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PHEV-EV Charger Technology Assessment with an Emphasis on V2G Operation

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PHEV-EV Charger Technology Assessment with an Emphasis on V2G Operation ORNL/TM-2010/221 PHEV-EV Charger Technology Assessment with an Emphasis on V2G Operation March 2012 Prepared by Mithat C. Kisacikoglu Abdulkadir Bedir Burak Ozpineci Leon M. Tolbert DOCUMENT AVAILABILITY Reports produced after January 1, 1996, are generally available free via the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Information Bridge. Web site: http://www.osti.gov/bridge Reports produced before January 1, 1996, may be purchased by members of the public from the following source. National Technical Information Service 5285 Port Royal Road Springfield, VA 22161 Telephone: 703-605-6000 (1-800-553-6847) TDD: 703-487-4639 Fax: 703-605-6900 E-mail: [email protected] Web site: http://www.ntis.gov/support/ordernowabout.htm Reports are available to DOE employees, DOE contractors, Energy Technology Data Exchange (ETDE) representatives, and International Nuclear Information System (INIS) representatives from the following source. Office of Scientific and Technical Information P.O. Box 62 Oak Ridge, TN 37831 Telephone: 865-576-8401 Fax: 865-576-5728 E-mail: [email protected] Web site: http://www.osti.gov/contact.html This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an agency of the United States Government. Neither the United States Government nor any agency thereof, nor any of their employees, makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights. Reference herein to any specific commercial product, process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise, does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United States Government or any agency thereof. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein do not necessarily state or reflect those of the United States Government or any agency thereof. i Executive Summary More battery powered electric vehicles (EVs) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) will be introduced to the market in 2011 and beyond. Since these vehicles have large batteries that need to be charged from an external power source or directly from the grid, their batteries, charging circuits, charging stations/infrastructures, and grid interconnection issues are garnering more attention. This report summarizes information regarding the batteries used in PHEVs, different types of chargers, charging standards and circuits, and compares different topologies. Furthermore, it includes a list of vehicles that are going to be in the market soon with information on their charging and energy storage equipment. A summary of different standards governing charging circuits and charging stations concludes the report. There are several battery types that are available for PHEVs; however, the most popular ones have nickel metal hydride (NiMH) and lithium-ion (Li-ion) chemistries. The former one is being used in current hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), but the latter will be used in most of the PHEVs and EVs due to higher energy densities and higher efficiencies. The chargers can be classified based on the circuit topologies (dedicated or integrated), location of the charger (either on or off the vehicle), connection (conductive, inductive/wireless, and mechanical), electrical waveform (direct current (dc) or alternating current (ac)), and the direction of power flow (unidirectional or bidirectional). The first PHEVs typically will have dedicated, on-board, unidirectional chargers that will have conductive connections to the charging stations or wall outlets and will be charged using either dc or ac. In the near future, bidirectional chargers might also be used in these vehicles once the benefits of practical vehicle to grid applications are realized. The terms charger and charging station cause terminology confusion. To prevent misunderstandings, a more descriptive term of electric vehicle supply equipment (EVSE) is used instead of charging station. The charger is the power conversion equipment that connects the battery to the grid or another power source, while EVSE refers to external ii equipment between the grid or other power source and the vehicle. EVSE might include conductors, connectors, attachment plugs, microprocessors, energy measurement devices, transformers, etc. Presently, there are more than 40 companies that are producing EVSEs. There are several standards and codes regarding conductive and inductive chargers and EVSEs from the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), the Underwriter Laboratories (UL), the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), and the National Electric Code (NEC). The two main standards from SAE describe the requirements for conductive and inductive coupled chargers and the charging levels. For inductive coupled charging, three levels are specified: Level 1 (120 V and 12 A, single-phase), Level 2 (208 V-240 V and 32 A, single-phase), and Level 3 (208-600 V and 400 A, three-phase) . The standard for the conductive-coupled charger also has similar charging ratings for Levels 1 and 2, but it allows higher current ratings for Level 2 charging up to 80 A. Level 3 charging for this standard is still under development and considers dc charging instead of three-phase ac. More details in these areas and related references can be found in this Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) report on PHEV-EV charger technology assessment. iii Contents List of Tables vii List of Figures viii 1 Introduction1 2 Electric-Drive Vehicles and Battery Technologies4 2.1 Definitions of HEV, PHEV, and EV.......................4 2.2 Advantages of PHEVs and EVs.........................6 2.2.1 Energy Efficient Operation and Fuel Cost Savings...........6 2.2.2 Reliability of Fuel Supply and Reduced Maintenance.........6 2.2.3 Public Health Benefits..........................7 2.2.4 Energy Storage Services Provided by PHEVs..............8 2.3 Drawbacks of PHEV and EV Technology....................8 2.3.1 Initial Cost of the Components and Insufficient Component Supply Industry..................................8 2.3.2 Concerns Regarding PHEV Technology by Society and Industry...9 2.3.3 Effects of Electricity Blackouts on EV Charging............9 2.3.4 Required Updates in the Distribution System.............9 2.4 Battery Technologies for PHEVs and EVs................... 10 2.4.1 Lead-acid Battery............................. 11 2.4.2 NiMH Battery............................... 11 2.4.3 Li-ion Battery............................... 12 2.4.4 Comparison of Battery Technologies.................. 13 iv 3 Definition and Classification of EV/PHEV Chargers 14 3.1 Introduction and Definitions........................... 14 3.1.1 Battery and Charging Definitions.................... 14 3.1.2 Charging Profiles............................. 16 3.1.3 Charging Levels in the U.S........................ 16 3.1.4 Battery Charging Security and Charging Power Quality........ 18 3.1.5 Grid Connection Power Quality..................... 20 3.2 General Classification of EV/PHEV Chargers................. 22 3.2.1 Dedicated Chargers vs. Integrated Chargers.............. 22 3.2.2 On-board Chargers vs. Off-board Chargers............... 23 3.2.3 Inductive, Conductive, and Mechanical Chargers............ 24 3.2.4 AC vs. DC Chargers........................... 26 3.2.5 Unidirectional vs. Bidirectional Chargers................ 28 3.2.6 Conclusion................................. 28 4 PHEV Charger Power Electronics and Grid Integration 29 4.1 Topology Configurations for the PHEV Charger................ 29 4.1.1 Power Factor-Corrected Unidirectional Chargers............ 31 4.1.2 Two-quadrant Unidirectional Chargers................. 34 4.1.3 Four-quadrant Bidirectional Chargers.................. 34 4.1.4 DC-DC Converter Stage......................... 37 4.1.5 Integrated Charger Topologies...................... 40 4.2 PHEV Charger Applications in Smart Grid................... 44 4.2.1 PHEV Integration into the Smart Grid................. 44 4.2.2 Smart Grid Applications......................... 45 4.2.3 Chargers Role in PHEV - Grid Integration............... 46 5 Technical Commercial Market Survey of the Grid-Connected Vehicles 47 5.1 PHEV and EV Survey.............................. 47 5.1.1 BMW Mini E............................... 48 5.1.2 BMW Active E.............................. 50 5.1.3 BYD Auto F3DM............................ 51 5.1.4 Coda Sedan................................ 52 5.1.5 Fisker Karma............................... 53 v 5.1.6 Ford Focus Electric............................ 54 5.1.7 Ford Transit Connect EV........................ 55 5.1.8 GM Chevrolet Volt............................ 56 5.1.9 GM EV1.................................. 57 5.1.10 Mitsubishi MiEV............................. 59 5.1.11 Nissan Leaf................................ 60 5.1.12 Renault Fluence Z.E............................ 62 5.1.13 Renault Kangoo Z.E............................ 63 5.1.14 Smart Fortwo Electric Drive....................... 64 5.1.15 Tesla Roadster.............................. 65 5.1.16 Tesla Model S............................... 66 5.1.17 Think City................................ 67 5.1.18 Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid....................... 68 5.1.19 Toyota RAV4 EV............................. 69 5.2 Summary..................................... 71 6 PHEV/EV Charger Connection to the Grid: Components and Standards 73 6.1 Electrical Vehicle Supply Equipment...................... 73 6.2 General Considerations for
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