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Foundations for Community Climate Action: Defining Climate Change Vulnerability in Detroit

University of Michigan Taubman College of Architecture & Urban Planning ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This report would not be possible without the time, effort, and kind advice of the following people:

Mr. Eric Dueweke, University of Michigan Ms. Larissa Larsen, Ph.D., University of Michigan Mr. George Davis Ms. Kimberly Hill-Knott Ms. Corinne Kisner Mr. Kevin Mulder Ms. Dominic Smith Ms. Sandra Turner-Handy Ms. Rachel Wells

Cover Photo Credits: 1. By Kiddharma 2. By Michigan Municipal League 3. By The Travelin’ Librarian 4. By United Nations Development Program 5. By Kelly Gregg 6. By Sombraala 7. By Jake Jung 8. By Michigan Municipal League 9. By Michigan Municipal League 10. By Michigan Municipal League Foundations for Community Climate Action: Defining Climate Change Vulnerability in Detroit

University of Michigan Taubman College of Architecture & Urban Planning

Kelly Gregg, Peter McGrath, Sarah Nowaczyk, Andrew Perry, Karen Spangler, Taylor Traub, & Ben VanGessel

Advisors: Larissa Larsen & Eric Dueweke

December 2012 Source: ByMichigan MunicipalLeague TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY...... 2

INTRODUCTION ...... 4

CONTEXT...... 6

Detroit at a Glance Biophysical Climate Weather Events

VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT...... 20

Heat Flood

WORK GROUPS...... 35

Businesses & Institutions Community Public Health Impacts Energy Homes & Neighborhoods Parks, Public Spaces, & Water Infrastructure Solid Waste Transportation

CONCLUSION...... 84

GLOSSARY...... 86

DETROIT MAPS...... 92

Heat Flood Additional

TABLE OF CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

CLIMATE ACTION PLANNING

According to projections, the average annual temperature in Detroit is expected to increase 1.5-5.4°F by 2050. In the wake of increasing temperatures and changing climate conditions, many cities across the world recognize the need for climate action planning. This style of planning provides a proactive approach to climate change.

Comprehensive climate action planning involves both mitigation and adaptation. Mitigation aims to decrease the extent of climate change by reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Conducting a greenhouse gas inventory informs which mitigation strategies are needed and in which sectors. Adaptation aims to decrease the impacts from climate change by identifying distinct places and groups of people that may be disproportionately affected by a changing climate. Conducting a vulnerability assessment informs which adaptation strategies are needed, and where to implement them.

Literature often defines climate ‘vulnerability’ as ‘exposure plus sensitivity.’ Exposure refers to the presence of biophysical hazards in the current environment, and sensitivity refers to the degree to which a community is harmed by a given exposure. We conducted an initial vulnerability assessment in order to provide a foundation for future climate action planning.

DETROIT CLIMATE ACTION COLLABORATIVE (DCAC)

Community-based non-profits, environmental organizations, universities, state agencies, private organizations and the City of Detroit comprise the DCAC. The DCAC is a grass- roots effort, led by Detroiters Working for Environmental Justice (DWEJ). The primary goals of the DCAC include:

1. Reduce greenhouse gas emissions for the Source: By Lowell Boileau detroityes.com sustainability and well-being of Detroit

2 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 2. Increase the resilience of Detroit’s social, built and natural environments With regard to infrastructure, the analysis focuses solely on exposure factors. The Eight ‘Work Groups’ encompass the DCAC in primary exposure factor includes the runoff order to ensure fair representation. These eight burden created during intense storm events. Work Groups include transportation, solid waste, Land cover, soil type, and slope are the homes and neighborhoods, businesses and three factors that determine runoff burden. institutions, community public health impacts, Data pertaining to the age, size, capacity energy, research, and parks, public space and and technology of existing infrastructure water infrastructure. Once assembled, the Work is necessary to determine the sensitivity Groups will determine indicators, strategies and of the City’s nine sewersheds. Additional goals in order to monitor progress. We compiled information from Detroit Water and a list of potential indicators, strategies and goals Sewerage Department is necessary for a that serve to aid these Work Groups. more comprehensive analysis.

At the household level, the exposure factor VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENTS is determined from floodplain designations & CONCLUSIONS (100 and 500 year). Age of housing stock (pre-1940) and median household income Our vulnerability assessments focus on two constitute household sensitivity. issues: extreme heat and flooding. We selected these two issues because local climatologists Similar to the heat assessment, system have identified extreme heat and increased flood vulnerability concentrates around the precipitation as key concerns for Detroit. downtown core and extends northward. Household flood vulnerability is seen in With regard to extreme heat vulnerability, our southeast Detroit and in the northwest assessment combines exposure and sensitivity. fashion along the Rouge River. Exposure factors include areas with high percentages of impervious surfaces relative to pervious surfaces and low tree coverage. FINAL RECOMMENDATIONS Sensitivity factors include the number of people The results of the vulnerability assessment over the age of 65, the number of households informed a set of final recommendations. without access to a vehicle, household income, These final recommendations include: and educational attainment. • Reconsider distribution and location of The heat assessment indicates that the greatest designated cooling centers areas of vulnerability include the downtown • Reduce impervious surfaces in identified core, along with the adjacent neighborhoods ‘hotspots’ northwest of downtown. In addition, only 29% • Increase tree planting in identified of the population is within a 15-minute walking ‘hotspots’ distance of designated cooling centers, which • Acquire additional information from the City of Detroit designates on an annual DWSD for further flood vulnerability basis. analysis • Ground-truth the most vulnerable heat The flooding vulnerability assessment examines and flood areas to further target efforts the vulnerability of current infrastructure at the neighborhood scale systems, as well as household level vulnerability.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 3 Source:By Michigan MunicipalLeague INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION

Global climate change threatens to disrupt the function and livability of our cities. Although Detroit, Michigan, will not face the drastic effects of rising sea levels, the city is projected to experience higher temperatures, more frequent and intense precipitation events, and fluctuating lake levels. All of these effects will place further strain on the City of Detroit’s ability to provide services and keep it’s most vulnerable residents safe. With this in mind, the Detroit Climate Action Coalition (DCAC) has partnered with the University of Michigan in order to assess how Detroit can lower it’s current impact on the environment to mitigate efforts and prepare itself for the effects of climate change through adaptation.

Traditionally, municipal-level climate action plans have focused on mitigation— actions that reduce Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions that aim to prevent climate change. Common recommendations included increasing mass transit options and increasing building energy efficiency. Although these mitigation policies generate positive outcomes, increasingly, recent climate action plans recognize that mitigation at the global scale must be coupled with adaptation at the local level.

While not a comprehensive document, this report from the University of Michigan intends to positively contribute to the DCAC’s planning process. We begin with a brief history and current context section that addresses the relevant DEFINITION Detroit-specific information, and summarizes the MITIGATION current trends in climate science. Our Vulnerability Strategies that focus on reducing GHG emissions Assessment applies current climate science from human activity and promote the use and projections to Detroit, and identifies places and development of non-fossil fuel energy sources populations in Detroit that are at risk from specific effects of climate change. This Vulnerability ADAPTATION Assessment will form the basis for the Work Group The adjustment of human or natural systems in reports, which will allow DCAC stakeholders to response to actual and/or anticipated climate gain an accurate snapshot of where the city of change to lessen the potential negative impacts. Detroit currently stands, survey other plans and best practices from other cities, and show how stakeholders can measure progress. Based around the DCAC’s work groups, we will suggest a set of area specific indicators from scholarly research, best practices from other climate plans, and feedback from DCAC workgroup members. Finally, our conclusions section will summarize our findings, and present our planning priorities to the DCAC.

INTRODUCTION 5 CONTEXT CONTEXT

DETROIT AT A GLANCE in territory, annexing neighboring townships, building over the former farmland, and covering Detroit’s previous triumphs and current rivers to create sewers. While the city grew, struggles are well documented. Once a compared to its Midwestern peers of St. Louis, symbol of American industrial might, the Buffalo, Cincinnati, Cleveland, or Chicago, city’s name is now a synonym for urban Detroit was still a relatively small city—a small blight, abandonment, and uncertainty. manufacturing outpost. In fact, when the Detroit Today Detroit is a minority-majority city that Tigers baseball franchise began play in 1901, has lost population at an alarming rate— the some even wondered how long the Major 3 city suffered a 25% drop in population from League team would last in Detroit. the 2000 to 2010 census, and the city’s current population of 713,777 is 38.5% This perception changed with the advent of the of its 1950 peak.1 Despite the decline in automobile. Following the turn of the century, population, the city is still forced to pay for Detroiters began to apply their expertise the infrastructure and legacy costs of a in manufacturing, machining, forging, and city of 1.8 million people. This creates a metallurgy garnered from other industries tremendous strain on the city’s remaining and applied this knowledge to automobile tax-base, and the city departments charged manufacturing. Within twenty years, Detroit with providing basic services. became the undisputed center of the nation’s booming and lucrative auto industry. By 1930, In 1701, the French explorer, Antoine the industry consolidated into an oligopoly of Laumet de La Mothe, sieur de Cadillac Ford, GM, and Chrysler - the “Big Three” - all recognized the Straits of Detroit as a of which centered their operations in or around strategic location on the Great Lakes, and Detroit. Detroit’s economic fortunes have been founded the city as Fort Ponchartrain du closely linked to the domestic auto industry ever Detroit. Founded as a military installation since. to protect the lucrative fur trade, French settlers soon noticed that Detroit had In many ways, Detroit is the quintessential excellent soil for farming. The French twentieth century city, mostly due to the rapid, Crown offered free land to settlers, who unplanned growth encouraged by the auto developed ribbon farms—long and narrow industry. The city’s built environment and farms that allowed every settler to have territory expanded rapidly, from just a small loop access to the Detroit River. Detroit became located within Grand Boulevard in 1900, to its 4 an important agricultural center, and the current borders of 139 square miles by 1926. ribbon farms formed the basis of the city’s This expansion of territory was not possible unique and often overbuilt street pattern. without a meteoric rise in population. From 1900 The fort became one of the largest trading to 1930, the city’s population exploded from centers in North America by 1760. 285,704 to 1,568,662. While Detroit is widely known as a blue-collar, manufacturing town, the From the early 1800s through the turn of the auto industry created massive fortunes for auto century, while the fur trade declined, Detroit barons such as Henry Ford, John and Horace continued to grow as a manufacturing Dodge, and the Fisher Brothers, and employed and trading center. Detroit enjoyed a thousands in managerial, engineering, and diverse economy, well-known for making professional ranks. stoves, train cars, shipbuilding, cigars, and pharmaceuticals.2 The city expanded Also, from 1900 to 1930, Detroit attracted in population, from just 1,650 in 1810 to hundreds of thousands of unskilled laborers 285,704 in 1900. The city itself also grew from Central and Eastern Europe, and from the American South.5 By the roaring twenties,

6 CONTEXT the former sleepy outpost on the Detroit River challenge of large areas of vacant land and became a booming metropolis, flowing in money an auto-dependent transportation system. from the prosperous auto industry and the Moreover, during the late 1800s, to make prohibition-era illegal alcohol trade with Canada. way for development, many of the city’s However, the Great Depression hit Detroit hard, creeks and streams were paved over, or as many factories cut shifts or closed their doors turned into sewers—decreasing pervious altogether. Production of war material in World surface for storm water management. Much War II brought Detroit out of the depression, of the city’s infrastructure is technologically and Detroit became known as the “Arsenal of out of date and has suffered from years of Democracy.” The city experienced another influx deferred maintenance. Climate change of white and black migrants from the American threatens to increase the pressure on this south to fill the factories that ran on three shifts, fragile infrastructure system, and the city’s but Detroit’s wartime era of full employment was ability to cope is currently limited. short-lived.6

Following the end of World War II, while the metro area of Detroit continued to grow, the 1. U.S. Census Bureau 2. Hyde, Charles K. Detroit: An Industrial History Guide. Detroit: Detroit Historical Society, 1980. city of Detroit began to decline. A confluence 3. Bak, Richard. A Place for Summer: A Narrative History of Tiger Stadium. Detroit, Mich: Wayne of federal subsidies, structural change in the State University Press, 1998. 4. City of Detroit Annexation Map, 1932, Detroit City Planning Commission Collection, Roll 4, Burton auto industry, changing tastes, and poor race Historical Collection, Detroit Public Library, Detroit, MI. 5. Zunz, Olivier. The Changing Face of Inequality: Urbanization, Industrial Development, and Im relations encouraged many whites to leave the migrants in Detroit, 1880-1920. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982. city. For many years, Detroit’s population loss 6. Gregory, James N. The Southern Diaspora: How the Great Migrations of Black and White Southerners Transformed America. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005. was commonly perceived as the classic example 7. United States. Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders. Washington: For sale by the Supt. of Docs., U.S. Govt. Print. Off, 1968. of “White Flight.” Indeed, Detroit became the 8. Young, Coleman A., and Lonnie Wheeler. Hard Stuff: The Autobiography of Coleman Young. New manifestation of the Kerner Commission’s York: Viking, 1994. worst fears—a wealthy ring of predominantly white suburbs surrounding an impoverished, underemployed, and majority African American city core.7 However, as the years have gone by, many black residents have left for the suburbs as well. Indeed the decline in services and an increasing tax burden has created a vicious cycle. Today, the city has fewer financial resources to serve its most vulnerable residents.

Detroit’s meteoric rise and decline has created unique challenges for the urban environment. The city’s prosperous industrial economy allowed blue-collar autoworkers to purchase their own single-family homes, and Detroit became well known as a city of “house and yard” people.8 Once a symbol of prosperity, many of Detroit’s homes today lack insulation and modern, energy efficient HVAC systems. Also, Detroit was built at a time when auto-ownership was on the rise, and the city’s planning professionals favored an auto-dependent urban form. In 1958, the city shut down the last of its streetcars, while highways were constructed throughout the city. Today, Detroit faces the Source: Detroit Skyline 1954. Wayne State Historical Image

DETROIT AT A GLANCE 7 CONTEXT BIOPHYSICAL

SOUTHEAST MICHIGAN: A SURFACE GEOLOGY TALE OF GLACIATION AND Understanding the soil types is crucial in the face PROXIMITY TO THE GREAT of changing climate. Particle size determines the LAKES amount of water and nutrients that soil can hold, which affects agricultural viability, forest and Michigan’s current landscape was shaped plant dynamics, and stormwater management. predominantly during the last ice age. The Generally, larger particles (sand and gravel) movement of the last ice sheet, known as have higher rates of drainage due to the greater the Wisconsin Glacier, left the most direct amount of space between particles, whereas impact with its retreat occuring 14,000 years finer soils (silts and clays) retain water for longer ago. When the planet warmed and the ice periods, and can become saturated quickly. melted, the water would carry the scoured For agricultural purposes, silt soils are ideal for soil and rocks away from the retreating growing crops—they hold water and nutrients, glacier, with finer-grained particles able to but do not become dense, hard, and brittle like 3 travel farther.1 The Great Lakes themselves dried clay. are a product of this retreating glacier—large basins that became the repository for much A key impact of these historic geologic of the melted ice.2 These historic processes processes is Detroit’s most common current soil determined many of the characteristics of types—soils produced from glacial outwash, and the current landscape, from soil types to soils derived from deposited lake sediments. hydrologic flows, and in some regards, the historic forest composition as well.

Detroit Soil Types Source: Michigan Geographic Data Library, Michigan Quarternary Geology Map Prepared By: University of Michigan Detroit Climate Capstone

8 CONTEXT Touching briefly on glacial outwash, we see an HYDROLOGY accumulation of fine-grained material, or till, into ridges that delineate the farthest extent of The historic glacial processes played a role glaciation. The subtle ridges of accumulated in the creation of present day watersheds. glacial till have over time defined the area’s The deposited sediments created ridges, watersheds, dictating the course of rivers and essentially boundaries, which charted the streams, and influence drainage dynamics.4 course for water to follow. Detroit is placed within the greater context of the Great Lakes The other surface type that is apparent is watershed, a massive process that moves derived from the deposition of lake sediments. water, in order, through Lake Superior, Lake As the Great Lakes began to fill, they were not Michigan, Lake Huron, the St. Clair River, always the shape that we know today. In fact Lake St. Clair, the Detroit River, Lake Erie, one in particular, Lake Maumee, encompassed Lake Ontario, and out the St. Lawrence an area that included part of present-day Lake River to the Atlantic Ocean. Locally, Erie, Lake St. Clair, the Detroit river, and inland however, there are three watersheds falling parts of Canada and Michigan. Lake dynamics within the boundary of Detroit, two emptying are such that sediments will accumulate over directly into Lake St. Clair (Lake St. Clair time, carried by rivers, wind, and erosion to and Clinton watersheds) and the other the lake. Sand and gravel tends to accumulate into the Detroit River (Detroit watershed). along the outer portion of the lake, while finer Additionally, the Huron watershed to the silt and clay sediments will settle in the inner, west of Detroit, plays an important drainage deeper lake areas.5 Detroit and the surrounding role in the region, passing through Wayne area has a presence of both types, though silt County and emptying into Lake Erie, south and clay predominate in the sections closer to of Detroit.6 Each watershed is further the Detroit River.

Detroit Watershed Source: Michigan Geographic Data Library, Michigan Watersheds Prepared By: University of Michigan Detroit Climate Capstone BIOPHYSICAL 9 10CONTEXT CONTEXT chance forasystem-wideoverflow. urban stormwaterrunoff, lesseningthe landscape, andhabitat,whilealsodiverting could restoresomeofthehistoricflows, by pavement.Openingthesewaterways these streamsthathavebeenenclosed innovative suggestionlooksat“daylighting” discharges intotheDetroitRiver. One system willhaveimpactsonsewage stress onorrelieffromthenaturaldrainage combined seweroverflowsystem,additional from increasedstormevents.Witha the stressesthatwillbeputonsystem forward facingclimatechangebecauseof of thecitywillbeimportantaswemove Understanding thehydrologicprocesses trying toconcealitsstormwatersystem. underground pipesasthecityexpanded, subsequently routedintoculvertsand the area.Manyofthesestreamswere of streamsandriversthatservedtodrain Within Detroititself,therewereanumber management practices. of impervioussurfacesandstormwater be usefulscaleswhenanalyzingtheimpacts broken downintosubwatersheds,whichcan Source: DetroitWater SewerageDepartment Historical DetroitWatershed 7

species’ range. processes, whereshiftingclimatesmaylimita This islargelybasedonclimatemodeling dominant, withaminorroleforoakandhickory. the likelihoodforelmandcottonwoodtobecome future, thepredictivemodelstendtoemphasize elm andcottonwoodpresence.Lookingintothe maple, birch,oak,andhickory, butalsoaheavy characterized bythehistoricbeech,sugar areas indicateafairlyhighdiversityofspecies, urbanized Detroitmetroregion,thesurrounding models. Whilethereisnodirectdataforthe composition aswelldeveloppredictive to periodicallyassessthecurrentforest Forestry Inventoryand Analysis (FIA)Program Today, theU.S.ForestServiceundertakesa parts ofthecity. areas remainmorepronetofloodingthanother swamp andmarshconditions. To thisday, these southwest, therewerehistoricallymuchwetter, eastern borderofthecity, aswellinthe beech andanoak-hickorymix. common, awetterhabitatwasformed,favoring drainage ispoorerandseasonalpoolsare of deciduousleavesandbranches.Where soil organismcontent,duetothedecomposition generally fertilewithhighnutrientcontentand previously establishedinthisarea.Soilsare plains thatarewelldrained,conditionswere well onfine-texturedglacialtillandsandylake communities. These species doespecially presence ofbeechandsugarmapledominant forest, pre-settlementDetroitexperiencedthe the region.Categorizedasmesicsouthern a roleindeterminingthevegetationmakeupof with broaderclimatecharacteristics,alsoplayed The glacialandsoildepositionprocesses,along FOREST TYPES circumstances. species thatcanthriveindifferent biophysical and hydrology, developaworkinglistof coupled withknowledgeaboutlocaltopography on regionalornationalforesttypes.Inaddition, become importanttotakebroaderpredictions 9 Forlocalcommunities,itwill 8 Along the SOURCES 1. Michigan’s Geological Landscape. Michigan Department of Natural Resources. 3 October 2012 http://www.michigan.gov/ dnr/0,4570,7-153-10370_22664-60296--,00.html. 2. Larson, Grahame; Schaetzl, R. (2001). “Origin and evolution of the Great Lakes”. Journal of Great Lakes Research (Internat. Assoc. Great Lakes Res.) 27 (4): 518–546. 3. http://soil.gsfc.nasa.gov/index.php?section=78 4. http://www.hrwc.org/the-watershed/features/geology/ 5. City of Detroit Annexation Map, 1932, Detroit City Planning Commission Collection, Roll 4, Burton Historical Collection, Detroit Public Library, Detroit, MI. 6. http://cfpub.epa.gov/surf/county.cfm?fips_code=26163 7. Detroit Water and Sewerage Department Wastewater Master Plan 8. Mesic Southern Forests. Michigan Natural Features Inventory 9. http://www.nrs.fs.fed.us/atlas/tree/ft_summary.html

Source: By Sombraala

Detroit Historic Vegetation Source: SEMCOG, Vegetation Circa 1800 Southeast Michigan Map Prepared By: University of Michigan Detroit Climate Capstone

BIOPHYSICAL 11 CONTEXT CLIMATE

WEATHER AND CLIMATE: CLIMATE CHANGE DIVISIONS/ WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE? GEOGRAPHY

Although climate and weather are directly In the United States, climate scientists at the related, they are not the same. Weather National Climatic Data center use climate describes the day-to-day conditions in divisions as a baseline geography for analysis. a specific place, while climate is the Generally, climate divisions are areas that share accumulation of recorded weather trends in uniform climate characteristics, and are housed a region over a longer period of time. The within the boundary of one state. Detroit is distinction between weather and climate is located within the Southeast Lower Climatic important because it differentiates temporary Division of Michigan (see figure below). This weather variability from long-term projected region is bounded by the Ohio border to the trends measured over decades. south, Lake Huron, Lake St Clair, and Lake Erie to the east, and extends west to include the While the terms “global warming” cities of Flint and Ann Arbor.3 To predict climate and “climate change” are often used change impacts for a specific region or city, interchangeably, climate change more scientists utilize the technique of downscaling. accurately conveys the multitude of impacts Climate downscaling connects global-scale caused by the trend of higher global predictions, such as Atmosphere-Ocean General temperatures: increased duration and Circulation Models (GCMs), with regional frequency of drought, increased number dynamics to estimate local- or regional-scale of extreme precipitation events, rising information.4 sea levels, and ocean acidification.1 The global climate is sensitive to a number of natural and human caused activities. Natural events that affect the climate include variations in the Earth’s orbit, changes in the intensity of solar radiation, the circulation of the oceanic and atmospheric currents, and volcanic activity. Human activities contribute to climate change through GHG emissions. However, other activities such as deforestation and rapid changes in land cover contribute to global climate change.2

Climate Division 10 Source: http://climate.geo.msu.edu/Stations/2102/NARRAT.txt

12 CONTEXT HISTORIC CLIMATE DATA SEASON MONTHS TEMPERATURE Annual January-December 48.7 °F Detroit and the rest of the Southeast Lower Winter December-February 26.7 °F Climatic Division of Michigan are categorized as Spring March-May 47.8 °F a humid continental climate. Humid Continental Summer June-August 70.8 °F climates are known for great variances in Fall September-November 57.1 °F seasonal temperatures—warm to hot and Annual Seasonal Temperature (1958-2012) humid summers, and cold winters. Historically, Source: Station 202103 National Climate Data Center Detroit’s temperatures were generally moderate. In the past, the region rarely experienced prolonged periods of hot, humid weather in Hottest Day on Record June 25th, 1988 104.3 °F the summer or extreme cold during the winter. Hottest Month on Record July 2011 Ave. Temp. 79.3 °F During the summer months, temperatures from Coldest Day on Record January 21, 1984 -21.1 °F the mid 60s°F through 80s°F were the norm, and Coldest Mnth on Record January 1977 Ave. Temp. 12.8 °F occasional easterly winds and local lake breezes Detroit Temperature Extremes (1958-2012) from Lake St. Clair moderated temperatures. In (Detroit Proper, not DTW) the winter, the average daily high temperature Source: Station 202103 National Climate Data Center range was 23°F to 35°F with an average winter temperature of 27°F. The proximity to Lake Erie and Lake St. Clair was also reflected in winter temperatures.

Annual Averages of Daily Temperatures Source: GLISA The Potential Impacts of Climate Change on Detroit, MI

Wind Speed and Direction in Detroit Source: http://climate.geo.msu.edu/Stations/2102/NARRAT.txt

CLIMATE 13 CONTEXT

DETROIT PRECIPITATION EXTREMES

Detroit’s annual precipitation averaged Greatest Single Day Total July 28, 1976 4.90 inches 33.58 inches, and was fairly evenly Greatest Monthly Total July 1878 8.76 inches distributed throughout the year. The driest month for Detroit is February, with 1.85 Driest Month Frebruary 1877 0.00 inches inches of precipitation, and June was Detroit Precipitation Extremes the wettest month, with 3.51 inches of Source: Station 202103 National Climate Data Center precipitation. Summer precipitation came mainly in the form of afternoon showers and thundershowers. Annually, thunderstorms occurred on an average of 36 days. Winter TRENDS AND PREDICTIONS precipitation was generally a mix of sleet and snow, and January was the snowiest In Detroit, between 1960 and 2010, average month—averaging 11.29 inches of snowfall, annual temperatures have increased by 1.4°F. for an average snow depth of 6.38 inches. This warming trend is expected to continue throughout the 21st Century. Although 1.4°F In terms of extreme weather, while Michigan seems like a modest change, small increases in is shielded from the worst effects of average annual temperature drastically increase hurricanes, it is located on the northeast the probability of extreme weather, such as heat fringe of the Midwest tornado belt.5 Wayne waves, excessive heat events, droughts, and County experienced 27 tornadoes since torrential rains. In particular, excessive heat 1950 while only 4 have crossed into events, the number of days per year with a high Detroit city limits.5 The lower frequency temperature above 90°F, will likely increase. of tornadoes occurring in Michigan may Between 1960 and 1980, Detroit averaged 11 be, in part, the result of the colder water of days exceeding the 90°F mark per year. During Lake Michigan during the spring and early the later quarter of the century, the number of summer months—the national prime period days exceeding 90°F rose slightly to 12 and to of tornado activity. 15 in the first decade of the 2000s. However, by the end of 21st Century, Detroit is projected to experience 36 to 72 days exceeding 90°F per year.

Similar warming trends will affect winter temperatures. Between 1960 and 1980, an average of 50 days had a daytime high of 32°F or lower, an average of 7 days was 0°F or lower, and only 3 years stayed above 0°F. Generally, average winter temperatures are slowly increasing nearer to the freeze-thaw point which poses significant risks to surface and subterranean infrastructure.

Total Annual Precipitation, Southeast Michigan Source: GLISA The Potential Impacts of Climate Change on Detroit, MI

14 CONTEXT Source: Winter Branch CR Artist

The increase in temperatures is expected to of untreated sewage released into the bring a rise in precipitation. In the last half Detroit and Rouge Rivers. This increases century, Michigan experienced an 11% increase Detroiters’ risk and exposure to waterborne in total annual precipitation, and increases in diseases. Also, increased precipitation annual precipitation are expected to continue. and flooding can cause severe damage to Precipitation in the summer months is expected private property and public infrastructure. to increase slightly, while spring, fall, and winter These and other adverse effects, of climate are expected to see a noticeable increase. change will be discussed further in our While winters will have less snowfalls, they Vulnerability Assessment section. will experience more precipitation in the form of rain. The average number of snowfalls is projected to decrease by 50%. Much like the rise in temperatures, in addition to experiencing more precipitation, Michigan is also expected to experience more frequent and more intense SOURCES storms, increasing the likelihood of floods. 1. Pew Center on Global Climate Change, “The Causes of Climate Change,” Science Brief 1 (August 2008) at 2, available at http://www.pewclimate.org/docUploads/global- On the ground, the increases in temperature warming-science-brief-august08.pdf and precipitation will create a diverse set of 2. EPA, “Frequently Asked Questions About Global Warming challenges for the City of Detroit’s municipal and Climate Change: Back to Basics,” available at:

CLIMATE 15 CONTEXT WEATHER EVENTS

The following section summarizes a few of the major weather-related events in Southeast Michigan since the start of the 20th Century. Often, extreme weather events and shifting weather patterns result in catastrophic blows to economic systems and local infrastructure, as well as outbreaks in health-related issues.

“SNOWIEST WEEK” “COLDEST WINTER” “WHITE HURRICANE”

Roughly 30 inches of This winter ranked as Considered to be one of snow fell over a 6 day the coldest winter in the worst in history, this period — the 3rd & 4th southern Michigan’s storm included nearly 5 biggest snowfalls in the history. The average inches in snowfall and

20th century. temperature from NOVEMBER, 1913 wind gusts over 70 mph.

WINTER, 1903-1904 December to February More than 235 sailors was 18.7 degrees. lost their lives on the Great Lakes and dozens of ships, including large

FEBRUARY-MARCH, 1900 FEBRUARY-MARCH, freighters, sunk.

Source: The Paragraph.com

16 CONTEXT WEATHER EVENTS

“DUST BOWL” & “HEAT WAVE”

The 1930s represent 1930’S (1936) one of the dryest periods in Michigan, referred to as the ‘Dust Bowl.’ This deade includes the driest year in recorded history (1936). The continual, long-standing droughts placed extreme economic pressures on farmers during The Great Depression. In addition, the ‘Heat Wave’ of 1936 included 7 straight days of extreme heat, resulting in nearly 400 deaths in Detroit. Source: HourDetroit.com; Illustrated by Arthur E. Giron

“THANKSGIVING “COLDEST WINTER EXTREME HEAT AND WEEKEND EVER” DRYNESS SNOWSTORM” The Winter of 1976- This summer included Recorded as the largest 1977 marks the coldest 39 days in which snowstorm of the 20th in Detroit history. Detroit SUMMER, 1988 temperatures exceeded

NOVEMBER, 1974 century, more than 19 failed to reach 32 °F for 90 °F, along with 5

inches of snow fell on WINTER, 1976-1977 45 consecutive days, days that exceeded Southeast Michigan resulting in an average 100 °F. In addition, during Thanksgiving January temperature some Michigan cities weekend. of 12.4 °F (normal recorded less than one- averages exceed 24 inch of rainfall from May °F). through June.

WEATHER EVENTS 17 18CONTEXT CONTEXT

Source: UPI.com JANUARY, 1994 Detroit history. the coldestdayin temperatures, including hours ofsub-zero roughly 57straight outbreak resultedin This massivecold “COLD OUTBREAK”

MARCH, 1997 power. 425,000 homeslost in history—roughtly the 3rdlargestblackout Michigan, resultingin sleet fellinSoutheast freezing rain,snow& Roughly 2.5inchesof ICE STORM

WINTER, 1997-1998 JULY 7, 1997 exceeded $140million. property andcrops and totaldamageto 100 injuriesoccurred, deaths andmorethan Michigan history. Seven the state—mostin were reportedacross More than15tornadoes TORNADO OUTBREAK below normal). snowfall (17.5inches in only14.5inchesof above normal,resulting nearly ninedegrees during thiswinterwas temperature inDetroit The average “EL NINO” 2002 WEST NILE “BLACKOUT” OUTBREAK As a result of poor More than 115 cases of regulation and reliability

West Nile occurred in 2003 AUGUST, standards, 50 million Wayne County, resulting Americans —l ranging in three deaths. Elderly from Michigan to the Source: Pasty.com populations proved eastern seaboard — to be most vulnerable lost power for multiple to the outbreak. As a days. Municipalities result, Wayne County rallied in order to granted $200,000 cater to vulnerable to city and township populations and ensure governments to the safety of its citizens. eradicate the spread of West Nile. Source: Examiner.com 2009 2012 2011 FLOODING & SEWAGE RECORD RAINFALL WEST NILE OVERFLOWS OUTBREAK & LYME Nearly 48 inches of rain DISEASE Extreme weather fell in 2011. A majority events resulted in more of the rainfall occurred Michigan recorded than 37 billion gallons as a result of intense roughly 170 cases of of sewage overflowing May and September West Nile, including 10 into Southeast Michigan thunderstorms. One fatalities (all of which waterways — an storm in May resulted were elderly patients). increase of 11 billion in flooding, as Detroit’s Local authorities are gallons from the infrastructure could also paying attention previous year. not handle the excess to a sizable increase in downpour. black-legged deer ticks — these ticks are often the primary source of Lyme Disease.

WEATHER EVENTS 19 Source: ByJWhiting360 VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT

Based on the projected changes from the Great Lakes Integrated Science Assessment (GLISA), extreme heat and precipitation are the biggest risks for Detroit. Air pollution, specifically elevated ground-level ozone, will also be a concern with increasing temperatures, but we were not able to quantify air pollution for this assessment. In this section, we will identify areas of high vulnerability pertaining to heat and flooding by quantifying concentrations of exposure and sensitivity in Detroit.

VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT PROCESS

A vulnerability assessment is used to understand and quantify vulnerability. Vulnerability is the combination of biophysical exposures, such as the actual temperature or rainfall change, and sensitivity of a population or system. Sensitivity factors are often human variables such as population demographics. This vulnerability assessment is a geographic overview of concentrations of vulnerability in Detroit. Our assessment used data from the American Community Survey, an ongoing national survey by the U.S. Census Bureau that collects detailed information on housing, income, education, and other population characteristics. We obtained data at the block group level, an area that contains between 600 and 3,000 individuals. This is the smallest geographic level for which demographic data is published. By mapping areas of high exposure and high sensitivity, these assessments can identify areas of high vulnerability. Our methodology will explain the process of how we identified and combined exposure and sensitivity.

VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT 21 HEAT EXPOSURE ASSESSMENT

Geographic location within a region can VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT VULNERABILITY drastically influence the exposure to heat. In Detroit, the average annual temperature from 1980-2010 has increased by 1.4°F, whereas the Figure 1: Surface Temperature Map average annual temperature for Ann Arbor has only increased by 0.2°F over the same period.1 Although 1.4°F seems like a modest change, a small increase in average annual temperature drastically increases the probability of extreme heat events and droughts. By 2099, Detroit is estimated to experience 36 extreme heat event days per summer, up from 9 days on average between 1975-1995 2.

Our analysis included two land cover variables that impact effects of extreme heat events: impervious surfaces and tree canopy. Impervious surfaces, such as asphalt and concrete, absorb high amounts of heat and radiate it back into the air, increasing the surface temperatures. Tree canopy and other Source:Heat Map by Michael Howe vegetation exert a cooling influence on the Map Prepared By: University of Michigan Detroit Climate Capstone surrounding area. Land use decisions, resulting in the high concentration of impervious surfaces, coupled with disparities in the distribution of tree cover, interact to make certain areas of the city much warmer in summer months; thus, more vulnerable to extreme heat events 3. This effect Figure 2 :Detroit Land Cover Type is termed the Urban Heat Island effect (UHI effect) 4,5.

Figure [1] shows the surface temperatures in Detroit. 6 This map demonstrates the temperature variation throughout the city, the dispersed character of the UHIs, and highlights how different surface materials absorb and re- radiate solar energy. For example, roads tend to be hotter and therefore create visible lines on the map. The average annual temperatures of UHI areas of Detroit can be 1.8–5.4°F warmer than surrounding areas 7. However, vegetation cover reduces surface and air temperatures through evapotranspiration and shading, thereby decreasing vulnerability to extreme heat8. To analyze local variations in UHI effect we obtained land cover data from the United States Source: USGS GloVis LandSat 7 ETM+; Geological Survey Global Visualization Viewer American Community Survey; US Census 2010 (GloVis) available at usgs.glovis.gov. Map Prepared By: University of Michigan Detroit Climate Capstone

22 VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT As the above maps demonstrate, impervious surface and low tree canopy correspond to location of UHIs within the city. To understand the relative importance of impervious surface and tree canopy, we calculated the percent of each census block group’s land cover covered Figure 3:Detroit Exposure to Excessive Heat Based on Land Cover by by 1) impervious surface and by 2) tree canopy. Block Group 2010 Based on research by Coseo and Larsen, areas of impervious surface were weighted by a factor of 7 and areas of tree canopy were weighted by a factor of -2.9 The two layers were combined to create cumulative heat exposure scores at the block group level, as shown in Figure [3].

HEAT SENSITIVITY

Our analysis used four primary factors that contribute to increased risk of heat-related illness: residents 65 and older, lower educational attainment, poverty and household access to a vehicle. These four demographic variables measure human sensitivity to extreme heat. The literature used to derive these variables revealed the importance of neighborhood socio-economic Source: USGS GloVis LandSat 7 ETM+; US Census 2010 positions, or group-level factors, in predicting Map Prepared By: University of Michigan Detroit Climate Capstone risk of illness, independent of the influence of the same variable measured at the individual level10. For this reason, and due to the difficulty in obtaining individual-level income or health data, we conducted our vulnerability analysis at the census block group level. Figure 4:High School Education or Less by Census Block Group

Two indicators of community level socioeconomic status are associated with increased heat-related mortality; these indicators include the percentage of the population without a high school diploma, and the percentage of the population living in poverty.11 Research demonstrates a link between low educational attainment and poor health.12 Moreover, specific studies of heat-related deaths in cities across the U.S. find greater mortality rates among individuals with lower levels of education because educational attainment is often a measure of quality of life, occupation and living conditions.13 Using U.S. Census data obtained from Social Explorer, we calculated the percentage of each census block group holding no more than a high school diploma, as shown Source: American Community Survey 2006-2010; US Census 2010 Map Prepared By: University of Michigan Detroit Climate Capstone in Figure [4].

HEAT 23 Figure 5:MedianHouseholdIncomebyCensusBlockGroup 24VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT Map PreparedBy:UniversityofMichiganDetroitClimateCapstone Source: American CommunitySurvey2006-2010;USCensus2010 VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT Map PreparedBy: UniversityofMichiganDetroitClimate Capstone Source: American Community Survey2006-2010;USCensus2010 Figure 6: Percent ofPopulation65orOlderbyCensusBlockGroup mortality. demonstrated toplayaroleinheat-related community levelsofpovertyhavealsobeen doubt thatpovertyleadstoillhealth,”and heat. Onanindividuallevel,“thereislittle conditioning andotheropportunitiestoavoid related deathbyincreasingaccesstoair Similarly, wealthmitigatestheriskofheat- admission ratesandmortality. during extremeheat,effecting bothhospital age tobeaprominentvulnerabilityfactor A significantbodyofliteraturehasfoundold neighborhoods, showninFigure[5]. by incomelevelinordertoidentifythepoorest group andstratifiedthecensusblockgroups the medianincomeofeachcensusblock obtained fromSocialExplorer, wecalculated households ineachcensusblockgroupthat census data,wemappedthepercentageof refuge duringextremeheatevents.Using conditioned coolingcenteroralternative a vehiclearelessabletodriveanair- sensitivity index,sinceindividualswithout to vehiclesasacontributingfactorinthe Finally, weincludedhouseholdaccess shown inFigure[6]. of eachcensusblockgroupoverage65,as by household,wecalculatedthepercentage could notaccessindividual-levelagedata 14 Therefore, usingcensusdata 15 Sincewe had no vehicle access, as shown in Figure [7]. Figure 7 :Percent of Population without Vehicle Access by Census Block Group

In order to understand the cumulative sensitivity, we calculated a sensitivity index. To do so, we converted the four variables to compatible scales so they could be combined to produce a single index. In order to normalize the variables, we computed the z-scores for each individual variable by subtracting the mean of the sample from each block group’s score and then dividing the result by the standard deviation of the sample. This ensures that each of the rescaled variables has a mean of zero and a standard deviation of 1, allowing them to be combined directly. Areas of high sensitivity to extreme heat were geographically dispersed throughout the city, with small clusters in the downtown, southwest, and east sides of the city. The four socio- Source: American Community Survey 2006-2010; US Census 2010 economic factors were equally weighted. Map Prepared By: University of Michigan Detroit Climate Capstone

Figure 8 :Detroit Sensitivity to Excessive Heat by Block Group 2010

Source: American Community Survey; US Census 2010 Map Prepared By: University of Michigan Detroit Climate Capstone

HEAT 25 26VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT Map PreparedBy: UniversityofMichiganDetroitClimate Capstone USCensus2010 Source: USGSGloVis LandSat7ETM+; American CommunitySurvey; by BlockGroup2010 Figure 10:DetroitHeatVulnerability andCoolingCenter Access Map PreparedBy:UniversityofMichiganDetroitClimateCapstone American CommunitySurvey;USCensus2010 Source: USGSGloVis LandSat7ETM+; Figure 9:DetroitHeatVulnerability byCensusBlockGroup2010 VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT in thecity. vulnerable incomparisontootherblockgroups index identifiestheblockgroupsthataremore represent anysortofabsoluterisk.Rather, the relative index,thevulnerabilityindexdoesnot northwest areaofthecity. Becausethisisa area andtheleastvulnerablearein groups areclusteredroughlyinthedowntown general, themostvulnerablecensusblock levels intheNorthwestportionofDetroit.In distributed fairlyrandomlywithnotablylower Based onthismethodology, vulnerabilityis and sensitivitycreatehigherriskforresidents. of thecitywhereconcentrationsexposure This vulnerabilityindexidentifiestheareas indices. index tocombineourexposureandsensitivity To identifyareasofvulnerability, wecreatedan HEAT VULNERABILITY walking, inordertodetermine eachservice we used15minutesofoutdoor exposure,while be matchedby45minutesofrest. Therefore, each 15minuteperiodoflightactivityshould They recommendthatduring90°Fheatevents, when experiencinglighttomoderateexertion. body temperaturesfromexceeding100.4°F conditions. The TLVs aredesigned toprevent threshold limitvalues(TLV) forexternalworking & Health Administration (OSHA)hasdetermined center serviceareas. The OccupationalSafety to determinetheappropriaterangeofcooling We usednationalworkingsafetystandards center network,wedeterminedserviceareas. how residentsareservedbyDetroit’s cooling refuge duringextremeheatevents. To evaluate cooling centerswhereresidentscanseek libraries andrecreationcenterstoserveas The CityofDetroitopensfacilitiessuchas CENTER ACCESS COOLING HEATVULNERABILITY AND area. For pedestrians, 15 minutes translates FLOODING: SYSTEM into 0.775 miles, using an average speed of 3.1 mph16. We used the Buffer tool, a GIS function, EXPOSURE to define an appropriate walking distance. We found that 24.3% of Detroit’s land area is Compared to low-lying coastal cities such within a 15 minute walk of a cooling station. as New York or New Orleans, Detroit is Calculations of the population served by each not at risk from sea level rise or hurricane- cooling center reveal that roughly 28.8% of induced flooding. Neither is it at risk for Detroit’s population is within a 15-minute walk of landslides of the type that can occur after a cooling station. heavy rainfalls in mountainous areas. However, the projected high volume of We did not calculate automobile or transit precipitation has the ability to overwhelm service to cooling centers. While automobiles Detroit’s combined sewer system and cause can often provide the most immediate source of outfalls of untreated sanitary sewage into relief, whether by air conditioning in the vehicle the waterways. At first glance this appears or quickest transport to a cooling center, 24 to be a problem completely for the Detroit percent of Detroit households do not own a Water and Sewerage Department (DWSD). vehicle 17. Transit also offers an air-conditioned However, after further analysis, our land use mode of travel, but service times and coverage decisions are linked to, and have significant are limited, an issue further exacerbated by impacts on, sewer infrastructure. recent spending cuts 18. When the sewer infrastructure cannot Combining the cooling center service areas with manage the stormwater runoff, excess the vulnerability map allowed us to determine stormater and sewage is directly discarded what percent of Detroit’s most vulnerable into the Rouge and Detroit Rivers. Because residents are adequately served. Figure [10] the city is serviced by a combined sewer shows the walking service areas overlaid on the and wastewater system, these discharges vulnerability index map. By selecting the top 20 also contain untreated sanitary sewage. In percent of most vulnerable census block groups, 2011, Detroit discharged 7 billion gallons we calculated that only 29.6 percent of the most of untreated sewage into the Great Lakes vulnerable residents are within a 15-minute walk system, making it one of the largest sources 19 of a cooling station. This service area captures of pollution in the Great Lakes system . only 24.4 percent of the city. While DWSD has embarked on significant grey infrastructure projects to address According to these findings, the city’s official the discharge issue, the DWSD has not response to extreme heat events — cooling pursued green infrastructure projects that centers — is not sufficiently addressing Detroit’s seek to deal with onsite stormwater before needs. Since cooling centers are co-located with it reaches pipes. For this reason, our existing libraries and recreation centers, and vulnerability assessment has focused on the are therefore likely to be a cost-efficient service, burden of runoff into the sewer system as we would need to conduct further cost-benefit the main exposure to flooding. analysis to determine a recommended relocation strategy. We can, however, recommend opening This vulnerability assessment only additional cooling centers to serve more of considered the exposure element of sewer Detroit’s vulnerable population, especially those system vulnerability, because we did not reliant on walking. have information on the sewersheds’ sensitivity factors. Sewershed information is important to obtain for future research and perhaps represents an important future

HEAT AND FLOOD 27 28VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT Figure 11 :DetroitLandCover Type Map PreparedBy:UniversityofMichigan DetroitClimateCapstone Source: MichiganGeographicData Library, MichiganQuarternaryGeology Figure 12:UnderlyingSoil Type andSoilDrainage Map PreparedBy:UniversityofMichiganDetroitClimateCapstone American CommunitySurvey;USCensus2010 Source: USGSGloVis LandSat7ETM+; VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT based uponstandardizedengineering tables. coefficients. Theselandcoverrunoff valuesare surfaces contributeheavilywithrespecttorunoff tree canopy, baregroundandimpervious areas alsohavealowerrunoff coefficient than the most.Whilegrassyandsparselyvegetated covered withimpervioussurfacecontributed canopy contributedtheleasttorunoff andareas or impervioussurface. Areas coveredbytree tree canopy, herbaceouscover, bareground, was categorizedintooneoffourcategories: (GloVis) available at usgs.glovis.gov. Land cover Geological SurveyGlobalVisualization Viewer land covermapobtainedfromtheUnitedStates As withtheassessmentofheat,weutilizeda does notretainanywateronsite. on sitewhileavalueofonerepresentsthat generates norunoff anddealswithallrainwater at aparticularsite.Zerorepresentssitethat represents theamountofrunoff thatisgenerated is ascorerangingbetweenzeroandonethat these factorscreatesarunoff coefficient. This drainage type,andslope. The combinationof considered threefactors:landcovertype,soil quantify thisexposure,calledrunoff burden,we channel waterintothesewerinfrastructure. To nature donotreadilyabsorbwater, andinstead where itfalls.Impervioussurfacesbytheir sanity sewersystemishighlydependentupon moves throughthecombinedstormwater/ sewer system. The mannerinwhichrainwater the runoff fromthesurfacethatflowsinto In thisinstance,exposureisthevolumeof these varyacrossthecitybysewerdistrict. on thesystembyincreasedraineventsandhow what relativelevelsofburdenwillbeimposed exposure aloneprovidesanexcellentideaof partnership fortheDCACandDWSD.However, Soil type impacts runoff volumes. In Detroit, Figure 13: Topographical Slope as Percent Change in Elevation three major soil types dominate. These different soil types have different percolation rates. Poorly drained soils (the clays, silts, and fine matter) are unable to remove water quickly, thus giving runoff more opportunity to go somewhere else. Therefore, poorly drained soils have higher coefficients than well drained sandy soils that quickly absorb water. Silt and clay soils are found towards the river and in the east side of the city. Sandy soil, that drains quickly and contributes less to runoff burden, is found primarily in the north and northwest areas of the city.

Slope is another factor that impacts runoff volumes. Areas with higher slopes shed water more quickly. Detroit has relatively little elevation change and therefore minimal slopes. Source: Michigan Geographic Data Library, We categorized the minimal slopes into three Michigan Digital Elevation Model distinct categories: less than 2 percent, 2 to 6 Map Prepared By: University of Michigan Detroit Climate Capstone percent, and greater than six percent. Only a few small areas of the city near the Rouge River in the northwest contain slopes of greater than six percent. The map illustrates how Detroit is a flat city with a gently sloping topography. The Figure 14: Aggregate Runoff Coefficient by Block Group 2010 highest elevation points occur near M-10 and Eight Mile Road. From these high point, there it a gently slope southward toward downtown and the Detroit River. Most of the city then falls in an area of less than 2 percent slope.

We generated unique land cover combinations based on the three factors — land cover, soil and slope — and determined each combination’s relative abundance within each census block group. Based on the relative abundance and associated runoff coefficient for each combination, we created an aggregate runoff coefficient for the each census block group. The highest scores (areas of greatest runoff concern) tended to cluster around the downtown core and in areas of major impervious Source: Michigan Geographic Data Library; Michigan Digital cover. Elevation Model; GloVis Landsat 7 ETM+; US Census 2010 Map Prepared By: University of Michigan Detroit Climate Capstone

FLOOD 29 30VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT

Map PreparedBy:UniversityofMichiganDetroitClimateCapstone US Census2010;DWSDWastewater MasterPlan Source: GloVis Landsat7ETM+; Figure 15:ImperviousSurfaceCoverbyDWSDSewerDistrict VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT flooding. block groupismorelikelytocontribute large volumesofrunoff, thenthereference surrounded byblockgroupsthatgenerate overloaded. However, if thatblockgroupis sewer districtwillbelesslikelytobecome surrounding blockgroupsdonot,thenthe a greatdealtorunoff burden,butthe For instance,ifablockgroupcontributes sewer districtlevel. is alsousefultoanalyzethesystemat part ofalargersewerdistrict. Therefore, it isolation. Eachblockgroup’s sewershedis However, blockgroupsdonotexistin surfaces. sewersheds withhigherlevelsofimpervious prioritizing on-sitestormwatermanagementin This assessmentillustratestheimportanceof areas ofimperviouscover(noteSWDetroit). around thedowntowncoreandlarge general, themostvulnerableareascluster effort tounderstandthecumulativeimpact.In value totheindividualblockgroupscoreinan range (27%).We addedthesewershed-wide district inthenorthwestfallingwelloutside 40 and60percent,withonlytheRougeRiver as impervioussurfacerangesmainlybetween district varieswidely. The percentagethatexists cover thatisimperviouswithineachsewer districts, wefoundthatthepercentageofland Normalizing bythesizeofindividualsewer due toitssizeableimpactonrunoff coefficients. Impervious coveristhemostpredictivevariable, There areninesewershedswithinthecity. in termsofflooding. Theterminologyof100- maps todenoteareasofspecial hazardandrisk of floodexposure.FEMA usesthefloodplain determine whetherahousehold wasinanarea maps of100-yearand500-yearfloodplainsto Our exposureassessmentusedFEMA’s exposure. prepared fororabletorespondthatflood sensitivity referstohowwellahouseholdis location tofloodplains.Householdfloodrisk correlates highlytothehousehold’s relative assessment. The householdfloodriskexposure the secondcomponentofourvulnerability The householdlevelanalysiscomprises citizens wouldbeimpacteddisproportionately. prone totheeffects offlooding,andcertain There arecertainareasofthecitythatmore Flood riskalsoexistsatthehouseholdlevel. EXPOSURE FLOODING: HOUSEHOLD year and 500-year floods refers to the probability in a given year—that is, an area in a 100-year flood plain has a 1 percent (1 in 100) probability Figure 16: Total Runoff Exposure by Block Group 2010 of flooding in any given year. However, many cities are finding that these designated areas are flooding with increased frequency. If this trend persists, the larger 500-year flood plain may in effect become a more relevant area in addition to other low-lying areas. Moreover, areas along the Detroit River may be at increased risk in future years. As Figure [19] shows, areas of flood plain exposure are limited predominantly to two geographic areas: one along the Rouge River in the west, and the other in the southeast alongside Grosse Pointe Park and across from, and on, Belle Isle.

Sensitivity to a given flood exposure was determined by the age of the housing stock and the median household income. Homes built before 1940 used a more porous concrete material for basement construction. Water flows Source: Michigan Geographic Data Library; Michigan Digital easily and more rapidly into these foundations Elevation Model; GloVis Landsat 7 ETM+; US Census 2010 Map Prepared By: University of Michigan Detroit Climate Capstone relative to foundations that were constructed in later years. Additionally, homes that are older may be sensitive in other ways if residents Figure 17: Housing Sensitivity Based on Income and Housing have not had the financial resources to make Age by Block Group 2010 significant upgrades. By incorporating median household income, we can distinguish older, well-maintained homes from older, at-risk homes. Residents with higher incomes are more likely to renovate their homes to prevent flooding or to repair flood damage. Additionally, flooding that displaces residents from their homes will have a disproportionate effect on low-income households. These households may not be able to afford to miss work or rent a hotel room.

This map of the older housing stock and median household income may also be useful for other DCAC Work Groups that target lower-income housing

Source: American Community Survey 2006-2010; US Census 2010 Map Prepared By: University of Michigan Detroit Climate Capstone

FLOOD 31 32VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT Map PreparedBy: UniversityofMichiganDetroitClimate Capstone Source: American CommunitySurvey2006-2010; USCensus2010 Figure 19:HouseholdSensitivityandFloodPotential Map PreparedBy:UniversityofMichiganDetroitClimateCapstone Source: MichiganGeographicDataLibrary, Hydrology;FEMA FloodMaps Figure 18:FloodRiskHazard Figure 20: Household Sensitivity and Flood Potential

By observing the overlap of the flood exposure areas and housing sensitivity, we can identify several block groups that are vulnerable to household flooding risk. We identified two areas of exposure concern. Figure [19] shows the Jefferson-Chalmers area in the east alongside Grosse Pointe Park, and Figure [20] shows the area on the city’s west side near the Rouge River. Underlying the floodplain designation in these maps is a map of housing sensitivity using two variables, median household income and the percent of the housing stock built before 1940; these variables were analyzed at the block group level. This comparison is a relative measure, but it shows that even within the small geographic extents of these two maps, some census block groups tare more vulnerable than other nearby census block groups.

VULNERABILITY COMPARISON

When examining the maps of heat vulnerability and system flooding vulnerability, there are clear similarities. Because large areas of impervious surfaces with lower areas of tree canopy are more vulnerable to both extreme heat and runoff burden, many of the same areas of the city appear in both vulnerability assessments. However, this also presents the possibility of strategically locating interventions that address both problems.

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WORK GROUPS

This chapter discusses each Work Group in a detailed fashion. This section outlines specific Detroit-related issues pertaining to each Work Group, as well as a list of possible guidance strategies and indicators. As mentioned, these guidance strategies and indicators serve as a potential foundation for future action. Lastly, each Work Group section provides a list of resources; these resources cite works used in our analysis and provide a basis for further research.

The following encompass the seven Work Groups discussed in this chapter:

• BUSINESSES & INSTITUTIONS • COMMUNITY PUBLIC HEALTH IMPACTS • ENERGY • HOMES & NEIGHBORHOODS • PARKS, PUBLIC SPACE & WATER INFRASTRUCTURE • SOLID WASTE • TRANSPORTATION

WORK GROUPS 35 BUSINESSES & WORK GROUPS INSTITUTIONS

Because of the varying size and scope of Detroit’s businesses and institutions, the RATIONALE FOR GUIDANCE definition of “vulnerability” (as it pertains to these organizations) focuses on risk. STRATEGIES Climate change often intensifies the risks normally associated with business The two primary guidance strategies pertaining operations, such as market, financial and to Businesses and Institutions include: supply-chain risk. Therefore businesses and institutions must address vulnerability 1. Review and improve current business and implement adaptation strategies, not practices just because of reputational gains, but 2. Create sustainable green markets because climate change can drastically affect consumption, operations and logistics. Reviewing and improving current business The following chart illustrates climate practices ranks as a primary focus because it’s change’s impact on risk factors for local effects are immediate and easily transformed. businesses and institutions: In order to make gains in eco-efficiency, firms and organizations must evaluate and catalogue ongoing practices. Upon the completion of this internal evaluation, firms and organizations can institute green programs. This strategy targets a broad array of firms and organizations, ranging from large-scale manufacturers to mom- and-pop retail stores and restaurants.

Figure 1 - Risks associated with climate change; Source: UKCIP This section focuses on guidance strategies Secondly, creating sustainable green markets for Businesses and Institutions. These is crucial to the long-term sustainability of this guidance strategies serve as an aid for the Work Group. This strategy focuses on policy Work Group chair and members as they reform, regulatory action, capital attraction and address vulnerabilities and risk factors capital investment. This guidance strategy associated with climate change. Moreover, focuses on the review and update of current these guidance strategies engage a wide environmental policy in order to determine range of businesses and institutions ranging areas of opportunity for capital investment. In from grass roots organizations and “mom- addition, this strategy focuses on leveraging and-pop” stores to large conglomerates. local incubators and accelerators as key assets This section provides options and avenues in attracting venture capital and seed funding. for Work Group members to explore ideas The combination of these two guidance in an effort to mitigate the impact of climate strategies address current vulnerabilities and change. In addition, this section outlines a build the foundation for future progress. few actions that will ensure the long-term sustainability of the project.

36 WORK GROUPS GUIDANCE STRATEGY #1 - REVIEW & IMPROVE CURRENT BUSINESS PRACTICES

This guidance strategy focuses on engaging current market movers within Detroit, as well as providing the foundation for future climate DEFINITION adaptation efforts. This section discusses GREEN JOBS potential “actions” and programs that will Produce (“supply”) goods or services that result enhance current systems. Moreover, the in: generating and storing renewable energy, indicators provide a framework for measuring recycling existing materials, energy efficient the success of each action. product manufacturing, distribution, construction, installation, and maintenance, education, The following actions provide the foundation for compliance, and awareness, and natural and the first guidance strategy: sustainable product manufacturing

1. Identify market movers and ENVIRONMENTAL RISK environment-oriented organizations Vulnerable aspects of organizations that are 2. Engage and contact businesses and exacerbated by climate change; Factors of organizations production and capital flows are influenced 3. Partner with colleges and universities dramatically by extreme weather events and 4. Develop website for businesses and changing climate conditions institutions to learn about green practices 5. Formulate and distribute “Green” checklist and survey for broad range of businesses 6. Create and distribute ‘preparedness’ checklist for climate emergencies 7. Leverage checklist and survey data for Green Certification program

The first three actions focus on building a strong coalition around climate action. By identifying and engaging key organizations and institutions, this Work Group can move forward in a cohesive, sustained fashion. The fourth action step builds upon the community engagement process by leveraging technology. More specifically, an internet presence provides a platform for awareness, education and consensus building with regard to businesses, institutions and climate action.

Actions five and six motivate businesses and institutions to analyze existing practices. Step five deals specifically with outlining a guide for organizations to reflect upon current behaviors; upon completion of this checklist and survey process, companies will have a heightened Source: By Michigan Municipal League

BUSINESS & INSTITUTIONS 37 38WORK GROUPS WORK GROUPS environmentally consciousorganizations these businesspracticesandrewards an independententitythatmonitors policies. Insomeexamples,citiescreated pursuit ofgreenpracticesandadaptation monitor businessesandinstitutionsintheir independent agency. This agencywould steps five and six in order to create an leveraging datacompiledthrough The last action deals specifically with thorough “game plans.” must preparefortheseeventsbydeveloping weather eventsincreases,organizations institutions. As thepropensityforextreme the preparednessofbusinessesand focuses onextremeweathereventsand practices andclimateaction.Stepsix sense ofawarenesswithregardtocompany Group’s efforts. of momentumassociatedwith theWork basic innature,itprovides agoodsense preparedness. Although thisindicatoris process forexistingpracticesandclimate to businessespartakinginthechecklist program participants,especiallywithregard The first indicator measures the number of 4. Presenceofcoalitionincommunity philanthropicdonations 3. Receiptofgrantmoneyand 2. Website hitsandsocialmediapresence 1. Numberofprogramparticipants strategy arelistedbelow: indicators for the first guidance can measuresuccess.Somekey serve asmetricswithwhichwe indicators —these first guidance strategy requires As mentioned,theactionsfor community. the and organizations strong socialcontractbetweenthe focuses ontheideaofcreatinga of thistypeprogram goal primary with specific certifications. The FOR THESE EVENTSBY DEVELOPING business developmentandlandusedecisions. City officials and other leaders with regard to simply includetheDCAC’s abilitytomeetwith Group’s presencewithinthecommunitymay the Work Group’s efforts. MeasuringtheWork the communityfurtherindicatessuccessof addition tofunding,theDCAC’s presencewithin as recognitionamongstcommunitymembers.In investment intotheWork Group’s efforts, aswell philanthropic donationsallowsforgreater influence. The receipt of grant funding and Work Group’s abilitytogeneratecapitaland The thirdandfourthindicatorsdealwiththe in communityinterest. Group’s internetplatforms indicateanincrease an increaseinuniquevisitorstotheWork internet presence. Similarly to the first indicator, quantifies activity related to the Work Group’s The second indicator resembles the first, as it entrepreneurship 2. Attract greensocialventuresandpromote 1. Implement“Green Procurement” process strategy include: approach. The twoprongsofthisguidance This guidancestrategyfocusesonatwo-prong opportunities pertainingtogreenventures. identification and pursuit of market The guidancestrategycentersonthe MARKETS SUSTAINABLE GREEN STRATEGY #2-CREATE AS THE PROPENSITY FOREXTREME ORGANIZATIONS MUST PREPARE WEATHER EVENTSINCREASES, THOROUGH “GAME PLANS.” The first prong deals specifically with The first step refers to the necessary procurement. Procurement processes refer to analysis required for identifying market rules and regulations pertaining to the acquiring opportunities and outlining potential of goods and services. Typically, procurement strategies for implementation. Although this processes focus on the manufacturing and indicator is not measured quantitatively, it distribution components of the supply-chain. A requires thorough discussion and continual prime example of a local green procurement engagement. Once market opportunities process involves Detroit Diesel’s voluntary are identified, the second indicator serves participation with the Environmental Protection to support the pursuit of such opportunities. Agency (EPA) in order to improve energy An economic and fiscal impact study efficiency. Detroit Diesel’s initial investment informs whether the pursuit of such market into property, equipment and manufacturing opportunities results in a positive outcomes processes led to long-term gains. The for local employment. Such outcomes company is currently a market leader in are often a key selling point with regard to green manufacturing and continually receives receiving funding, incentives and political recognition for their efforts. support. Lastly, the third indicator refers to capital requirements necessary for green Implementing green procurement practices procurement. Studies explaining the costs involves conducting a Strengths/Weaknesses/ and benefits of green procurement aim to Opportunities/Threats (SWOT) analysis and further encourage the involvement of the determining the key market opportunities. The business community. identification of these market opportunities is crucial with regard to the pursuit of policy Similarly to the first strategy, the second reform as well as the encouragement of green strategy — attracting green social ventures procurement. and promoting social entrepreneurship — employs a two-prong approach. The first The following indicators pertain to green prong focuses on attracting green venture procurement: capital groups. Organizations such as the 1. Identify a market opportunities with regard Green Garage already exist within Detroit to green procurement in order to foster incubation. This particular 2. Complete independent study on economic strategy seeks to attract capital in order impact of green procurement implementation to aid in the launch and scaling of these 3. Complete study describing capital businesses. requirement for green procurement process

Source: By Kevin.Ward

BUSINESS & INSTITUTIONS 39 40WORK GROUPS WORK GROUPS regulatory processesforgreen businesses. within Detroit,aswellstreamlining creating anetworkforgreenbusinesses Examples ofsuchcollaborationinclude long-term successofthegreeneconomy. can createanenvironmentconducivetothe development agencies,theWork Group collaborating withstart-upsandeconomic on theretentionofgreenventures.By flourishing green economy must focus Lastly, thecreationofasustainable, of thesepursuits. Work Groupcanmeasurethesustainability green venturesprovidesawayinwhichthe start-ups andjobsassociatedwiththese the processof).Moreover, thenumberof already investedingreenventures(or business bythenumberofgroupsthathave venture capitalgroupsinvestingingreen capital. The Work Groupcanidentify attraction andsustainabilityofventure effective measurewithregardtothe The first three indicators provide a simple, relocate not 4. EnsureventuresstayinDetroitanddo 3. Monitorventure-backedjobsinDetroit orientedstart-ups 2. Measurenumberofenvironmentally- 1. Monitortotalventurecapitalinvestment social entrepreneurship: of greenventurecapitalandpromotion The followingindicatorspertaintoattraction promotes talentattractionanddevelopment. Group cancreateanenvironmentthat learning andlocalbusinesses,theWork partnerships withinstitutionsofhigher programs withinDetroit. Through leveraging establishment ofsocialentrepreneurship The secondprongrelatestothe org.uk/wizard/> “Climate Adaptation Wizard.” Green GarageDetroit. Detroit Venture Partners. pdf> demanddetroit.com/pdf/press/pr-2009-05-06a. Launches New Green Initiatives.” Detroit CreativeCorridorCenter. Cleveland. innovative, tech-basedstartupsinDetroitand helps entrepreneurslaunch,fund,andgrow Bizdom isanentrepreneurshipacceleratorthat Bizdom. RESOURCES Source: By Daviddje

BUSINESS AND INSTITUTIONS 41 42 WORK GROUPS WORK GROUPS (Source: EPA) temperature remains highlimitingrelief from theheat. daytime highisabove90*F andthenighttimelow average forthatseason.An EHEoccurswhenthe humidity readingscompared tothetypicalregional Refers tounusuallyhottemperatures and/orhigh EXTREME HEAT EVENTS(EHE’s) Association) communities.” (Source: American Public Health death, andpromotewellbeingforindividuals “Public healthworkstopreventdisease,injuryand PUBLIC HEALTH DEFINITION pollution orleadpaintinthehome. from environmentalpollution,suchasair additionally, childrensuffer disproportionately Each oftheseissuesaffects children; problems ofmentalhealthorchronicstress. negative secondaryeffects andevencause homes, jobs,andcommunitiescanhave weather thatdisplacespeoplefromtheir exacerbate them. respiratory diseases,heatandpoorairquality does notdirectlycausecardiovascularor sensitive tothesenegativeeffects. to identifyfactorsthatmakepeoplemore new ones, the field of public health is working existing healthproblems,andcreatepotential effects ofclimatechange will worsenmany individuals andcommunities.Becausethe injury anddeath,promotewellbeingfor Public healthworkstopreventdisease, HEALTH IMPACTS COMMUNITY PUBLIC and accidents. cancers, cerebrovasculardiseases,assault, Detroit in2007-2008wereheartdiseases, dramatic. The leadingcausesofdeathin will manifestinDetroit,norallbeequally Not allnegativeeffects ofclimatechange DETROIT CONTEXT negative impactonthecommunity. to shortageswillhaveadisproportionately residents, anychangeinfoodpricesdue the cityhasahighproportionoflow-income 1 Whileclimatechange 2 Additionally, severe 4 Because 3

enhanced surface temperatures” such asDetroit,“havebeenassociatedwith low-density landusespreadoverlargeareas, temperatures overaperiodofdays.Citieswith from 9to36days four-fold increasebytheendof21stcentury, EHE dayswillcauseDetroittoexperiencea the riskofEHEs. The projectedincreasein a vehicle. transportation access,suchashavingaccessto barriers, socialisolation,lackofeducation,and increase vulnerabilityincludepoverty, language physical mobilityordisability. Socialfactorsthat as theveryyoungorold),disease,and sensitivity. Physicalfactorsincludeage(such two maingroupsoffactorsthatincrease the mostsensitivepopulation. There are its emergencyandpreventivestrategiesat sensitivity, publichealthefforts shouldtarget is comprisedofbiophysicalexposuresand increase infoodprices.Sincevulnerability weather events,insect-bornedisease,and air quality, water quality, flooding or extreme public healthareextremeheat,cold, The main biophysical exposures that influence VULNERABILITY extreme heatevents(EHEs) increase intemperaturebutthefrequencyof The maindangerfromincreasedheatisnotan RATIONALE as vulnerabletothisrisk unfamiliar withordonotperceive themselves to copewithtemperatureextremestheyare may occurbecausepeopledon’tknowhow conditioning, are sociallyisolated,orwho suffer very old,young,homebound, lackair Extreme heatisdangerous tothosewhoare in defining human sensitivity to heat” than heatintensity, isthesingleimportantfactor relationships, becauseweathervariability, rather States havethestrongestweathermortality in thenortheasternandmidwesternUnited and AtmosphericAgency,“Cities Oceanic 7 . According totheNational 9 . 5 , sustainedhigh 6 , intensifying 8 . This from chronic physical or mental illness10. With an increase in extreme heat events, there will DEFINITION be an increased risk of heat-related deaths and 11 VOCs and NOx exacerbation of illnesses . Additionally, the high “Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and nitrogen electricity demand for air-conditioning during oxide (NOx) are emitted as gases from certain a heat event increases the risk of brownouts solids or liquids. VOCs include a variety of and power outages, further isolating potentially chemicals, some of which may have short- and vulnerable groups. People who suffer health long-term adverse health effects. Emissions from effects as a result of heat may survive the industrial facilities and electric utilities, motor EHE itself but succumb in the two-week period vehicle exhaust, gasoline vapors, and chemical following the event. solvents are some of the major sources of NOx and VOC.” (Source: EPA) Greenhouse gas emissions also have chemicals (NOCs and VOCs) that are ozone precursors, meaning that they interact with OZONE PRECURSORS heat and chemically transform into harmful Ground level ozone is not emitted directly into the ozone particles. “Higher temperatures hasten air, but is created by chemical reactions between the chemical reactions that lead to ozone and oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and volatile organic secondary particle formation”12. With higher compounds (VOC). These chemical reactions ground-level temperatures, these reactions will are accelerated by heat. happen more, leading to a decrease in air quality and an increase in harmful effects on people’s respiratory function. APPARENT TEMPERATURES Calculation of what people perceive as the Breathing ozone “can cause inflammation in temperature in hot and humid conditions. the deep lung as well as…decreases in lung (Source: National Oceanic and Atmospheric function”.13 Exposure to ozone and other Administration) airborne pollution can increase respiratory illness, asthma attacks, asthma-related hospital visits, and even premature death. People who spend more time outdoors, such as children and laborers, will have greater exposure and therefore greater risk.

There may be fewer deaths from exposure, because winter temperatures overall will be warmer. However, there may be more frequent extreme winter precipitation events, such as blizzards and ice storms. While everyone may suffer the same exposure to a severe weather event, not all people are vulnerable in the same way. Blizzards and other storms that block roads and isolate people pose a specific hazard to older people and those with chronic health conditions who will be cut off from help. Homeless individuals will be at greater risk of death from exposure when an event comes on suddenly. Additionally, low-income people may suffer damage to their homes or lose income Source: By josephhleenovak

COMMUNITY PUBLIC HEALTH IMPACTS 43 44WORK GROUPS WORK GROUPS to sewer overflow, water contamination with extreme precipitationevent. This couldlead process thevolumeofwaterrunoff froman have inadequatecapacitytoabsorband The currentcombinedsewersystemmay streams, causingahazardtohumanhealth. untreated sewageintolocalriversand of thecombinedsewersystemcanrelease water in a short period of time. Overflow the sewersystemwithahighvolumeof Extreme precipitation events can flood these difficulties. associated withstormsmaycompound from missingwork.Potentialpoweroutages diseases are especiallyatriskforwaterborne with compromisedimmunesystems elderly, pregnantwomen,andthose from surfacerunoff. Children,the sewage, andwatercontamination country, foodshortagescausedbydroughts withstand droughtthanother regionsofthe While Michiganisbetterpositioned to virus have been sixty-five or older. Michigan whohavediedfrom West Nile human exposure.Nearlyallindividualsin infected insectsandanincreasedriskof these insects.Resultinginanincrease rainfall cancreatebreedinggroundsfor Encephaly. Additionally, flooding or heavy as West Nile,Lyme disease,andEquine emergence ofinsect-bornediseasessuch insects. Since2002,Michiganhasseenthe in thespring,lengtheningseasonfor frosts laterinthefallandlastearlier Changing temperatures will push back first fabric ofthecommunity. causing homelessnessanddisruptingthe for homeownersanddisplaceresidents, homes andneighborhoodscouldbecostly negative effects onresidents.Floodingof precipitation couldneverthelesshave cities suchasNew York, extreme the type of flooding seen in coastal While Detroitwilllikelynotexperience 14 . heat, air quality, and flooding. extremely sensitivetophysicalexposures they spendmoretimeoutdoors,are any effects of heat and flooding, and because have the least financial resources to deal with homeless peopletoalloftheseimpacts. They factor toconsideristheextremevulnerabilityof foods to stretch their budgets. One final residents mayturntolesshealthy, processed If droughtincreasesthepriceoffreshfoods, disproportionately impactlow-incomepeople. food. Suchpriceincreases,evensmallones, during thegrowingseasonincreasepriceof public health response. better forecastingofextreme heatandimprovethe of heat threats for specific regions to allow for Atmospheric Administration forstatisticalanalysis Tool developedbyNational Oceanicand HEAT HEALTH WARNING SYSTEM Preparedness coordinatesits All-Hazards Plan. Detroit’s Office of Public Health Emergency preparedness, fromsecuritytonaturaldisasters. Plan toaddressallaspectsofemergency ALL HAZARDS PLAN during warmweather. decrease overtime,andaremostproblematic pattern thanoncethought,mayincreaseor patterns varybyregion,occurinmoredispersed surrounding suburbanandexurbanareas.UHI air temperaturesinurbanareasrelativeto UHI is defined as increased surface and URBAN HEAT ISLANDS(UHI) Department ofCommunityHealth) data collectionandothertools.(Source:Michigan by usingreal-timedetectionthroughautomatic outbreaks ofillnessandotherpublichealththreats facilitates rapidpublichealthresponseto Michigan’s SyndromicSurveillanceSystem SYNDROMIC SURVEILLANCE DEFINITION INDICATORS AND STRATEGIES

The following provides indicators, potential strategies, and potential goals for each public health issue.

Heat

Indicators

• Number of heat-related deaths Work with Medical Examiner to explore how ICD codes used to indicate cause of death could be used as a tool to track heat-related deaths Source: By CR Artist • Number of potentially heat-related deaths 15 Track deaths relative to baseline in the response plans two-week period after an extreme heat • Increase number of residents with working event air conditioning (in conjunction with • Number of cooling centers open during an energy-efficiency measures) extreme heat event • Improve access to cooling centers, both in • Ground-level apparent temperatures (heat terms of number of stations and index) throughout the city and in known heat geographic distribution islands • Improve residents’ awareness of cooling • Percent of tree canopy coverage in known centers through outreach strategy heat islands • Increase awareness of vulnerable • Number of heat-related hospitalizations and populations about risks of heat illness emergency room visits during extreme heat • Work with state Syndromic Surveillance to events better track heat-related hospitalizations • Average distance to refuge cooling station for and deaths residents • Decrease ground-level temperatures in • Numbers of people using refuge cooling known urban heat islands (UHI) by stations increasing tree coverage and converting impervious materials to vegetative Potential Strategies and Goals coverage • Implement green-roof or white-roof • Goal: Reduce heat-related deaths and initiative to reflect instead of absorb heat illnesses • Incorporate climate projections into All • In the short term, public health strategies Hazards Plan use cooling centers to prevent heat-related • Reach out to home services such as deaths and illnesses. However, while Meals on Wheels, other senior services, to use of air conditioning saves lives now, it contact isolated or homebound individuals increases greenhouse gas emissions and • Work with apartment buildings and thus worsens climate change in the long neighborhoods organizations to institute term. Long-term strategies that actually block or floor captains to check on cool the built environment and mitigate residents the urban heat island effect should be the • Implement Heat Health Warning System ultimate goal. when possible, based on NOAA Heat/ • Create or update the City’s heat wave Health Warning System, to forecast response plan, based on other municipal excessive heat

COMMUNITY PUBLIC HEALTH IMPACTS 45 46WORK GROUPS WORK GROUPS be particularlysensitivetoozone.(Source:EPA) adults, andpeoplewhoareactiveoutdoorsmay effects. Peoplewithlungdisease,children,older relatively lowlevelsofozonecancausehealth in groundlevelozonecanharmourhealth.Even acceptable levelsforhumanhealth.Breathing Days thatground-levelozoneexceeds OZONE ACTION DAYS DEFINITION alsohavepositiveeffectsonpublichealth. encouragingbikingratherthandriving)will switchingtorenewablesourcesofenergy, changeinotherareas(suchas • Many otherstrategiestoaddressclimate earlywarningandaction • Track admissions for respiratory illness for betweenresidentialandhighway • Create vegetative buffers or other filters heavy traffic from residential areas • Aggressively prevent truck and other residentialareasorschool incinerator, toxicreleasefacilitiestodense • Identify proximity of power plants, ofozoneprecursors • Work with industry to reduce toxic release Potential GoalsandStrategies admissions measuredinhospital/emergencyroom ozoneactiondaysorheatas • Frequency of respiratory illness during in known “hot spots” • Ground level ozone and particulate matter • Frequency of ozone action days Indicators Air Quality quality also benefit human health by improving water SpacesandWater Infrastructuregroupwill • Additional techniques from the Parks, Open forpossiblewater-borneillnesses • Work with hospitals to better track admission absorptiontechniques rainbarrels,otheron-sitecollectionand creditingtheirsewerbillwhentheyimplement • Incentivize homeowners to reduce runoff by reducerunoff intosewer—swales,vegetation. • Increase techniques to absorb water and location of sewer outflows • Increase public information on frequency and Potential GoalsandStrategies • Instances of water-borne illness • Coverage of absorptive vegetation • Instances of combined sewer outflow release • Capacity of water treatment systems Indicators Water Quality orotherresources • Increase awareness of warming shelters severestormandimmediatelyafter homeboundandelderlyinanticipationofa • Outreach to homeless population, Potential GoalsandStrategies • Number and duration of winter power outages warmingshelters • Number of people taking advantage of • Number of cold-related deaths Indicators Exposure andCold-RelatedDeaths Flooding Insect Borne Disease

Indicators Indicators

• Number of roads impassable from flooding • Number of infected insects tested relative • Number of homes damaged from flooding to same time previous year • Number of people displaced from flooding • Number of people admitted for insect- borne Potential Goals and Strategies diseases over same time previous year • Measure public awareness of symptoms • Work with Parks, Open Spaces, and Water and how to detect Infrastructure to prevent flooding • Measure medical community awareness • Work to increase awareness of flood of symptoms insurance in areas with high water table or low elevation Potential Goals and Strategies • Collaborate with Homes and Neighborhoods work group to change landscaping and other • Continue education to medical community techniques to divert water from homes about recognizing symptoms • Continue education to vulnerable populations about recognizing symptoms • Drain flooded areas • Employ larval insecticide in heavily infested areas • Secure homes with screens, bed nets to keep out insects

Source:By CR Artist

COMMUNITY PUBLIC HEALTH IMPACTS 47 48WORK GROUPS WORK GROUPS effects on chronic non-communicable diseases.” . )Kjellstrom, Tord, Ainslie J. Butler, RobynM. 2. 2008.” Office of Health Information, Planning, Policy DetroitDepartmentofHealthandWellness 1. resourcesduringtimesofhighfoodprices • Publicize food pantries and similar residents urbanfarms,andothersourcesoffoodfor • Support access to community gardens, Potential GoalsandStrategies greaterfoodinsecurity • Percent change in residents who report pantries • Percent change in residents using food vegetables, normalized for inflation • Percent change in price of fruits and normalized for inflation • Percent change in price of staple foods, Indicators Food PriceChanges SOURCES Source: MichiganMunicipalLeague 97-103. global heatingduetoclimatechange: potential Lucas, andRuthBonita.“Publichealth impactof Evaluation, andResearch,Cityof Detroit,Detroit. Promotion. “CombinedDataBook:2007and International JournalofPublicHealth 55(2010):

15. Bernard, SusanM.,and Michael 15. A. McGeehin. Altman, Peter,14. DanLashof,KimKnowlton,EdChen, Human Health.” A merican JournalofPreventive Kinney,13. PatrickL.“ClimateChange, Air Quality, and 11. Compact Cities?” Stone, Brian,JeremyJ.Hess,andHowardFrumkin. 10. Review.”International JournalofEnvironmentalResearch Human Health.” Kinney,12. PatrickL.“ClimateChange, Air Quality, and . Bassil,KateL.,andDonald C.Cole.“Effectiveness 9. 8. Altman,Peter, DanLashof,KimKnowlton,EdChen, 7. Compact Cities?” Stone,Brian,JeremyJ.Hess, andHowardFrumkin. 6. Altman,Peter, DanLashof,KimKnowlton,EdChen, 5. Human Health.” Kinney, PatrickL.“ClimateChange, Air Quality, and 4. . TheInteragencyWorking GrouponClimateChange 3. Altman, Peter, DanLashof,KimKnowlton,EdChen, Journal ofPublicHealth “Municipal Heat Wave Response Plans.” Resources DefenseCouncil,2012, p.51. in America DuetoClimateChange Heat: ProjectedDeathToll fromRisingTemperatures Laurie Johnson,andLarryKalkstein. Medicine Medicine 118, no.10(2010):1425-1428. Cities MoreVulnerable toClimateChange Than “Urban FormandExtremeHeatEvents: Are Sprawling and PublicHealth7 and MortalityduringHeatEpisodes:aStructured of PublicHealthInterventionsinReducingMorbidity Resources DefenseCouncil,2012:29. in America DuetoClimateChange. Heat: ProjectedDeathToll fromRisingTemperatures Laurie Johnson,andLarryKalkstein. (accessed December16,2012). http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories2005/s2366.htm and Warnings forExcessiveHeat. Heat/Health Watch Warning SystemImprovingForecasts and AtmosphericAdministration. Oceanic National 2012. Issue Breif,NaturalResourcesDefenseCouncil, Temperatures in America DuetoClimateChange. Heat: ProjectedDeathToll fromRising Laurie Johnson,andLarryKalkstein. 118, no.10(2010):1425-1428. Cities MoreVulnerable toClimateChange Than “Urban FormandExtremeHeatEvents: Are Sprawling 2012. Issue Breif,NaturalResourcesDefenseCouncil, Temperatures in America DuetoClimateChange. Heat: ProjectedDeathToll fromRising Laurie Johnson,andLarryKalkstein. Medicine Environmental HealthPerspectives,2010. Institute ofEnvironmentalHealthSciences/ Human HealthEffectsofClimateChange. Change: A ReportOutliningtheResearchNeedson and Health. (Elsevier, Inc.)35,no.5(2008):461. (Elsevier, Inc.)35,no.5(2008):460. (Elsevier, Inc.)35,no.5(2008):459-467. A HumanHealthPerspectiveOnClimate American Journal of Preventive American JournalofPreventive American Journal of Preventive American JournalofPreventive Environmental Health Perspectives Environmental HealthPerspectives Environmental HealthPerspectives (2010):991-1001. 94,no.9(2004):1520-1522. January 11, 2005. . IssueBreif,Natural IssueBreif,Natural Killer Summer Killer Summer Killer Summer Killer Summer Killer Summer Killer Summer Killer Summer American National National

NOAA

RESOURCES

City of Windsor Climate Change Action Plan. The City of Windsor. September 2012. Windsor Environmental Master Plan.

California Natural Resources Agency. 2009 California Climate Adaptation Strategy: A Report to the Governor of the State of California in Response to Executive Order S-13-2008. 2009.

Ancillary human health benefits of improved air quality resulting from climate change mitigation. Michelle L Bell, Devra L Davis, Luis A Cifuentes, Alan J Krupnick, Richard D Morgenstern and George D Thurston. 31 July 2008. Environmental Health: 2008: 7:41.

Community-Based Adaptation to the Health Impacts of Climate Change. Kristie L. Ebi, PhD, Jan C. Semenza, PhD. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 2008: 35 (5). P. 501.

Environmental Health Indicators of Climate Change for the United States: Findings from the State Environmental Health Indicator Collaborative. Paul B. English, Amber H. Sinclair, Zev Ross, Henry Anderson, Vicki Boothe, Christine Davis, Kristie Ebi, Betsy Kagey, Kristen Malecki, Rebecca Shultz, and Erin Simms. Environmental Health Perspectives. Volume 117, Number 11, November 2009 p. 1673

Climate Change: The Public Health Response. Howard Frumkin, MD, DrPH, Jeremy Hess, MD, MPH, George Luber, PhD, Josephine Malilay, PhD, MPH, and Michael McGeehin, PhD, MSPH. March 2008, Vol 98, No. 3 | American Journal of Public Health. P. 435.

Health of the Homeless and Climate Change. Brodie Ramin and Tomislav Svoboda. 2009. Journal of Urban Health: Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine, Vol. 86, No. 4.

Environmental Health Indicators of Climate Change for the United States: Findings from the State Environmental Health Indicator Collaborative. Paul B. English, Amber H. Sinclair, Zev Ross, Henry Anderson, Vicki Boothe, Christine Davis, Kristie Ebi, Betsy Kagey, Kristen Malecki, Rebecca Shultz, and Erin Simms. Environmental Health Perspectives. Volume 117, Number 11, November 2009. P 1673.

Temperature Extremes and Health: Impacts of Climate Variability and Change in the United States. Marie S. O’Neill, PhD, Kristie L. Ebi, PhD, MPH. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Volume 51, Number 1, January 2009.

Summer temperature variability and long-term survival among elderly people with chronic disease. Antonella Zanobetti, Marie S. O’Neill, Carina J. Gronlund, and Joel D. Schwartz. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. April 25, 2012. Volume 109, Number 17, pp. 6608–6613.

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COMMUNITY PUBLIC HEALTH IMPACTS 49 ENERGY WORK GROUPS

Energy consumption pervades every aspect additional electric generating capacity by roughly of our modern world and is a major hurdle 10-20 percent by 2050 in the region.3 This would toward building a more sustainable and require a significant additional investment to resilient community. The U.S. Department upgrade and repair infrastructure. Likewise, of Energy divides energy use into five the age of housing stock affects the efficiency sectors: residential, commercial, industrial, of home energy use, requiring significant transportation and utilities. The DCAC can upgrades to weatherize houses and decrease operationalize these sectors as (1) built unnecessary home energy use. environment energy consumption, and (2) energy supply and distribution. A serious ENERGY VULNERABILITY effort to impact the DCAC’s stated goals to reduce greenhouse gas emissions for the Energy vulnerability focuses on threats posed by sustainability and well-being of the City of extreme weather events associated with climate Detroit, and increase the resilience of the change that can disrupt infrastructure services. city’s social, built and natural environments, These disruptions often cascade across energy must cast a broad net. Strategies and infrastructure, compounding both the geographic indicators for each sector encompass extent and complications of restoring service. aspects of both climate mitigation and For example, the 2003 Northeast blackouts adaptation. To approach the tasks as were compounded due to infrastructure failures outlined by the DCAC Workgroup Guide, the at multiple points throughout the Northeast following general approach should inform and Midwest. As successive systems failed, and guide the process: the increased burden overwhelmed associated infrastructure. Such events threaten public 1. Coordinate with other work groups health and local economies, especially in (Neighborhoods, Transportation, Parks, areas where human populations and economic etc.) to develop cross-linked indicators activities are concentrated in urban areas. that impact energy use. Implications of climate change for energy 2. Seek mitigation strategies to reduce infrastructure vulnerability in Detroit include: overall energy consumption per capita or per unit of economic activity 1. Extreme weather events (flooding, severe 3. Approach climate adaptation by weather, etc.) associated with climate minimizing energy distribution change will increase disruptions of energy vulnerabilities. delivery.4 2. Less extreme weather events associated DETROIT CONTEXT with climate change such as extended warm weather, freeze-thaw cycles, or freezing In a warming climate, reliable energy rain, occurring in rapid succession can delivery becomes crucial as Detroiters use also damage or overwhelm energy delivery more electricity for air conditioning. If the infrastructure.5 region’s average annual climate warming 3. Disruptions of services in one infrastructure trends continue by the predicted 1.4°F, the will almost always result in disruptions in associated demand for energy used for one or more other infrastructures, especially cooling will increase by about 5-20 percent. in urban areas, triggering serious cascading 1,2 Meeting increases in this peak demand infrastructure failures. For example, if could require investments in new energy electricity supply is disrupted, storm water infrastructure. For example, based on a systems without sufficient backup systems 6°F to 9°F temperature increase in summer, will consequently fail.6 climate change could increase the need for

50 WORK GROUPS 4. These risks are greater for infrastructure that while minimizing the energy lost during is already stressed by age or by demand generation and transmission. For example, levels that exceed what they were designed energy efficient retrofits and appliances to deliver. such as refrigerators with more insulation and smaller, more efficient motors, and GOALS FOR OPERATIONAL compact fluorescent light bulbs that displace incandescent bulbs are two AREAS common examples of ways to reduce energy consumption. Also important are This document identifies five potential goals conservation efforts that encourage users concerning Detroit’s energy operational areas. to accept lowered-use service levels, Subsequently, this report provides a mitigation especially when they do not diminish quality or adaptation rationale for each goal, as well as of life. Examples include turning thermostats some potential strategies, and indicators that slightly lower during the winter and slightly might be used to measure progress toward the higher during the summer, and turning off goal. lights or using timers when possible. 1. Reduce the energy consumption of residential dwellings by 25 percent per household per unit of Gross Metropolitan Product (GMP), a measure of regional economic activity. 2. Reduce the total energy use of all commercial and industrial buildings by 10 percent per unit of GMP. 3. Develop local policies to ensure that new buildings and major renovations can adapt to the changing climate. 4. Produce 5 percent of the total energy used within Detroit from local (<50 miles) renewable sources and district (distributed) energy systems 5. Increase the capacity factor of cleaner fossil fuel energy generation such as natural gas.

STRATEGIES FOR OPERATIONAL AREAS

Mitigating energy vulnerability will require a multifaceted approach that impacts both energy generation (supply-side) and energy use (demand-side). Supply-side strategies seek to increase the reliability of energy supply by focusing on production, transmission, or distribution of energy. Demand-side policies manage the demand for energy in various ways. Most important are efficiency improvements that keep end-use demand levels constant Sources: By Michigan Municipal League

ENERGY 51 52WORK GROUPS WORK GROUPS efficient technologies. techniques, suchasweatherization,and 2020 byimplementingenergyconservation consumer energybillsannuallyintheyear (BTUs) ofenergyandover$56billionin save 46.4quadrillionBritish Thermal Units details that American householdscould on FederalEnergyManagementpractices mitigation, comfortandcostofliving. A study Energy conservationcanimprovecarbon of newconstruction. structures; and 2) improve energy efficiency 1) improve energy efficiency of existing energy userequirestwoapproaches: Reducing carbonemissionsfrombuilding year, morethananyothersector. (CO2) emissionsintheUnitedStatesper accounts for39percentofcarbondioxide commercial andresidentialbuildingsector carbon emissionsintheUnitedStates. The Buildings arethesinglelargestcontributorto Consumption 1) &2)ReducingBuildingEnergy DEMAND-SIDE STRATEGIES fastest at1.8%peryearthrough2030. commercial buildingsprojectedtogrowthe than anyothersector, withemissionsfrom from buildingsareprojectedtogrowfaster over thenext25years,CO2emissions MW) powerplants. for approximately 320average-sized(400 temperatures. This willeliminatetheneed output ofpowerplantsdue tohigher increased demandonand decreased and distributioncanhelpcounteract the losses inpowergeneration, transmission in end-usefacilitiesandminimizing Deploying energy-efficient technologies buildings) bywellover10percentperyear. gas consumedforelectricityin and naturalgasconsumption(including projected electricgeneratingcapacity recommendations couldreducetotal could beevengreater. The report’s policy in consumptionoftheseenergyresources the buildingsector, percentage reductions share ofnaturalgasandelectricityusein 9 Duetothehigh 7 Similarly, 8

energy useforcooling. reduce ambientairtemperature,furtherreducing such asparkinglotsandrooftopscanhelp using light-colored materials on flat surfaces reducing impervioussurfacecoveronsitesand conditions. Similarly, otherstrategiessuchas windows areappropriateforexpectedclimate by ensuringthatsiteorientation,insulationand against predictedchangesinweatherpatterns construction standardscouldprotectbuildings through 2015. Energy efficiency in new approximately 1.5millionnewbuildingsannually projects demandfornewconstructiontobe provide secureelectricityfor largeconsumers sources, calleddistributed generation can Similarly, generatingenergyfrommanysmall decreases theenergylost during transmission. before it reaches its final destination, and thus reduces thedistancethatcurrentmusttravel power sources closer to their final end use. This minimize energylossduringdistributionbysiting production andconsumption.Utilitiescan loss bydecreasingthedistancebetweenenergy and windpowerminimizingtransmission electricity fromalternativesourcessuchassolar generation, primarilybyincreasingdistributionof is toreducethecarbonintensityofenergy A final area to impact energy consumption Generation 4) RenewableandDistributedEnergy SUPPLY-SIDE STRATEGIES buildings. metric tonsofCO2annuallyforthelife percent lessenergy, itwouldsaveover6million commercial buildingswerebuilttouse50 and produceCO2emissions.Ifhalfofnew during whichtheycontinuallyconsumeenergy have adesignliferangingfrom50-100years another keyareaofprioritization.Buildings New buildingconstructionandrenovationis Construction Standards 3) NewBuildingandMajorRenovation 10 The U.S.GreenBuildingCouncil Source:By Project Public Spaces

and reduce vulnerability to grid outages in the environmental footprint of energy extreme weather. In general terms, district generation. Utilities can utilize low- energy systems provide for the heating and emission fossil fuels, such as natural gas, hot water needs of a community of buildings, to satisfy constant base-level demand and which are connected through a network of pipes supplement with renewable sources to meet under the streets that carry hot water from a periods of higher, or peak-level, demand. centralized energy plant. District energy can also Some renewable sources generate power provide cooling services, through the use of a in a highly variable way. Utilities have no similar piping infrastructure with chilled water. control over whether the sun shines or the Combined heat and power (CHP) plants capture wind blows, so it is not feasible to rely solely and use the heat created during electricity on these modes of generation to satisfy the generation, making them much more efficient. base-level energy use that exists 24 hours Rather than being released into the air above a day. For instance, there will be some the plant, this captured energy can heat nearby level of electricity demand throughout the buildings. night, but it will increase sharply early in the morning as residents awake and start their 5) Increasing Natural Gas Capacity Factor day.

Capacity factor is a measure of how often an electric generator runs for a specific period of time. It compares how much electricity a generator actually produces with the maximum it could produce at continuous full power operation during the same period. Increasing capacity factor of natural gas and decreasing that of coal is a viable strategy for reducing

ENERGY 53 54WORK GROUPS WORK GROUPS POTENTIAL INDICATORS 10. Ibid 10. Buildings.” Alliance to Save Energy. http://www.cee1.org/eval/db_pdf/964.pdf. Loper, Joe,LowellUnger, DavidWeitz, andHarryMisuriello.“BuildingonSuccess: PoliciestoRedueEnergyWaste in 9. Ibid 8. Energy ConsumptionbySector, 1980-2008; http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/aer/envir.html. U.S.EnergyInformation Administration, Annual EnergyReview(AER), Table 12.2CarbonDioxideEmissions From 7. Ibid 6. 025103(R) (2004).p.1-4. Albert,R., Albert, I.&Nakarado,G.L.StructuralvulnerabilityoftheNorth American powergrid.PhysicalReview E69 5. Laboratory, 2012). The U.S.DepartmentofEnergyinSupporttheNationalClimate Assessment (OakRidge, TN: OakRidgeNational Wilbanks, Tom, et.al,ClimateChangeandInfrastructure,UrbanSystems,Vulnerabilities: Technical ReportFor 4. Ibid 3. Cambridge UniversityPress,New York, NY, USA. USGCRP. GlobalClimateChangeImpactsintheUnitedStates.StatesResearchProgram. 2. climate/climatologies.php GreatLakesIntegratedScience Assessment, GreatLakesStationClimatologies.http://glisa.msu.edu/great_lakes_ 1. SOURCES -1CO E-11 Reductioninenergy E-10 EnergyUse-Commuter E-9 ReductioninEnergy E-8 Total GJorenergy(forsameusesasE-1,E-2,E-3) EnergyUse-Buildings(GJ/Sqft.) E-7 LocalEnergySources E-6 EnergyMix E-5 EnergyUsebySector: E-4 Total GJofenergyconsumedannuallyforcommercial EnergyUsebySector:Industrial E-3 EnergyUsebySector: E-2 EnergyUsebySector: E-1 o Indicator No. consumption (%Change) transport (GJ/capita) consumption (%Change) Transportation Commercial Residential (Tons/capita) 2 Equivalent: All energyuses in currentyearoverpreviousyear. buliding, commuting, and fleet/grounds vehicle uses Total changeinenergyconsumptionGJfor in thatyear for commutertransportation/ Total numberpopulation Total energy(ofalltypes)consumedinGJeachyear per grosssquareft. Total GJofenergy(ofalltypes)consumedannually grounds vehiclesandequipmentperVMT. Total GJ of energy consumer annually for fleet and use percommercialproperty. Total GJofenergyconsumedannuallyforcommercial use perhousehold. Total GJofenergyconsumedannuallyforresidential within 100milesofcitylimits. consumer annuallyproducedbyrenewablesources limits. consumed annuallybycityproducedwithinthe Total GJofenergy(forsameusesasE-1,E-2,E-3) (Coal, NaturalGas,Nuclear, Renewables,etc.) Percent oftotalenrgyproductionbytype use perinducstrailproperty. Description fleet/grounds vehicle uses .Total population. annually bythecampusforbuilding,commuting,and Total CO2equivalent(intonsofCO2)emitted RESOURCES

Alliance to Save Energy: Building on Success - Policies to Reduce Energy Waste in Buildings (http://www.cee1.org/eval/db_pdf/964.pdf)

Climate Change and Infrastructure, Urban Systems, and Vulnerabilities: Technical Report for the U.S. Department of Energy (http://www.esd.ornl.gov/eess/Infrastructure.pdf)

Commercial Building Energy Consumption Survey (CBECS) (http://www.eia.gov/consumption/commercial/)

Energy Information Administration: State of Michigan Profile-Energy Consumption by Sector (http://www.eia.gov/beta/state/?sid=MI)

Energy Information Administration: State of Michigan Profile - Environment Profile & Consumption Profile (http://www.eia.gov/beta/state/data.cfm?sid=MI#Environment)

Energy Information Administration: Electricity Detailed Data Files (http://www.eia.gov/cneaf/electricity/page/data.html)

Energy Information Administration: Consumption and Efficiency Data Files (http://www.eia.gov/consumption/data.cfm#rec)

EPA Greenhouse Gas Equivalencies Calculator (http://www.epa.gov/cleanenergy/energy-resources/calculator.html)

National Renewable Energy Lab – Dynamic Maps, GIS Data, and Analysis Tools for Energy Siting (http://www.nrel.gov/gis/)

United States Bureau of Economic Analysis – Regional Gross Domestic Product (GMP) (http://www.bea.gov/iTable/iTable.cfm?ReqID=70&step=1&isuri=1&acrdn=2)

US Department of Transportation – State Facts and Figures (http://gis.rita.dot.gov/StateFacts/)

Source:

ENERGY 55 HOMES & WORK GROUPS NEIGHBORHOODS

The development of community-based ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND initiatives and climate education within Detroit can reduce the direct impacts HOUSING CONDITION of climate change on homes and According to the U.S. E.P.A., most buildings neighborhoods. By bringing the community waste up to 30% of the energy they consume together to decrease utility bills and due to inefficiencies. The likelihood of increase sustainability, residents can reduce inefficient heat and cooling systems, older, vulnerability while improving quality of life. inefficient appliances, and drafty windows and doors with insufficient insulation is greatest We define vulnerability as exposure to among older homes in lower-income areas. biophysical hazards paired with sensitivity. While some programs in Detroit approach this Sensitivity refers to the degree to which a issue, these programs target specific areas of community is harmed by the given exposure. the city, leaving many residents without access The biophysical hazards that influence to the benefits of these programs. homes and neighborhoods include extreme heat, extreme cold, flooding, weakening infrastructure, low neighborhood density, Short Term Priorities and low tree canopy. In order to reduce 1. Empower residents to take action and utilize vulnerability, homes and neighborhoods existing programs by increasing awareness should target strategies towards sensitive of programs and action steps populations such as elderly residents and 2. Decrease energy usage in residences low-income families. through energy efficiency and weatherization programs DETROIT CONTEXT 3. Reduce UHI

DCAC is a grassroots effort that requires Long Term Priorities community involvement in order to be successful. Community involvement is of 1. Promote alternative uses of failing structures particular importance for the Homes and 2. Promote compact development Neighborhoods Work Group. One method to make climate change concerns interesting to residents is through potential energy savings. With approximately 44% of Detroit residents living beneath the poverty level, energy efficiency can save money and increase comfort. Such strategies, could address multiple issues of housing quality and poverty.

56 WORK GROUPS Goal: Empower residents to take action and utilize existing programs by increasing awareness of programs and action steps

Strategy: Create community involvement through educational programs that are DEFINITION affordable, accessible and empowering. WEATHERIZATION Educational programs have been shown to The practice of protecting a building and its have a positive influence on youth, empowering interior from the elements, particularly from them to contribute to their community while sunlight, precipitation, and wind, and of modifying building leadership and team building skills. a building to reduce energy consumption and School systems can foster programs run by optimize energy efficiency. volunteers and parents during after school hours. The “Climate Change Youth Action Guide” COMPACT DEVELOPMENT is a resource that can start informing youth on Building in a more compact way to reduce issues around climate action and help empower development costs and provides density that can them to make a change. In addition to youth be efficiently served by transit. There are several programs, leadership positions for residents forms of compact development including mixed- within the community should be developed used development, where by integrating different and provided with basic resources to initiate uses such as residential, office, and shopping community projects. Additionally, programs daily vehicle trips can be reduced. should encourage participation between the different neighborhoods in Detroit.

Actions:

1. Identify partnership organizations around youth education and programming 2. Develop school and community based educational programs throughout the City for youth 3. Initiate development of neighborhood based climate alliances 4. Establish a Community Recognition Program which will include small project grants 5. Develop Detroit Climate Website with information on available programs and blog space to promote neighborhood projects

Potential Indicators:

• Number of programs developed in schools • Number of youth in these programs • Number of views on website and those posting on website • Number of communities applying to Community Recognition Program Source: By Ellenm1

HOMES & NEIGHBORHOODS 57 58WORK GROUPS WORK GROUPS • • • • Potential Indicators: Developwebsiteandcreateatoolbox 6. 5. Work withDetroitenergycompaniesto 4. Improveairqualityinresidences 3. Weatherization ofexistingresidences 2. Developprogramstoreduceenergy 1. Actions: bills. long-term solutionsinordertoreduceutility shut offs. Residentsneedassistancein excessive energybillscanleadtoutility are belowthenationalpovertyleveland residents’ energybills.Manyresidents atmosphere, itmoreimportantlyreduces the amountofgreenhousegasesin energy consumptioninhomesreduces prevents fullparticipation.Whilereducing and communicationbetweenprograms City ofDetroit,thelackpublicawareness While manysmallerprogramsexistinthe consumption, and use energy efficiently. to weatherizeresidences,decreaseenergy Strategy: Combinewithexistingprograms Goal: ReduceResidentialEnergyBills Service area of programs Number ofgreenleasesin thecity Amount ofreductioninenergy bills developed Number ofhomesutilizing programs of existingprograms rental units. promote energysavingrenovationsof a “Green Lease” program to Develop and lightbulbs. installation ofenergysavingappliances assessments programsandsubsidize enhance comprehensivehomeenergy through leadpaintabatement to reduceheatingandcoolingcosts to resistsunlight,windandprecipitation systems inbuildings leakage and promote energy efficient • • • • Number of residences with reflective • Potential Indicators: Removeunusedimpervioussurfaceson 6. Promoterainbarrelusageinresidential 5. Promoteperviousdrivewaysurfaces 4. Developneighborhoodtreecanopyplans 3. 2. Establishbuildingcodesforfuture 1. Actions: cooler temperaturesandgreaterhumancomfort. are abletoreduceCO2intheair, allowingfor roofs, treecanopiesandpervioussurfaces,we area. By utilizing strategies such as reflective well, furtherincreasingthevulnerabilityof it canhavenegativeeffects onvegetationas and airconditionerusage. As temperaturesrise, and increaseutilitycostsduetoincreasedwater temperatures inhomesdecreasehumancomfort surfaces and insufficient tree canopy. Warmer is mainlyduetolargeareasofimpervious throughout thecitybyupto7°F. This variation conducted, wesawthattemperaturesvaried Through thevulnerabilityassessment rainwater runoff intostormwatersystem surfaces inneighborhoodsandminimize Strategy: Increase reflective and pervious neighborhoods Goal: DecreaseUrbanHeatIslandeffect in Removal ofimpervious -percentimpervious Amount reduction ofstormwater surfacing Number ofdrivewayschanged topervious Number oftreesplanted shingles former industrialsites. areas foroutdoorwateringpurposes throughout thecity organizations of Detroitandothercommunity-based through partnershipswithGreening home owners Subsidize costs of reflective shingles for (cool roofs) developments to increase reflectivity of roofs Goal: Promote alternative uses for failing structures

Strategy: Decrease the amount of abandoned failing structures to increase public safety, community involvement and prepare for dense, sustainable living in the future.

Actions:

1. Deconstruct unstable structures Source: By jessicareeder 2. Incentivize community involvement through neighborhood community development grants 3. Establish protocol for cleaning site after building removal Goal: Establish future neighborhood development as compact, efficient, and community based Indicator: Establish new policies and rezone • Number of buildings deconstructed Strategy: neighborhoods for mixed-use residences • Number of buildings redeveloped and compact design. • Number of neighborhood proposals for developments Through the development of compact community development, we are able to reduce GHG emissions by reducing vehicle dependency and energy consumption. By increasing density we are able to improve public safety, promote sustainable living and DEFINITION develop community initiatives. GREEN LEASE Actions: A lease that incorporates ecologically sustainable development principles to ensure that the use 1. Working with neighborhood leaders and and operation of a building minimizes the impact city officials and determine areas to be on the environment. rezoned for mixed use and compact development 2. Develop incentives for developers to COOL ROOF build mixed use structures A roof with reflective (white or light-colored) 3. Develop neighborhood infill strategies to surface off of which sunlight will bounce. A cool maximize livability roof also has high emissivity, which means it easily releases heat. Indicators:

• Number of new projects with neighborhoods • Number of empty housing units in

HOMES & NEIGHBORHOODS 59 60WORK GROUPS WORK GROUPS Website: www.DTEEnergy.com saving faucetsandwaterheaterpipewrap. installing fluorescent light bulbs, water- consultations freeofcharge. This includes those eligible,DTEoffers homeenergy rebates forenergysavingappliances.For in residencesalongwithinformationon resources andtipsforreducingenergy The DTEEnergywebsiteoffers many DTE Energy Website: www.warmtraining.org resources. assistance, greenjobstraining,and services include:education,technical training, andtechnicalassistance.WARM’s homes andcommunitiesthrougheducation, of resources efficient, affordable, healthy organization thatpromotesthedevelopment WARM Training Center is a non-profit Warming Training Center Website: www.greeningofdetroit.com building communitycapacity. environmental leadership,advocacy, andby through plantingandeducationalprograms Detroit inspire otherstocreatea‘greener’ Greening ofDetroit’s missionistoguideand Greening ofDetroit RESOURCES: neighborhood html youth-leadership-summit/youthclimatepledge. Website: www.thepeoplespeak.org/activities/ community and country reflect it. change andhavetheiractionsinhome,school, A pledgeforyouthtobededicatedclimate Youth ClimatePledge Website: www.cooltheearth.org over a2monthperiodfortotalof12-16hours. k-8 studentsandisrunbyparentalvolunteers Free programthatintroducesclimatechangeto Cool theEarth Website: www.climate.takingitglobal.org climate change. A resourceguideforyouthtotakeactionin Climate Change Youth Guideto Action. Website: http://clearcorpsdetroit.org/ to bothparentsandchildren. information andresourcesaboutleadpoisoning health fairs,HeadStarts,andschoolstobring Education andOutreachprogramworkswith whose childrenhavelowtomidleadlevels. The lead poisoningprevention,andtargetsfamilies from homesinDetroit.Lead Talk educateson Lead SafeHomesProgramabatesleadhazards through products,education,andrepairs. The addresses asthma,lead,andhomesafetyissues four mainprograms.HealthyHomesDetroit Creating healthyhomesinDetroitthrough ClearCorps Detroit Redwood Climate Community Action Plan Oakland Climatic Action Coalition: A Toolkit to Create Climate Action in Your The plan discusses goals and strategies for Community engaging youth. It includes many programs initiated but also the Verde Youth Ambassador This coalition helped to write and pass some Program, after school enrichment classes, and of the boldest plans in the country and had the Green Jobs Corps. As the city itself has a unprecedented community participation. population of approximately 70,000 people, It has shown how youth took a role in many of the initiatives are community based community meetings, including dancing and programs. acting to promote their message.

Website: http://www.redwoodcity.org/manager/ Website: http://ellabakercenter.org/toolkit- initiatives/climate%20protection/Verde/Final%20 create-climate-action-in-your-city CCAP%20Documents/CCAP_Final_3-25-10.pdf

Source: By Jarred Henderson, Detroit Free Press

HOMES & NEIGHBORHOODS 61 PARKS, PUBLIC SPACE & WORK GROUPS WATER INFRASTRUCTURE

The effects of climate change will have 1. Build understanding: Continue to identify direct implications for how Detroit’s natural how climate change is impacting Detroit’s systems function, and how we choose to natural systems, especially noting the spatial manage them. Increased temperatures patterns that emerge. and changing precipitation patterns are two 2. Focus on mitigation and adaptation: elements that are consistently identified Mitigation strategies are often easier by Great Lakes climate scientists.1 Even to justify financially, and have built-in with this knowledge, some actions can be adaptation benefits; however, this workgroup taken that will immediately help improve the is especially suited to pursue aggressive functioning of our natural systems. These adaptation-related goals and strategies. actions should seek to mitigate emission 3. Build collaborative relationships: Existing totals and increase the adaptive capacity of data gathering and outreach efforts can help city environments. Finally, it will be important maximize the workgroup’s effectiveness. to forge collaborative relationships among Residents, businesses and organizations residents, businesses, and organizations to should be involved and help to implement track progress and build momentum. strategies. Additionally, DCAC can be more productive when workgroups come together Both the heat and flood vulnerability around a common issue. assessments have direct impacts for 4. Focus on “no regret” actions in the short the Parks, Public Space, and Water term: Certain actions will be beneficial Infrastructure Work Group, which should regardless of the level of change that Detroit consider the following: will eventually experience. Similarly, actions that have cross-cutting benefits with other • How climate change impacts the workgroups, and should be higher priority. quantity and quality of Detroit’s natural Long-term actions and strategies should be resource systems periodically reevaluated as climate impacts • How Detroit’s natural resource become better understood. systems can be utilized to combat the vulnerabilities that arise due to climate GOALS change This report identifies five goals, covering five While Detroit may face many challenges topic areas concerning Detroit’s parks, public from climate change, the city also is uniquely space, and water infrastructure. Subsequently, poised to increase its resiliency. Abundant this report provides a mitigation and adaptation open space and largely vacant areas can rationale for each goal, as well as some potential be assets to be used to mitigate climate and strategies, and indicators that might be used to its effects. Taking an expansive view of the measure progress toward the goal. workgroup, large open spaces in the city should be incorporated into the larger parks 1. Maximize the urban tree canopy, with and public space picture. special consideration for urban heat islands and changing precipitation patterns. To complete the workgroup tasks as 2. Minimize Combined Sewer Overflow (CSO) outlined by the DCAC Workgroup Guide, the events and flood insurance claims. following approach should inform and guide 3. Encourage production of local agriculture the process. on publicly owned land as well as on vacant open space within existing neighborhoods.

62 WORK GROUPS DEFINITION URBAN HEAT ISLAND UHI is defined as increased surface and air temperatures in urban areas relative to surrounding suburban and exurban areas. UHI 4. Ensure an adequate water supply for city patterns vary by region, occur in more dispersed residents and services. pattern than once thought, may increase or 5. Expand access to Detroit’s parks, public decrease over time, and are most problematic space and water resources. during warm weather. This is by no means an exhaustive list of workgroup goals, but represents five areas URBAN FOREST that are especially well-suited given Detroit’s The layer of leaves, branches and stems of trees characteristics and anticipated climate impacts. that cover the ground when viewed from above. The urban forest includes trees on both public 1. Maximize the urban tree canopy, with and private land. special consideration for urban heat islands and changing precipitation IMPERVIOUS SURFACE patterns. An impervious surface is any surface that does not allow water to soak into the ground. When From the mitigation perspective, trees take up water from rain and snowmelt washes off a piece CO2. Which lessens the city’s overall emissions. of property, it flows into a storm drain system Trees also play an important adaptive role and eventually into the Huron River. Impervious through the provision of shade. Trees or hard surfaces on the property such as roofs, significantly lessen the urban heat island (UHI) driveways, and patios, do not absorb the water effect, and this same canopy also intercepts and contribute to stormwater runoff. rainwater, reducing the amount of runoff.2

Mitigation Adaptation

For trees to have the greatest mitigating Adaptation strategies should use trees effect on carbon emissions, strategies should to alleviate urban heat island and maximize coverage. The organization American stormwater effects caused by climate Forests recommends cities achieve a 40% urban change. Increasing Detroit’s urban canopy forest cover. Detroit is currently at about 31% will provide benefits, however, certain canopy cover, and lost about 3% cover between locations may warrant prioritization. The 2005 and 2009.3 The DCAC should prioritize workgroup should likely consider the increasing tree canopy percentage. Some following characteristics when prioritizing, potential locations for increasing this percentage as highlighted in this report’s Vulnerability were identified through the Detroit Works Assessment: Project.4 These “carbon forests” and “industrial buffers” concentrate trees around highways and • Land Use Type: Distinguishing between industry in order to absorb CO2 and other air residential, commercial, industrial, and pollutants. In the long term, stakeholders should institutional land uses consider programs that incentivize residents and • Impervious Surface Cover: A factor that business owners to plant and maintain trees. contributes to UHI, the workgroup could Trees are especially effective along buildings’ use trees to lessen the heat impacts in southern faces, which receive the most direct especially susceptible areas sunlight, and would therefore have the most • Demographic Characteristics of impact on cooling costs and energy use.5 Concern: Elderly and youth populations, poverty, education levels, housing without air-conditioning, chronic health problems • Current Park Locations: Parks themselves could be targets for

PARKS, PUBLIC SPACE & WATER INFRASTRUCTURE 63 WORK GROUPS

The Detroit Works Project has identified a number of blue-green infrastructure strategies and potential locations for these projects throughout the city. Source: “City Systems” Detroit Works Project: Long-term planning. http:// detroitworksproject.com/planning/strategies/city-systems/

increased tree cover, in addition to • Preferred Species List: Certain trees may the streets within a certain radius, for do better in this region in the future, these example a tenth-mile species could be promoted. • Sewer District: There may be flood- • Maintaining a Level of Diversity: Systems in prone areas or overburdened sewer flux can be especially vulnerable to invasive districts that would benefit from species and diseases. Ensuring a diversity increased stormwater retention of plant life will help to minimize negative impacts should a certain species fall into Additionally, changing climates will also decline. result in changing species composition, as many trees expand their ranges Indicators to Track Progress northward. With natural systems in flux, Detroit will want to position their resources • Urban Tree Canopy percentage to go to be well equipped for this change. Some further: public vs. private cover, cover by considerations include: species, cover by land use type, canopy

64 WORK GROUPS DEFINITION WASTEWATER Used, dirty water that goes through the drains and toilets of homes, businesses, industry, and institutions; also known as sewage. coverage in especially highly impervious/ high heat areas (Extent/Minimizing vulnerability/Access) STORMWATER • Number of Trees Planted per Year (Extent) Water from rain, snow, sleet, hail, that flows • Number of Citizen Volunteer Pruners across the ground and pavement or when snow (Maintenance/Community Engagement) and ice melt.

2. Minimize Combined Sewer Overflow OUTFALLS (CSO) events and flood insurance The point, location, or structure where claims. wastewater or drainage discharges from a sewer, drain, or other conduit. Detroit has a combined sewer system, sending both wastewater and stormwater through the COMBINED SEWER OVERFLOW same retention and processing facilities. During periods of intensive rainfall the system often (CSO) reaches its full capacity, and the city is forced A sewer system discharge (and major pollution to release untreated water into the Rouge and concern) containing not only stormwater but Detroit Rivers. During 2011, Detroit discharged also untreated human and industrial waste, toxic around 7 billion gallons of untreated wastewater materials, and debris. through outfalls located on the rivers, and while 2011 was a particularly wet year, it may be representative of future conditions.6 The Detroit Water and Sewerage Department (DWSD) has embarked on an extensive capital improvements Secondly, Detroit currently incinerates its plan to address the shortcomings of the system sludge waste in old, outdated incinerators and expand its capacity, which have certainly that contribute to poor air quality and helped to reduce Combined Sewer Overflow produce GHGs. The workgroup should (CSO) discharges in the last two decades.7 investigate utilizing the waste as a source of However, the system needs to find other means energy, or turning the waste into an input for to address the precipitation volumes that come larger scale composting operations. Also, with intense storms. the workgroup should investigate increased pollution controls for the current incinerator. Mitigation Adaptation For mitigation reasons the workgroup will want to examine how to minimize the volume of water Adaptation strategies would seek to that must be processed by wastewater treatment use existing open space to alleviate plants. This will allow the DWSD to save energy. the stormwater runoff burden from The workgroup should then prioritize strategies climate change. Discharge events are that lessen the volumes of stormwater runoff, undesirable from public health and riverfront dealing with rainwater on-site, rather than development perspectives. Some factors allowing it to contribute additional volume to the to consider when looking to minimize system. Other cities have focused on strategies impervious surface cover and maximize that minimize the amount of paved, impervious the functional efficiency of the stormwater surface, and instead provide areas where system may include: rainwater can collect and naturally filter back into groundwater.

PARKS, PUBLIC SPACE & WATER INFRASTRUCTURE 65 66WORK GROUPS WORK GROUPS boundary. 946 squaremiles,extending farbeyondjustDetroit’s Michigan’s totalpopulation,with a serviceareaof product. Currently, theplantservesabout35%of biodegradable solids,producinganevencleaner screening andtreatmentprocessthatdisinfects provide secondarytreatment,whichisamorerigorous However, theplantwas upgradedinthe1960sto screens outsolidsandchlorinatesthewastewater. was onlyintendedtoprovideprimarytreatment,which treatment facilitiesintheUnitedStates.Originally, it Detroit facilityisthelargestsingle-sitewastewater before dischargingbackintoawaterbody. The In general,afacilitydesignedtotreatwastewater WASTEWATER TREATMENTPLANTS Source: EnvironmentalProtection Agency adjacent to Zug Island in southwest Detroit. An aerialviewofDetroit’s Wastewater Treatment Plant, 8 • • • product. (AlsoLowImpactDevelopment.) stormwater asaresourceratherthanwaste functional andappealingsitedrainagethattreat minimizing effective imperviousnesstocreate and recreatingnaturallandscapefeatures, LID employsprinciplessuchaspreserving stormwater asclosetoitssourcepossible. development) thatworkswithnaturetomanage An approachtolanddevelopment(orre- LOW IMPACT DESIGN biorentionparking.jpg Source: http://www.water-research.net/images/ bioretention swalesintootherwiseimperviousparkinglots. An exampleofLowImpactDesign,whichincorporates their property. users tominimizetheimpervious coveron burden. Programscouldincentivize these contributing moreheavilyto thestormwater impervious surfacefootprint, andarethus may besomefacilitiesthat havealarge Concentrations ofimpervioussurfaces:there Design guidelinesintoprojectdevelopment. recommended orminimumLowImpact facility, thecitymaylooktoincorporate construction ordevelopmentonanexisting New development:whetheritisnew that alleviatesomeofthispotential. prioritized attention,todevelopstrategies especially flood-prone areas may demand and populationcharacteristics.Similarly, that is consistent with underlying flood balance ofimperviousandpervioussurfaces the city, andseektopromoteahealthy characteristics—identify patternswithin Spatial, demographic,andgeographic DEFINITION • Historic hydrologic flows: While Detroit had a number of creeks historically, these have largely been incorporated into the sewer drainage system of pipes and culverts. Daylighting is a technique that reverses this process, and subsequently converts a large portion of the land immediately adjacent to the creek back to natural land cover, helping to minimize the amount of total runoff. An aerial view of the Earthworks Urban Farm, an extension of the Capuchin Soup Kitchen spread over 20 lots on two city blocks. Source: Food Urbanism Indicators to Track Progress Adaptation • Number of Combined Sewer Overflow (CSO) events or volume discharged The impacts of climate change will affect • Number of Low Impact Design projects the world’s food producers, and periodic • Incidence of flooding or flood-insurance food shortages and price increases may claims become more frequent. Michigan has a very • Percent or square footage of impervious suitable agricultural climate, and Detroit in surface removed or converted particular has a suitable amount of land in which to cultivate crops. The city can use 3. Encourage production of local agriculture this resource base as a way to insulate itself on publicly owned land as well as from the changing pressures of a global on vacant open space within existing market. neighborhoods. Strategies to consider may look to: Although estimates vary, and have at times been exaggerated, there is a reasonable assumption • Expand the level of local production: that there are around 20 square miles of vacant Identify suitable areas in the city for land in Detroit.9 This open space resource agriculture and create networks of can be apportioned in a variety of ways, and support for local growers local agriculture could represent one potential • Connect growers to healthy compost use that also serves to address some climate and soil, seed suppliers, finding change planning concerns. unaddressed niches in the market, and local markets, churches, and institutions, Mitigation and finally to consumers, making sure residents have access to locally There are two relevant factors that connect produced food. the food we eat to carbon emissions. First, • Amend city policies and ordinances to the energy expended in the transport of food allow for a wider range of agricultural from grower to table is substantial and can activity, perhaps placing a limit on be lessened by connecting the city to a local carbon-intensive practices such as agriculture base. However, research shows raising livestock for meat or dairy that transportation only represents about 11% of total associated emissions.10 The remainder Indicators to Track Progress is attributed to production itself, with red meat and dairy being more carbon-intensive than • Local grower representation at farmer’s grains, chicken, eggs, fish, and vegetables.11 markets (Extent of industry) Where possible, promotion of certain dietary • Acreage dedicated to local agriculture alternatives can result in both fewer carbon or tonnage of food produced (Extent of emissions and a healthier population. industry)

PARKS, PUBLIC SPACE & WATER INFRASTRUCTURE 67 WORK GROUPS

• Number of local food-to-school or – along the river and lakeshore, where newly business, etc. programs (Connectivity) exposed vegetation could lead to increased • Number of local markets or duration property maintenance or undesirable decaying of time residents have access within plant material. new council districts, or census tracts (Access/Connectivity) Mitigation

4. Ensure an adequate water supply for Energy inputs are required at several important city residents and services. stages in the life cycle of water. Initially, water must be pumped from the source location to the Ensuring the availability of a clean and treatment facility. Once there, these facilities plentiful water supply will become more use energy to pump water through the system difficult facing climate change. However, and treat it. It then requires energy to transport proximity to the Great Lakes benefits Detroit, the water to the end users, who also use energy and there is no danger from sea level rise. in heating, cooling, filtering, pressurizing, However, a recent report from the U.S. and circulating processes.13 Inefficiencies at Army Corps of Engineers indicates that the any point in the system present opportunities Great Lakes system has the potential to hit a for improvement and a lessening of carbon record low depth this year.12 The implications emissions. Some areas that the workgroup may of water level change could extend beyond want to explore further include: municipal water users, also impacting ship ports and navigation, and property owners

The St. Clair River, in May 2001, experienced water levels that were a foot below average, making it easier for phragmites and other invasive plants to grow and spread. Source: NOAA via http://greatlakesecho.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/07/StClairRiver2.jpg

68 WORK GROUPS • Source water quality: Detroit discharges • River/Lake-level dependent users: treated wastewater, and has sewer outfalls, Shipping, industry, and recreational boat along the Detroit River, one of the water users need to be adequately informed source intakes. To ensure higher quality about the potential threats to their water for the entire system, however, a activities imposed by lower lake levels. regional approach should be encouraged In addition to public awareness, there among all DWSD communities to lessen may be programs or activities that will runoff pollution. help make boat facilities better suited • Distribution efficiency: A report on drinking to lower water levels. As a second water in Detroit indicated that aging group, property owners along the lake infrastructure in the city costs residents 35 should understand the changes that billion gallons and $23 million each year.14 may occur to their property, what their DWSD initiated a capital improvement responsibilities are, and if there are plan to address these concerns, and the maintenance activities that help or workgroup may want to develop strategies damage the ecological functioning of the and partnerships that help the city achieve river system. their goals identified in the plan. • End user conservation: Crossing into the Indicators to Track Progress realm of the Homes and Neighborhoods workgroup, efficiency can be promoted • Per capita water use through appliance and technological fixes, • Energy used to treat drinking water but this workgroup could also look to • Percent of Water Conservation outreach promote conservation behaviors among programs residents and businesses. • Percent of installed onsite water storage systems, like barrels/tanks Adaptation

Increased variability in precipitation and potentially lower lake levels could negatively impact many users. The workgroup should seek to identify strategies that both identify these user groups and make them better prepared for variable conditions. Some groups that might warrant further exploration include:

• Large quantity non-human users: Whether a parks department or school needs to water a field, or local agriculture growers depend on a fairly high level of water use, drought conditions could impact their ability to maintain their product. Helping these groups maintain reserve water supplies in onsite rain barrels or tanks can help to insulate them from the fluctuations of variable water supply.

For a few miles downtown, the Detroit Riverfront has developed into a vibrant place, offering both natural amenities and entertainment opportunities for residents. Source: Jeff Haynes/AFP/Getty Images via http://cbsdetroit.files. wordpress.com/2011/05/detroit-riverfront.jpg

PARKS, PUBLIC SPACE & WATER INFRASTRUCTURE 69 70WORK GROUPS WORK GROUPS • • Indicators to Track Progress maximize theiradaptivepotential. canopy coveralonggreenwaysandtrailsto manner, theworkgroupcanseektoincrease find respite on extreme heat days. In this and openspacesystemwillhelpresidents Having alargeandwell-connectedpark Adaptation workgroup. ally inthiseffort willbethetransportation will helptoreducevehiclemiles. A natural parks andopenspaceareasofthecity Improving accessandconnectivityamong Mitigation seek waystosupporttheseefforts. pedestrian access. The workgroupshould riverfront, developingitforrecreationaland Detroit hastakenstepstoreclaimits connectivity throughoutthecity. Likewise, greenways withplanstoincrease the city. There areseveralfunctioning to theseresourcesvariesthroughout open spaceandriverfront,howeveraccess Detroit hasahugeassetinitsabundant public spaceandwaterresources. 5. ExpandaccesstoDetroit’s parks, riverfront Tree canopycoveralongtrailsand Miles oftrail(totaland/orconnected) lowimpactdevelopment.aspx) (http://www.semcog.org/ for Michigan SEMCOG:Low ImpactDevelopmentManual infrastructure-for-urban-climate-adaptation/) (http://ccap.org/resource/the-value-of-green- Adaptation of GreenInfrastructureforUrbanClimate Center forClean Air Policy:TheValue cfm?deid=188306) (http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/cfm/recordisplay. Regions in theGreatLakesandNewEngland Combined Sewer Overflow (CSO) Mitigation Potential ImpactsofClimateChangeon EPA: A Screening Assessment ofthe Program-Strategy.cfm) climatechange/2012-National-Water- (http://water.epa.gov/scitech/ (Public Draft) Strategy: ResponsetoClimateChange EPA: NationalWater Program2012 greeninfrastructure/index.cfm) (http://water.epa.gov/infrastructure/ EPA: GreenInfrastructure recordisplay.cfm?deid=233808) (http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/global/ Utility Practices Assessments: FourCaseStudiesofWater EPA: ClimateChangeVulnerability plans.html) (http://www.dwsd.org/pages_n/system_ Wastewater MasterPlan Detroit Water andSewerageDistrict: strategies/city-systems/) (http://detroitworksproject.com/planning/ Infrastructure Overview Detroit Works Project:Blue-Green RESOURCES Source: By Cletch

SOURCES

1. “The Potential Impacts of Climate Change on Basin Indicator Project.” U.S. Environmental Protection Detroit, Michigan.” Great Lakes Integrated Sciences Agency. (26 August 2009). http://www.epa.gov/med/ + Assessments (GLISA). Draft from 27 November grosseile_site/indicators/cso.html 2012. 8. DWSD 2. “Forests, Health and Climate Change: Urban Green 9. Davidson, Kate. “Detroit has tons of vacant land. Spaces, Forests for Cooler Cities and Healthier But forty square miles?” Michigan Radio. (18 April People.” European Environment Agency. (19 2012). http://www.michiganradio.org/post/detroit- December 2011). has-tons-vacant-land-forty-square-miles 3. GloVis Landsat 7 ETM+, Tree Canopy Cover; 10. Wakeland, Wayne, S. Cholette, and K. Venkat. Nowak, David J., and E. J. Greenfield. “Tree and “Food transportation issues and reducing carbon impervious cover change in U.S. cities.” Urban footprint.” Chapter 9 in Green Technologies in Food Forestry and Urban Greening 11(2012), 21-30. Production and Processing. J.I. Boye and Y. Arcand 4. “City Systems” Detroit Works Project: Long-term (eds.) (10 January 2012) pp. 211-236. http://www. planning. http://detroitworksproject.com/planning/ cleanmetrics.com/pages/Ch9_0923.pdf strategies/city-systems/ 11. Whitty, Julia. “Food Miles & Your Carbon Footprint.” 5. McPherson, E. Gregory, D. J. Nowak, and R. A. Mother Jones. (21 April 2008). http://www. Rowntree. “Chicago’s Urban Forest Ecosystem: motherjones.com/blue-marble/2008/04/food-miles- Results of the Chicago Urban Forest Climate your-carbon-footprint Project.” U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest 12. Lawrence, Eric D. “Report: Great Lakes water Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. levels may flirt with record lows.” Detroit Free Press. (June 1994). (6 September 2012). http://www.freep.com/ 6. Lyandres, Olga, and L. C. Welch. “Reducing article/20120906/NEWS05/309060193/Report- Combined Sewer Overflows in the Great Lakes: Great-Lakes-water-levels-may-flirt-with-record-lows Why Investing in Infrastructure is Critical to 13. “Water-Energy Connection.” U.S. Environmental Improving Water Quality.” Alliance for the Great Protection Agency. (15 December 2012). http:// Lakes. (19 June 2012). www.epa.gov/region9/waterinfrastructure/ 7. Tucker, Young, Jackson, Tull Inc. “Wastewater waterenergy.html Master Plan: Capital Improvement Program. 14. “What’s on tap? Grading drinking water in U.S. Project No. CS-1314.” Detroit Water and Sewerage cities.” Natural Resources Defense Council. (June Department. (September 2003). http://www.dwsd. 2003). pp. 131-138. http://www.nrdc.org/water/ org/downloads_n/about_dwsd/masterplan_ drinking/uscities/pdf/detroit.pdf wastewater/volume4/Capital_Improvement_ Program.pdf ; “Detroit River-Western Lake Erie

PARKS, PUBLIC SPACE & WATER INFRASTRUCTURE 71 72 WORK GROUPS WORK GROUPS from andavoid themistakesofothercities. the field, it also has the opportunity to learn because Detroitissofarbehind therestof vulnerable residents.Onthe positiveside, place anunfairburdenon the city’s most unemployment andpoverty rates,andwould would beineffective giventhecity’s high programs, asimilarprograminDetroit and fines to augment their recycling while manycitiesuseenforcementprograms expensive incertainneighborhoods.Finally, curbside pick-upfortrashorrecyclingtoo population lossandlackofdensitymake proposition. Second,thecity’s continued capital-intensive improvements a difficult the financial position of the city makes any Detroit facesthreekeychallenges.First, In reformingitssolidwastepractices, throughout thecity. such asRecycleHereareavailable off stationsrunbycommunityorganizations conducted inthreeneighborhoodsanddrop- recycling program.Curbsideis does nothaveacomprehensivecurbside in adirectandindirectmanner. mitigation effect onGHGs—lowering GHGs solid waste stream can have a significant Moreover, whenmanagedacertainway, a the qualityoflifeandlivabilityacity. economic developmentandimprove A well-managedwastestreamcangenerate SOLID WASTE wide recyclingprograms. incentive ontheimplementationofcity- decreases airquality, andplacesanegative energy incinerator, whichaproducesGHGs, city ishometothenation’s largestwaste-to- latest trendsinwastemanagement. The ahead, asDetroithasnotkeptupwiththe focus on mitigation and has a difficult task Antonio, andOklahomaCity. This groupwill picked upinwarmercitieslikeDallas,San waste issues. After all,thegarbageisstill not increaseDetroit’s vulnerabilitytosolid Waste workgroup,asclimatechangedoes Adaptation efforts willnot affect theSolid DETROIT CONTEXT 1 CurrentlyDetroit considered. in abroadlenstoensurethat allissuesare important toconsidereach facetofsolidwaste recycling programs.Consequently, itis their needfortrashtoburncande-incentivize can castapallovernearbyneighborhoods,and poor airqualityandemissionsofheavymetals may generateenergy, buttheircontributionsto from the landfill. Incinerators, on the other hand, and truckstoexpendfuelwhenheading methane gases,contaminatewatersupplies, air pollution than incinerators, landfills can emit while landfills may produce less heavy metal beyond theproductionofGHGs.Forexample, and cancreateitsownenvironmentalimpacts as eachsolutioncreatestheirownimpacts, environment is complex and difficult to quantify, Exactly howasolidwastestrategyaffects the mitigate GHGs. of theseefforts combined,largeorsmall,can trucks outtopickupbagsofyardwaste. All compost athome,thecitydoesnothavetosend stream in the first place. When Detroiters is thewastethatnevermakesitinto mitigation efforts. Finally, thebestsolidwaste have acomprehensiveeffect onasociety’s in mind,soundsolidwastemanagementcan the carboncycle. paper, andlesstreesarecutdown,augmenting are producedcomparedtomanufacturingnew when paperisrecycled,lessenergyandGHG’s greenhouse gassesaswell.Forexample, stream hastheopportunitytoindirectlymitigate the wastecollectionprocess. The solidwaste sum, directimpactsareGHGsproducedduring trash intheincineratorproducesGHGs.In energy. Burningfuelforthetrucksandburning Trash istruckedinandusedasfueltoproduce incinerator isanexampleofadirectimpact. mitigation—direct andindirect.Detroit’s Solid wastehastwoimpactsonenvironmental AND INDIRECT)WORK? HOW DO THE IMPACTS (DIRECT 2 Withthismultifacetedimpact GOALS

The DCAC should consider citywide, “top down” reforms in conjunction with “bottom up” grassroots, community based efforts to successfully mitigate the GHG effects of Detroit’s solid waste stream. Broadly, the suggested goals are to decrease GHGs produced directly by the waste stream during the collection and disposal process, and increase the opportunity for indirect mitigation effects through recycling, composting, education, and conservation efforts. Also, the DCAC should consider the economic development effects of recycling with an emphasis on creating jobs.

GUIDANCE STRATEGIES Source: Rebecca Cook Metro Times

The Incinerator the facility, it cannot close the incinerator Key Indicator: Percentage of City of Detroit directly. However, if the City of Detroit waste incinerated reduces or eliminates its waste contribution, it could make operating the incinerator All discussions of solid waste policy in Detroit financially difficult, and eventually force its begin with the Greater Detroit Resource owners to close the facility. Recovery Authority’s incinerator. It is the largest waste-to-energy incinerator in the United States, Recycling and over twenty years after its construction, it remains controversial. For incinerator Key Indicators:Percentage of waste advocates, the facility is good the environment— recycled; Percentage of city with curbside it saves landfill space, recycles heavy metals, recycling;Revenue generated from sold and produces steam for the Downtown Detroit recycled materials steam loop. Critics are quick to point out the high amount of carcinogens and heavy metals Recycling in Detroit is in its nascent emitted through the facility’s smoke stack. The stages—just three neighborhoods offer facility is also criticized for its high amount of curbside recycling. This needs to change. CO2e emissions (over 414,064 metric tons of Today, many cities make it easy for residents CO2e gasses for the year 2010 alone), and to recycle. Instead of placing recyclables note that energy generated by burning trash in a small bin that is sorted at the curb by is inefficient compared to the energy saved by a recycling truck operator, cities now are recycling. 3 switching to a single-stream recycling policy. All recyclables (newspapers, soup cans, Critics argue that the incinerator’s demand for shampoo bottles, etc.) are placed in one fuel deemphasizes the need to recycle, and see large can, usually the same size as a trash a close connection to the city’s poor recycling can, and collected on the same day as the efforts and the presence of the incinerator. trash—then sorted at a large, central facility. Because the City of Detroit does not own Recycling efforts are also accompanied

SOLID WASTE 73 74WORK GROUPS WORK GROUPS single-family homebuild-out pattern, of thenormalwastestream. WithDetroit’s encourage residentstokeep yardwasteout waste canforresidentialyard wastecan such asprovidingaseparate different color measures thatsimplifyyard wastecollection, Outreach andeducationefforts, and stream. yard wastefromreachingtheregular Detroit canandshoulddomoretoprevent program forward. This isapositivestep,but or marketingplancouldhelpmovethis gardening movement. A simpleeducation residents andDetroit’s growingurban yield shouldbemadeavailabletoDetroit waste throughacontractor. This compost waste stream,andcompoststhisyard yard wasteseparatelyfromtherestof in recyclingefforts. can bedonatedtocharitiesforparticipating points thatareredeemedforcoupons,or Recyclebank allowresidentstoaccumulate sometimes rewardprograms.Programslike by aconcertededucationeffort, and 13.4% nationwide. stream isactuallyyardwaste—anestimated One ofthelargestportionswaste composted Key Indicators:Percentageofyardwaste Yard Waste recycle bins. charging morefortrashcansandless in amannerthatencouragesrecycling— the citycouldeasilyrecalibratefee already chargesafeefortrashpick-up, residents torecycle.BecauseDetroit and compostingisfree,whichencourages a feefortrashcollection,whilerecycling you throw” scheme, where residents pay of action.Othercitiesoperatea“payas of affairs, thismaynotbe a wisecourse regulations, butgivenDetroit’s currentstate fines on residents that do not comply with Some cites,suchasNew York, alsolevy 5 4 Detroit doescollect . RaniaGhosnandElHadiJazairy, ResearchontheCity: 5. Seehttps://www.recyclebank.com/ formoredetails. 4. • • • • • mind: the DCACshouldkeeptheseindicatorsin When analyzingDetroit’s solidwastestream, community’s wastemanagementprogram. also allows the community to “buy in” to the waste collectioncostsforthelongterm. This the waste stream in the first place, and reduce for Detroittopreventyardwastefromentering compost program. This is arealopportunity stakeholders couldeasilydevelopanathome 3. 2010 Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Large Facilities 2010GreenhouseGasEmissionsfromLargeFacilities 3. life cycle assessments,” Waste Management 27, no. 8 Recycling, incineration or landfilling? A review of existing AlejandroVillanueva, HenrikWenzel, “Paperwaste— 2. shadow of America’s largest waste incinerator,” CurtGuyette,“LookingforGreenHorizons:Inthe 1. SOURCES Geographies of Trash (UniversityofMichigan, 2012). www. http://ghgdata.epa.gov/ (Environmental Protection Agency, 2010),accessedfrom (2007): 29-46 Metrotimes, May28,2008. materials Revenue generatedfromsoldrecycled Percentage ofyardwastecomposted landfilled Percentage ofwastecollectedincineratoror Percentage ofwastecollectedrecycled Pounds ofsolidwastepercapita

Source: Voice of Detroit RESOURCES:

For the Solid Waste group, the best resources are the plans and actions of other cities.

Edmonton, Alberta containers, and requires residents to keep recyclebles out of the standard garbage. One of the most comprehensive waste management policies belongs to the City of See http://www.nyc.gov/html/nycwasteless/ Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. Edmonton takes a html/recycling/recycle_what.shtml for more comprehensive approach to waste management, information. recycling and composting a high percentage of its waste. The goal of their operation is to Western Springs, Illinois recover as much waste as possible through composting and recycling. Edmonton also The Village of Western Springs, Illinois, provides recycling opportunities for more operates a simple yet effective pay-as-you challenging materials such as electronic waste, throw program. Residents pay a set fee operating drop off stations throughout the city. for trash cans, and can “trade up” for two or three if necessary. Also, if residents do See http://www.edmonton.ca/for_residents/ not want to pay for an extra can year round, garbage_recycling/edmonton-waste- but have a week where they produce extra management-centre.aspx for details. trash, they can place a pre-paid sticker on their trash bags, and the trash will be picked New York, New York up. If trash is in excess of the pre-paid amount, residents are retroactively charged Despite the logistical challenges of high-rise a fee. Recycling and yard waste pick-up is buildings and high population density, the City of free. New York operates a comprehensive recycling program. New York also has a high population See http://www.wsprings.com/living/ of renters, much like Detroit, and requires recycling.asp for more information. landlords to provide recycling space and

SOLID WASTE 75 TRANSPORTATION WORK GROUPS

CLIMATE CHANGE pedestrian infrastructure and neighborhood- based car sharing. In addition, this diversity in VULNERABILITY & transportation modes can help Detroiters lessen TRANSPORTATION the economic burden associated with rising oil prices. Transportation is a critical system within Detroit that has significant PRIORITY CONCERNS FOR implications for both climate mitigation and adaptation. Extreme weather events TRANSPORTATION IN DETROIT disrupt transportation systems as a result of flooding, downed power lines, For the purposes of the DCAC, sustainable power outages and icing on the roads. transportation can be defined as transportation Consequently, extreme weather events options that decrease dependence on make it difficult for local economies to personal vehicle transportation and reduce function properly and emergency response the use of carbon-based fuels. The key to the vehicles to service the city in times of need. DCAC’s future success relies on collaborating with existing sustainable transportation Vulnerability in terms of transportation is and community efforts across the city. This related to both the physical infrastructure collaboration could become the foundation for system and the ability of residents in the short-term efforts for promoting sustainable Detroit to access transportation modes. transportation. In addition to the short-term The physical infrastructure is vulnerable to opportunities, the DCAC should simultaneously flooding, increased freeze-thaw days as well advocate for long-term sustainable as the increased heat. Though the social transportation solutions that address land-use aspects of transportation vulnerability are and economic challenges within the city’s fabric. not directly related to climate change they are related to how residents are able to Many opportunities exist for transportation access the resources they need to cope with and climate adaptation in Detroit. Major climate change. For example, an extreme opportunities exist with regard to collaborating weather event can make even the shortest with current neighborhood planning efforts. walking or biking trip inhospitable. In addition, catalyzing and promoting Transit Oriented Development (TOD) is an exciting Opportunities to mitigate the effects opportunity for the community; pursuing TOD of climate change include diversifying can be done through a variety of methods transportation. This diversification discussed further on page 86. Lastly, many requires lessening Detroit’s dependence progressive climate action plans, such as The on carbon-based modes such as gas City of Grand Rapids and their Green Grand and diesel consuming personal vehicles, Rapids report, couple transportation and land- trucks and public buses. More sustainable use planning. Though this integrated approach modes of transportation offer safe and requires major public sector influence, the comfortable alternatives to personal DCAC, as a long-term goal, can leverage vehicle use. A few options of sustainable existing community relationships in order transportation include improved public to educate and advocate for an integrated transit and reliability, improved bicycle and approach.

76 WORK GROUPS WORK GROUP PRIORITIES & CHALLENGES

For Detroit, developing a sustainable transportation system will be an ongoing challenge, due to the scale of the city, low DEFINITION population density across some areas, the SUSTAINABLE strong status quo of the automobile and lack of regional participation in pubic transit. TRANSPORTATON Transportation options that decrease dependence As the DCAC looks toward the future and on personal vehicle transportation and reduce the works toward developing a community based use of carbon-based fuels. grass roots climate action plan, some primary challenges for the long and short term include:

1. Accessibility, connectivity and diversity of transit options 2. Reliability of existing transit options 3. Safety and comfort of non-motorized transportation 4. Air quality concerns for non-motorized transportation users 5. Automobile dependency 6. Volatile oil prices in the long-run

The DCAC’s priority for short-term development of sustainable transportation goals in Detroit should connect with existing efforts. This collaboration reduces any potential duplication of existing programs or services such as working with existing Safe Routes to Schools initiatives or TOD advocacy. Simultaneously the DCAC can identify and promote long-term sustainable transportation goals based on community needs and the vulnerability assessment; long-term efforts may require development of additional initiatives, programs and capital for successful implementation.

Source: By Michigan Municipal League

TRANKSPORTATION 77 78WORK GROUPS WORK GROUPS DIVERSITY IN TRANSPORTATION MODES ECONOMIC BURDEN ASSOCIATED WITH Calthorpe) concentrated in mixed-use developments at strategic points along the regional transit systems.” (source: Peter “Moderate andhigh-densityhousing,alongwithcomplementary publicuses,jobs,retailandservices,[that]are TRANSIT ORIENTEDDEVELOPMENT CAN HELP DETROITERSLESSEN THE DEFINITION establishedtransitcorridors 4. Promote infill development along transportationinDetroit 3. Promoteacultureofsustainable motorizedtransportationusers 2. Address airqualityissuesfornon- diversityoftransitoptionsinDetroit 1. Improveaccessibility, connectivityand transportation advocatesinDetroit: The followingarelong-termprioritiesfor improvements 3. Identifyopportunitiesforsynergiesand motorizedtransportation 2. Improvesafetyandcomfortofnon- optionsinDetroit 1. Improvereliabilityofexistingtransit transportation advocatesinDetroit: The followingareshort-termprioritiesfor RISING OIL PRICES. points. regard toeachgoalbyoffering measurabledata goals. The indicator(s)gaugeprogresswith of theaforementioned regard totheachievement The strategieshelpguidestakeholderswith Each goalincludesstrategiesandindicator(s). 6. Promote TOD 5. Increase efficiency of fleet vehicles routes 4. Increase alternative fuel use in fleet vehicles rapidtransitsystem ridership(whenoperational)ofthebus 3. Increaseconnectivity, accessibilityand transportation 2. Increasesafety&comfortofnon-motorized 1. Decreasevehiclemilestraveled(VMT) structures: consideration forDetroit’s physicalandsocial effort, thefollowinggoalswerechosenwith the DCACasacommunitygrassrootsplanning priorities. Recognizingtheuniquepositionof the aforementionedshort-termandlong-term suggested goalsandstrategiessupplement plans acrosstheU.S.andCanada. These research ofothersuccessfulclimateaction in thissectionwerederivedfromreviewand The suggestedgoalsandstrategiesdiscussed TRANSPORTATION AND INDICATORS FOR POTENTIAL GOALS Goal #1: Decrease Vehicle Miles Traveled (VMT) Goal #3: Increase connectivity, accessibility and ridership (when operational) of the bus Strategy: Combine with existing organizational rapid transit system efforts to promote the Woodward Corridor BRT and develop additional multi-modal transit Strategy: Support existing organizational opportunities within the BRT service area. efforts to coordinate key nodes of concentration to and improve the Strategy: Promote non-motorized transportation connectivity of the bus rapid transit system opportunities. by improving the multi-modal connectivity.

The following indicators help monitor reductions The following indicator measures increasing in VMT: productivity and efficiency of a bus rapid transit system: 1. Decrease per-capita VMT 2. Increase transit ridership 1. Increase ridership

Goal #2: Increase safety and comfort of non- motorized transportation

Strategy: Combine with existing organizational efforts to identify key nodes of concentration to maximize the impact of physical implementation. Advocate for reduced vehicle speeds on selected thoroughfares, as vehicle speed and pedestrian safety are linked, according to a report on walkability in urban thoroughfares by the Institute of Transportation Engineers.1

The following indicators relate to increasing the safety and comfort of non-motorized transportation: Participating Detroit “Safe Route to School” Programs

1. Increase foot traffic at key nodes. 2. Increase bicycle use/trips per capita 3. Increase implementation of complete streets in key areas. 4. Increase in the cooperation and implementation of safe routes schools in the City of Detroit.(27 participating schools currently) 5. Increase percentage of children per school that have access to safe routes.

Source: Detroit Safe Routes Participating Schools Prepared By: Univiersity of Michigan Detroit Climate Capstone TRANSPORTATION 79 80WORK GROUPS WORK GROUPS SEVERAL PROGRAMS AND EFFORTS CURRENTLY EXIST, SOME ALREADY TRANSPORTATIONSAFETY AND vehiclesusingalternativefuels. 1. Increase percentage of fleet fleets: the useofalternativefuelswithinvehicle The followingindicatorpertainstoincreasing infrastructure. in additiontodevelopingalternativerefueling of fleet vehicles to alternative fuel sources, fleet vehicles and encourage the conversion organizational efforts toidentifykeyusersof Strategy: Combinewithexisting vehicles Goal #4:Increasealternativefueluseinfleet hourofoperation.) deliveredorfuelgallons consumed/ infuelgallonsconsumed/tons ofcargo routes. (Efficiency being measured 1. Increases efficiency in fleet vehicle the efficiency of fleet vehicle routes: The followingindicatorpertainstoincreasing routes for maximum efficiency. and streamlining in routeanalysis assistance the optimization of fleet routes. Provide users of fleet vehicles and encourage organizational efforts toidentifykey Strategy: Combinewithexisting routes Goal #5:Increaseefficiencyoffleetvehicle PERTAINING TOSUSTAINABLE HAVE ADVOCACY INDETROIT. 2. Increaseinareaszonedfor TOD 1. Increasein TODs intheCityofDetroit of transit-orienteddevelopment: The followingindicatorspertaintothepromotion consolidate propertiesandcatalyzedevelopers. Where applicable,engagelandholdersto requirements forproposed TOD developments. TOD developmentsanddecrease parking of TOD. Lobbythecitytoupdatezoningfor maximize theimpactofphysicalimplementation efforts toidentifykeynodes ofconcentrationto Strategy: Combinewithexistingorganizational (TOD) Goal #6:PromoteTransit OrientedDevelopment Linda Patrick [email protected]. Coordinator. Detroit’s regionalCoordinator is through thestateSafeRoutes toSchool federal fundingisavailable anddistributed infrastructure thatimprove theaccesstoschools and thephysicalimprovements tosidewalksand assist intheplanninganddesign oftheprogram overall walkabilityoftheroutes toschools. To safety concernsandinitiativesforimprovingthe part ofthiseffort theprogramalsoaddresses of studentswhowalkorbicycletoschool. As community-initiated effort toincreasethenumber Safe RoutestoSchools:canbea resources listattheendofthissection. programs isprovidedinthetransportation federal sources. Additional informationonthese funding availablethroughvariousstateand initiatives thathaveplanningimplementation A coupleofthelistedprogramsareestablished strategic implementationsofWork Groupplans. The programscanplayanintegralroleinthe transportation, climatechangeandsustainability. were highlightedbecausetheirrelationshipto advocacy inDetroit. The programslistedbelow safety currentlyexist,somealreadyhave pertaining tosustainabletransportationand As mentionedseveralprogramsandefforts TRANSPORTATION RELATEDPROGRAMS TO INNOVATIVESYNERGISTIC AND Source: Complete Streets from Toole Design Group Clean Cities: The Clean Cities program Complete Streets: As defined by Smart Growth is a program developed through the U.S. America, “the Complete Street movement aims Department of Energy (DOE). According to to develop integrated, connected networks DOE Clean Cities is dedicated to “advancing of streets that are safe and accessible for all the nation’s economic, environmental people, regardless of age, ability, income, and energy security by supporting local ethnicity, or chosen mode of travel.” Complete actions to reduce petroleum consumption in Streets seeks to integrate walking and bicycling transportation.” The Clean Cities coalition into the status quo of the transportation system “brings together stakeholders in the public and provide accessibility to employment and private sectors to deploy alternative and opportunities and educational institutions, in renewable fuels, idle-reduction measures addition to giving independence from carbon- and fuel economy improvements.” Funding based fuels and the economic benefits that can for these supported initiatives is available bring. Complete Street policies are encouraged and Detroit is already established as apart by Michigan legislation and funding sources are of the nearly 100 cities within the Clean City available for a variety of programs. network. The Clean Cities Coordinator for Detroit is Matt Sandstorm [email protected]. Transit Oriented Development (TOD): Peter Calthorpe a leader in TOD defines it as: Woodward Corridor Initiative: The “moderate and high-density housing, along Woodward Corridor Initiative is one of with complementary public uses, jobs, retail several organizations supporting the and services, [that] are concentrated in mixed- development transit and investment along use developments at strategic points along the Woodward Corridor in Detroit. They the regional transit systems.” Interest in TOD are supportive of TOD strategies and are has already been active in Detroit surrounding active in advocacy for the integration of the Woodward Corridor planning efforts. The mixed-use development at strategic points. Downtown Detroit Partnership, Detroit Economic As an organization they have propelled Growth Corporation and Midtown Detroit Inc. development efforts forward and aided in have formed a partnership that meets monthly to concentrating growth around midtown even engage TOD planning issues. when the transit proposals for the corridor have stalled.

1. Bochner, Brian, James M. Daisa P.E., and Beverly Storey. “Walkable Urban Thoroughfares: From Concept to Recommended Practice.” Institute of Transportation Engineers.ITE Journal 81.9 (2011): 18-24.

TRANSPORTATION 81 82WORK GROUPS WORK GROUPS Walking andBicyclingtoSchool Safe Routes—GettingResults:To School(SRTS)ProgramsThatIncrease http://www.smartgrowthamerica.org/guides/complete-streets-local-policy-workbook/ Webpage: Michigan-2011.pdf http://library.michigantrails.org/wp/wp-content/uploads/Complete-Streets-Funding-for- Funding inMichigan: http://www.smartgrowthamerica.org/documents/cs-local-policy-workbook.pdf PDF Document: Complete Streets:LocalPolicyWorkbook Bus-Rapid-Transit-v1.pdf http://sustainablecommunitiesleadershipacademy.org/resource_files/documents/Resource-Guide- PDF Document: http://sustainablecommunitiesleadershipacademy.org/workshops/accelerating-bus-rapid-transit Webpage: Accelerating BusRapidTransit: A ResourceGuideforLocalLeaders RESOURCES Designing Walkable UrbanThoroughfares; A ContextSensitive Approach http://www.saferoutesinfo.org/ Webpage: http://www.saferoutesinfo.org/sites/default/files/resources/srts_gettingresults_walkbike.pdf Document: Italsoincludesausefulguideonhowtomeasurestudentwalkingandbicycling numbers. U.S andidentifieshowtheyovercametheirbarriers to developingSafeRoutesprograms. This isaguidetodevelopingSafeRoutesprograms; itfeaturescommunitiesacrossthe needs, visionandgoalsandincorporateabroadgroupoflocalstakeholders. Streets policies.Theguideencourageslocalleaderstoexaminetheirowncommunity’s This isaguidebookthatservesasstartingpointtobegindevelopmentofComplete creative financing. implementation including:makingthecaseforBRT, fosteringcollaborationandfinding Rapid Transit (BRT) systems.Itprovidesclearexamplesand referencestotoolsfor 2012. TheguideisacompilationofcasestudiesforbestpracticesimplementingBus This resourceguidewaspreparedforaworkshopheldinCleveland,OHonMarch24, and designprocess. uses casestudiesanddesign optionstoguidethecommunitythroughurban planning through thecommitmentto creatingandenhancingwalkablecommunities.This report This reportwasdeveloped tohelpimprovemobilitychoicesandcommunitycharacter Journal Article: Bochner, Brian, James M. Daisa P.E., and Beverly Storey. “Walkable Urban Thoroughfares: From Concept to Recommended Practice.” Institute of Transportation Engineers.ITE Journal 81.9 (2011): 18-24.

Full Report: Daisa, James. M. and Brian S. Bochner. “Designing Walkable Urban Thoroughfares; A Context Sensitive Approach” Institute of Transportation Engineers. 2012

Webpage: http://www.ite.org/emodules/scriptcontent/Orders/ProductDetail.cfm?pc=RP-036A-E

Livability Solutions: coalition helping communities succeed Livability Solutions is a coalition of organizations across the country that provides communities assistance to achieve livability, sustainability, placemaking and smart growth goals. They have a verity of resources listed on their webpage as well as periodic grant opportunities.

Webpage: http://livabilitysolutions.org/?page_id=7

Sustainable Urbanism: Urban Design With Nature By Douglas Farr This is a book off articles and case studies that address issues of sustainable urbanism The book gives structure to issues of leadership, implementation and advocacy for sustainable issues.

Farr, Douglas. Sustainable Urbanism: Urban Design With Nature. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley, 2008.

Transportation and Climate Change Clearinghouse—Climate Change Impacts This annotated list of resources on the impacts of climate change on transportation infrastructure is continually updated.

Department of Transportation, 2010 Webpage: http://climate.dot.gov/impacts-adaptations/forcasts.html

Regional Climate Change Effects: Useful information for transportation agencies This report provides the transportation community (including highway engineers, planners, NEPA practitioners) with digestible, transparent, regional information on projected climate change effects that are most relevant to the U.S. highway system. This information informs assessments of the risks and vulnerabilities facing the current transportation system, and can inform planning and project development activities.

Federal Highway Administration, 2010 Webpage: http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/hep/climate/climate_effects/effects00.cfm

TRANSPORTATION 83 CONCLUSION CONCLUSION

As of December, 2012, DCAC is in the The overall findings show that areas with the early stages of developing a community- highest heat intensity and potential for a sewer led climate action plan for Detroit. As part system overload during a rain event contain a of this process, graduate students from high percentage of impervious surfaces and a the University of Michigan’s Urban and low percent of tree coverage. To help prioritize Regional Planning Program, in partnership adaptation strategies within the city, the results with DCAC, developed a vulnerability of the vulnerability analysis were mapped at assessment in late 2012 to identify the a relative scale, meaning the areas that are spatial distributions of social disadvantage identified to have the highest vulnerability are and environmental hazards that may inform relative only to those with lower vulnerability decision-makers how best to prioritize within Detroit, and are not compared to other adaptive strategies. cities.

Results of the vulnerability assessment can Areas identified as having very high levels of be used to identify key geographic areas heat vulnerability are dispersed throughout and populations within the city that are the city. Downtown, Midtown and the Grand recognized to be most vulnerable to the River and Gratiot corridors are predominantly potential effects of climate change. However, identified as moderate to very high vulnerability the greatest strength of the vulnerability due to their generally low tree cover and analysis will be when it is integrated with the impervious physical characteristics. expertise and contextual knowledge of the DCAC members and community residents. Our flooding vulnerability analysis has two Then it can be used as a tool to carefully components: sewersheds and households. As target further efforts including: additional climatologists warn that intensity and frequency research, ground-truthing, community of precipitation events will increase, it is outreach and ultimately prioritizing strategies important to identify what areas of the city have for climate change adaptation efforts. the most stormwater runoff. Similar to the heat analysis, the results showed that the areas most The vulnerability analysis focused on vulnerable to sewer systems overload are those identifying the physical areas in the city that with the highest percent of impervious surface have the highest risk of negative impacts and the lowest percent of tree cover. Again, related to heat and rainfall events. These these areas are concentrated predominantly in impacts were chosen based on GLISA’s the Downtown and Midtown areas of Detroit. At identification that heat and rainfall would the household level, the flooding vulnerability have the greatest climate change effect analysis focused on exposure according to on Detroit. Current scientific literature also location within the floodplain and sensitivity identifies that certain populations have a according to the age of the housing stock and greater level of sensitivity to heat or flooding the median household income. The results events. As a result of this research, an showed a limited flooding risk located only along overlay of the socio-economic demographics areas adjacent to the Rouge and Detroit Rivers. was added to help prioritize the populations that may experience the greatest Moving forward in 2013, the DCAC and its vulnerability. work groups should identify both long-term and

84 CONCLUSION short-term priorities for addressing vulnerabilities positive benefits for reducing the UHI within the city. Short-term recommendations effect and reducing the likelyhood that could include, for example: carefully considering overloaded sewer/stormwater systems will the distribution of the city’s designated cooling release untreated wastewater into the city’s center locations. Our findings encourage receiving waters. increasing the number of official cooling centers, and adding mobile cooling centers when Climate change adaptation for Detroit necessary. will require collaboration among the city’s residents, organizations and institutions Longer-term, DCAC should develop a strategy to effectively share knowledge, resources, that prioritizes planting and pavement removal in and prioritize actions. The vulnerability the areas that have been identified as the most assessment contained in this document vulnerable to heat events. Minimizing impervious serves as a starting point to begin a larger surface cover and maximizing vegetative cover community conversation. and tree canopy throughout the city will have

Source: By Maia C.

CONCLUSION 85 GLOSSARY GLOSSARY

Adaptation: The “adjustment of human or Biophysical: The biological and physical natural systems in response to actual and/ elements that help characterize a place, or anticipated climate change” (Larsen et al, specifically underlying geology and soils, forest 2013; Blanco et al, 2009). and vegetative cover types, climate, hydrology, and species diversity. Albedo: Albedo is how much of the incoming solar radiation is reflected as Blue-Green Infrastructure: Uses vegetation, shortwave radiation. Measured from 0 - 1.0, soils, and natural processes to manage water 0 represents 100% complete absorption of and create healthier urban environments. all shortwave radiation and 1.0 represents At the scale of a city or county, blue-green 100% complete reflection of all shortwave infrastructure refers to the patchwork of natural radiation areas that provides habitat, flood protection, cleaner air, and cleaner water. At the scale of a All Hazards Plan: Plan to address all neighborhood or site, blue-green infrastructure aspects of emergency preparedness, from refers to stormwater management systems that security to natural disasters. Detroit’s Office mimic nature by soaking up and storing water. of Public Health Emergency Preparedness (Source: EPA Green Infrastructure http://water. coordinates its All-Hazards Plan. (Source: epa.gov/infrastructure/greeninfrastructure/ Detroit Department of Public Health) gi_what.cfm)

American Community Survey: The Brownfield: Real property, the expansion, American Community Survey (ACS) is an redevelopment, or reuse of which may be ongoing survey that provides data every complicated by the presence or potential year -- giving communities the current presence of a hazardous substance, pollutant, information they need to plan investments or contaminant. (Source: EPA.gov) and services. Information from the survey generates data that help determine how Census Block Group: The smallest unit more than $400 billion in federal and state of Census geography in which the Census funds are distributed each year. (Source: publishes household level data. A block group Census.gov) is smaller than a Census tract yet larger than a Census block and generally contains between Anaerobic Digestion: A biological process 600 and 3,000 people. (Source: American Fact that produces a gas principally composed of Finder Glossary) methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) otherwise known as biogas. These gases Climate: Climate is the accumulation of are produced from organic wastes such as recorded weather trends in a region over a long livestock manure, food processing waste, period of time. etc. (Source: California Energy Commission) Climate Change: The multitude of impacts Apparent Temperature: Calculation of what caused by the trend of higher global people perceive as the temperature in hot temperatures: increased duration and frequency and humid conditions. (Source: National of drought, increased number of extreme Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, precipitation events, rising sea levels, and ocean http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/societal-impacts/ acidification. (Pew Center) apparent-temp/) Climate Projection: A model of climate patterns combined with GHG emission scenarios that projects the expected climate change outcomes.

86 GLOSSARY Coniferous: Mostly evergreen trees and shrubs Compost: Decayed organic material used having usually needle-shaped or scalelike as a plant fertilizer. leaves and including forms (as pines) with true cones and others (as yews) with an arillate fruit. Deciduous: Trees and shrubs that are wood plants and shed leaves annually, Cool Roof: Reflects the sun’s heat and emits absorbed radiation back into the atmosphere. Demand-Side Management: Manage the The two basic characteristics that determine demand for energy in various ways that the ‘coolness’ of a roof are solar reflectance keep end-use demand levels constant. (SR) and thermal emittance (TE). (Source: CoolRoofs.org http://www.coolroofs.org/ Eco-Efficiency: Reducing the amount of HomeandBuildingOwnersInfo.html) resources, waste and pollution needed to provide the same good or level of service. Cooling Center: A temporary air conditioned public space set up by local authorities to Effluent: An outflow from a sewer or provide relief from the heat. (EPA, http://www. sewage system. epa.gov/aging/resources/climatechange/ extremeheatevents.htm) Emissivity: Ratio from 0 - 1.0. An emissivity of 1.0 indicates that pavements Combined Sewer Overflow (CSO): A sewer are very effective at storing heat energy and system discharge (and major pollution concern) releasing it slowly. containing not only stormwater but also untreated human and industrial waste, toxic Environmental Risk: Vulnerable aspects materials, and debris. During periods of heavy of organizations that are exacerbated by rainfall or snowmelt, the wastewater volume climate change; Factors of production and in a combined sewer system can exceed the capital flows are influenced dramatically capacity of the sewer system or treatment plant. by extreme weather events and changing For this reason, combined sewer systems are climate conditions. designed to overflow occasionally and discharge excess wastewater directly to nearby streams, Extreme Heat Event (EHE): refers to rivers, or other water bodies. (Source: EPA unusually hot temperatures and/or high http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/home.cfm?program_ humidity readings compared to the typical id=5) regional average for that season. Generally, an EHE occurs when the daytime high Combined Stormwater System: Sewers is above 90*F and the nighttime low that are designed to collect rainwater runoff, temperature remains high limiting relief domestic sewage, and industrial wastewater in from the heat. (EPA, http://www.epa.gov/ the same pipe. (Source: EPA http://www.epa. heatisland/about/heatguidebook.html) gov/compliance/monitoring/programs/cwa/csos. html)

Compact Development: Building in a more compact way to reduce development costs and provides density that can be efficiently served by transit. There are several forms of compact development including mixed-used development, where by integrating different uses such as residential, office, and shopping daily vehicle trips can be reduced.

GLOSSARY 87 88GLOSSARY GLOSSARY Geographic InformationSystem: flood_risks/ffr_overview.jsp) floodsmart.gov/floodsmart/pages/flooding_ (Source: FloodSmart.govhttp://www. changes duetobuildinganddevelopment. topography, flood-controlmeasures,and rainfall, river-flowandtidal-surgedata, rate. Riskisbasedonanumberoffactors: to floodandhasacorrespondinginsurance map, highlightsareasthataremorelikely Flood Risk: Huron RiverWatershed Council) areas forariveranditswatershed.(Source: and shorelines,areconsideredtobecritical water. Floodplains,alongwithwetlands gravel, orporousstonethatyieldandcarry aquifers, theundergroundlayersofsoil, river systemandtoseepintogroundwater allowing ittobereleasedslowlyintothe and holdstheexcesswaterfromstorms, heavy rainstorms. The floodplain collects area thatmaybecoveredwithwaterafter adjacent toariver, stream,orcreek.Itisan Flood Plain: org/conner-creek-greenway/) Greenway http://www.connercreekgreenway. and shoppingareas.(Source:ConnerCreek destinations suchasparks,schools,libraries roller-blading thatlinksneighborhoodsand and trailsforwalking,jogging,biking Greenway: A networkofopenspaces ghgemissions/gases.html) (EPA, http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/ Methane (CH4),andNitrousOxide(N2O). most commonareCarbonDioxide(CO2), a byproductoffossilfuelcombustion. The heat intheatmosphereoftenemittedas Greenhouse Gas(GHG):Gasesthattrap for analyzingandrepresentingspatialdata. Usuallyexpressedthrougha A landareaimmediately Software a2gov.org) to stormwaterrunoff. (Source:Cityof Ann Arbor, patios, donotabsorbthewater andcontribute on thepropertysuchasroofs, driveways,and the HuronRiver. Imperviousorhardsurfaces into astormdrainsystemandeventually snowmelt washesoff apieceofproperty, itflows into theground.Whenwaterfromrainand any surfacethatdoesnotallowwatertosoak Impervious Surface: An impervioussurfaceis low-growing plants. an ordinaryfoliageleaf.i.e.shrubsandother Herbaceous: services tobuildings. systems. Usedtoprovideheatingandcooling HVAC: Heating,ventilationandairconditioning public healthresponse. forecasting ofextremeheatandimprovethe threats forspecificregionstoallowbetter Administration forstatisticalanalysisofheat by NationalOceanicand Atmospheric Heat/Health Warning System:Tooldeveloped goods andservices.(Ex:DetroitDiesel) on efficiencieswithregardtotheacquisitionof sustainable rulesandregulationsthatfocus Green Procurement:Environmentally environment. of abuildingminimizestheimpacton principles toensurethattheuseandoperation ecologically sustainabledevelopment Green Lease:A leasethatincorporates Information Division) Development Divisions&LaborMarket (Source: StateofCalifornia,Employment sustainable productmanufacturing. compliance, andawareness,natural installation, andmaintenance,education, manufacturing, distribution,construction, existing materials,energyefficientproduct and storingrenewableenergy, recycling goods orservicesthatresultin:generating Green Jobs:jobsproduce(“supply”) Havingthetexture,color, etc.of Incineration: The process of combusting waste Ozone Action Day: Days that ground-level material. Incineration is used to reduce the ozone exceeds acceptable levels for human amount of waste headed to landfills, and/or health. Even relatively low levels of ozone produce energy. can cause health effects. People with lung disease, children, older adults, and people Indicator: An instrument to measure the who are active outdoors may be particularly direction and proportion of progress. sensitive to ozone. (Source: EPA, http:// www.epa.gov/air/ozonepollution/basic.html) Lead Abatement: Lead abatement is an activity designed to permanently eliminate lead-based Pay-As-You-Throw: A policy of charging paint hazards. (Source: EPA.gov) residents for refuse collection based on amount. Low Impact Design: Approach to land development (or re-development) that works Pervious Surface: Surfaces that allow with nature to manage stormwater as close to its rainwater to pass through them and soak source as possible. LID employs principles such into the ground instead of flowing into storm as preserving and recreating natural landscape drains. (Source: Oregonmetro.org) features, minimizing effective imperviousness to create functional and appealing site drainage Positive Drainage: Soil around building that treat stormwater as a resource rather than a slopes away from building to move water waste product. (Also Low Impact Development.) away from building (Source: EPA http://water.epa.gov/polwaste/ green/index.cfm) Public Health: Public health is the practice of preventing disease and promoting good Mitigation: Strategies that focus on reducing health within groups of people, from small GHG emissions from human activity and communities to entire countries. (Source: promote the use and development of non-fossil American Public Health Association) fuel energy sources R-Value: Measure of the thermal resistance Normalized: A method of accounting for to heat flow of a given material. A high changes in activity level such as population R-value indicates a good insulative property. changes or changes in economic flows. Runoff: The draining away of water (or Outfall: The point, location, or structure where substances carried in it) from the surface of wastewater or drainage discharges from a an area of land, a building or structure, etc. sewer, drain, or other conduit. (Source: http:// www.owp.csus.edu/glossary/outfall.php) Sensitivity: Sensitivity is the degree to which a system is affected, either adversely Ozone Precursors: Ground level ozone is not or beneficially, by climate- related stimuli. emitted directly into the air, but is created by The effect may be direct e.g., damages chemical reactions between oxides of nitrogen caused by an increase in the frequency of (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOC). coastal flooding due to sea-level rise). (IPCC These chemical reactions are accelerated by 3rd Assessment Report) heat. Service Area: A geographic zone based on access to particular amenity or service.

GLOSSARY 89 90GLOSSARY GLOSSARY 132-2945_5104_31274-107091--,00.html) http://www.michigan.gov/mdch/0,4612,7- Michigan DepartmentofCommunity Health, data collectionandothertools.(Source: using real-timedetectionthroughautomatic of illnessandotherpublichealththreatsby rapid publichealthresponsetooutbreaks Syndromic SurveillanceSystemfacilitates Syndromic Surveillance:Michigan’s based fuels. transportation andreducetheuseofcarbon- dependence onpersonalvehicle Transportation optionsthatdecrease Sustainable Transportation: energy. production, transmission,ordistributionof the reliabilityofenergysupplyfocusingon Supply SideManagement: stormwatercoalition.org/html/ti/index.html) (Source: StormwaterCoalitionhttp://www. and pavementorwhensnowicemelt. sleet, hail,thatflowsacrosstheground Stormwater: Water fromrain,snow, (Source: Ashoka) problems. solutions tosociety’s mostpressingsocial entrepreneurs areindividualswithinnovative Social Entrepreneurs: the sideofcurb. residents orcollectorstosortrecyclableson contrast tothepreviousmethodofrequiring and sortingatacentralfacility. This isin collecting recyclinggoodsinonecontainer Single StreamRecycling:Policyof Plan) system. (Source:DWSDWastewater Master of inflowpointsintotheDWSDcollection determined inordertominimizethenumber formal legalboundaries.Boundariesare defined asthecitydeveloped,withno Sewer District:drainageareas Increases www.epa.gov/iaq/voc.html) sources ofNOxandVOC.”(Source:EPA, http:// and chemicalsolventsaresomeofthemajor utilities, motorvehicleexhaust,gasolinevapors, Emissions fromindustrialfacilitiesandelectric short- andlong-termadversehealtheffects. variety ofchemicals,somewhichmayhave from certainsolidsorliquids.VOCsincludea and nitrogenoxide(NOx)areemittedasgases VOCs: “Volatile organiccompounds(VOCs) and aremostproblematicduringwarmweather. thought, mayincreaseordecreaseovertime, occur inmoredispersedpatternthanonce exurban areas.UHIpatternsvarybyregion, areas relativetosurroundingsuburbanand increased surfaceandairtemperaturesinurban Urban HeatIsland-UHIisdefinedas html#ixzz2Fd5UZfeh about_6578907_definition-urban-tree-canopy. Canopy |eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/ Read more:DefinitionofUrban Tree Center forWatershed Protection) trees onbothpublicandprivateland.(Source: viewed fromabove. The urbanforestincludes and stemsoftreesthatcoverthegroundwhen Urban Forest: The layerofleaves,branches trees thatprovideshade. Tree Canopy: The upperlayerofdeciduous systems.” (source:PeterCalthorpe) at strategicpointsalongtheregionaltransit are concentratedinmixed-usedevelopments public uses,jobs,retailandservices,[that] high-density housing,alongwithcomplementary Transit-Oriented Development:“Moderateand walls, roof,andfloors. enclose conditionedspaces,includingexterior Thermal Envelope:Partsofabuildingthat Vulnerability: The degree to which a system is Watershed: Region within which water flows susceptible to, and unable to cope with adverse into a specified body such as a sea, river, effects of climate change, including climate lake or ocean variability and extremes. Vulnerability is a function of the character, magnitude, and rate of climate change and variation to which a system Weather: Weather describes the day-to-day is exposed, its sensitivity, and its adaptive conditions in a specific place, including the capacity. (Ontario Expert Panel on Climate temperature, precipitation and cloud cover. Change Adaptation 2009) Weatherization: The practice of protecting Waste-to-Energy(WtE):Process of creating a building and its interior from the elements, energy in the form of electricity or heat from the particularly from sunlight, precipitation, and incineration of waste source. WtE is a form of wind, and of modifying a building to reduce energy recovery. Most WtE processes produce energy consumption and optimize energy electricity directly through combustion, or efficiency. (Source: http://www.waptac.org/) produce a combustible fuel commodity, such as methane, methanol, ethanol or synthetic fuels. Whole House Fan: Type of fan, or exhaust system commonly venting into a building’s Waste Stream: Refers to total amount of waste attic, designed to pull hot air out of the produced by a particular area. building.

Wastewater: Used, dirty water that goes Yard Waste: Biodegradable waste that through the drains and toilets of homes, stems directly from plant matter, such as businesses, industry, and institutions; also grass clippings and leaves. known as sewage. (Source: WaterWise http:// www.waterwise.co.za/export/sites/water- wise/water/wastewater/posters/downloads/ Wastewater.pdf)

Wastewater Treatment Plant: In general, a facility designed to treat wastewater before discharging back into a water body. The Detroit facility, is the largest single-site wastewater treatment facilities in the United States. Originally, it was only intended to provide primary treatment, which screens out solids and chlorinates the wastewater. However, the plant was upgraded in the 1960s to provide secondary treatment, which is a more rigorous screening and treatment process that disinfects biodegradable solids, producing an even cleaner effluent. Currently, the plant serves about 35% of Michigan’s total population, with a service area of 946 square miles, extending far beyond just Detroit’s boundary. (Source: DWSD http://www. dwsd.org/pages_n/facilities_wastewater.html)

GLOSSARY 91 92 DETROIT MAPS Source: DetroitStreet RailwaysMap1941 DETROIT MAPS DETROIT MAPS

HEAT MAPS...... 94

Figure 1: Surface Temperature Map Figure 2: Detroit Land Cover Type Figure 3: Detroit Exposure to Excessive Heat Based on Land Cover by Block Group 2010 Figure 4: High School Education or Less by Census Block Group Figure 5: Medium Household Income by Census Block Group Figure 6: Percent of Population 65 or Older by Census Block Group Figure 7: Percent of Population without Vehicle Access by Census Block Group Figure 8: Detroit Sensitivity to Excessive Heat by Block Group 2010 Figure 9: Detroit Heat Vulnerability by Census Block Group 2010 Figure 10: Detroit Heat Vulnerability and Cooling Center Access by Block Group 2010

FLOOD...... 104

Figure 11: Detroit Land Cover Type Figure 12: Underlying Soil Type and Soil Drainage Figure 13: Topographical Slope as Percent Change in Elevation Figure 14: Aggregate Runoff Coefficient by Block Group 2010 Figure 15: Impervious Surgace Cover by DWSD Sewer District Figure 16: Total Runoff Exposure by Block Group 2010 Figure 17: Housing Sensitivity Based on Income and Housing Age by Block Group 2010 Figure 18: Flood Risk Hazard Figure 19: Household Sensitivity and Flood Potential Figure 20: Household Sensitivity and Flood Potential

ADDITIONAL...... 114

Total Runoff Exposure by Block Group 2010 - Labeled Vacant Housing Units as Percentage of Total Units by Block Group 2010 Percent of Housing Stock Building Beofre 1940 by Block Group 2010 Contour Elevation (in Feet) Participating Detroit “Safe Route to School” Programs Detroit Council Districts Detroit Council District 1 Block Groups Detroit Council District 2 Block Groups Detroit Council District 3 Block Groups Detroit Council District 4 Block Groups Detroit Council District 5 Block Groups Detroit Council District 6 Block Groups Detroit Council District 7 Block Groups

DETROIT MAPS 93 DETROIT MAPS DETROIT Figure 1: Surface Temperature Map Temperature Figure 1: Surface Source:Heat Map by Michael Howe Map Prepared By: University of Michigan Detroit Climate Capstone

94 DETROIT MAPS Figure 2: Detroit Land Cover Type Figure 2: Detroit Land Cover American Community Survey; US Census 2010 LandSat 7 ETM+; Source: USGS GloVis Map Prepared By: University of Michigan Detroit Climate Capstone

HEAT 95 96 DETROIT MAPS DETROIT MAPS Figure 3:Detroit Exposure to Excessive Heat Based on Land Cover by Block Group 2010

Source: USGS GloVis LandSat 7 ETM+; US Census 2010 Map Prepared By: University of Michigan Detroit Climate Capstone Source: American Community Survey 2006-2010; US Census 2010 Source: Map Prepared By: University of Michigan Detroit Climate Capstone Figure 4:High School Education or Less by Census Block Group

HEAT 97 98 DETROIT MAPS DETROIT MAPS Figure 5: Median Household Income by Census Block Group

Source: American Community Survey 2006-2010; US Census 2010 Map Prepared By: University of Michigan Detroit Climate Capstone Figure 6: Percent of Population 65 or Older by Census Block Group American Community Survey 2006-2010; US Census 2010 Source: Map Prepared By: University of Michigan Detroit Climate Capstone

HEAT 99 100 DETROIT MAPS DETROIT MAPS Figure 7: Percent of Population without Vehicle Access by Census Block Group

Source: American Community Survey 2006-2010; US Census 2010 Map Prepared By: University of Michigan Detroit Climate Capstone Figure 8 :Detroit Sensitivity to Excessive Heat by Block Group 2010 American Community Survey; US Census 2010 Source: Map Prepared By: University of Michigan Detroit Climate Capstone

HEAT 101 102 DETROIT MAPS DETROIT MAPS Figure 9 :Detroit Heat Vulnerability by Census Block Group 2010

Source: USGS GloVis LandSat 7 ETM+; American Community Survey; US Census 2010 Map Prepared By: University of Michigan Detroit Climate Capstone Figure 10 :Detroit Heat Vulnerability and Cooling Center Access by Block Group 2010 and Cooling Center Figure 10 :Detroit Heat Vulnerability Source: USGS GloVis LandSat 7 ETM+; American Community Survey; US Census 2010 LandSat 7 ETM+; Source: USGS GloVis Map Prepared By: University of Michigan Detroit Climate Capstone

HEAT 103 104 DETROIT MAPS DETROIT MAPS Figure 11 :Detroit Land Cover Type

Source: USGS GloVis LandSat 7 ETM+; American Community Survey; US Census 2010 Map Prepared By: University of Michigan Detroit Climate Capstone Figure 12: Underlying Soil Type and Soil Drainage Type Figure 12: Underlying Soil Source: Michigan Geographic Data Library, Michigan Quarternary Geology Source: Michigan Geographic Data Library, Map Prepared By: University of Michigan Detroit Climate Capstone

FLOOD 105 106 DETROIT MAPS DETROIT MAPS Figure 13: Topographical Slope as Percent Change in Elevation

Source: Michigan Geographic Data Library, Michigan Digital Elevation Model Map Prepared By: University of Michigan Detroit Climate Capstone Figure 14: Aggregate Runoff Coefficient by Block Group 2010 Aggregate Runoff Figure 14: Landsat 7 ETM+; US Census 2010 Source: Michigan Geographic Data Library; Digital Elevation Model; GloVis Map Prepared By: University of Michigan Detroit Climate Capstone

FLOOD 107 108 DETROIT MAPS DETROIT MAPS Figure 15: Impervious Surface Cover by DWSD Sewer District

Source: GloVis Landsat 7 ETM+; US Census 2010; DWSD Wastewater Master Plan Map Prepared By: University of Michigan Detroit Climate Capstone Figure 16: Total Runoff Exposure by Block Group 2010 FLOOD 109

Source: Michigan Geographic Data Library; Michigan Digital Elevation Model; GloVis Landsat 7 ETM+; US Census 2010 Map Prepared By: University of Michigan Detroit Climate Capstone 110 DETROIT MAPS DETROIT MAPS Figure 17: Housing Sensitivity Based on Income and Housing Age by Block Group 2010

Source: American Community Survey 2006-2010; US Census 2010 Map Prepared By: University of Michigan Detroit Climate Capstone Figure 18: Flood Risk Hazard FLOOD 111

Source: Michigan Geographic Data Library, Hydrology; FEMA Flood Maps Map Prepared By: University of Michigan Detroit Climate Capstone 112 DETROIT MAPS Figure 18: Household Sensitivity and Flood Potential DETROIT MAPS

Source: American Community Survey 2006-2010; US Census 2010 Map Prepared By: University of Michigan Detroit Climate Capstone Figure 20: Household Sensitivity and Flood Potential

Source: American Community Survey 2006-2010; US Census 2010 Map Prepared By: University of Michigan Detroit Climate Capstone

FLOOD 113 DETROIT MAPS DETROIT Source:Michigan Geographic Data Library, Michigan Digital Elevation Model, GloVis LandSat 7 ETM+; US Census 2010 Michigan Digital Elevation Model, GloVis Source:Michigan Geographic Data Library, Map Prepared By: University of Michigan Detroit Climate Capstone Total Runoff Exposure by Block Group 2010 Runoff Total

114 DETROIT MAPS Vacant Housing Units as Percentage of Total Units by Block Group 2010 Total Housing Units as Percentage of Vacant Source:American Community Survey 2006-2010; US Census 2010 Map Prepared By: University of Michigan Detroit Climate Capstone

ADDITIONAL 115 DETROIT MAPS DETROIT Percent of Housing Stock Building Before 1940 by Block Group 2010 Source:American Community Survey 2006-2010, B25034, US Census 2010 Map Prepared By: University of Michigan Detroit Climate Capstone

116 DETROIT MAPS Contour Elevation (in Feet) Source:Michigan Geographic Library; Michigan Digital Elevation Model Map Prepared By: University of Michigan Detroit Climate Capstone

ADDITIONAL 117 DETROIT MAPS DETROIT Participating Detroit “Safe Route to School” Programs Source: Detroit Safe Routes Participating Schools Prepared By: Univiersity of Michigan Detroit Climate Capstone

118 DETROIT MAPS Source:Detroit Data Collaborative. Detroit Council Districts Map Prepared By: University of Michigan Detroit Climate Capstone Detroit Council Districts

ADDITIONAL 119 120 DETROIT MAPS Detroit Council District 1 Block Groups DETROIT MAPS

Source:Detroit Data Collaborative. Detroit Council Districts Map Prepared By: University of Michigan Detroit Climate Capstone Detroit Council District 2 Block Groups ADDITIONAL 121

Source:Detroit Data Collaborative. Detroit Council Districts Map Prepared By: University of Michigan Detroit Climate Capstone 122 DETROIT MAPS Detroit Council District 3 Block Groups DETROIT MAPS

Source:Detroit Data Collaborative. Detroit Council Districts Map Prepared By: University of Michigan Detroit Climate Capstone Detroit Council District 4 Block Groups ADDITIONAL 123

Source:Detroit Data Collaborative. Detroit Council Districts Map Prepared By: University of Michigan Detroit Climate Capstone 124 DETROIT MAPS DETROIT MAPS Detroit Council District 5 Block Groups

Source:Detroit Data Collaborative. Detroit Council Districts Map Prepared By: University of Michigan Detroit Climate Capstone Detroit Council District 6 Block Groups ADDITIONAL 125

Source:Detroit Data Collaborative. Detroit Council Districts Map Prepared By: University of Michigan Detroit Climate Capstone DETROIT MAPS DETROIT Detroit Council District 7 Block Groups Source:Detroit Data Collaborative. Detroit Council Districts Map Prepared By: University of Michigan Detroit Climate Capstone

126 DETROIT MAPS

University of Michigan Taubman College of Architecture & Urban Planning