Fandom and the Search for Meaning: Examining Communal Involvement with Popular Media Beyond Pleasure

Home , Fandom

Psychology of Popular Media Culture © 2015 American Psychological Association 2015, Vol. 4, No. 2, 000 2160-4134/15/$12.00 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000085 Fandom and the Search for Meaning: Examining Communal Involvement With Popular Media Beyond Pleasure

Mina Tsay-Vogel Meghan S. Sanders Boston University Louisiana State University

The present study expands on current theorizing about fandom by considering how communal involvement with popular media extends beyond pleasure and is more strongly associated with the search for meaning. Using the context of one of the most widespread media phenomena dominating popular culture—the Harry Potter franchise, results of an online questionnaire (N ϭ 235) indicated that individual differences among fans (i.e., narrative exposure and eudaimonic motivation or the desire to seek meaning from entertainment) predicted involvement in fan communities. Further, perceived membership in fan communities enhanced enjoyment, appreciation, physiological reactions, knowledge acquisition, and intentions to seek fan-related materials. Implications for expanding entertainment scholarship in the study of meaningful media related to fandom and our understanding of contemporary forms of fandom in light of new technological affordances are discussed.

Keywords: fandom, involvement, participation, meaning, eudaimonia

A plethora of research has explored the psy- tion, particularly from a psychological perspec- chological gratifications that individuals attain tive. from media. In particular, entertainment schol- Media fandom is a phenomenon that encour- ars have examined numerous factors that ex- ages individuals to collectively and socially plain our attraction to media, such as identifi- unite within a subculture based on shared inter- cation with characters (Cohen, 2001, 2006), ests or appreciation of a media world or product involvement with narratives (Green & Brock, (Baym, 2000; Hills, 2002; O’Reilly & Doherty, 2000; Green, Brock, & Kaufman, 2004), and 2006). With time, members of fan communities enjoyment (Zillmann, 2000; Zillmann & Bry- develop a sense of social identity, and this has ant, 1994) and appreciation (Oliver, 2008; Oli- been supported across many contexts, such as ver & Bartsch, 2010) of media offerings. Al- sports (Branscombe & Wann, 1992; Wann, though a wealth of entertainment studies Royalty, & Roberts, 2000), music (Baym, 2007; elucidate our understanding of viewers’ experi- Brown & Schulze, 1990; Hansen & Hansen, ences with entertainment that lead to program 1991), literature (Lopes, 2006), TV (Baym, liking, investment, and loyalty, investigations 2000; Bird, 2002; Jenkins, 2000; Wooley, into the communal and social entertainment ex- 2001), and video games (Consalvo, 2003; periences of audiences warrant greater atten- Lowood, 2006). One of the most notable fan communities that has received substantial atten- This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. tion among media scholars is Star Trek (Jen- This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. kins, 1988; Jindra, 1994; Kozinets, 2001). Com- mon practices of these fans, or “Trekkies,” include meeting up at scholarly fan conven- Mina Tsay-Vogel, Department of Mass Communication, Advertising & Public Relations, Boston University; tions, touring iconic landmarks discussed in Meghan S. Sanders, Manship School of Mass Communica- books and movies, forming online fan commu- tion, Louisiana State University. nities, participating in interactive games, and Correspondence concerning this article should be ad- holding celebratory parties before a book or film dressed to Mina Tsay-Vogel, Department of Mass Commu- nication, Advertising & Public Relations, Boston Univer- release. sity, 640 Commonwealth Avenue, Boston, MA 02215. Clearly, fandom has an important home in E-mail: [email protected] entertainment scholarship because entertain-

1 2 TSAY-VOGEL AND SANDERS

ment often serves as the source of the cultural shared emotional connection, history, and par- and ritualistic practices of fans, and the forma- ticipation. tion of such subcultures has implications for According to McMillan and Chavis (1986) shaping social identities, a sense of community, and other scholars, for individuals to engage as social prestige, and self-esteem (Zillmann, Bry- fans in a participatory culture or community, ant, & Sapolsky, 1989). The present research identification is a critical component. The con- examines the concept of fandom in light of one cept of identification has been examined in a of the most widespread media phenomena to variety of ways by media researchers. Identifi- have dominated popular culture in the 21st cen- cation can occur with both characters in the tury. Devoted fans of the Harry Potter series narrative and other audience members who ex- not only consumed its books, but also followed perience the narrative. When viewers consume its movies, recorded and listened to podcasts, media, identification can take place when they developed online fan sites and groups, attended share a character’s perspective and vicariously fan conventions, and created fan art, among participate in his or her experiences (Cohen, other relevant activities. With the prevalence of 2001; Eyal & Rubin, 2003). In the context of such participatory behaviors, the goals of the Harry Potter, fans may feel similarity with, be present research are twofold: (a) To examine attracted to, or like certain characters in the how individual differences among fans predict narrative, making it easier to take characters’ involvement in fan communities, and (b) To perspectives and understand these characters’ explore how fandom is associated with a num- motives and goals. While identification can hap- ber of affective, cognitive, and behavioral re- pen when viewers consume media text, identi- sponses. Such inquiries of investigation provide fication can also be associated with ritualized deeper theoretical insight into the central factors fan practices (Soukup, 2002), such as engaging driving media fandom and illuminate our un- in a social network of similar others. Such prac- derstanding of how fans engage affectively, tices within a fan community may foster stron- cognitively, and behaviorally as a result of their ger mutual connections within the group, and communal experiences with media. increase involvement in ritualistic social practices of identification (Fraser & Brown, 2002). Fandom and Identification However, the degree to which either form of identification occurs varies across individuals. Fandom refers to a subculture grounded on communal identification among individuals Individual Differences in Relation who build upon their shared interests in a media to Fandom object (Jenkins, 1992, 2006). Contrary to the notion of a passive audience, fans are active in Taking into consideration the important role their collection, production, and consumption of of identification in fandom, the current study media. They are not simply viewers, but rather suggests that certain individual difference char- functional and knowledgeable producers of cul- acteristics are expected to predict fan engage- tural capital (Fiske, 1992; Jancovich, 2002; Jen- ment, given its characteristics as informed by kins, 2000). Jenkins (2000) suggests that one of the work of McMillan and Chavis (1986). the principal characteristics of fandom is the “ability to transform personal reaction into so-

This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. Narrative Exposure cial interaction, spectator culture into participa- This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. tory culture” (p. 451). McMillan and Chavis Fans of any media product may vary in their (1986) describe four important elements en- level of exposure to the content universe. Media tailed in fan engagement. In their theory of coverage has been found to elevate not only “sense of community,” fans must (a) perceive audience members’ awareness of a media entity themselves as members of the group (feeling a but also their interest (Abelman & Atkin, 2002). sense of belonging, identiﬁcation, and personal From a cultivation perspective, constant expo- investment), (b) feel that they have inﬂuence in sure to common themes in media can help shape their group and vice versa in order to establish viewers’ perspectives of the world (Gerbner, group cohesion, (c) feel rewarded for their par- 1998; Shanahan & Morgan, 1999). Frequent ticipation in the community, and (d) have exposure to narratives would likely impact au- FANDOM AND MEANING 3

dience responses (Sanders & Tsay-Vogel, 2014) themselves and how they prefer others to see and values, such that heavier consumption of them. While this theory focuses on individual these products is perhaps related to agreement roles, Tajfel and Turner’s (1979) social identity with values embedded in the narratives (e.g., theory argues that self-perceptions are inher- loyalty, morality, search for personal value, and ently based on both personal and social identi- friendship). Greater exposure to products such fiers, emphasizing the importance of group pro- as books and movies could also foster interest in cesses and intergroup relationships. Based on being involved with those who share similar the fundamental premise of social comparison values. Therefore, we propose the following (Festinger, 1954), people identify with those hypothesis: who are similar or slightly better than themselves. In essence, social identity is a function H1: Narrative exposure is positively re- of the value and emotional attachment individ- lated to fandom. uals place on group membership, and such relationships within a group meaningfully repre- Entertainment Preferences sent their sense of self. In the context of fandom, it is clear that identity plays a critical In addition to exposure levels, individuals role, particularly as members of a fanbase de- also differ in their preferences for entertain- velop strong social identities based on the de- ment. Although early work in the area of enjoy- gree to which they perceive themselves to share ment focused primarily on motivations among personal interests and values with other fans in viewers to seek entertainment for pleasure, ex- the community. As seeking these commonali- citement, or suspense (Zillmann, 1988, 2000), ties and mutual interests plays an integral role in Oliver and Raney (2011) recently differentiated fandom and this notion could be driven more between two types of entertainment motiva- prominently by the inclination to search for tions—hedonic and eudaimonic motivations. meaning or deeper insight either through media Whereas hedonic motivation is characterized as texts or from those with shared values and in- more positively valenced and driven by plea- terests, the present research proposes that indi- sure and diversion, eudaimonic motivation is viduals with stronger eudaimonic motivations the desire to seek meaning and insight into are more likely to exhibit stronger levels of human experiences from media texts. This latter fandom. Specifically, those who are more form of motivation that focuses on the pursuit guided by gaining greater life perspectives, un- for and contemplation over life’s truths and derstanding of the human condition and rela- purpose is defined as a general need and one tionships, and human connectedness should that may vary in strength across individuals. In have a greater tendency to engage in fan com- light of motivational differences between the munities due to high cognitive involvement search for pleasure and meaning from media, when consuming media and the role of media in eudaimonically driven individuals are perhaps the development of social identities. Therefore, interested in more cognitively involved media it is logical that the search for meaning rather experiences that enhance psychological well- than mere pleasure in entertainment is linked to being (i.e., the search for meaning in life), rather greater fan participation. Hence, the following than media offerings which solely provide ex- hypothesis is expected: citement, delight, and escapism. Eudaimonic This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. H2: Eudaimonic motivations will be more motivations, thus, are connected closely with This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. strongly associated with fandom as com- more serious entertainment fare such as docu- pared with hedonic motivations. mentaries/nonfiction, dramas, and science fiction, and are directly related to mixed affect Traits of Reflectiveness and (Oliver & Raney, 2011). With these consider- Personal Growth ations in mind, we apply theories of identity from social psychology to propose a link be- Whereas individuals may seek entertainment tween entertainment preferences and fandom. for different purposes, the current study also Role-identity theory (McCall & Simmons, suggests that traits of reflectiveness and per- 1978) suggests that individuals strive to behave sonal growth may engender fandom. Reflective- in ways that adhere to how they prefer to see ness is defined as one’s propensity to reflect on 4 TSAY-VOGEL AND SANDERS

life experiences and take part in self-reflective H4: Personal growth is positively related thinking (Trapnell & Campbell, 1999). Such a to fandom. characteristic is associated with a greater need to understand the self with regard to one’s mo- Fandom and Affective, Cognitive, and tives, goals, and relationships with others Behavioral Responses (Carver & Scheier, 1981; Gibbons, 1990). Tak- ing into consideration these attributes, it is rea- In addition to relationships between individ- sonable to expect that those who are more self- ual differences and fandom, the present research reflective and introspective about their desires also endeavors to examine how fan participa- and interests would be more likely to engage in tion is associated with a variety of affective, fan communities based on the symbolic and cognitive, and behavioral audience responses. pronounced awareness of their interests. Liter- As fandom is a social experience, communal ature supports that fandom is facilitated by a membership, investment, and engagement are meaningful and affective bond between the self likely to also impact individuals within and and the object world, and the deep connection outside the mediated experience due to group one shares with a community is manifested by cohesion, identification, congruence, and rein- central aspects of the fan’s identity and the forcement of media gratifications, interests, and values on which one reflects (Sandvoss, 2013). values (Kelman, 1958; Plante et al., 2014; Ra- Furthermore, while fandom is fundamentally ghunathan & Cofman, 2006). grounded on social connectivity and mutual identification with similar others, it is possible Enjoyment, Appreciation, and that perceptions of group membership, sense of Physiological Responses community, and shared emotional connections with those who facilitate the development of Entertainment scholars have focused exten- one’s identities are more salient for individuals sive work on explaining how media can produce who value self-reflection. different experiences for audiences. One con- In a similar vein, those who seek personal cept that continues to receive significant atten- development and strive to meet life challenges, tion is enjoyment. Enjoyment has generally characteristic of individuals who value personal been defined as a favorable disposition toward growth (Ryff, 1989), may be more inclined to media content (Zillmann & Bryant, 1994), a engage in fandom. Taking into consideration pleasurable affective response to the consump- that one’s social identity entails the appreciation tion of media (Raney, 2003), and a state that of the emotional attachment fans share with results from undergoing sensory delight, sus- group members, the present research suggests pense, and achievement from media experi- that being part of fan communities helps mem- ences (Vorderer, Klimmt, & Ritterfeld, 2004). bers to not only enhance and reflect on their However, there has been growing support for own personal interests and values, but also the examination of counterhedonic media strive for personal growth and development. choices (Knobloch, 2003; Nabi, Finnerty, Dom- Research documents that curiosity and explora- schke, & Hull, 2006; Oliver, 1993; Oliver & tion encourage people to seek out personally Bartsch, 2010). Vorderer and Ritterfeld (2009) meaningful desires and novel experiences argue for a two-factor model of enjoyment in which hedonic enjoyment serves as a lower- This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. (Kashdan, Rose, & Fincham, 2004), which may order factor representing more immediate expe- This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individualinclude user and is not to be disseminated broadly. being involved in a fan community where such interests are reinforced. Therefore, riences, while appreciation is the higher-order individuals who value self-progression are per- factor representing experiences that go beyond haps more likely to continually learn, mature, immediate satisfaction. While the two factors and cultivate their interests in media texts have been found to be distinct, both are concep- through their connections with others. Thus, the tualized as positive valuations of entertainment present study proposes the following two hy- and can even co-occur. potheses: Most recently, meta-emotions or the appraisal of one’s emotional state (Bartsch, Vor- H3: Reflectiveness is positively related to derer, Mangold, & Viehoff, 2008; Oliver, 2008) fandom. have been under scrutiny and some argue that FANDOM AND MEANING 5

the appreciation of media involves contemplat- Knowledge Acquisition ing human poignancies and vulnerabilities and deriving meaning from media text (Oliver & Because fandom constitutes a communal ex- Bartsch, 2010). Appreciation is thus character- perience in which individuals socially unite ized by both positive and negative affect and through shared interests, it is common that such capable of leading to outcomes such as eleva- a form of mutual identification fosters social tion that subsequently enhance the desire to be practices and behaviors (Fraser & Brown, 2002; a better person and do good things for others Soukup, 2002). For example, to sustain identi- (Oliver, Hartmann, & Woolley, 2012). While fication with a group, maintaining rituals that enjoyment and appreciation constitute affective reinforce one’s social identity is critical. Such responses, with appreciation also entailing a practices may include keeping informed with cognitive component due to its emphasis on the entities that tie a social network together. In the case of a fiction series, becoming knowl- sense-making and pensive evaluation of a me- edgeable about the narrative, characters, and dia experience (Oliver & Bartsch, 2010), view- related topics the stories convey may result ers may also exhibit physiological reactions to from participation in fan communities, as well media offerings. Some responses to entertain- as be encouraged by it. With the proliferation of ment that have resulted in unique physical re- new media technologies, online fan networks actions, such as crying, increased heart rate, and have become popular over the years and even warmness in the chest have emerged as a result helped to facilitate richer forms of communica- of meaningful media consumption (Oliver et al., tion and participation among fans (Castells, 2012; Silvers & Haidt, 2008) and feelings of 2000; Fernback, 1999; Jones, 1997). With these elevation (Algoe & Haidt, 2009; Haidt, 2003). considerations in mind, the present study sug- While these physiological responses could ac- gests that fandom should also likely increase count for affective arousal, they also serve as one’s knowledge about issues or values related behavioral indicators of reactions to media en- to the media product (e.g., via greater accessi- gagement. bility to information and diverse perspectives Because fandom involves individuals collec- and networks of interpersonal discussions). Fur- tively uniting based on shared interests or ap- thermore, the act of evaluating the values and preciation of a media object, it is reasonable to lessons presented in the narrative as socially expect that members experience enjoyment not relevant may be deemed as a positive valuation only in sharing their passion and devotion to- of the content and viewing experience, but also ward the media entity with other fans, but also tangentially related items and broader life as- in experiencing the narrative and universe—the pects within and outside the community. There- foundation of their fan community and social fore, fan participation may elicit the attainment identity. In addition to pleasure that can be of knowledge in a variety of topics, including attained from the series, it is also likely that fans relationships and friendships, popular culture, have a greater appreciation for the series as and literature and reading. Thus, the following mutual connections within the fan community hypothesis is proposed: meaningfully reinforce and heighten the value H6: Fandom is positively related to knowl- of their media interests. As fandom is suggested edge acquisition. to be related to affective and cognitive dimen- This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individualsions user and is not to be disseminated broadly. of audience engagement, fan involvement Behavioral Intention is potentially related to physiological reactions as well, particularly if fans are enthusiastically In addition to fan engagement enhancing engaged in being emotionally, mentally, and knowledge acquisition, it is also likely that fans behaviorally invested in a narrative series. will exhibit behaviors that include seeking out Therefore, this study proposes the following repeated consumption or maintaining mediated hypothesis: relationships with characters in the series (Co- hen, 1999; Hoffner, 1996). Entertainment schol- H5: Fandom is positively related to (a) ars have found that with the end of a series, enjoyment, (b) appreciation, and (c) phys- viewers may feel intense emotional distress and iological responses to the series. anxiety, almost as if they terminated long-term 6 TSAY-VOGEL AND SANDERS

interpersonal relationships with the characters items assessing: (a) fandom, (b) narrative expo- (Cohen, 2003, 2004; Eyal & Cohen, 2006; sure, (c) entertainment motivations, (d) reflec- Sanders, Tsay, & Marks, 2012); such a phenom- tiveness, (e) personal growth, (f) enjoyment, enon has been characterized as a parasocial appreciation, and physiological responses to the breakup. Previous research has found that after series, (g) knowledge acquisition, (h) behav- reading the final book, fans of the Harry Potter ioral intention, and (i) general demographic in- series experienced strong breakup emotions, de- formation. In an effort to prevent order effects, sires to extend or repeat their contact with the all variables except for demographics were ran- characters, and were less likely to search for domly ordered. alternative media and characters to connect with (Schmid & Klimmt, 2010). While fans of the Measures series may continue seeking information to help maintain their psychological connection to their Fandom. Being a fan of the Harry Potter favorite characters, it is also possible that such series was assessed by 21 items on Likert-type fans desire to also find ways to sustain their scales anchored by 1 (strongly disagree) and 7 perceived membership in the community, as (strongly agree), adapted from McMillan and fandom is largely predicated on socially ritual- Chavis’ (1986) conceptualization of psycholog- ized practices. Therefore, this research expects ical sense of community or the degree to which that fandom should be associated with inten- members identify with or belong to that com- tions to seek both media-related products (e.g., munity. For the purpose of this study, fandom buy Harry Potter DVDs/BluRays, read and re- refers to the extent to which participants feel read the Harry Potter books, and seek out they are a part of the Harry Potter community Harry Potter fan fiction) or related products in which people possess shared values and emo- (e.g., find another fantasy series to follow). tional connections with the series. A factor anal- Hence: ysis using varimax rotation revealed two primary factors of fandom with eigenvalues H7: Fandom is positively related to inten- greater than 1 (see Table 1). The first factor tion to seek fan-related products. accounted for 55.95% of the variance (eigenvalue ϭ 14.55) and was labeled “Membership Method in Fanbase” (M ϭ 4.04, SD ϭ 1.63, ␣ϭ.97). Example items include: I see myself as belong- Participants and Procedure ing to the Harry Potter fanbase; Generally, I feel good when I think about being a member of An online questionnaire was administered to the Harry Potter fanbase; I feel at home and a total of 235 Harry Potter fans via a variety of comfortable in the Harry Potter fanbase; I feel nonprobability sampling methods (74.3% fe- strongly attached to the Harry Potter fanbase. males). Between July 15 and September 30, The second factor accounted for 9.48% of the 2011 while the final installment of the film saga, variance (eigenvalue ϭ 2.46) and was labeled Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows: Part 2, “Contact with Fanbase” (M ϭ 3.28, SD ϭ 1.60, appeared in the box office, Harry Potter fans ␣ϭ.95). Example items include: I contact were recruited from: (a) mass communication fellow fans often; I often help my fellow fans courses at two large universities in the south and with small things, or they help me; If I need a This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. northeast regions of the United States and (b) little company, I can contact a member from the This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. online platforms including Harry Potter fan fo- Harry Potter fanbase I know; If I feel like talk- rums, Harry Potter Facebook fan pages, and ing, I can generally find someone in the Harry Twitter using Harry Potter series-related Potter fanbase to chat to. hashtags. The ages of the participants ranged Narrative exposure. To measure narrative between 18 to 30 years (M ϭ 19.52, SD ϭ exposure, participants were asked to report the 1.71). The sample comprised 86.8% Cauca- total number of books they read in the series by sians, 5.5% African Americans, 5.5% Latinos, selecting the following book titles: Harry Potter 4.3% Asians, 1.7% Pacific Islanders, 1.3% Na- and the Sorcerer’s Stone, Harry Potter and the tive Americans, and .9% indicating no race. All Chamber of Secrets, Harry Potter and the Pris- participants were asked to respond to a series of oner of Azkaban, Harry Potter and the Goblet FANDOM AND MEANING 7

Table 1 Fandom Items

Factors Dimensions of Fandom MSD12 Membership in Fanbase 1. I plan to remain a member of the Harry Potter fanbase for a number of years. 4.34 2.04 .85 .26 2. Overall, I am very attracted to being a part of the Harry Potter fanbase. 3.92 1.95 .84 .32 3. I think the Harry Potter fanbase is a good thing for me to be a part of. 4.27 1.76 .83 .32 4. I see myself as belonging to the Harry Potter fanbase. 4.13 2.00 .83 .32 5. In general, I’m glad to be a member of the Harry Potter fanbase. 4.48 1.83 .83 .24 6. The Harry Potter fanbase is a good thing to belong to. 4.52 1.66 .80 .29 7. I feel like I belong in the Harry Potter fanbase. 4.09 1.91 .80 .32 8. Generally, I feel good when I think about being a member of the Harry Potter fanbase. 4.19 1.81 .78 .36 9. I feel at home and comfortable in the Harry Potter fanbase. 4.13 1.83 .78 .39 10. It is important to me to be a part of the Harry Potter fanbase. 3.52 1.83 .74 .50 11. The Harry Potter fanbase is a part of me. 3.42 2.04 .71 .50 12. I feel strongly attached to the Harry Potter fanbase. 3.47 1.98 .70 .46 13. I often think about being a member of the Harry Potter fanbase. 3.25 1.98 .64 .48 Contact with Fanbase 14. I contact fellow fans often. 3.14 1.95 .33 .81 15. My friends in the Harry Potter fanbase are part of my everyday activities. 3.41 1.89 .40 .77 16. I often help my fellow fans with small things, or they help me. 3.36 1.77 .33 .76 17. If I need a little company, I can contact a member from the Harry Potter fanbase I know. 3.41 1.93 .35 .74 18. I exchange favors with fellow members of the Harry Potter fanbase. 3.13 1.80 .36 .73 19. The Harry Potter fanbase plays a part in my everyday life. 2.92 1.86 .33 .69 20. Being a member of the Harry Potter fanbase is an important part of my self-image. 2.98 1.78 .36 .61 21. If I feel like talking, I can generally ﬁnd someone in the Harry Potter fanbase to chat to. 3.93 1.94 .35 .60

of Fire, Harry Potter and the Order of the SD ϭ 1.25, ␣ϭ.95). Example items include: I Phoenix, Harry Potter and the Half-Blood like entertainment that challenges my way of Prince, and Harry Potter and the Deathly Hal- seeing the world; I like entertainment that has lows (M ϭ 4.31, SD ϭ 2.76). In a similar vein, profound meanings or messages to convey. participants were asked to report the total num- Reflectiveness. Participants also reported the ber of movies they saw by selecting from the degree to which they reflect on life events and are same list of aforementioned titles (M ϭ 6.31, naturally inclined to engage in self-reflective SD ϭ 1.61). The sample comprised 43.4% who thinking. Twelve items on Likert-type scales an- read all the books and 64.6% who saw all the chored by 1 (strongly disagree) and 7 (strongly movies in the series. agree) from Trapnell and Campbell’s (1999) re- Entertainment motivations. Two types of flection scale were used to assess one’s level of entertainment motivations were assessed using reflectiveness (M ϭ 4.56, SD ϭ .91, ␣ϭ.82). 12 items on Likert-type scales anchored by 1 Example items include: I often look at my life in (strongly disagree)and7(strongly agree) from philosophical ways; I find myself to be a deep, This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. Oliver and Raney (2011). Six items tapped into introspective type of person; I find myself being This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. hedonic motivations, the degree to which par- very self-inquisitive by nature. ticipants seek entertainment for pleasure and Personal growth. To measure the extent to excitement (M ϭ 5.50, SD ϭ 1.05, ␣ϭ.85). which participants strive for continued personal Example items include: It’s important to me development, nine items on Likert-type scales an- that I have fun when consuming entertainment; chored by 1 (strongly disagree) and 7 (strongly For me, the best forms of entertainment are agree) were used from Ryff’s (1989) Psycholog- ones that are purely entertaining. Six items ical Well-Being scale to assess personal growth measured eudaimonic motivations, the extent to (M ϭ 5.22, SD ϭ .97, ␣ϭ.79). Example items which participants seek entertainment for mean- include: I think that life has been a continuous ing and greater life understanding (M ϭ 5.48, process of learning, changing, and growth; I think 8 TSAY-VOGEL AND SANDERS

it is important to have new experiences that chal- Knowledge acquisition. Knowledge ac- lenge how I think about myself and the world; I quisition was assessed by the extent to which am interested in activities that will expand my the Harry Potter series influenced participants’ horizons. knowledge of relationships and friendships out- Enjoyment, appreciation, and physiologi- side of the fanbase, popular culture, and litera- cal responses. Affective, cognitive, and phys- ture and reading (M ϭ 4.81, SD ϭ 1.60, ␣ϭ iological reactions were measured to tap into .85). These items were measured on Likert-type participants’ level of enjoyment, appreciation, scales anchored by 1 (strongly disagree) and 7 and physiological intensity when exposed to the (strongly agree). Harry Potter series. Six items were adapted Behavioral intention. The degree to which from Oliver and Bartsch (2010) to measure en- individuals continue to engage in fan-related joyment of the Harry Potter series (M ϭ 5.95, behaviors was assessed through intention to buy SD ϭ 1.27, ␣ϭ.93). Example items include: I Harry Potter DVDs/BluRays, find another fan- had a good time experiencing the world of tasy series to follow (e.g., Hunger Games, Harry Potter; I found the world of Harry Potter Percy Jackson and the Olympians, etc.), read to be exciting. Six items were adapted from and reread the Harry Potter books, and seek out Oliver and Bartsch (2010) to assess appreciation Harry Potter fan fiction (M ϭ 4.13, SD ϭ 1.82, of the Harry Potter series (M ϭ 5.41, SD ϭ ␣ϭ.79). These items were rated on Likert-type 1.51, ␣ϭ.96). Example items include: I found scales anchored by 1 (not at all)and7(very the world of Harry Potter to be very meaning- much). ful; The world of Harry Potter was thought- provoking. The enjoyment and appreciation Results items used Likert-type scales anchored by 1 (strongly disagree)and7(strongly agree). Par- Individual Differences Predicting Fandom ticipants also reported the extent to which they exhibited physiological reactions to the narra- A series of multiple regressions were con- tive series using 11 Likert type scales anchored ducted to test H1–H4 such that gender and age from 1 (not at all)to7(very much). These were entered stepwise in Block 1, and narrative bodily reactions have been reported by Algoe exposure, entertainment motivations, reflective- and Haidt (2009) and Silvers and Haidt (2008). ness, and personal growth were entered step- Example items include feeling: warm in the wise in Block 2. The two dimensions of fan- chest, lump in the throat, increased heart rate, dom, membership and contact, were entered as chills, and light/bouncy (M ϭ 4.41, SD ϭ 1.44, dependent measures separately (see Table 2). ␣ϭ.94). Gender and age were included as covariates, as

Table 2 Individual Differences Predicting Fandom

Block 1 Block 2 Dependent measures Predictors ␤⌬R2 Predictors ␤⌬R2 ءءء ءءء

This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. Membership in Fanbase Gender .06 Number of books read .23 .05 ءءء11. ءءءAge Ϫ.14 Number of movies seen .26 This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. ءءء20. ءءءEudaimonic motivation .30 Hedonic motivation .03 Reﬂectiveness .02 Personal growth Ϫ.07 ءءء05. ءءءContact with Fanbase Gender .05 Number of movies seen .22 ءءء13. ءءءAge Ϫ.10 Eudaimonic motivation .28 ء02. ءPersonal growth Ϫ.16 Number of books read .10 Hedonic motivation Ϫ.02 Reﬂectiveness .10 .p Ͻ .001 ءءء .p Ͻ .01 ءء .p Ͻ .05 ء Note. Stepwise procedures were used with entry criterion set at FANDOM AND MEANING 9

women tend to be more engaged in fandom personality traits and fandom. H3 predicted that (Jenkins, 1988) and contemporary accounts of reflectiveness is positively associated with fan- fandom are more intense among teens and dom. The analysis revealed that the trait of younger adults (Morey, 2012). reflectiveness did not significantly predict either Narrative exposure. H1 predicted that ex- of the fandom dimensions, showing no support posure to the narrative is positively related to for H3. H4 proposed that personal growth is fandom. The analysis showed that the number positively related to fandom. Although the anal- of books (␤ϭ.23, p Ͻ .001) and the number of ysis indicated that personal growth was not sig- movies consumed (␤ϭ.26, p Ͻ .001) were nificantly associated with membership in the significant predictors of membership in the fan- fanbase, personal growth decreased contact base. In other words, the greater the exposure to with other fans in the community (␤ϭϪ.16, the narrative series through literature and cine- p Ͻ .05). This finding demonstrates the reverse matic presentations, the more they perceived of the patterns we expected with regard to the themselves as members of the fan community. ␤ϭ Ͻ positive relationship between personal growth Only number of movies seen ( .22, p and contact with the fanbase. Therefore, the .001) increased contact with other fans within data do not support H4. the community. In general, our data indicate that narrative exposure facilitates fandom, supporting H1. Fandom Predicting Affective, Cognitive, Entertainment motivations. H2 proposed and Behavioral Responses that eudaimonic motivations are more strongly related to fandom as compared with hedonic The final three proposed relationships sug- motivations. The analysis showed that eudai- gest that fandom would be associated with a monic motivations enhanced both membership series of affective, cognitive, and behavioral in the fanbase (␤ϭ.30, p Ͻ .001) and contact responses (i.e., enjoyment, appreciation, and with the fanbase (␤ϭ.28, p Ͻ .001), while physiological responses to the Harry Potter se- hedonic motivations did not significantly pre- ries, knowledge acquisition, and intention to dict either of the fandom dimensions. Specifi- seek fan-related materials). A series of multiple cally, those who had a higher drive to seek regressions were performed to test H5–H7 such meaningful entertainment reported stronger per- that gender and age were entered stepwise in ceived membership in the fan community and Block 1, and membership in the fanbase and were more likely to contact other fans within the contact with the fanbase were entered stepwise community. Therefore, findings show support in Block 2. Enjoyment, appreciation, physiolog- for H2. ical responses, knowledge acquisition, and be- Reflectiveness and personal growth. The havioral intention were entered as dependent next set of expected relationships pertains to measures separately (see Table 3).

Table 3 Fandom Predicting Affective, Cognitive, and Behavioral Responses

Block 1 Block 2

This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. Dependent measures Predictors ␤⌬R2 Predictors ␤⌬R2 This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. ءءء28. ءءءMembership in Fanbase .78 ء04. ءEnjoyment Gender .17 ءء04. ءءContact with Fanbase Ϫ.34 ءءء28. ءAge .14 ءءء43. ءءءMembership in Fanbase .85 ءء05. ءءAppreciation Gender .20 ء02. ءContact with Fanbase Ϫ.21 ءءء43. ءAge .12 ءءء33. ءءءMembership in Fanbase .69 ء06. ءءPhysiological responses Gender .20 Age .00 Contact with Fanbase Ϫ.12 ءءء31. ءءءMembership in Fanbase .63 ء04. ءKnowledge acquisition Gender .15 Age Ϫ.03 Contact with Fanbase Ϫ.06 ءءء33. ءءءMembership in Fanbase .68 ءء08. ءءBehavioral intention Gender .19 Age .04 Contact with Fanbase Ϫ.13 .p Ͻ .001 ءءء .p Ͻ .01 ءء .p Ͻ .05 ء Note. Stepwise procedures were used with entry criterion set at 10 TSAY-VOGEL AND SANDERS

Enjoyment. H5a predicted that fandom Discussion would be positively associated with enjoyment of the series. The analysis indicated that both The present research provides a richer theo- membership in the fanbase (␤ϭ.78, p Ͻ .001) retical understanding of fandom from a psycho- and contact with the fanbase (␤ϭϪ.34, p Ͻ logical perspective, particularly in the way that .01) predicted significant variance in enjoy- individual difference characteristics such as ex- ment, such that feeling like a member of the fan posure to a narrative series and eudaimonic community increased enjoyment, whereas con- motivations serve as central factors driving in- tacting members within the community reduced volvement in fan communities. Furthermore, enjoyment. Further, women (␤ϭ.17, p Ͻ .05) our findings reveal that membership in a fan and older fans (␤ϭ.14, p Ͻ .05) were more community enhances enjoyment, appreciation, likely to enjoy the Harry Potter series. Al- physiological responses, knowledge acquisi- though perceived membership enhanced enjoy- tion, and intention to seek fan-related materials, ment, due to patterns revealing that contact with implying that being a fan entails high degrees of other fans hindered enjoyment, partial support affective, cognitive, and behavioral involve- for H5a was found. ment aside from simply being a passive media Appreciation. H5b proposed that fandom consumer. would be positively associated with appreci- It is worthy to note that fandom is a multi- ation of the series. The analysis yielded sim- faceted construct. Our data show that fandom ilar results to enjoyment. While feeling like a has two primary dimensions—one which in- member of the fan community increased ap- volves the perception of group membership and preciation (␤ϭ.85, p Ͻ .001), contacting the other that entails communication with mem- members within the community decreased ap- bers in the group. With respect to perceived preciation (␤ϭϪ.21, p Ͻ .05), showing membership, this component of fandom consid- partial support for H5b. Similar to the pat- ers the degree to which one is attracted to, feels terns above, women (␤ϭ.20, p Ͻ .01) and comfortable with, and believes there are impor- older fans (␤ϭ.12, p Ͻ .05) were more tant benefits of being part of the fan community. likely to appreciate the series. In relation to contacting other members, this Physiological responses. H5c expected dimension of fandom takes into account the fandom to be positively associated with physi- extent to which one contacts, helps, and ex- ological responses to the series. The analysis changes favors with others in the fan commu- indicated that perceived membership in the nity or perceives other members as part of their community increased physiological responses everyday lives. Thus, membership in a commu- (␤ϭ.69, p Ͻ .001), supporting H5c. Women nity is distinct from, yet related to, one’s will- were also more likely to report greater physio- ingness to contact other fans/members. Our fac- logical responses to the series (␤ϭ.20, p Ͻ tor analysis results expand on previous research .01). using this measure, suggesting fandom is not Knowledge acquisition. H6 predicted that solely about perceived membership but also ac- fandom would be positively related to knowl- tive communication with group members. edge acquisition. The analysis revealed that per- Furthermore, the current research interest- ceived membership in the fan community in- ingly demonstrates variations in how individual creased attainment of knowledge (␤ϭ.63, p Ͻ differences predict these two fandom dimen- This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. .001), showing support for H6. Furthermore, sions. Our data revealed that the more fans were This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. women reported greater knowledge acquisition exposed to the narrative world and tended to than men (␤ϭ.15, p Ͻ .05). seek entertainment with profound meaning, the Behavioral intention. H7 proposed that stronger these individuals perceived themselves fandom would be positively associated with as fans of the community and communicated seeking fan-related products. The analysis indi- with other members. It is unsurprising that eu- cated that membership in the fanbase facilitated daimonic motivations were strongly related to intention to pursue other series-related materials fan community membership and contact. Quite (␤ϭ.68, p Ͻ .001). In addition, women had often when joining a community, individuals stronger behavioral intentions than men (␤ϭ are seeking an outlet that allows them to make .19, p Ͻ .01). sense of life and the world (nonmediated and FANDOM AND MEANING 11

mediated) around them, but they do so in a way In addition, this research found that those that connects them to others. As self-percep- who perceived themselves as members of the tions are inherently based on both personal and fanbase were more likely to enjoy and appreci- social identifiers, intergroup relationships play a ate the world of Harry Potter. Such fans found significant role in shaping one’s social identity their experience consuming the series as not (Tajfel & Turner, 1979). In the context of Harry only exciting but also meaningful, thought- Potter, our prediction was supported that fans provoking, and unforgettable. In other words, who prefer entertainment that is thought- membership in the fan community evoked both provoking and meaningful (as compared with enjoyment and appreciation which imply that funny, silly, or shallow) had deeper attachment hedonic and eudaimonic gratifications are to others who share similar values and interests. prominent in fan engagement. However, one Thus, our research demonstrates that stronger unexpected finding was that contact with the perceived membership and contact with other fanbase negatively predicted enjoyment and ap- fans could help strengthen social identity, which preciation of the series. This research was lim- has important theoretical implications for per- ited in that it did not examine the nature of the ceived sense of community, social prestige, and communication among fans in the community. self-esteem, supported by Zillmann et al. Therefore, it is difficult to draw accurate con- (1989). If one considers today’s technological clusions as to why contact with other fans could affordances such as social media, social TV, lead to reduced levels of enjoyment and appre- community fan forums, outlets for fan fiction, ciation of experiencing the narrative world. and Facebook groups, it is evident that fan Nevertheless, our findings imply that while feel- communities are more numerous, varied, and ing part of the community has high yield, actual connected in ways that fans were previously interactions perhaps diminish the rewards. One limited (i.e., through direct, face-to-face con- potential explanation for the negative effects of contact could be that when fans communicate tact). Hence, in this regard, our study’s findings with other members in the community, they are should not be considered context-specific and perhaps exposed to different perspectives re- could be replicated in other fan communities lated to feelings and thoughts about the series, especially when one considers the strong emo- characters, and overall fan experience. Due to tional ties that are arguably represented in var- increased exposure to potentially diverse or in- ious forms of entertainment (i.e., film series, consistent opinions, enjoyment and appreciation sports, etc.) and literary genres. of the narrative may decrease based on expec- Moreover, a striking finding that emerged tations or assessments impacted by other fans. from the data was that the trait of personal Alternatively, an element of fandom is having growth negatively predicted communication influence in the group and vice versa in order to with other fans. In other words, fans who strive establish group cohesion (McMillan & Chavis, for personal development were less likely to 1986). It is also possible that contact with other contact other members in the fan community. members may not fulfill such expectations re- Although we expected the reverse to be true, an lated to group influence or cohesion. In essence, explanation for this finding may lie in the per- interpersonal discussions could have bearing on ceived functionality of fan communities. It is audience responses and play a mediating role in possible that those who seek personal improve- the effects of fandom. Such theorizing supports This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. ment and progress view fan communities as a the important role of opinion leaders (in this This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. place where social identities are strengthened, case, other fans), as suggested by the two-step not personal or individual identities. Because flow model (Katz & Lazarsfeld, 1955). Hence, the trait of personal growth focuses on challeng- future research should consider examining the ing individual experiences and fostering nature of communication that occurs between change, it is understandable why communica- fans within such communities in order to pro- tion with members in fan communities that is vide a more thorough investigation into these predicated on mutual connection and shared claims. interests may not appeal to those who strive for Additionally, this study found that perceived more individually based processes of learning membership in a fan community increased the and growth. degree to which fans responded physiologically 12 TSAY-VOGEL AND SANDERS

to the series. These responses included warm- other words, even though a series may come to ness in the chest, increased heart rate, laughter, an end, fandom is not short-lived but can be tensed muscles, tears, high energy, and so forth. experienced through motivations for sustained While entertainment scholars have given less consumption in other relevant domains. attention to physiological reactions to media Several limitations of this research are note- fare (as compared with affective and cognitive worthy to address. First, although the Harry reactions), the present research points to the Potter phenomenon has generated a strong, importance of examining less explicit and ob- multigenerational, and diverse cultural fanbase, servable audience responses. It is important to which makes it a meaningful context for inves- note that our research was limited to tapping tigation, our research is potentially limited in into physiological reactions recalled by the par- generalizability. Contrary to most fandom re- ticipants (Oliver et al., 2012) and thus, it is search showing that women and younger indi- possible that the memory of such bodily re- viduals are more likely to engage in fandom sponses may not have been accurately reported. (Jenkins, 1988; Morey, 2012), the absence of Consequently, future research should consider age and gender differences in fandom reflected collecting psychophysiological data in an ex- in our data may have occurred due to the uni- perimental setting to capture real time physio- versal appeal of its narrative, characters, and logical measures. Nevertheless, the physiologi- moral lessons. Furthermore, because of its cal responses reported in our research enhance widespread appeal, it is possible that the link our understanding of other noteworthy experi- between eudaimonic motivations and fandom ences among fans, suggesting that research on were more pronounced for this particular fran- meaningful media that elicit feelings of eleva- chise. However, as previously noted, when con- tion warrants greater consideration and may be sidering newer forms of fandom that exist in our applied to fandom (see Algoe & Haidt, 2009; current media landscape, there are certainly Haidt, 2003; Oliver et al., 2012). more creative avenues for fan interactions The current investigation also demonstrates through social media (e.g., Facebook, Twitter, that the more fans perceived themselves as Instagram, and blogs) and opportunities for members of the community, the more likely more diverse and repeated media exposure (e.g., they reported knowledge in a number of areas Hulu, Netflix, and HBO Go) which facilitate including relationships and friendships, popular binge watching. Therefore, the search for mean- culture, and literature and reading. In addition, ing through entertainment could result in qual- these fans elicited stronger motivations to buy itatively different fan communities today based additional content, find another fantasy series to on advances in richer communication affor- follow, read and reread the Harry Potter books, dances and increased media offerings that did and seek out related fan fiction. While our be- not exist for older fandoms (e.g., Star Trek). havioral intention measures were limited in that Additionally, given the cross-sectional nature of they did not provide an exhaustive list of all our data, the temporal order of the variables potential fan-related actions, such as consuming should be further explored through study repli- other Harry Potter universe books (e.g., The cations and experiments. For example, it is pos- Tales of Beedle the Bard), playing video games, sible that a deep connection to the media text buying action figures and Halloween costumes, could enhance eudaimonic motivation or that rewatching previously purchased videos, and so the search for meaning in entertainment and This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. forth, future research should, indeed, consider fandom have a symbiotic relationship. There- This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. tapping into a greater variety of relevant behav- fore, the direction of causality is a limitation iors that potentially took place among fans after that warrants investigation in future studies. the series ended. Nevertheless, our data from Moreover, although the present research found this study support the critical role of fan mem- a theoretically insightful connection between bership in predicting both the attainment of fan engagement and meaning-seeking, the na- knowledge outside the mediated experience and ture of the meaning that fans make from media the intention to display actions that reflect the content is unclear. Hence, future scholarship desire to preserve identification with the media should certainly examine whether the meaning product and connections with group members derived from media texts is in fact constructive due to social identities that fans develop. In (e.g., guiding one toward moral decision- FANDOM AND MEANING 13

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