefallofBerlin Wall waspreceded entanglement’ ofnationalities occurring in Eastern EU, andthishascreatedacertaintension.The‘dis- granted thefreedomtoworkandsettlewithin tries becameEUMemberStatesin2007,were In 2014,RomaniansandBulgarians,whosecoun- (Senegal, Libya,Algeria,Tunisia andMorocco). through agreements made with countries in the South and theuseofmigrantsasnegotiationinstruments tion, anti-terrorismandthestruggleagainstRom; amalgamating thestruggleagainstillegalimmigra- ments inthecivildomain;securityescalation, deported and military technology recycles its instru- panies havebecomespecialisedinconveyingthe factors: thesecurityeconomy, wherebyprivatecom- tion ofmigrationcontrolsisbasedonthreeessential sors, dronesandtheFrontexsystem.Thisprolifera- with theGreekannouncement thatitwasgoingto countries totheEastandSouth wasfacedin2010 cilitated movementformigrantsfromneighbouring Inthesamevein,Turkey,to Europe). whichhasfa- the migrantspassingthroughMoroccoontheirway with West Africancountries,whence come manyof signing suchagreementscouldruinitsrelations privileged partnersstatuswiththeEU,arguingthat rope offersinreturn(Moroccowishestoreceive Morocco, resist,duetotheweaknessofwhatEu- have signedsuchagreements.Others,as semble oftheEU.Numeroussouth-shorecountries between acountryoforiginandtransitwiththeen- Another typeofagreementismultilateral,signed emphatically displayed external edgesoftheEUis of Europeanbordersalongthe as astate affair,whiletheexistence to regarding bordermanagement One canobserveareturn or theconcessionofresidencypermitsforelite. exchange fordevelopmentpolicies,tradeagreements mented migrantstotheothersideofborderin migratory flow through policies of returning undocu- Bilateral agreementsoftenhavetheaimoflimiting mental rights. agreements whenevertherewasviolationoffunda- ways respectfundamentalrightsandsuspend mission reiterated that Member States should al- decision on23February2011,theEuropeanCom- tion andbuildaroadfromEgypttoTunisia. Bya billion eurosfromtheEUto‘stop’ illegalimmigra- ercise their rights. Colonel Gaddafi demanded five seeking internationalprotectionwereunabletoex- Lampedusa weredeportedtoLibya,themigrants 1,500 immigrantsarrivingontheSicilianislandof European NeighbourhoodPolicy. Whenin2011, vention onrefugeesanditdoesnotadheretothe tion. Libya has not ratified the 1951 Geneva Con- name ofthestruggleagainstclandestineimmigra- Libya isanexampleofbargainedagreementsinthe 4 Catherine W iht ol de W enden , “Pour accompagnerlesmigrations enméditerranée.” Labibliothèquede l’iReMMO,Paris,L’Harmatan 2013. Two Shores Conclusion: Migrants,Bridgesbetween nonetheless highlysecurity-oriented. dence ofEUMemberStatesinpolicy, whichis emphatically displayed.Thisrevealsalackofconfi- ropean bordersalongtheexternaledgesofEUis agement asastateaffair,whiletheexistenceofEu- One canobserveareturntoregardingborderman- which migrantsareamongthe mainactors. longer disregardthiscomponent ofitsdiversity, in part ofpopularEuropeanculture.Europecanno theatre, danceandsports,todayareanintegral cultural initiativeshavebeenflourishinginmusic, the caseofTurkey andMorocco.Anumber ofhybrid through theattentiontheygarnercountry:thisis grants asagentsofinfluenceintheirhostcountries beginning todevelopdiasporapoliciesusemi- pean countries.Countries of originare, moreover, es andtheorganisationofIslaminsecularisedEuro- tion exchange,trade,thecreationofsmallbusiness- transnational practices,suchasmarriage,informa- tries oforigin,andfinallythroughtheireveryday dual nationality, whoseelitearecourtedbythecoun- through associations, as well as through people with Mediterranean: firstofallthroughremittances,then spaces betweenthenorthandsouthshoresof descendents contributetobuildingtransnational Despite this closure, initiatives by migrants and their and Morocco country: thisisthecaseofTurkey through theattentiontheygarner influence intheirhostcountries policies tousemigrantsasagentsof beginning todevelopdiaspora Countries oforiginare,moreover, Turkey. to prevententrybyundocumentedmigrantsfrom build awallinThrace,attheGreek-Turkish border 4

IEMed. Mediterranean Yearbook 2015 131 Barcelona +20: an Assessment Dossier