Indigenous Australians Overcoming Vulnerability to Employability by Creating a Viable Labour Market for Local Challenges

Global Journal of HUMAN-SOCIAL SCIENCE: H InterdisciplinaryInterdisciplinary Volume 14 Issue 2 VersionVersion1.0 Year2014 Type: Doublublee Blind PePeerer Reviewed International Research Journal Publisher:Publisher: Global Journals Inc. (USA) Online ISSN: 2249-460460xx & Print ISSN: 0975-587X

Indigenous Australianslians Overcoming Overcoming Vulnerability to EmployabiliEmployability by Creating a Viable Labour Market for Local Challenges By Dr. Cecil A. L. Pearson, Mrs. Sandra Daff & Mr. Klaus Helms Curtin Universityersity, Australia

Abstract- Australian IndigenoIndigenousus people experience severe labour market disadvantage due to constraintsconstraints embedded in technology, inclination to work, formal education, lack of job experienexperiencece as well as geographic factors.factors. IndigenousIndigenous precarious employment grows in prominenceprominence when thertheree is an absence of jobs and particularly in remote regions of Australia where inteintergenerationalrgenerational unemployment is the norm. In the remote Gove Peninsula of the Northern Territoryitory of Australia many English illiterate and innumerate people, without previous emploemployment,yment, have overcome vulnerability to employment by engaging with an educationaleducational vocational scheme in a networking arrangement with government agencies and the residentresident mining corporation Rio Tinto. This paper voices the Indigenous work relevant accomplishmentsaccomplishments during the two and one half years after installment of the programme, that is grounded inin the iinterestsnterests and sensitivity to culturculturalal continuities of the local Yolngu people. Keywords: job vulnerability,lity, indigenous employment, educationeducationalal vocational training, unemployment. GJHSS-H Classification: FOR CCode:ode: 939908, 750101

IndigenousAustraliansOvercomingVulnerabilitytoEmploEmployabilitybyCreatingaViableLabourMarketforLocalChallenges

Stric tly as per the compliance and regulations of:

© 2014. Dr. Cecil A. L. Pearson, Mrs. Sandra Daff & Mr. Klaus Helms. This is a research/review paper, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 3.0 Unported License http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by- nc/3.0/), permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction inany medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Indigenous Australians Overcoming Vulnerability to Employability by Creating a Viable Labour Market for Local Challenges

Dr. Cecil A. L. Pearson α, Mrs. Sandra Daff σ & Mr. Klaus Helms ρ

Abstract- Australian Indigenous people experience severe negatively contribute to Indigenous people finding labour market disadvantage due to constraints embedded in employment or adversely affect job retention. technology, inclination to work, formal education, lack of job In particular, the role of education has been 2014 experience as well as geographic factors. Indigenous emphasised as having a causal effect on labour market precarious employment grows in prominence when there is an

outcomes. Pocock and colleagues (2011) reported a Year absence of jobs and particularly in remote regions of Australia where intergenerational unemployment is the norm. In the connection between employment, and literacy and

1 remote Gove Peninsula of the Northern Territory of Australia numeracy to the extent lower literate workers are twice many English illiterate and innumerate people, without as likely to be employed in lesser paid jobs. In Australia previous employment, have overcome vulnerability to Indigenous people are a minority group, who have for a employment by engaging with an educational vocational long time been overly vulnerable to employment (Gray scheme in a networking arrangement with government and Hunter, 2011; Taylor and Hunter, 1997) because of agencies and the resident mining corporation Rio Tinto. This their consistent disengagement from the national paper voices the Indigenous work relevant accomplishments education system (Gray and Hunter, 2002; Giddy, Lopez during the two and one half years after installment of the and Redman, 2009). The precariousness of programme, that is grounded in the interests and sensitivity to cultural continuities of the local Yolngu people. employability for Indigenous people manifests when Keywords: job vulnerability, indigenous employment, they live in rural or remote regions where there are educational vocational training, unemployment. insufficient jobs (Gray, Hunter and Lohoar, 2012). Often acknowledged are consequences for I. Introduction incompatible balancing of Australian Indigenous

aspirations with employment conditions of a wage ) lineage of studies has detailed knowledge of H

economy. In regional communities Indigenous people (

reasons for Australian Indigenous low labour force Volume XIV Issue II Version I are likely to be engaged in a fundamentally different participation. The Henderson Commission of A lifestyle (Hunter & Gray, 2012; Jordan and Mavec, 2010) Inquiry (1975), and subsequent investigations (Altman, to urban Aboriginal people. Frequently, in remote 2009; Biddle, 2010; Borland & Hunter, 2000; Hunter, regions of the nation living patterns are strongly 2009; Stephens, 2010) have revealed there is an array of attached to kinship obligations and familial networks barriers faced by Indigenous Australians in their pursuit within settings of collective benefits (Foley, 2006; - of employment. Embraced in this literature and other Trudgen, 2000). Often the inhabitants are wedded to writings (Altman, 2006; Gilbert, 2002; Hunter and Gray, welfare, they practice hunter gatherer pursuits and 2012; Johns, 2011; Tiplady and Barclay, 2007) are engage in traditional ceremonial obligations (Altman, contentions the probability of Australian Indigenous 2002; 2003; Madison, 2008; Muir, 2011; Pearson, 2006; people obtaining employment can be influenced by Pearson and Daff, 2013a). These environments, that are numerous social political, technical and structural considerably different to industrial work surroundings, factors including decision to participate in paid work, are inclined to have high Indigenous unemployment dealing with prejudice, lack of training and technology (Hunter, 2009; Stephens, 2010). When alternative inability skill sets, an absence of jobs, proximity to the traditional lifestyles are available few Indigenous labour market and reluctance to travel, or strong cultural Australians are challenged to commit to regular Global Journal of Human Social Science attachments interfering with traditional labour market employment careers antithetical to Aboriginal interests. requirements. Collectively, these and other issues Faced with poor employment prospects the

Author α: Senior Research Fellow, School of Management Curtin Yolngu Indigenous community on the remote Gove University GPO Box U1987 Perth, Western Australia. Peninsula of the Northern Territory (NT) of Australia e-mail: [email protected] created their own sustainable jobs. The Yolngu Elders Author σ: Specialist Indigenous Relations, Pacific Aluminium PO Box engaged in a tripartite partnership with the resident 21Nhulunbuy, Northern Territory. e-mail: [email protected] global miner Rio Tinto and the Australian government to Author ρ: General Manager Gumatj Corporation Nhulunbuy, Northern install a vocational educational training (VET) scheme to Territory. e-mail: [email protected] train local Indigenous people, who were generally

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heme (Altman, (Altman, heme heme bour bour b 0 unde omes and h and omes omes l, 200 al., al. instream instream ins re 1 oiy effo policy policy rate and innumerate. The notion notion The innumerate. and rate our riginals riginals ri 4 Global Journals Inc. (US) I muniti onmental onmental ndigenous onm munity De munity ); suicides, ); ; ih ri high ); ); gen e. Yolngu Elders created a diversified ‘green’ ‘green’ diversified a created Elders Yolngu e. ation a gin , l consu ol ol ation ation a r and and r ppropriate learning and skilling was undertaken at at undertaken was skilling and learning ppropriate r trea ry thereby providing sustainable jobs for the the for jobs sustainable providing thereby ry . vascular v ti dominant indices indices dominant d persisted persisted pe et we ment ment ti suic marke 2000); 2000); ascul onal nn cmay riig facilit training company ining ominant an rpin nity on ( on employed in a variety of ‘green’ type jobs, and and jobs, type ‘green’ of variety a in employed l h als Rela Rela high ro Yolngu Elders created a diversified ‘green’ ‘green’ diversified a created Elders Yolngu c (Al ous AustraliansOvercoming Vulnerability Employabilityto by Creating Viable a Labour Market for e rsis and ent market market t e m onsu al al i n a in identified were jobs The placements. work trial hereby providing sustainable jobs for the the for jobs sustainable providing hereby and jobs, type ‘green’ of variety a in mployed unh d es, that compri that es, es, priate learning and skilling was undertaken at at undertaken was skilling and learning priate rial ) ch 0); Technical and Further Education (TAFE) (TAFE) Education Further and Technical eff

ides, (Hunt tman, G tman, drugs (Midford et al., 2011; Wilson et al., al., et Wilson 2011; al., et (Midford drugs

Hunter, 2010; Biddle, Taylor and Yap, 2009). 2009). Yap, and Taylor Biddle, 2010; Hunter, p ha De l and al Techn e in ted a range of socio economic indicators. The The indicators. economic socio of range a unhygien ar Elders was the trained graduates could could graduates trained the was Elders d tive empl ti welfare ort ave for many decades experienced poor poor experienced decades many for ave eople, eople, highe ve mployment prospects. Despite Australian Australian Despite prospects. mployment rugs (Midford et al., 2011; Wilson et al., al., et Wilson 2011; al., et (Midford rugs work placements. The jobs were identified identified were jobs The placements. work th hoi sbtne bs i te form the in abuse substance chronic dise rts r mpt ve m igher igher risk eomn Employmen velopment vel diseases (Closing the Gap, 2010; Rowley Rowley 2010; Gap, the (Closing diseases issues and new directions directions new and issues ange of socio economic indicators. The The indicators. economic socio of ange t disadvantage manifests as lower lower as manifests disadvantage t and and indices being poverty (Altman, 2007); 2007); (Altman, poverty being indices lfare lfare lo

s to increase the employment rate of of rate employment the increase to s at at k to sk ygienic housing (Remote Housing NT, NT, Housing (Remote housing ygienic lowe er, pti ro rs e a le, Gr oymen opment opment o h wide the to to for many decades experienced poor poor experienced decades many for t we d ical and Further Education (TAFE) (TAFE) Education Further and ical comprises about 2.7% of the nation’s nation’s the of 2.7% about comprises i n t in i sbtne bs i te form the in abuse substance nic o increase the employment rate of of rate employment the increase o on, volatile substance sniffing and and sniffing substance volatile on, on, volatile substance sniffing and and sniffing substance volatile on, r unemployment rates acknowledged acknowledged rates unemployment r ases ray and Levitus, 2005; Hunter, 2003) 2003) Hunter, 2005; Levitus, and ray the as such incentives financial isadvantage manifests as lower lower as manifests isadvantage 2010; Biddle, Taylor and Yap, 2009). 2009). Yap, and Taylor Biddle, 2010;

to work reforms as well as social social as well as reforms work to ay was the trained graduates could could graduates trained the was une to obesity, diabetics, liver and and liver diabetics, obesity, to a lack of sustainable employment employment sustainable of lack a fin t r life expectancy as well as greater greater greater as as well well as expectancy life r ic ny ny o work reforms as well as social social as well as reforms work o h w the

lac and Levitus, 2005; Hunter, 2003) 2003) Hunter, 2005; Levitus, and the Indigenous marginalised marginalised Indigenous the ancial incentives such as the the as such incentives ancial he mployment rates acknowledged acknowledged rates mployment t prospects. Despite Australian Australian Despite prospects. t housing (Remote Housing NT, NT, Housing (Remote housing obesity, diabetics, liver and and liver diabetics, obesity, (Closing the Gap, 2010; Rowley Rowley 2010; Gap, the (Closing bei se k of sustainable employment employment sustainable of k Figure 1: Figure Employment Projects (CDEP) (CDEP) Projects Employment Indigenous marginalised marginalised Indigenous training facilities and the the and facilities training s about 2.7% of the nation’s nation’s the of 2.7% about s ng poverty (Altman, 2007); 2007); (Altman, poverty ng ider population Australian Australian population ider r population Australian Australian population tion tion The The Go The t exploi exp Projects (CDEP) (CDEP) Projects Go ies

loite ve ve Penin ve te Peninsu and the the and by d d by the the by d Local Challenges the the sula and Indigenous Outland Centres Centres Outland andIndigenous sula

of of la and Indigenous Outland Centres Outland la andIndigenous spiri Aust ances earlie jobs 2008 English and Mavec belief advance mode Figure 1. Figure nomin no sites communiti as people anticip antic pap p This varie a and loc build In trained spiri 1979 govern 2008 English and In Mavec belief advance mode is sus regi In In (Katijin, family Aust ances earlie jobs ieos co digenous Aust digenous digenous digenous the ta ons the le ons the ts; ts; ra ra ipated future destiny of the regional Indigenous Indigenous regional the of destiny future ipated ). ), ). r in inable e inable r rem rem as as rn rn violen t t in l in in a lians at , , r a lan ral ians ment aper describes the accomplishments and the the and accomplishments the describes aper ri ih cultu rich able variety of marketable needed consumer goods. goods. consumer needed marketable of variety an and the and role oe f educ of role

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world world which describes the the describes which ch Nume Numerous barriers barriers Numerous ed future destiny of the regional Indigenous Indigenous regional the of destiny future ed minated in the following pages is shown as as shown is pages following the in minated men men w 201 00 Ti 2010; as they build their lives and rebuild their their rebuild and lives their build they as al infrastructure creating creating infrastructure al 2011; 2011; 201 t h dign the l lite th hy hold they

ote t Australi ote er digenous digendigenous it d he lan orld es. The location of this this of location The es. e reove ey describes the accomplishments and the the and accomplishments the describes cultu the ty Aust peo people, and people, r r e at of 0; a 1; programmes requirin programmes acy acy they t obl t obliges d t obliges ds ds dign co mpl mpl e and ce ce vels are burdensome. are burdensome. vels re re ed in the following pages is shown as as shown is pages following the in ed Aus r of marketable needed consumer goods. goods. consumer needed marketable of hold whe whe ous ous men and women, who were able to to able were who women, and men ous he loc he educ rel rel Ti ple, mmunity, mmunity, McGui mmuni Mc r r ralians r (Al (Al r, i i al al alians oymen oymen iges plady plady mmersed in the Dreaming (Stanner, (Stanner, Dreaming the in mmersed mmersed in the Dreaming (Stanner, (Stanner, Dreaming the in mmersed it it n bu and at at trali and functional numeracy (Hughes, (Hughes, numeracy functional and and functional numeracy (Hughes, (Hughes, numeracy functional and y y build their lives and rebuild their their rebuild and lives their build Guirk, Guirk, re re tman, 2002; Muir, 2011). Indigenous Indigenous 2011). Muir, 2002; tman, tman, 2002; Muir, 2011). Indigenous Indigenous 2011). Muir, 2002; tman, few few cture cture heritage and choose to live on their their on live to choose and heritage heritage and choose to live on their their on live to choose and heritage ionships between land, animals, and and animals, land, between ionships ionships between land, animals, and and animals, land, between ionships men and women, who were able to to able were who women, and men ri and a a ba a a of work (Johns, 2011; Jordan and and Jordan 2011; (Johns, work of of work (Johns, 2011; Jordan and and Jordan 2011; (Johns, work of the intensification of technological technological of intensification the the intensification of technological technological of intensification the bes ation of this remote region and the the and region remote this of ation an an ti d rk, y a ty, on on and relevant training for the the for training relevant and on

r pre pre bu ive ive ar are ri t have been identified. Foremost identified. been have t h h n Barcla and n Barcla and

pa pa ers creating a range of work sites sites work of range a creating ave responded favourably to to favourably responded ave ave responded favourably to to favourably responded ave e at a higher risk than the non non the than risk higher a at e ce ce rg rgeoning incarceration rates rates incarceration rgeoning 01 Ro 2011; 2 rs rs ference for vestiges of their their of vestiges for ference t ference for vestiges of their their of vestiges for ference a at a higher risk than the non non the than risk higher a at h a 1; Ro 011; r nd relevant training for the the for training relevant nd eoning incarceration rates rates incarceration eoning ity in specialised skills and a a and skills specialised in ity ity in specialised skills and a a and skills specialised in ity ntres, have low levels of of levels low have ntres, ti ntres, have low levels of of levels low have ntres, regional from those ticularly e nd nd in remote Aboriginal Aboriginal remote in nd cul to Australian Indigenous Indigenous Australian to t o travels travels arly those from regional regional from those arly in remote Aboriginal Aboriginal remote in Australian Indigenous Indigenous Australian g g re ra a

th th mote region and the the and region mote y, wl of the ancestral ancestral the of

em em y et ey nge of work sites sites work of nge 2 of 007). Yet often often Yet 007). to to the ancestral ancestral the commute to to commute

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Indigenous Australians Overcoming Vulnerability to Employability by Creating a Viable Labour Market for Local Challenges people leading to protocols for behaviour (Altman, 2003; the late 1960s under a colonial land licensing agreement Voit and Drury, 1997). These strong connections foster that dispossessed and marginalised local Indigenous customary responsibilities to ensure social and inhabitants giving the mining operator almost economic viability for land and sea management when uninhibited access to the land (Crawley and Sinclair, undertaking primary forms of economic development 2003). But the 1993 Native Title legislation recognises and employment. Indigenous people have access to native title Although Indigenous Australians face many compelling international mining corporations to become obstacles to securing mainstream jobs the greatest major investors in the world of Australian Aboriginals vulnerability for employment is when the people reside (Brereton and Parmenter, 2008; Harvey and Brereton, in locations where there are insufficient work 2005). While the LUAs have a financial component a opportunities. On the remote Gove Peninsula of the NT common emerging feature is provision for training and where there are few long term jobs, particularly with the employment (Barker, 2006; Hogan and Tedesco, 2003). recent mothballing of the Rio Tinto refinery the Yolngu Within seven months of ratification of the LUA Clans have increased the probability of employment the first VET programme for local Yolngu people had 2014 through working partnerships to establish organisations commenced. A section of the agreement is devoted to a

for facilitating Yolngu culture and customary ways of goal of increasing Aboriginal participation in work Year

caring for land and sea estates. This paper focusses on readiness training and career advancements.

the job creation scheme that was installed in 2012 for Specifically, the LUA stipulates the mining operator (Rio 3 the mostly unemployed illiterate and innumerate Tinto) will in consultation with the TLOs develop a Indigenous men and women in the lower levels of the regional employment and training strategy. By the 7th of paternalistic clan structure. November 2011 the TLO leaders had agreed to the membership of a Working Group, that had b) Enabling Indigenous job creation representatives of 1) the mining operator, 2) the Gumatj The Yolngu people have been progressively Clan, and 3) the Rirratjingu Clan. The Working Group exposed to contemporary technology since the arrival of met on the 1st December 2011 and identified: the missionaries. In 1935 the Methodist Church mission was established at Yirrkala, and the Yolngu clans began  The types of ‘green’ jobs to be created, to congregate there for Christian religious instruction  The VET curriculum for these jobs, and material sustenance requiring these Indigenous  The training institutions for delivery of the VET people, whose forebears had been the first Australians course, 50,000 years earlier, to learn Western knowledge and  The work projects that would incorporate the use rudimentary technical equipment and work learned skills, and ) H

( practices to undertake agriculture pursuits (McKenzie,  The commencement date of the VET programme, Volume XIV Issue II Version I 1976; Shepherdson, 1981). Later, in 1943 when a which was the 30th January 2012. military aerodrome was built at the now Gove airport rich The Nhulunbuy Indigenous VET programme has bauxite ore was used as gravel was unavailable, and several attributes. A salient feature is the scheme name some Yolngu men were involved in the war effort – Ralpa, which translated from the mother tongue (Department of Defence, 1978; Thomson, 2006). After means to get things done quickly. The Ralpa brand is - the war, during the 1960s, the mining town of Nhulunbuy now widely acknowledged in the local region. The (15 km from Yirrkala) was built as was the refinery and participants also shaped the curriculum. Most of the the minesite. Some Yolngu women and men worked for trainees were wedded to the government income a short time using the contemporary technologies support system of welfare as they were unemployed, a during these building operations (Cousins and few had in the past been intermittently participants of the Nieuwenhuysen, 1984). From the mid 1970s until 2011 CDEP scheme that provides short term part time work only a handful of Indigenous Yolngu had acquired (Altman and Gray, 2005; Hunter, 2003), but a majority of educational and vocational competencies enabling the candidates were English illiterate, and indeed, them to be employed in sustainable jobs in the mining almost all of the women preferred to speak in their operations at Nhulunbuy (Pearson and Daff, 2011; mother tongue. When a sample of 49 applicants were Global Journal of Human Social Science 2013b). But today the Yolngu people are being tested with a national reading measure (Shearer, challenged to find a fine balance between tradition and Cheshire and Apps, 1975, The Burt Reading Test, 1974) modernity. it was found their English reading age was 7.8 years. A sea change in improving the job prospects of One disturbing finding of the mandatory medical Yolngu men and women occurred in 2011. On the 8th examination was the high incidence of recreational drug of June 2011 the Prime Minister of Australia, Julia (cannabis) use. The programme was sensitive to Gillard, ratified the historic Land Use Agreement (LUA) Indigenous aspirations of hunter gatherer pursuits, and with the Yolngu Traditional Land Owners (TLOs) at strong spiritual and religious connections with ancestral Yirrkala. The first mining lease had been undertaken in lands so a work week was capped at four days allowing

time nominat medical examination, while a few had indifferent indifferent of commencement the had to prior period two recruitment few the day and process a interview the during while dispositions examination, mandatory the medical failed others programme, VET the join to enthusiasm lost Some comment. attract also losses The traditional work. meaningful into transitioned women a Yolngu and men many term for short the in preference lifestyle gatherer a hunter and change, mindset considerable a requiring experience work previous no or minimal culture, oral an from transitioning mining communities of Indigenous in literacy English low members, family from accessibility humbugging kinship of practice common (welfare), the royalties, support income of availability ready the Despite were set. targets number to recruitment intended the candidates. 133 to twoyears first the pool during never extended career had working a who undertake people Indigenous by VET leakages some of expectation the The programmes. Goyurr widespread between is consultation there and and into Normally, graduating negotiation trainees empathy jobs. 15 the of sustainable extensive 12 in reflected is the community programme inaugural the in involved be to considerable commitment but Ralpa by first programme, the their for compressed developed was named that engagement, is women recruitment A pool journey. The a the meaning 2012. to Goyurr programme extension an during saw workers scheme skilled for a need operate a to women and Gunyangara, at shop Yolngu coffee a and store community the by enthusiasm but the of set, initially was programme each in capacity participants year 15 with a programmes the two of nominal A and resources. aggregate delivery vacancies the job by forecasted determined the Ralpa of was to number programmes The connected context. is enterprise Indigenous engagement community how in competencies these practice to opportunity the coupled with tools, hand of acquisition skill and readiness, work safety, job on focussing session morning the with weeks eight of programme VET a In activities. traditional ©2 Indi 0 1 4 Global Journals Inc. (US) for these distinctive Aboriginal purposes and and purposes Aboriginal distinctive these for gen ion of the potential participants of the Ralpa or Ralpa the of participants potential the of ion Table 1 shows reasonably optimistic job job optimistic reasonably shows 1 Table Explai ous AustraliansOvercoming Vulnerability Employabilityto by Creating Viable a Labour Market for ning the values shown in Table 1 reveals reveals 1 Table in shown values the ning Ralpa Ralpa Table a May2012 2a # # Fe Sept2013 Fe Sept2012 6 May2012 5 4 Fe 3 2 1

1 : 1 R commenced commenced alpa and Goyurr programmes vocational achievements achievements vocational programmes Goyurr and alpa Totals Totals Date Date b 2014 b 2013 b 2012

Local Challenges Recruitment Recruitment pool pool 133 19 19 17 15 11 21 29 21 c) including graduates of the Ralpa and Goyurr Goyurr and Ralpa the Yolngu, of Indigenous graduates of other including employment and productive for projects the in accomplished abattoir been These have infrastructures an cattle. community and the workers, slaughtering for yards, holding accommodation fenced and size herd greater a require would goal this achieve To Garrathiya.”. at station cattle Elder the of idea the Thus, meat. fresh with AM was way one and a eat in to Yunipungu need people announced my was vision who “My interview: recent Clan, Galarrwuy Gumatj the of of statesman ambition an by driven were events These 2008). (Territory, Mill Lucas show terradonta) treesandmillthelogsonpropertywith a to (eucalyptus bark stringy Garrathiya NT fell to to how men Indigenous Mofflin John sent house Foundation Jack for The actor). the Australian iconic (the Foundation from other Thompson boards assistance and attracted tanks floor timbers water structural for tops, platforms timber and for bridge verandahs, need for A Nhulunbuy. planks of east km 100 south some cattle, south, Braham 350 with cycads) the of (land Garrathiya at land ancestral their on station cattle a established social Clan Gumatj the Initially, entrepreneurship. Indigenous building began Corporation Gumatj community of women. the particularly other graduates, for deal places work provide to great built been has a infrastructure programmes Ralpa the while reasons family During ceremony. personal graduation the before withdrew others for left for lady unfit One presenting work. continually for dismissed two were and six sentences, in custodial serve were to removed were programme men VET Indigenous Two the voluntary. and involuntary – categories during left work who mainstream Indigenous with Yolngu 19 The 25). 2010: and Mavec, (Jordan some practices” incompatible “… among are as work excused Australians to were attitudes they so cultural programme VET the obtained. A total of 80% (78 of 97) of the trainees trainees the of 1. inTable isshown information 97) of (78 This jobs. mainline in employed 80% became and graduated of total A obtained. were achievements remarkable trainers Indigenous non and Indigenous by supervised projects on afternoon the

Building soci Building

In In by Elders by Elders Selected Selected the first decade of the 21st century the the century 21st the of decade first the 97 15 15 15 16 16 12 16 8 8

a l structures, jobs and community community and jobs structures, l Graduated Graduated employed employed 12 12 11 11 10 14 12 78 78 8 8 Indigenous Australians Overcoming Vulnerability to Employability by Creating a Viable Labour Market for Local Challenges programmes, through their involvement in training and constructing a small abattoir at Garrathiya under ability to employ contemporary technology. periodic guidance and instruction from visiting officers of the NT Department of Resources. By the close of 2012 The accumulation of Gumatj Corporation assets selected trees were being felled on the new gazetted accelerated after 2008. This intensification began with mining lease and the logs were transported to the the Gumatj Corporation forming partnerships with industrial site for slabbing to make garden furniture for Foresty Tasmania, the University of Tasmania, sale to the Nhulunbuy non Indigenous population or the Department of Architecture, and the Fairbrother Group timber was milled for further construction projects. which is the largest construction company in Tasmania. Foresty Tasmania provided supervisory capacity for a A growing Indigenous trained labour force small team of Yolngu men who felled selected NT enabled greater intensification of job creation in 2013. stringy bark trees and milled the logs to structural Three projects were undertaken at Gunyangara within building timber (Pearson and Helms, 2010a). The group 200 metres (m) of the new school buildings. First, there worked in the savannah forest mid way between was a community store and store room complex (30m x 20m); second a coffee shop (15m x 15m); and third, an Dhanaya and Garrathiya. Two building supervisors from 2014 the Fairbrother Group gave instruction to a group of arts show room (20m x 10m) adjoining the side of the

Yolngu men, who built a five room accommodation furniture shop. All of these (mostly timber) buildings Year

were in the precincts of the Gunyangara horticulture bunkhouse with 20 tonnes of the milled timber at the

Garrathiya cattle station. This building was centre, that was operated by the local Indigenous 5 architecturally designed by the University of Tasmania, women. While timber items of household furniture (e.g., and was the first of this category in the NT (Arafura small tables, boxes, cupboards) were made in the Times, 2009). During 2010 most of these men, with the furniture shop by Indigenous men and women same supervisors, built a large house on the shores of graduates of the Ralpa and Goyurr programmes a Port Bradshaw at Dhanya (Pearson and Helms, 2010b), notable project was the manufacture of a number of and in this same year timber was transported to different sized beds. In conjunction with Health Gunyangara for air drying and when seasoned in the Department representatives, who gave instruction to the following year a small group of Yolngu men were Indigenous women in the use of cleaning and sanitising supervised by a cabinet maker from Melbourne to make products, the beds enabled new mattresses to be five boardroom tables (Pearson and Helms, 2011). placed above the floor to eliminate an endemic outbreak Throughout 2010 and 2011 a number of timber based of scabies. Throughout 2013 extensive refurbishment of projects were undertaken (e.g., verandahs to houses, assets for the Garma Festival was undertaken at fencing of Indigenous houses, commencement of the Gulkula. A new covered presentation complex (50m x ) H

50m), two new toilets and ablution blocks (30m x 10m), building of a school) by Yolngu men. However, a ( relentless demand for Aboriginal community assets on a new coffee shop (10m x 10m), a covered dining area Volume XIV Issue II Version I the Gove Peninsula, that the Australian governments (50m x 40m), and a large elevated dais for the oval were had not been able to provide, underscored a need for a completed., before the September ceremony. The main larger Indigenous skilled workforce, which moulded the component of the structural elements of these facilities content of the 2011 LUA. was NT stringy bark logs and milled timber prepared at

Installation of the Ralpa and Goyurr the Dhupuma industrial site. - programmes facilitated an outburst in local Indigenous In the timeframe from mid 2012 to mid 2014 labour force participation. Beginning as working there were a number of non timber based job members of these VET schemes and after graduation placements. The Indigenous women of the Goyurr secured an increasing Indigenous labour supply to programme had their course tailored for them to receive enable the undertaking of productive work. Early in 2012 training in horticulture, retailing, culinary and baristaing the Gunyangara community school was completed by as well as attention to health and cleanliness in food the men (some painting was done by local women) prior preparation particularly in butchering and filleting fish. to the commencement of the Goyurr programme Some six women were employed by the Marngarr enabling those women participants with children to put Resource centre to operate the Gunyangara horticulture them in care before departing on the 7.30 am bus for nursery, that supplied plants and shrubs to the general Global Journal of Human Social Science the Nhulunbuy training centres. At Gulkula a one hectare public, to the mining company for revegetating mined industrial site, with bitumen and concrete hardstand areas, and to the Nhulunbuy Corporation Limited for from the defunct European Launcher Development town parks and gardens. Four Indigenous women Operations in the late 1960s (Pretty, nd), was secured worked in the community store and a further three when the Yolngu men erected security fencing with two, women managed the coffee shop and operated the four metre wide gates in each corner. On this site a equipment when serving customers, many who are non large shed was erected for stabling two Lucas Mills and Indigenous. Recent notable additions to the Nhulunbuy two Mahoe saws, the latter for fine milling of timber for Indigenous female workforce are two graduates who furniture construction. In April 2012 Yolngu men began now work daily shifts in the district hospital (Pearson,

2014). When the boned out carcasses are delivered periods. Within their hybrid economy there is from Garrathiya four women work in the cutting room of widespread involvement with traditional hunter gatherer the Gunyangara crocodile farm where under supervision pursuits (Altman, 2002), that are further barriers to of a qualified non Indigenous butcher meat cuts are conventional patterns of working normally undertaken by prepared as well as sausages and mince products are employees in cosmopolitan centres, Further evidence of made. Quantities of mince are delivered to the atypical employment of Aboriginals in regional Australia Nhulunbuy bakery for filling of pies shells, and when is the low employment rates in mining workforces baked the pies are sold in the community store together (Brereton and Parmenter, 2008; Jordan and Mavec, with the meat products. Gunyangara is an Indigenous 2010; Pearson and Daff, 2013a; b; Tiplady and Barelay, community of some 45 houses, to be expanded in 2014, 2007). In spite of mining companies operating in remote with a transient population at times reaching 600 people regions of Australia where the Indigenous population is providing these and future trained women with secure high their vocational representation is unfavourable. employment prospects. The Yolngu clans have chosen to embed their

2014 A number of the men who completed the Ralpa new found work regimes mainly in ‘green’ jobs. Blanch programme are now employed in sustainable jobs within (2008) writes the tropical zone of northern Australia has

Year the precincts of Nhulunbuy. For example, seven men been conserved and sustainably managed by a culture

from the inaugural Ralpa programme have been of over 50,000 years, and today many of the Indigenous 6 continuously employed at the Dhupuma industrial site communities retain strong connections to the country. milling NT stringy bark logs, that have been cut from the The unique kin based lifestyle of the people (Altman, nearby new mining lease by another independent group 2003; Foley, 2006), who live on their ancestral lands for of Indigenous men (Arafura Times, 2014a). Five men which they have strong religious attachment, is wedded and their supervisor comprise the team responsible for to the Dreamtime (Muir, 2011; Suter, 2003) to link maintaining the grounds of the town flats and at various responsibilities for land management. The importance times the yards of the 800 houses owned by the for the land was highlighted in a statement attributed to resident mining company. Six men are employed by the prominent Elder Yolngu Galarrwuy Yunupingu AM. Deltareef, a national building corporation, that is For Aboriginal people there is literally no life contracted to maintain these town premises, and four without the land. The land is where our ancestors came others are in a team with Deltareef supervisors from in the Dreamtime, and it is where we shall return. upgrading houses at Gunyangara and Yirrkala (Arafura The land binds our fathers, ourselves and our children Times, 2014b). Three Indigenous men obtained jobs in a together. If we lose our land, we have literally lost our

) private firm that undertakes horticultural activities for the

lives and spirits, and no amount of social welfare or H

( schools, government facilities and some private home compensation can ever make it up to us. (Resource Volume XIV Issue II Version I owners in Nhulunbuy. A further eight men, after Indigenous Perspectives, 2007: 1). graduating returned to their employer (e.g., Bunuwal Independently, David Collard, a leading Industrial, Dhimurru Land Management Aboriginal Indigenous spokesperson for the Noongar people of the Corporation) with improved work skills. Four Indigenous south west of Western Australia claimed Aboriginal men found employment with Sodexo the international people would rather choose to have green friendly jobs - catering and security corporation that services Gove that heal the land rather than mining jobs that tear up House and Arnhem Village for the single person the landscape (Macdonald, 2012). In support of this accommodation of mining personnel. Notably, these notion the Wiradjuri people of central New South Wales new jobs were occurring in a period when Australian job put substantial emphasis on traditional ecological growth has slumped alarmingly (The West Australian, knowledge. These announcements give broad concepts 2014). for meaning and substance why the primary form of d) Reflections economic development for Indigenous people in The Yolngu people of east Arnhem Land are regional Australia is energised in vocational pursuits that engaged in a fundamentally different customary preserve their extensive ecosystems. economy to the mainstream Australian society. In this The Ralpa and Goyurr programmes resonate Global Journal of Human Social Science extremely remote region the Indigenous people reside in with respect and acknowledgement of community communities with non viable labour markets, and, aspirations. Considerable knowledge (Miller, 2005; consequently, few are in sustainable jobs. Even the Wallace et al, 2008; Young, Guenther and Boyle, 2007) Yolngu artists, who live in dispersed homelands within identifies effective training schemes for Indigenous 200 km of Nhulunbuy, and provide a cottage industry of people are reliant on nurturing partnerships ensuring the artwork, sculpturing, weaving and jewellery (Brody, VET delivery is culturally appropriate and develops work 2011) for the international market place, give preference based learning approaches. A key starting point is the for regular attendance at ceremonies, funerals, and central importance of Indigenous authority (Johns, 2011) rituals keeping them out of work activities for extended and this is achieved through the participation of Elders

©2014 Global Journals Inc. (US) and o and translate for other members or even complete their their complete even members or bilingual members other Indigenous for as translate places noisy the are of absence the sites work and in rooms class Goyurr and Ralpa The artist. interpret can ‘reader’ a which artworks, their in culture their ‘write’ they an and culture oral from are Australians Indigenous communities. their in workers productive are people a these of number Nevertheless, large innumerate. and illiterate were English programme also Ralpa the of men the of several and tongue, mother their in spoke women Indigenous the of most Indeed, programme. Goyurr or Ralpa a to barrier the heritage. by ancestral testing their and participants course the between ties with 3) behaviours genealogical replicate stages learning These and and instructor. work Initiates the 4) Explains, candidates imitates the 2) then and Demonstrates, Describes; 1) instructor and the when procedure Ralpa stage four the a in in programme Goyurr anchored is vocal pedagogy holistic (imitation). by This practice mainly and (observation), acquired visual are (stories), day skills to where day in activities actions place takes These learning Indigenous 1995). reveal past Dunlop, from (e.g., legacy a anthropologists are that records electronic visual the less examining toby or people, skills Indigenous knowledgeable the teach and apply artists Centre skilled Art where Mulka Larrngay Buka Yirrkala the attending systematically be by invitations, on outstations remote visiting by acquired can techniques the of learning Knowledge and of traditional knowledge. controllers Indigenous members the of are ‘clever’ repositories who the community by Indigenous used processes comparing the replicating of then and observing exploring, through is ways the respectful Foremost learning. of Answering methods Indigenous and toWestern programmes. leads VET the challenge the for of challenges enormous deliverers present and complex TAFE) (e.g., work centres of of teaching community. the of life ofthe part become supervisors presenters the be be Hence, can projects. can and they items, curriculum activities, the course of observation the VET in involved actively are the Elders, importantly also and members, community as well as family Indigenous programme the Throughout week. next the in (e.g., start to course the data for candidates the select presented the and attendance), analyse candidate report, examination medical relevant who setting, Elders, formal the a with meet programme, in the of time, deliverers and managers this of close At centres. the delivery the the at a period enter assessment to day then two who leading candidates, processes potential of Shared community nomination in candidates. realised is of partnership and relationships learning selection the of ownership and recruitment Indi gen ther community members, including family, in the the in family, including members, community ther Literacy and numeracy is not an entrance entrance an not is numeracy and Literacy extremely are learning of forms Indigenous ous AustraliansOvercoming Vulnerability Employabilityto by Creating Viable a Labour Market for Local Challenges Australian Indigenous people on the Gove Peninsula, Peninsula, Gove the on by people the experienced Indigenous overcome Australian disadvantages to enduring time and ‘buy’ does chronic it infancy of stage a in are schemes Goyurr and experience. Ralpa pilot work the with Although and skills personnel industrial of for acquisition compatibility the including potential market increase to departments extensive government Australian more and Goyurr corporations national with negotiations initiated has a and Recognising Corporation Gumatj the advantageous be will catchment Ralpa group. the consumer sized static relatively this by servicing be will programmes delivered workforce Indigenous growing the time over and Indigenous, non being half one people, 8,000 some of market glass potential a half a also has Peninsula Gove The consideration. for is matter empty there but perspective, optimistic and pathways vocational and growth. strategic regional for community of confidence development individual the advanced has approach this Overall, opportunities. vocational further creating for method innovative an is projects community building for jobs identifying Partnerships disadvantage. locational and experience work minimal the literacy, English overcome have the of levels low of employment programmes to Indigenous barriers major time Goyurr short and relatively Ralpa a In interests. development community and continuities cultural aligning sensitively of theme strategies of employment is scheme central VET Indigenous the A scheme. the join to opportunity an for voicing now centres distant more from Yolngu, other also are there and absence, voluntary or involuntary of period a after work to returning now ‘outsiders’ envious of examples are there employment, continuous of path a chosen have who members, of core the vocational to addition In communities. of Indigenous local the development in mindsets aligned the influenced ordinarily the ensure to lines be always blood will kinship there expert. only the is not deliverer trainer/course and a of in capital resides networks clan social the of aware are culture Elder The them. of 2. 1. are judgements Elder aligned; pragmatically The selection competencies. and the numeracy literacy for concern scant during give Elders the process accreditation national acquire the throughout necessary and expertise develop to programmes Goyurr and Ralpa are while numeracy And and advance. literacy can team the so documentation intergenerational unemployment. unemployment. intergenerational of context a in work to capacity their developing are who

On graduation will the person be able to do the the do to able be job. offered person the will graduation On and the course, doto able be applicant the Will

The Ralpa and Goyurr programmes have extra extra have programmes Goyurr and Ralpa The To this point the paper has presented an an presented has paper the point this To aware are candidates and apply can Sanctions II.

4 Global Journals Inc. (US) - Global Journal of Human Social Science ( H ) Volume XIV Issue II Version I 7 Year 2014 - Global Journal of Human Social Science ( H ) Volume XIV Issue II Version I 8 Year 2014 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 13. 12. 11. 10.

1 4 Global Journals Inc. (US) South Wales, Sydney, pp. 35-44. 35-44. pp. Sydney, Wales, South New University Centre, Research Policy Social 2010, and T. Refereed conference policy social national the Visions, of Eardley, proceedings Competing in (Eds), B. policy”, Bradbury, social Australian in of universalism the limits Beyond century: 21st in the hunter-gatherers “Indigenous (2002), J.C. Altman, Drawing Board: An Australian Review of Public Public The of Review Case”, Australian 65-82. pp. 2, No. Vol. 4 Affairs, Land An Board: Arnhem Drawing The Communities: Healthy Economic Country Indigenous Sustainable and on Landscapes “People (2003), J.C. Altman, from http://caepr.anu.edu.au/sites/default/files/ http://caepr.anu.edu.au/sites/default/files/ Publications/topical/Altman_Future.pdf Indigenous from of 2013 2, September Retrieved future dependency. welfare or The market free the beyond path a there 2006. Is Australia: J.C. Altman, Indigenous Australia: The role of the hybrid hybrid the of 1-9. role pp. 72, No. The Vol.10 Bulletin, Development economy”, Australia: remote Indigenous in poverty “Alleviating (2007), J.C. Altman, Aboriginal Economic Policy Research, The The Research, Policy Canberra. University, National Australian Economic Gap: the Aboriginal Closing for Centre Australia. Indigenous Beyond in Diversity Valuing (2009). J.C. Altman, 40 No, 33, pp. 399-410. 399-410. pp. 33, No,40 Vol. Issues, Social of Journal Australian Australia”, remote in scheme CDEP the of impacts social and economic “The (2005), M.H. Gray, and J.C. Altman, Research, The Australian National University, University, National Australian Canberra. Policy The Economic Aboriginal Research, for Centre Development Australia, Community Remote the and Rural in Scheme Projects Employment for (2005), R. Issues Levitus, and Policy M.C. Gray, J.C., Altman, Arafura Times. (14 August, 2009), “Bunk house at at 1. pp. cattle station”, house “Bunk 2009), August, (14 Times. Arafura Revisiting Indigenous employment through an an through markets: employment labour Indigenous to Proximity Revisiting (2010). N. Biddle, of Journal Australian 263-280. pp. 3, No. Vol.12 Economics, Labour Employment”, of Indigenous Forecasts and Trends of Regional the Closing? Mining “Are Gaps (2009), M. Yap, University and J. in Taylor, N., Biddle, Institute, Responsibility Australia. Queensland, Minerals Social Sustainable for Centre for Industry, Minerals Australian the Experiences in Outcomes Challenges of and Exploration Employment An People: (2006), Aboriginal T. Barker, pp.7. Times: Arafura style. Yirrkala – builder the Bob 2014b). April, (23-29 Times. Arafura Arafura life. pp.7. Times: to comes Sawmill conquer: they saw, they came They 2014a). April, (2-6 Times. Arafura R gen eference ous AustraliansOvercoming Vulnerability Employabilityto by Creating Viable a Labour Market for s R éférenc es R eferencia Local Challenges s

27. 26. 25. 24. 23. 22. 21. 20. 19. 18. 17. 16. 15. 14.

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What’s wrong with the Australian government’s government’s 61. 41 – 14(1): Human Rights, of Journal Australian Australian communities. Aboriginal the in ‘intervention’ with wrong What’s matters: autonomy Indigenous (2008). S. Maddison, pp.3. WestAustralian, The misguided”, Aboriginals for push “Job 2012), December, Gove’s (4 K. Macdonald, Why Territory 2013). Northern 11. Review: Business end. an December, to came time (12 refinery’s A. Kelly, overviews/mortality Australian of http://www.healthinfonet.ecu.au/health-facts/ overview 2012. “An March 28 Accessed 2011”. status health Indigenous (2011), K. Katijin, The Research, Policy Canberra. University, National The Australian Economic Employment: Aboriginal On, for Years Corporate Centre Two Indigenous (2010), Covenant Employment D. Australian in Mavec, and Inititatives K. Jordan, Victoria. Ballan, Connorcourt, Dream, Whiteman’s The Self-Determination: Aboriginal (2011), G. Johns, Economics, Labour 141-159. 15(2): of Journal Indigenous Australian (2012). growth. M. Gap Gray, economic strong of period a following supply and labour H. the B. Hunter, Closing Canberra. Government, Australian (2010), School Employment, Gain Indigenous or Training Undertake to Leavers for H. of Pathways Clearinghouse: B. Role Hunter, the Research, Policy Canberra. University, National The Australian Economic Revisiting Aboriginal for Centre Recession: Employment. Indigenous in Factors Macroeconomic a Labour in of Gap the Closing for Prospects (2009). B.H. Hunter, Journal 473-496. pp. No. 3, Vol. 6 Economics, Australian male employment”, Indigenous underlying factors changing and Schools”, scheme CDEP the of rise “The (2003), ‘Pretend B.H. Hunter, not 9. pp. Times, Canberra need teaching, Aborigines end: mainstream Must apartheid Territory’s “Northern education 2008), March, (3 H. Hughes, 522-528. No.4, pp. 10 Vol. Australiancommodities, “Indigenous (2003), L. sites”, mine Australian of survey A mining: in people Tedesco, and L. Hogan, Service, Man Printing Canberra. First Government Australia: Australian in Report. Poverty (1975). Poverty. into Inquiry of Commission (Chair). R.F. Henderson, 2005. August, 15 Australia, UN the Brisbane, in at communities engaging presented on Conference paper A Emerging Industry. (2005), Minerals D. Rates, Brereton, Australian the in Engagement Community of Models and Employment B. Harvey, Indigenous Canberra. and Welfare, Health of Institue Australian Increasing ry M., Gray, gen ous AustraliansOvercoming Vulnerability Employabilityto by Creating Viable a Labour Market for Hunter, B. and Lohoar, S. (2012), (2012), S. Lohoar, and B. Hunter, Local Challenges 55. 54. 53. 52. 51. 50. 49. 48. 47. 46. 45. 44. 43.

Pocock, B., Skinner, N., McMahon, C. and and C. for Adelaide. Research, Vocational Centre National Workers, McMahon, Paid Lower Amongst N., Participation Skinner, VET and Life Work (2011), S. Pritchard, Australia”, B., northern Pocock, in 1-11. pp. 2 No.1, venture Vol. Review, Business and Management Information Gumatj The manufacturing: furniture timber in entrepreneurship “Indigenous (2011), K. Helms, and C.A.L. Pearson, Australian Land of 2-18. pp. No.4, Vol. 13 Issues, Indigenous Journal Arnhem case”, Australian construction east housing remote The a community: Indigenous in entrepreneurship “Building (2010b), social K. Helms, and C.A.L. Pearson, pp.72-84. 1/2, No. Vol. 12 Issue, Special Review, Economic northern and of Business region Global remote Australia”, a in clan Yolngu the of study case A capacity: entrepreneurial Indigenous “Releasing (2010a), K. Helms, and C.A.L. Pearson, Labour, of in pp.42-63. No. 1, 39 Vol. Bulletin operation Australian mining Australia”, a Northern at participation “Indigenous workforce (2013b), S. Daff, and C.A.L. Pearson, traditional 189-208. 16(2): the Studies, of Cultural Journal of the International Australia. people of Territory Yolngu Northern Extending Indigenous advanced of of boundaries societies: forces market western with ideals cultural customary balancing while pursuits gatherer hunter Transcending (2013a). S. Daff, and C.A.L. Pearson, 125-145. pp. 2, No. Education,Vol.12 Cooperative Pacific of Journal Asia Community”, Remote a in Australians Indigenous to Learning Work-Integrated of Delivery “Collaborative (2011), S. Daff, and C.A.L. Pearson, 16:3-58. Review, Griffith centre. aradical for quest the and victimhood guilt, While (2007). N. Pearson, of Journal Australian pp.370-387. No. 3, 22 The Vol. Anthropology, land”, for feeling a and spiritualities alternative “Australian (2011), S. Muir, Adelaide. Research, Educational Vocational for Council National Systematic Research, Meet of Review A That Aspirations: Training Australian’s of Indigenous Aspects (2005), People, C. Volitile Miller, Indigenous of Ageing, Canberra. and Review Among Health HealtyhReviews, Indigenous (2011), Australian Use O. Substance Debuyst, N. Thomson, M., and Catto, S., Maclean, R., Land, Midford, Arnhem to Mission Adelaide. Rigby, (1976), M. McKenzie, wirestory?id=13882355 condemns http://abcnews.go.com/International/ 2012. March AG 26 Accessed News. “Australia’s ABC prisoners”, black in surge (2011), R. McGuirk,

- Global Journal of Human Social Science ( H ) Volume XIV Issue II Version I 9 Year 2014 Global Journal of Human Social- Science ( H ) Volume XIV Issue II Version I 10 Year 2014

1 4 Global Journals Inc. (US) Pre Aboriginal Resources and Development Services Services Darwin. Inc.: Development and of Resources Mining Aboriginal University in Die. and Down Lie Warriors Why (2000). R. Trudgen, Institute, Responsibility Australia. Queensland, Minerals Social Sustainable for Industry, Minerals Australian Centre the Indigenous in (2007), West M.A. Employment Barclay, The and low”, T. Tiplady, year – 17 “Jobs 10. pp. Australian, to 2014), Plunges January, (17 Growth Australian. West The Arnhem Victora. Carlton, Press, in TheMiegunyah Land, Thomson Donald (2006), D. Thomson, Glasgow. of University Education, Reading in Research Burt Centre, SCRE The Revised, (1974) The Test (1974), Test. Reading Burt The 41-43. pp. Quarterly, Territory homeland”, the on jobs “Creating (2008), Territory. 295-313. pp. 4, No. “Promoting 23 Vol. Labour, of Bulletin Australian the sector”, private (1997), of role The B.H. employment: Indigenous Hunter, in growth and Australian. J. Taylor, Indigenous 312. among 287- 13(3): Economics, Labour of Journal Australian status labour force of determinants No The (2010). B.J. Press, Stephens, Got University Man National Canberra. White Australian (1979), Dreaming, W.E.H. Two Stanner, land: one pp.84- 90. – 283, Vol. “Australia Review, Contemporary peoples”, (2003), K. Suter, Educational Australia. South Park, Torres Print, Pan Land, Arnhem in Tests”, Century a Half (1981), E. Shepherdson, Reading 67-73. pp. No. 1, 18 Vol. Research, Word “A (1975), Graded Schonell R. and Burt-Vernon Apps, the of and restandardization Cheshire E., Shearer, 136-144. pp. 2, No. 24 Vol. Health, Public of Journal Zealand New and Australian community”, Aboriginal Australian remote a in program lifestyle’ ‘healthy a community-directed of “Effectiveness (2000), K. O’Dea, M., and G.A. Skinner, White, K., Skinner, M., Daniel, K.G., Rowley, Aboriginal Government Canberra. 841456, No Cat Affairs R84/80 Commonwealth 1980s), The (2007), (1800s- Australia in Rights Land Aborignal of Histroy Perspectives. Indigenous Resource Housing), Indigenous Australia. Western University, Partnership Cowan Edith Remote InforNet, National Health (Now Indigenous Australian on the Programme Agreement Under Infrastrcutre Incorporated and Housing Indigenous Strategic (2013), Nhulunbuy NT. Housing Remote Reserve Closed Nhulunbuy. Library, Community Collection Special gen tty, B. (nd), Eldo and After. Typed Report held in in held Report Typed After. and Eldo (nd), B. tty, ous AustraliansOvercoming Vulnerability Employabilityto by Creating Viable a Labour Market for Local Challenges 75. 74. 73. 72.

Remote Indigenous People, National Council for for Council For Adelaide. Research, Educational Vocational National Pathways People, (2007), Indigenous Educational A. Remote Boyle, Desert: and the J. Growing Guenther, Indigenous M., amongst Young, alcohol Australian of 1-19. pp. HealthinfoNet: Australians, use harmful Indigenous The S. Saggers, and (2010), D. Gray, A., Stearne, M., Wilson, 75-91. pp. 2, No. 6, Vol. Research, Training of Journal International learning”, R. Agar, and in Partnerships strengths: our C. from “Working (2008), Curry, M., Manado, R., Wallace, South New Roseville, Australia. Wales, East Dreamtime, Schuster, Aboriginal and the Simon of Legend Living The Earth: the of Wisdom (1997), N. Drury, and A. Voit,