International Journal of Political Science ISSN: 2228-6217 Vol 8, No 4 , Winter 2018, (pp.37-54)

Historical Analysis of the Iraqi Shiites’ Status from the Era of Imam Ali (AS) until the fall of Saddam

Zeinab Sadat Mirmohammadi1, Samaneh Keshvardoost2*, Nayereh Mirzababaei3 1Department of International Relations, University of Shahid Beheshti, Tehran, Iran 2Faculty of Islamic Studies and Thought, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran 3Department of Public Policy and Iran Studies, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran

Received: 10 March 2018 ; Accepted: 22 Nov 2018

Abstract: Iraqi Shiites make up near 60 percent of the population live in the southern half of the country. However, they have been rarely in the circles of power throughout history and often under colonial domination of minorities that reached its peak during the rule of the Ba'ath Party. Thus, the Shiites were considered as an opposition through the history of , particularly after the World War I and the entry of Britain, although the intensity of the struggle varied according to different conditions. As noted, the Shiites who were in a weak position throughout the Iraq's history were able to gain significant influence on the structure of the Iraqi government and build a Shiite government due to changes in their country after 2003. The Shiites pursue their goals as Islamist parties and groups, and although they differ in many details of their goals, they are united in their general identity, Islam, and establishment of a Muslim community, and seek, in the light of reli- gious doctrines, giving meaning to future policies of their country. This research aims to investigate the Iraqi Shiites’ historical status from the era of Imam Ali (AS) until the fall of Saddam.

Keywords: Shiite, Iraq, Imam Ali (AS), Saddam, British, Ottoman

Introduction structure. Shiites form about 60 percent of Iraq is an Arab and Muslim country in the Iraq's population who are residing in the West Middle East. It consists of three ethnic southern part of the country. In the northern groups of Arabs, Turkmen and Kurds, where half of the country, the Sunnis and Kurds are the combination of Shia and Sunni sects has settled. The sacred places and holy shrines of given a complexity to its socio-political six Imams as well as the Najaf Seminary, *Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected]

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which is one of the two important Shiite Se- of British colonialism, although the intensity minaries in the world, have granted a special of their struggle differs according to different situation to this country. conditions. Indeed, many of the Iraqi people, espe- cially villagers, attended to Islam by the vic- The concept of Shia tory of Muslims in the seventh century. After The word Shia’s rooted from Moshayea, the death of the Prophet Muhammad, a mi- which it means to obey and follow. If the nority of the Muslim community rejected the word Shia’s used solely without any adverb, legitimacy of the Umayyad rulers and knew it is referred to the people who love Ahl al- Imam Ali (AS) and his children as the Bayt (AS) and believe in their Imamate. rightful successors. The group was called (Mozaffar, 2005: 5) “Shiite”. The new Muslims in Iraq also fa- Ibn Khaldun in the introduction of "al- vored Shia because the Islamic Nation was Ebr" (p. 138) writes: "Shia literally means not managed appropriately. Kufa in southern companions and followers. In the words of and Madain in central Iraq were the first base jurists and theologians - including descen- of Shia. (Joyce Ann, 1995: 22-23) dants and predecessors, this word refers to With all that said, even though the majori- the followers of Ali (AS) and his sons." De- ty of Iraq's population was composed of Shia, dicating this title to the lovers of Ahl al-Bayt they have been rarely in the circle of power is as long as the dawn of Islam. (Mozaffar, in the history of this country and they were 2005: 34) often isolated and marginalized. Shiites were Literally, Shia also means the claim to fol- often ruled by the minority and under coloni- low. As we say "Shia al-Rajol", it means that al domination and kept away from the main the person has a claim to being Shia. Howev- centers of decision making, particularly since er, the sect of Shia is also called "Tashayo". the rule of the Ba'ath Party. Iraqi Sunnis were )Dehkhoda, 2006: Shi'a( dominant on political structure of the country In , the word Shia is also being from long in the past and have always en- used for party. Hence, the Shiite of Ali is joyed a position of superiority for a variety of against the Shiite of Moavia. )Welhousen, reasons, including the support of the Ottoman 2007;139) Empire, their cohesion with a population of Shiite does not believe the caliphate of Sunni Arabs in the Middle East, as well as God for any who except Ali and his children. their most prominent role in the history of That is why the governments of that time did Iraq. Specifically, this dominance continued not provide the slightest opportunity to pro- since the formation of Independent National mote and release it and provided a stifling Government in 1932 to the formation of the environment for them as much as they could. Iraqi Transitional (Governing) Council in With the rise of Shi'ism and its strengthening, 2003. With all the above comments, the they feared that their organization become Shiites have been always considered as an shaky. (Mozaffar, 2005: 48) opposition group for the governments Shiite’s religious and political principles throughout the , and in particu- are based on the Quran and the Prophet Mu- lar since the First World War with the arrival hammad (PBUH). It is important because it

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International Journal of Political Science, Vol 8, No 4 , Winter 2018 proves that: Shia’s the natural born of Islam be seen during the peak of the Shiite Jihad. and its beliefs are rooted in the Quran and (Hosseinian, 2004: 35) Hadith texts. Secondly, it shows that the Imam Ali (AS) had followers in Iraq be- emergence of this religion, at least in terms fore reaching the caliphate and before select- of the ideology of prophecy era, returns to ing Kufa the capital city. After the incident of the historical events after the death of the Jamal in Iraq, it was regarded as the strongest Prophet Muhammad. Shiites know Imamate cause for the publication and dissemination and Velayat as the continuation of prophe- of loyalty and love of Imams in Iraq, and es- cy, believe that Imamate, like prophecy is pecially in Kufa as the capital of the cali- out of human determination, and should be phate. Thus, Mu'awiya and his agents, who made by divine revelation through the were from Al Marwan, attempted to eradicate Prophet Muhammad. Accordingly, infalli- Shiite from Iraq and Kufa, because Kufa was bility is also one of the essential features of a land where the seed of Shia was planted Imamate. and developing. (Mozaffar, 2005: 141) After the peace of Imam Hassan (AS) in Shia’s History from Imam Ali’s Caliphate 41 A.H until the uprising of Imam Hussein 16-year period that began with the Uthman's (AS) at the beginning of the year 61 BC, the caliphate and ended with the martyrdom of period of Shiite tribulation begins. This pe- Imam Ali (AS) shows a significant difference riod is the most suffering period of Shi'ism, from the previous caliphate of Abu Bakr and because the propaganda system shook the Umar in the expansion of Shia. This course is nascent tree of Shia. Shiite leaders were mar- in many ways a turning point in the evolution tyred brutally and Shiite leaders were iso- of Shia. Firstly, there was an atmosphere dur- lated. ing this period in which Shiite tendencies are The movement of Imam Hussein (AS) clearer, more pronounced and popular. Se- was the firmest and most robust resort of condly, events took place that gave active Shia in Iraq and Kufa. Although Kufa got and sometimes violent aspect to the Shiite Imam Hussein (AS) to be killed, it came to movement which was passive before. At the the aid of Imams after his martyrdom and end, the circumstances occurred that include killed the killers of Imam Hussein (AS). The some political, geographical and economic martyrdom of Imam Hussein (AS) is an emo- aspect of Shiite thinking for the first time. tional and intellectual focus that affected the (Jafari, 1981; 18) attitude of the Shiite toward the world. After the murder of Uthman, Imam Ali Throughout the centuries after this event, the (AS) came to caliphate and the Shiite rule Shiite group rituals on this occasion are held lasted nearly 6 years from 35 to 41 BC. In in three main holy cities of Najaf, Karbala this period, the Shiite boomed and could free- and Kadhimiya. The effectiveness of these ly promote its principles after 25 years. Imam collective rituals practices is to the extent that Ali (AS) in his first sermon after the alle- helped the consciousness of those Shiites giance, invited people to the school of Ahle who are not purely religious. al-Bayt and the Shiites also invited people to The era of Imam Sajjad (AS), Imam Baqir Jihad in companion with Imam Ali (AS). In (AS) and Imam Sadiq (AS), around 67 to 136 this era, the Shiites were successively fight- A.H, include the utmost authority and dicta- ing the corrupt of internal agents and it can torship until the collapse of the Umayyad and

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Historical Analysis of the Iraqi Shiites’ Status from the Era of …

finally the consolidation period of the Abba- The Domination of the UK and Shia sid dynasty. The Shiite leaders in this period Scholars mainly attempted to train human resources, The First World War found profound deepen the Shiite teachings, recognize the changes in Iraq. As soon as the war began, Holy Prophet's Ahl al-Bayt school in front of Britaininvaded Iraq from the Persian Gulf, the ruling juridical schools and promote and the Shia scholars declared Jihad in re- Shi’ism while maintaining Taqiya. (Hosse- sponse. Even the scholars like Seyed Mohsen inian, 2004: 54) Hakim, who later became a prominent Shiite Nevertheless, since 136 B.C, a new re- authority in Iraq, went to the front. Another pression against Shiites began and continued important point was that the declaration of until 193 AD coincided with the death of Ha- Jihad got thousands of Arab tribesmen to join run al-Rashid. By the caliphate of Mammon Turkish forces for repelling the aggression. and imposition of covenant guardianship on Despite the common defense efforts, Bri- Imam Reza (AS), Shiites found a relative tainwas able to occupy at last. Thus, freedom and started to promote Shi’ism ap- in 1916, Iraq was separated from the Otto- parently. During this period, Imam Reza man Empire and became under the tutelage (AS) tried to clarify the boundaries of the of England. However, English troops faced Alawite Shia and Abbasid Shia. Because the the opposition of Iraqi Shiites. Najaf uprising Abbasids, like Umayyad, had introduced was the first confrontation between the Iraqi themselves as the descendants of the Prophet. people and the English forces that was At the time of Imam Javad (AS), Shia had planned by the scholars of "Islamic move- become a powerful party, particularly in ment".The uprising began in March 19 Baghdad. 1918/6 Jumada al-Sani 1336 AH and finally The Imamate of Imam Hadi (AS) and ended with the arrest of revolutionaries after Imam Hassan Askari (AS) were the power of a 46-day siege of Najaf by the British forces. Shia and fear of Caliphate. The Abbasid ca- (Alhasani, 1999:184-183) liphs in this era greatly feared Shiites’ power Generally, the presence of English troops and started rigidity upon them. Mutawakkil in Iraq their long conflict with the Muslim made this rigidity to the extent that everyone people of this country led to the establish- who believed in the guardianship of Ali (AS) ment of fighting groups and parties that the and his family was killed. However, Shiites’ main ones are: power had reached to the point where the  Najaf Confidential Party that was actions of caliphs not only weakened their formed in the 1918 and got sup- forces, but also inflame their anger. After the porters in Baghdad, Karbala, Hil- martyrdom of Imam Hassan Asgari (AS), the la, etc.; Minor Occultation (260-329 BC) began. In  Najaf Scientific Community es- this era, Shiites were linked to their Imam tablished in 1918; through four special deputies of Imam Zaman  Islamic Homeland Community that (AS) called Osman ibn Saeed, Saeed bin was formed in 1918 in Karbala; Osman, Hussein bin Rouh, and Ali bin Mu-  Islamic Community that was hammad Samari. formed in 1918 in Kadhimiya;

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 Defense of Independence Com- sein about the establishment of an Arab king- munity that was formed in Bagh- dom inIraq. Many scholars and important dad in 1919. (Fazlipour, 2003) people in Karbala, Najaf and Kadhimiya and other cities, supported these measures, but Thawra al-Eshreen (Iraqi Revolt against many of them were arrested and the British the British) deported some. In the spring of 1920, Iraq After Najaf uprising, the Shiite activities led was declared officially under British mandate the Iraqi public positions toward armed revo- and the found that they will not gain lution against British colonialists (Alhasani, independence without war. Shiite clergymen 1999: 241), because Muslims’ obedience of including the leaders of Haras Al-Istiqlal non-Muslim government was in conflict with with the cooperation of some Sunni scholars Islamic ideology of the Muslims in Iraq. called the tribes to revolt. Most Sunni tribes Hence, many nationalist groups were formed did not participate in the uprising because of such as the Shiite-Sunni group called "Haras the British financial assistances. Thus, the Al-Istiqlal" led by Seyyed Mohammad Has- Iraqi revolution 1920 lasted for three months san Sadr and with the support of prominent by the participation of about one-third of the Shia scholars. One of the main goals of this Iraqi people, and finally failed by the inter- group was bringing a son of Sharif Hussein vention of the British Air Force and massacre (of the Hashemite family and the Sunni Mus- of more than nine thousand people. (Joyce, lims) to the (Joyce, 1995: 1995: 31-35) 32-33). Revolution 1920, also known as "Thawra al-Eshreen" (Iraqi revolt against the The Hashemite Kingdom of Iraq (1932- British), was led by scholars such as Mo- 1958) hammad Saeed al-Haboubi, Kashef al-Gheta, After the suppression of the revolt, the Brit- Seyed Mohsen Hakim, Seyed Abu al-Hasan ish chose Faisal, son of Sherif Hussein, as the Isfahani and Seyed Mohammad al- king of the new Iraqi government to prevent Shabibi.(www. Mehrnews.ir) Indeed, it was another possible uprising. The majority of not only a Shiite revolution but also a revolu- cabinet members were the former Ottoman tion of the Iraqi people led by a Shia authori- officers. They were Sunni, like Faisal and ty. Shiites at the time had no claim for Shiite mostly came from Baghdad and moderate religion, but they put forward two demands: families. (Shirzad, 3/4/2004) After determin- the first one was political demand, i.e. an in- ing the cabinet ministers, an English consul- dependent Iraqi state should be formed and tant was appointed for each minister, so that the occupiers must not be dominant. The the Minister must do nothing without coordi- second demand was the issue of all Iraqi tri- nation with his adviser. The dependence of bes, both Shiite and Sunni, who were sup- the new government made the Shia scholars pressed by the British. (Interview with Mou- lose their passion to form the new one, espe- savi, 22/12/2006) Ayatollah Mohammad Taqi cially because there was no Shiite person Shirazi, Iranian and Persian-speaking clergy, among officials and governors. Thus, from who was the most important Shia cleric in 1921 when the British took the Faisal's fami- Iraq at that time, issued a fatwa that: "No one ly to power in Iraq and dominated the mo- but Muslims has the right to rule over Mus- narchy system in the country, the Shiites lims". He also wrote a letter to Sharif Hus- were marginalized once again. (www. mehr-

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Historical Analysis of the Iraqi Shiites’ Status from the Era of …

news. ir/fa/newsprint. aspx? News were not employed in critical sector such as ID=111181) the economy and defense. (Fouler, 2006:3-4) Britain’ decision to hand over the gov- The low participation of Shiites in the Ha- ernment and positions to the Sunnis and the shemite government is not comparable with marginalization of the Shiites might have that of the . While no Shiites several reasons: during the war between the were in the Ottoman parliament, in the Ha- Ottomans and English invaders, the Shiites shemite Parliament in 1928, 26 out of 88 were chiefly against Great Britain and fought members were Shia. (Joyce, 1995: 42) along with the Turks because of religious Although the revolt in 1920 failed, but led considerations. In contrast, a small number of to the relatively important gains. The most Sunni leaders supposed the British. Another important result of the Iraqi revolt against the reason for the Britain’s tendency to Sunnis British was the failure of British project Wil- was political activity of the Shiite top cler- son's on the refusal to recognize an Iraqi gov- gymen - who often were of Iranian origin - ernment. The project had made the following and could harm British interests in Iraq and suggestions before the revolt: in Iran. Cancellation of Tobacco Concession, 1. Making Iraq as an Indian supporting the constitutional movement in country through the displacement of Iran in 1909, Ayatollah Shirazi's fatwa prohi- thousands of Indians and making the biting the domination of non-Muslims on the destiny and fate of Iraq dependent to Muslimsetc. Are the examples of Shiite cler- the government of India. ics’ resistance against British colonialism? 2. Settlement of the Jewish Such movements could reflect Shiites as an immigrants in Iraq under the aegis of undesirable partner and thus led Britain to the United Kingdom and also the support the Sunni community that was less domination over Palestine and trans- stressful. Based on this fact, the efforts of forming it into a Jewish living state. Shiites as the majority population of Iraq for 3. Division of Iraq by separat- their rights were not satisfactory. During the ing Basra and its accession to India 35-year rule of the Hashemite family, Shiites so that the Gulf becomes an English- had a marginal role in Iraq’s politics. How- Indian sea. British occupiers forced a ever, King Faisal, particularly at the end of number of their pro dignitaries in the his life, adopted compromising policy with city to set a Protocol in this field. Shiites, because he knew the political system 4. Assigning Mosul to France in which Arab minority Sunni rule out the and the French use of minority to Arab majority Shiite and the Kurd massive achieve this goal. minority as an unstable system. Therefore, he Generally, Wilson, vice regent of Britain tried to assign limited role to the Shiites in in Iraq, believed that there is no relationship his Cabinet. (Dekmejian, 1993:192) Thus, between Iraq and other Arab countries. His from 1947 onwards, 4 of the 23 prime minis- ambition was to form a government in Iraq, ters were Shiite. In addition, several members which is one of the colonies of the British of the Cabinet, as well as a large number of monarchy within the framework of "Domi- MPs were Shia, although these few people nion". However, an Iraqi revolt against the

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British made fundamental changes in the po- and clerics from Iraq to Iran. In addition, litical perspectives of England toward Iraq. some exiled leaders also signed a bond to As a result, a serious attitude about the for- step down from politics and could return to mation of a local government as a self-reliant Iraq. So many affairs such as endowments political unit began. (Javadi, 2005) and the religious court that were previously Clergymen and scholars, as leaders of the in the hand of scholars became in the area of Shiite community, despite the failure of the administration. (Joyce en, previous: 37-41) uprising in 1920 and the events that have In March 1930, the UK chose one of the passed, continued to fight for the country's puppets called "Nuri al-Said" as Prime Minis- independence from the domination of non- ter. He also oversaw the Ministry of Foreign Muslims. They prohibit Shiites from serving Affairs, Defense and Interior, thus he was the government that was illegitimate. In able to suppress any opposition. However, 1920, they opposed to attendance of Shiite after the growing public discontent, he was students in newly founded government forced to leave all positions in 1932. The new schools, because they believed that these Prime Minister during two years signed a 25- schools provide secular education and take year agreement with Great Britain that its children out of the supervision of clergymen. provisions were applicable since the adoption With the formation of the in 1921, of Iraq in the UN. Under the agreement, Iraq scholars opposed with the presence of Shiite has become an independent state since then. young. It is also noteworthy that, at that time The agreement also allowed Britain to keep some of the Shiites had differences on some two important military bases called Habba- political issues. For instance, "Vatani Party" niyah and Shu'aibain in addition to the pro- believed in the collaboration with Sunnis to tection of all political-economic concessions break free from the grip of Britain, while the in Iraq. "Movement Party" supported putting pressure In 1932, Iraq won its independence from on the Sunni government in order to obtain Great Britain and was accepted as an inde- job for the Shiites. pendent state in the UN, but British influence In April 1922, two hundred of important was continued through the cabinet ministers Shiite figures in Karbala held a conference and advisors, as well as continued control of that it is most important provisions were as Iraq's oil. (Fathi, 2004) In 1933, King Faisal follows: full political independence and the died. Ghazi I was the only son of Faisal I, end of the British mandate, immediate forma- who came to power in 1933 and took the tion of the National Assembly and half of the reign for about 5 years and half. However, he cabinet ministers and government officials was actually deprived of political power and should be Shiite. In June 1923, Shiite clerics finally died in 3rd April 1939. (United Press issued a fatwa and banned the participation of International, 2004) people in the constitutional parliamentary In the first year of the reign of King Gha- election to pass the mandate relationship be- zi, military service became compulsory and tween Iraq and Britain. Against this move, military personnel rose twice before. During the British exiled those clerics issued such the years 1935 and 1936, few protests took fatwas, including Sheikh Mehdi Khalesi and place by the tribes against the feudal and the his son. This English measure led to the mi- compulsory military service law. However, gration of a number of prominent scholars the scholars took no part in this uprising and

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Historical Analysis of the Iraqi Shiites’ Status from the Era of …

refused the opposition against the govern- Abdul-Karim Qasim’s Reign (1958-1963) ment. A prominent scholar like Ayatollah Abul Since early 1958, the Iraqi people wanted to Hasan Isfahani did not interfere in the political impose the rules of democracy in political affairs. After him, the supreme Shiite Clergy and economic life of the country and lack of Ayatollah Boroujerdi also adopted the same cooperation with the western colonial gov- way. Ayatollah Boroujerdi in a conference in ernments. The coup in 1952 by Gamal Abdel 1950 ensured that scholars would refrain from Nasser in has an important effect on interfering in politics as before. the minds of the Arabs, particularly the Iraqi The successor of the reign of Ghazi was people, and madeAbdul Nasservery popular his only son, Faisal II (1935-1958AD). But, among the people to the extent that his natio- when his father died, his uncles the regent nalist and reformist ideas not only crept took the government of Iraq from April 1939 among people but also among young military to May 1953 because Faisal II, was too officers. 200 of them founded a group called young to rule (4 years old). During these "Free Officers" and Major General Abdul years, Iraq had undergone various events, Karim Qasem was appointed as the Supreme including Zionists’ immigration to Palestine, Committee Commander of this group. One of which led to the establishment of Israel. In the main objectives of this committee was to support of the Palestinian Grand Mufti who overthrow the monarchy. had taken refuge in Baghdad, the Regent was In the fourteenth July 1958, the nineteenth forced by the public opinion to appoint "Ra- brigade led by General Abdul Karim Qasem shid Ali Gilani" who was pro-German as the and the twentieth brigade led by Abdul Salam Prime Minister. Arif surrounded Baghdad and executed Faisal Soon Baghdad was besieged with the in- II and his Vice-Regent after breaking into the tervention of English and Jordanian troops Riyadh Palace. The public welcomed this and in October 1941, Nuri al-Said re- coup, or “revolution”, which is the peak of appointed as the Prime Minister. King Faisal the protest process against Great Britain and II in 1953 took the reign while the situation its affiliated system. (Seifzadeh, 2000) in Iraq was troubled. At the beginning of By the formation of the Revolutionary 1954 when Nuri al-Said became Prime Mi- Command Council, Abdul Karim Qasim, nister for the twelfth time, (Bigdeli, previous: who was a leftist, was elected as President, 32-35) the political parties were banned, but Prime Minister, and Minister of Defense as political opposition and public protests still Minister and as the Minis- continued in Baghdad and other Iraqi cities ter of Interior of the Republic of Iraq. During by 1958. Especially with the participation of the five-year rule, Qasim gave the seats of the Britishin attacking Egypt (sudden attack power to his friends and loyalists and im- of English, French and Israeli fighters to the posed a military dictatorship. Since early Suez Canal in 1956), people protested in the 1960, the differences between Qasim and streets of Najaf and other cities every day. Arif emerged for a variety of reasons, includ- Even some moderate clergymen were unable to ing the cooperation of Qasim with the Com- do anything in spite of the government’s re- munists. At this time, Arif had communica- quest to calm the people. (Joyce, 1995, 42-48) tions with Qasim’s opponents, including

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Nasserism, Baathists and generally the natio- With the arrival of Abdu Salam, the gov- nalist camp. Hence, he was dismissed from ernment officials wanted the Shiite authority all his positions and later on he was arrested to endorse the government with a telegraph, and sentenced to death for suspicion of in- but Ayatollah Seyed Mohsen Hakim, who volvement with the Baathists in a conspiracy was familiar with the Baath Party, refused. In against the government. Perhaps, one of the order to protest and assert themselves against greatest weaknesses of Qasim during his the Baathists and spirits up people, they tra- reign was that he could not adopt a balancing velled along with a number of dignitaries and policy between communism and nationalism, believers of Najaf for a month and visited or between the alliance with and the Karbala, Kadhimiyan, Samarra and Baghdad. Soviet Union. This journey that was welcomed by the people everywhere, in fact, was considered to Abdul Salam Arif’s Coup be a warning for coup leaders. Following the In early 1963, Qasim got involved in the great popular maneuver, the coup leaders overt and covert conflicts with all political realized the power and authority of the Mus- groups, like the Baathist Party, the Kurdistan lims and undertook efforts to communicate Democratic Party (KDP) and even the Com- with Hakim. But he never allowed them to munist Party, and this led him to lose a lot of visit and enjoy his name. supporters among the masses. These conflicts One of Arif’s measures to undermine the along with other internal and external prob- role and authority of Shiite clergymen was lems such as a dispute with the British Petro- raising the flag of ethnicity. He considered leum Company caused many problems for the Sunnis as Arabs with original race and Qasim. In the eighth February 1963, Abdul the Shiites as non-Arab and Persian people Salam Arif’s plan to coup was carried out and bounded himself to save the honor of the with the help of the Baath Party and bombing Arabs. Shiite clerics stand against this beha- the head quarter of Qasim. The day after the vior and put a meeting with the coup leaders coup, Qasim surrendered to the coup and was subject to taking back the positions against executed. (Jamili, 1992: 98-107) The Revolu- Shiites. These disputes led Arif to greater tionary Command Council, composed of violence and a lot of followers and represent- prominent members of the Baath Party and atives of the Shiite clerics were exiled or im- some non-Baathist members, appointed Ab- prisoned. However, the link between Shia dul Salam Arif (the Sunni nationalist and pro- clerics and people as well as Sunni scholars Nasserist officer) as interim President and was to the extent that Arif soon saw himself Hassan al-Bakr as the Prime Minister. Short- against people and even Sunni clerics. So he ly after coming to power of the Baath in Iraq, turned to be soft and tried to release the Is- the party was divided into two branches, and lamic groups. (http://www. Hawzah. the disputes between them increased. Under Net/per/h/hg/hg58. Htm) such circumstances, Arif declared the forma- Arif in was killed in the fall of tion of a new government by the presidency his helicopter and the National Defense of an old officer called Tahir Yahiya and then Council elected his brother Abdul Rahman banned all the parties and finally established Arif to the presidency. Among his measures a military dictatorship. are ceasefire with the Kurds and recognizing their rights within the law, missioning a rep-

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resentative to resolve disputes with some tees consisting of Shia and Sunni scholars to neighboring countries, close cooperation with various countries for addressing the issue of nationalists and Nasserists and also opposi- Palestine and the situation of Muslims. (Http: tion to imperialism. In the days of her reign, //www. hawzah.net/per/h/hg/hg58.htm) the country was led to the political open space. The Communist and the Baath Party, The Reign of the Baath Party which were driven out by Abdul Salam from At the first meeting of the Ba'ath Party’s re- the political arena, began their overt activity gional commander council, a number of im- again. Abdul Rahman tried to sweep the of- portant issues in domestic politics were pri- ficers during his presidency and thus prompt- oritized: the weakening of religious practice ed them to himself. The secret organization of the people and the promotion of disbelief of Free Young Officers were raised among and atheism in various ways, including fight- the dissidents and sought to overthrow the ing against religious authorities and clergy, government. In the spring of 1968, they sur- which gradually increased the pressure of rounded the presidential palace led by Hassan government over scholars and Shiites. After al-Bakr. surrendered and consolidating its power, the party began in- was exiled to London in its bid and after that, tense and systematic attacks on the Shiites, Hassan al-Bakr personally formed his cabi- especially the scholars and authorities. In net. At this time, Takriti June 1969, a number of Shi'a scholars, in- was appointed as the secretary of the Revolu- cluding Seyyed Mahdi Hakim, wrote a letter tionary Council and Vice President. in five articles and sent to the government Shiite authority was not passive during the requesting the abolition of censorship and presidency of Abdul Rahman Arif. Ayatollah ending the crackdown and violence. But the Seyyed Mohsen Hakim in the first step sent a government did not just make any positive message for the popularity of the new regime moves but also tried to capture the appropri- as follows: "The military officers should be ative property and prohibited religious cere- abandoned and the three-member leadership monies in Najaf. Islamic schools were closed council must take the country's control. We and Islamic education was removed from the are ready to agree you're one of those three". public school curriculum. In addition, a num- Although the prime minister did not ac- ber of relatives and associates of Ayatollah cept the suggestion of Najaf Clergy, the polit- Hakim were arrested. In contrast to these be- ical opening, Arab-Israeli war - which led to haviors of the Ba'ath regime, the Shia com- the defeat of the Arabs - and the measures of munity held anti-government demonstrations Shiite authority granted popularity and power in various Shi'ite cities. Ayatollah Hakim also to the cleric. Some measures of Ayatollah banned the membership of the Ba'ath Party Hakim as the great Shiites authority at that and sent Seyyed Mahdi Hakim (the son of time included replying to the telegraph of Ayatollah Hakim, who was previously sen- Abdul Rahman Arif and emphasizing the tenced by the ruling regime to the death) to need for unity to confront Zionism, holding various cities in the country to inform the funerals for the martyrs fighting in Karbala, Shiites in this regard. In late 1969, govern- Basra, Najaf, and Baghdad, sending commit- ment forces attacked the homes of non-

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International Journal of Political Science, Vol 8, No 4 , Winter 2018 governmental members of Islamic groups, known as the "Safar Intifada" due to the re- and not 1995 previous: 71-73) The Iraqi gov- gime's obstruction of religious ceremonies by ernment also used the dispute with Iran over the Shiites of Iraq. Following the announce- its frontiers and expelled Iraqi Persians from ment by the government, about thirty thou- Iraq. The expulsion of Shiites to Iran contin- sand people opposed it and fought against ued until 1975, and more than 100,000 Iraqi government officials and confronted them Shiites migrated to Iran between 1969 and with cold weapons and also seized some of 1975. the police stations. This movement provoked On May 2, 1970, Ayatollah Seyyed Moh- a severe reaction of the Ba'ath party and thus sen Hakim died and Ayatollah Khoei became military helicopters attacked people from the authority of the Shiites. The authority of above, which killed and wounded thousands Ayatollah Khoei was closer to traditional and of people. Ayatollah Sadr supported this jurisprudential authority than to political and move and announced his support. Imam social leadership. After the death of Ayatol- Khomeini also confirmed it. The Ba'athist lah Hakim, a more active context was created regime in Iraq called this movement a merci- for Ba'athist sectarian acts. Because if the less and barbaric plot, and executed its lead- authority of Ayatollah Hakim was accompa- ers after the trial. nied by certain political acts and protests In June 1979, Hasan al-Bakr stayed at home against the government, then the next au- and was ousted under the pretext of illness and thority would be less involved in political Saddam Hussein formally took the power. This affairs. Ayatollah Khoei was acting with res- is a milestone in the history of Iraq, especially ervation at that time and refrained from ex- in the Shiite, because the Baath Party led by pressing his political desires and desires. In Saddam Hussein has played an important role July 1974, the Ba'athist regime stepped up a in anti-Shia and ethnicity. (Http: //www. haw- significant movement, which was the arrest zah.net/per/magazine/zm of Ayatollah Seyyed Mohammad Baqer Sadr and a group of Al-Dawa's intellectual and The Reign of Saddam Hussein political leaders. After a while, Ayatollah Saddam Hussein intended to involve Shiites Sadr was released, but it was a turning point in the Iraqi government before they formally in Iraq's historical events, since it began the take the power, so he chose several practical direct confrontation between the Islamists measures. One of the most important meas- and the government. In December 1974, a ures was the industrialization of the southern group of Mujahedeen and ideologists from Shiite regions and the acceleration of changes the Dawa Party, such as Sheikh Aref al- within the villages. While Saddam Hussein Basiri, were executed, which led to the clo- heavily monitored the Shiite circles, he tried sure of the seminary by Sadr and Khoei. to portray himself as a friend of Shia by (Amiri, 1998:63) Following this incident, transforming the concept of Shiism and, in Ayatollah Sadr issued a fatwa and banned the particular, by doing respectable moves to- membership of the Dawa Party to preserve ward religious scholars. But with the victory of the lives of his students. (Joyce, 1995: 71-73) the Islamic Revolution in Iran, Saddam Hussein One of the milestones in the political his- took a different approach because he saw the tory of the Shiites in Iraq was the events of success of the Shiite regime in Iran as a great the 4th to the 7th February, 1977, which was threat to himself. (Toal, 2000: 92-93)

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The victory of the Islamic Revolution of ment. In December and November 1979, four Iran in 1979 created a new wave of Shiite hundred people were arrested and 15 of those unrest in Iraq. The Rajab Uprising (13th Ra- affiliated with the Dawa Party were executed. jab of 1399 AH) was the first popular Shiite On March 17, 1980, 96 executives of the uprising in Iraq after the victory of the Islam- Dawa party were executed on a day. The ic Revolution of Iran, which continued until Ba'ath Party tightened the ring of political the start of the Iraqi imposed war against Iran siege against the Iraqi Shiite movement. As (1980). This movement was, indeed, the im- he stated on March 31, 1980 that the investi- mediate and direct reflection of the Islamic gations revealed that the Dawa Party was a Revolution of the Iranian people on the foreigner and traitor to Iraqi nation that was Shiites of Iraq. The magnitude and extent of fighting and rebelling against the principles oppression in this uprising was such that it of the regime by various means. Thus, the caused a split in the council of the leadership Supreme Council of the Revolution stipulated of the Iraqi revolution and the execution of that the members of this party are sentenced 22 high-ranking Ba'athist leaders. (Institute to death, according to Article 156 of the Pen- of Abrar Moaser of Tehran, 2004) The de- al Code. As a result, mass arrests began monstrators also called for social reform and among members and supporters of the Dawa the establishment of an Islamic state during Party, which resulted in the highest rates of Muharram of the same year. Subsequently, executions. Meanwhile, Ayatollah Sayyid the Ba'ath Party convened with the participa- Muhammad Baqir Sadr, who had the charac- tion of leaders and the presence of Saddam. teristics of a charismatic and influential lead- The result of this meeting was the arrest of er with both scientific and religious aspects Ayatollah Sadr on June 12, 1979, that was in as well as influential political and social ac- fear of an aware leader. Following the arrest tivities, provided a political movement. (Col- of Ayatollah Sadr, a large number of protests lective authors, 2001: 275) took place by the Iraqi Shiite people in the In addition to cultural, political and pro- cities of al-Thawra, al-Kadhimiya, al-Khalis, motional activities, he also took some mili- and al-Sahwa. Authorities and scholars from tary actions, including advising some of the different countries, including Iran, such as Shiite-minded young people to enter the Iraqi Ayatollah Maraashi and Golpayegani, called Army system and gain enough expertise in for the release of Ayatollah Sadr. These ref- military affairs. On the other hand, he estab- lections and reactions led the Ba'ath party to lished and assisted the scarifying groups and release him. After the incident, Ayatollah also made contacts with some of Saddam's Sadr issued a fatwa warranting an armed rivals who competed for power, such as Ad- struggle against the Ba'athist regime as obli- nan Hussein, who was planning a coup gatory and, in this way, the national and against Saddam. It was arranged to support armed struggle of the Shi'ites of Iraq began the new system after the coup, while Adnan against the government. (Eskandarian, Hussein was committed to put Sadr in his 2005:78) proper position in the new government. With At this time, violent acts became wide- all of these programs, the coup d'etat of Ad- spread in relation to the Shia political move- nan Hussein was failed.

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Finally, Saddam decided to shake the base In 1980, the Iraq war began with Iran, of the Shiite-political movement in Iraq. But which continued until 1988. In the early before that, he sent an officer to the house of years of the imposed war, the Shiites who Ayatollah Sadr and gave ultimatum to him had been fired into Iran provided their own and asked him to fulfill three conditions: paramilitary force under the name of Badr's 1) Cancelling the fatwa of banning mem- 9th Corps, whose militants were actively bership in the Ba'ath Party; presence in Iran's missions against the Ba'ath 2) Quit from the Dawa Party and order it regime, including Karbala 2 and 5, Mersad to be sanctioned; and Qods. (Institute of cultural studies and 3) Ending the cooperation and support for international research of Abrar Moaser Te- the Iranian revolution. hran, 2004) Ayatollah Sadr refused all the above con- With the escalation of the suppression of ditions. Eventually, he was arrested on April the Ba'ath regime, a number of prominent 6, 1980, and was martyred together with his opposition groups and figures embarked on a sister Bennett Alhadion April 8by the Ba'ath policy of "continuing the conflict outside Ira- Party. Their bodies were transferred to Najaf qi borders." These groups and individuals and buried overnight and secretly. included the Dawa Party, the Islamic Action After the Islamic Revolution of Iran, the Organization, Jama'a Al-ulamaand Jondala- movement of the Shi'ites of Iraq took a mili- mam, and several other smaller groups. With tant strategy and engaged in guerrilla actions the emigration of Seyyed Mohammad Baqer against some of the main government goals. Hakim, Seyyed Hossein Sadr and some of the In August 1979, Saddam Hussein and in clerics to Iran, and inspired by the founder of April 1980 Tariq Aziz, deputy prime minister the Islamic Republic of Iran, the Jama'a Al- had unsuccessful assassination. The govern- ulama group was once again activated. (Ab- ment responded to this movement with more rar Moaser Tehran, 2004) Regarding this, the repression and began to expel a large number Islamic Revolutionary Supreme Council of of Shiites - more than 52,000 people between the Islamic Republic of Iraq was founded on 1980 and 1982 - to Iran. The members of the November 26, 1982, with 16 members from Dawa Party were prosecuted and some vo- various Iraqi groups and parties, with the co- luntarily left Iraq. (Bruno, 2004) Altogether, operation and coordination of the Islamic in the 1980s, hundreds of thousands of Iraqi Republic of Iran, in an attempt to establish an Shi'ites were fired from their country on false inclusive movement to overthrow Saddam pretexts such as non-Iraqi citizenship, Iranian Hussein. The Dawa Party was also a compo- origins, and lack of loyalty to the Ba'ath revo- nent of the Supreme Council, and Ayatollah lution, and etc. The Ba'athist practices to ex- Seyyed Mohammad Bagher Hakim presided pel Shiites were very cruel, including the over it in 1984. (Exclusive interview with Aya- brutal invasion at midnight, the confiscation tollah hakim, 2002) In addition to Iran, individ- of their property, and the transfer of them to uals such as, Seyyed Mohammad Hosseini Shi- the borders of Iran and forcing them to go to razi, Seyyed Mohammad Taghi Modarresi and Iran by force of arms and passing through the Seyyed Hadi Modarresi also elected Kuwait as very bad weather conditions and landmines. a safe haven for their activities, with the intensi- (Asadi, 2004:87) fication of the suppression wave.

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Historical Analysis of the Iraqi Shiites’ Status from the Era of …

The position of Shiites in Iraq before Oc- Abu al-Abbas was the first Abbasian cali- cupation phate in Kufa. Since 914, when the Otto- Despite the fact that during the history of its mans dominated Baghdad, the Shiites had independence, Iraq has had the majority of been under the oppression and tyranny of the Shiite population, but due to its geopoliti- ottomans until 1917, that Iraq occupied Brit- cal and geostrategic importance, Iraq has ain. Although the occupation of Iraq led to been subdued by transnational powers and the Shiite emancipation of the Ottoman op- despite its high economic capacities has in- pression in 1918, Shiites under the leadership evitably experienced various types of poverty of the time scholars, including Mohammad and insecurity. Taqi Shirazi and Ayatollah Abolhassan Esfa- Perhaps one of the main causes of insta- hani, launched a struggle against the British, bility in Iraq is its majority Shiites population and eventually, the Britain recognized the that has never been able to cope with the rule independence of Iraq, inevitably. of sovereignty, due to its Sunni status. In the revolution known as Thorah al- Therefore, the 90 years history of Iraq's Ashrin, the uprising of the authorities against independence has been an expression of op- Britain in 1920, the British and Sunni mili- pression and pressure on Shiites. Shiite's Im- tants launched massive killing of Shiites. In ams have been under the pressure from the 1935, a vast uprising took place against the beginning of Islam, but they have never been rulers of the state. At the same time, Shiites destroyed and their beliefs have not been made new demands in their protests. These blemished. demands were: Thus, the Shiites of Iraq, despite being the 1. Membership in the parliament rel- majority, have never found the opportunity to ative to the Shi’a population rule and have always been at the forefront of 2. Free election the struggle against the domination (Gholami 3. Press freedom Qomi, 2007, p.33). The movement of Imam 4. Tax cuts Hossein (PBUH) played a significant role in In this year, the vast Shiite uprising, espe- the gradual expression of the Shi'a, as the cially in Forat al-Awosat, reached its peak tendency toward Shi'a religion continued un- and continued untills 1936. With the advent til the end of the Umayyad rule (Joyce, 1994, of nationalist Arab rulers in Iraq, the activi- 27). Shiite movements continued to the time ties of Shiite leaders became more intense. of Abbasian and Moguls over Iraq. From 41 Those who viewed communism and national- to 132 Hijri, Iraq was under the control of the ism as opposed to Islam, created the Dawa Umayyad regime. In the tenth of Muharram, Party in July 1958, to confront these two year of 61 Hijri, the incident of Ashura and trends. At the same time, Sunni Muslim par- the martyrdom of Imam Hussein (PBUH) ties such as the Muslim Brotherhood and al- were carried out by Yazid Ibn-Moaviyeh, the Tahrir Party began their activities in Iraq. second caliphate, in Karbala. In the 132 lunar Al-Dawa Party started its joint activities year, the Abbasian took the place of Bani with the Muslim Brotherhood, to establish an Omayyad. Islamic State in Iraq. In 1968, when the Ba'ath party took power, we witnessed the

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International Journal of Political Science, Vol 8, No 4 , Winter 2018 peak of Ba'athists violence against the Shiites and the considerable population are consi- of Iraq. The system of domination during dered the advantages of the Shiites (Ghasemi, various periods of the Iraq movement has had 2010: 41) a great deal of influence on Iraqi Shiites, the most important of which are: Discussion and Conclusion 1. Manage of poverty in Iraq, espe- Shiites are those who consider the caliphate cially in Shiite societies, to prevent solely for Amir al-Mu'minin and his children their outburst and independence; (AS). Thus, the rulers of the time, in fear of 2. Development and deepening of dif- ruining the state and their power, always kept ferences among Shiites and even the Shiites far from power and sovereignty Shia’s elders to prevent their unity; and created a shocking atmosphere for them. 3. Instability in alliances and joint de- Shiites in Iraq were not exceptions. They cisions in Shiite societies; were always isolated during the history of 4. Not having a strategy for the Islam- their country, and after the collapse of the ic State in the future by Iraqi Shiite Ottoman Empire and British mandate, they leaders; were also under the rule of the Sunni families 5. Persuading Shiite communities to because it was the British demand. During secure their minimum demands the rule of the Hashemite dynasty and its (Gholami Qomi, 2007, 41-48). subsequent reigns until the Ba'athist rule, the Iraqi Shiites were dominated and deprived of Iraqi's Shiites have historically margina- their rights. But during this time, Shi'ite scho- lized, although they account for about 60% of lars and the people did not give up seeking the country's population. The harassment and for their rights, and established parties and persecution of Shiite during the Ba'athists groups to protect the religion of Islam and to regime, especially under the supervision of fulfill their legitimate demands along with the scholars, have caused feelings of restric- the anti-colonial and anti-revolutionary tion and oppression among them. It is there- moves that they undertook. Ayatollah Seyyed fore natural to welcome any kind of division Mohammad Bagher Sadr was one of the most of power and share it. important and most prominent scholars of On the other hand, the Shiites have a sort Shi'a in the struggle against colonialism who of internal organization that results from their took an important step in this direction with attention to the scholars. Sometimes this or- the establishment of the Al-Dawa Party. ganization is based on the great scholars or Since then, other Shiite groups have been their homesteads (such as Sadr and Jeysh al- established inside and outside Iraq's land, Mahdi groups); but in addition, Shiite parties including the Islamic Action Organization and groups that fought with Saddam, such as and the Supreme Council of the Islamic Rev- the Supreme Council of the Islamic Revolu- olution. tionary Guards and Hezbollah Da'awa al- Gradually, with the rise of the Ba'ath re- Islam, also have influence and credibility. gime's pressure on the militants and the mar- Therefore, organizing and mastering the rich tyrdom of some Shi'ite scholars and militants, underground and agricultural resources (ac- including Ayatollah Sadr, many Shiite mili- cording to Shiites residential area, which are tants emigrated outside Iraq, including Iran, often the southern and central parts of Iraq), Syria and some Western countries, and con-

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Historical Analysis of the Iraqi Shiites’ Status from the Era of …

tinued their struggles outside their country. the south and north of the country, are look- These efforts and struggles couldn’t advance ing for reviewing the constitutional law and the overthrow of the Ba'ath Party until the renewal of their traditional role in Iraq. Saddam's regime was collapsed with the in- Therefore, the conflicts and differences in tervention of the United States and its allies. the goals and interests of the domestic Thus, the Iraqi opposition groups who were groups, the lack of compromise and conver- outside Iraq, including Shiites, returned to gence between the Sunni and Shiite groups, their country to share in its new sovereignty. the lack of a civilian tradition of democracy, It should be noted that after the collapse and the lack of national ownership of the of Saddam's regime, the new revolutionary power of governance, the political process demands of the Shiite community of Iraq and security conditions have faced Iraq with took a new shape and wave of political mobi- difficulties. Iraq is the second largest Shiite lizations have emerged that has surprised country in the world after Iran. It can play a American policymakers and even Sunnis. In significant role in the future of the relations fact, the Shiites have found that at present, between the two countries; as we have seen the American occupiers are the only factor in the history of the relations between the two that has prevented the Shiites from reaching countries, there has been many relations in political power. This is the main factor in the various political, social, cultural, and eco- crisis of the relationship between the Shiite nomic fields. community of Iraq and the issue of the pres- ence of Americans in this country. Although References we see the emergence of various Shiite Amiri, Sayedrazi, (1998), The Situation of groups in the form of political parties, but the Shiites in Contemporary Iraq: these groups differ in the ways to advance the The Causes of Shia's marginalization goals of the future of Iraq: as the disagree- in Iraq's political structure, Master's ment between the al- Iraqiyeh and other thesis, Tehran, Imam Sadiq Universi- Shiite alliances. ty, March. This issue has put the future of the Iraq's Asadi, Ali Akbar, (2004), "Shiites and Sunnis changes into ambiguity. Shiite groups, having in Iraqi Society: Convergence or Di- a superior position in the new Iraq, are seek- vergence", Nezhad Monthly, Year 5, ing to gain a greater share of political power No. 20, winter. based on their high proportion of their popu- Al-Hasani,(1999), The role of Shiite scholars lation and due to creating security and stabili- in confrontation with colonialism, ty in this country as the dominant group in translation by Mohammad Baher and the sovereignty. Sunni groups seek to revise Safa al-Din Tabariyan, Institute for the constitution and revitalize the role of pre- the Study of Contemporary History venting Shiite domination, and obstructing of Iran, Tehran, First Edition, Spring. the institutionalization of their power in the A group of authors(2005), under the supervi- new Iraqi political structure by various sion of Ahmad Reza Khezri, Shiite means, and opposing actions such as remov- history, Tehran, Organization for the ing Baathism and federalism, especially in Study and Compilation of Human

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