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The Netherlands) QUATERNARY GEOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK OF NORTH-HOLLAND AND THE MARKERMEER (THE NETHERLANDS) W.E. Westerhoff and E.F.J, de Mulder Geological Survey of The Netherlands P.O. Box 157 2000 AD HAARLEM Abstract Quaternary geological data are presented as a basis for the extensive geohydrological and geotechnical studies performed to investigate possible harmful effects of the Markerwaard reclamation project. 1 .^Introduction A sound investigation on the impact of the proposed reclamation of the Markermeer on the adjacent land area of North-Holland must be based on a thorough knowledge of the composition of the subsurface of the entire region. For this reason, the Geological Survey of The Netherlands was asked to present a detailed geological framework of the study area. This framework has been translated into a geohydrological model by IWACO BV. Modifications of the ground water regime will have influence in the topmost 250 - 300 metres of the earth's crust, consisting of poorly consolidated clastic deposits saturated with brackish and saline water. Lithostratigraphy and chronostratigraphy of the Pleistocene deposits, as described in section 2, is based on a large number of deeper borings and is derived predominantly from the comprehensive study on the Pleistocene Geology of North-Holland by Breeuwer & Jelgersma (1979). The geological model of the Holocene (section 3) is the result of a detailed study of thousands of shallow borings and cone penetration tests. This model served as basis for geotechnical studies, done by the Delft Soil Mechanics Laboratory and the Heidemij Nederland BV. The composition of the Holocene coverbeds is expressed in a lithological succession legend (see section 4). On this basis, the land area surrounding the proposed polder was divided into subareas displaying certain soil mechanical and hydrological characteristics in relation to possible future changes in the ground water regime. 2. Pleistocene Geologically, The Netherlands forms part of the subsiding basin of the North Sea, which is filled with a poorly to unconsolidated sediment succession. The thickness of these sediments generally increases in NW direction (Van Staalduinen et al., 1979). The top of the consolidated hardrock consists of Upper Cretaceous limestones and is situated at a depth of 900 - 1000 metres below the surface in the study area. The Cenozoic deposits were not affected by substantial folding, and tectonic structures are confined to block faulting in deeper strata, which led to NW-SE oriented horsts and grabens. Coarse-grained clastic deposits such as sands and gravels, may serve as aquifers, whereas clay and peat beds are to be considered impermeable (aquicludes). The predominantly clayey Tertiary deposits may attain a 877 thickness of more than 500 metres. The top of the Tertiary is formed by a 20 - 50 metres thick marine-clay bed of Pliocene Age, belonging to the Oosterhout Formation (no. 1 in Fig. 1). The overlying Maassluis Formation (no. 2 in Fig. 1) is of Early Pleistocene Age and consists of shell-bearing sandy clays and fine­ grained sands. The topmost part of this shallow marine formation usually contains clay beds. During the Tiglian (see Fig. 2) the sea retreated from The Netherlands and the study area became part of the continent for a long period of geological time. In this area greyish-white, medium- to coarse-grained sands were supplied by North German rivers (Harderwijk Formation, no. 3 in Fig. 1). The lower part of this formation consists Mean temp. Years Chronostratigraphy in July x10& 0° 10° 20' Weichselian © ,»H«tai)ityiymityHmftB -Q>~ 'D poorly permeable beds | I moderately permeable beds 0 poorly to moderately [ j well permeable beds J permeable beds (5) numbers refer to formations, mentioned in the text Fig. 1 Schematic cross-section through the study area Fig. 2 Chronostratigraphy and paleoclimatic curve of the Quaternary (modified after Zagwijn, 1975) of medium-grained sands with gravel. The Harderwijk Formation is overlain by coarse-grained river sands and gravels of the Enschede Formation (no. 4 in Fig. 1), likewise of northeastern provenance. In the basal part of this formation of Menapian Age a thin clay bed that closes the underlying aquifer is often present. At the start of the 878 Middle Pleistocene, during the Cromerian, the supply of clastic material from the northeast diminished in favour of a supply by the southeastern rivers (Rhine and Meuse), which resulted in the deposition of multicoloured river sands. In this area these fine-grained to coarse-grained sands are assigned to the Urk/Sterksel Formation (no. 5 in Fig. 1) of Cromerian, Elsterian, and Holsteinian Age. In the upper part of this succession fine-grained sands and silty clays may occur. These sands are part of a higher-lying aquifer. During the Saalian, this part of The Netherlands was glaciated and was covered by large masses of inland ice. This glaciation resulted in the creation of glacial basins more than 100 metres deep, and ice-pushed ridges. Till was laid down by glaciers along the flanks and in the glacial basins, which after the retreat of the inland ice were filled with thick successions of varved clays (lake deposits). Together with medium- to coarse-grained fluvioglacial sands, these deposits belong to the Drente Formation (no. 6 in Fig. 1). During and after the withdrawal of the inland ice masses, which contributed considerably to the consolidation of the underlying unconsolidated deposits, the river Rhine found a westward path again. Multicoloured coarse-grained river sands (Kreftenheye Formation, of Saalian, Eemian, and Weichselian Age) with gravel of southeastern origin mixed with gravel of Scandinavian provenance were deposited in the study area. In the next interglacial period, the Eemian, the sea-level rose and marine shell-bearing sands and clay beds were deposited (Eem Formation). Thick clay successions occur in places in the former glacial basins. At the end of the Eemian, the sea-level dropped and marine sedimentation was again replaced by fluvial deposition, now of coarse-grained gravelly sands of southern provenance (Kreftenheye Formation, together with the Eem Formation indicated as no. 7 in Fig. 1). Fluvial sedimentation originating from the Rhine continued in this area well into the next and last glacial period, the Weichselian. During the Middle and Late Weichselian, fine-grained sands were transported by wind action and laid down as coversands (Twente Formation, no. 8 in Fig. 1). This resulted in a further smoothening of this area. The Kreftenheye Formation, the sandy parts of the Eem Formation, and the Twente Formation together constitute the uppermost aquifer in the study area. 3.Holocene During the Holocene, sedimentation in the study area was strongly influenced by the post-glacial rise of the sea-level. Initially, this resulted in the development of a peat bed, Basal Peat or Lower Peat (De Mulder & Bosch, 1982), in the topographycally lower places. Because of its impermeability, this Basal Peat bed is of great hydrological significance. Due to the continuing rise of the sea-level the sea invaded this peat landscape and a brackish lagoon was formed in which clays were deposited. The coast line migrated further to the east and the brackish lagoon was replaced by a tidal-flat area composed of an irregular complex of mud flats and sandy flats dissected by numerous narrow channels and some broad main tidal channels. Deep scouring of the underlying clay beds, the Basal Peat, and the topmost Pleistocene sands, took place in the main channels. These tidal channels were filled up predominantly with sandy deposits, which permitted hydrologically unobstructed contact between the uppermost Pleistocene aquifer and the Holocene sands (see Fig. 3). 879 v c a u (D I? -P to c m o » •H •P <H (8 o O BQ CO -p II 4) C O o rH 0 O V | m o O +> s «s +> o •H .H c •P H. .H O T3 M •H tu a) tu as 880 m Type Y Type •S code code II peat<1m, with v intercalated peat beds Az2v 2 clay cover >1 m without intercalated peat beds Holocene o Az2o Z thin clay cover > ft25 m sand 1 peat>1m k Azlk S intercalated clay beds Azlks o without thin clay cover Az1o s intercalated clay beds Azlos peat absent A Basal Peat "51 AzO present peat<1m, with v intercalated peat beds Ao2v 2 claycaver>1m Holocene o without intercalated, peat beds Ao2o 0 sand k thin clay cover>Q,25m Ao1k s intercalated clay beds Aolks 1 peat>1m absent o without thin clay cover Ao1o s intercalated clay beds Aolos 0 peat absent AoO peat<1m, with v intercalated peat beds Bz2v 2 claycover>1 m o without intercalated peat beds Bz2o Holocene z k thin clay cover > 0.25 m Bzlk s intercalated clay beds Bzlks sand 1 peat>1m o without thin clay cover Bz1o s intercalated clay beds Bzlos Basal Peat 0 peat absent BzO B absent peat<1m, with v intercalated peat beds Bo2v 2 clay cover >1m Holocene o without intercalated peat beds Bo2o thin clay cover > 0,25m intercalated clay beds 0 sand 1 peat>1m k Bo1k s Bolks absent o without thin clay cover Bo1o s intercalated clay beds Bolos 0 peat absent BoO Fig. 4 Classification of the Holocene lithological succession About 5000 years ago the coast line reached its easternmost position, which is situated only a few kilometres west of the study area. The predominant part of the clastic marine sedimentation then shifted from the southern towards the northern part of the study area, and this was followed by the development of extensive peat accumulations in the south (Holland Peat). In the northern part (Westfriesland), the marine clastic sedimentation, interrupted by the development of thin peat beds, continued until about 3000 years ago.
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