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Mothers, Lovers, Others View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by White Rose E-theses Online Mothers, Lovers, Others An Evolutionary Analysis of Womanhood in Western Malayo-Polynesian Oral Traditions Nurul Ikhlas Abdul Hadi Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of PhD The University of Leeds School of Languages, Cultures, and Societies Centre for World Literatures September 2016 - i - The candidate confirms that the work submitted is her own and that appropriate credit has been given where reference has been made to the work of others. This copy has been supplied on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. The right of Nurul Ikhlas Abdul Hadi to be identified as Author of this work has been asserted by her in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. © 2016. The University of Leeds and Nurul Ikhlas Abdul Hadi. - ii - This thesis is dedicated to the memory of my father, Abdul Hadi Harman Shah, who wove many fantastic tales for me. - iii - Acknowledgements First and foremost, I would like to thank my supervisor Dr Ian Caldwell, who took a chance on this doctorate project and myself; Dr Caldwell provided endless support, guidance, and advice over the course of these three and a half years and I have grown as a person as well as a scholar because of him. My deepest gratitude goes to my co- supervisors: Dr Olivia Santovetti and Dr Alessio Baldini, who provided me with invaluable suggestions in the development of my thesis. I would also like to extend my appreciation to Dr Colin Hendrie, for allowing me to attend his evolutionary psychology classes and also for taking the time to provide useful feedback on my project. Thanks are also due to Dr Frances Weightman and Karen Priestley for their tireless work in ensuring that I completed my doctorate degree. I am grateful for the funding provided by Majlis Amanah Rakyat (MARA) Malaysia, without which this doctorate project would not have been possible. The Royal Netherlands Institute of Southeast Asian and Caribbean Studies (KITLV) in Leiden provided most of the stories collected in this thesis, for which I am forever thankful. Without these stories, I would not have been able to analyse the fascinating life-history cycles of Western Malayo-Polynesian heroines. My research greatly benefited from discussions with Dr Sarah Dodd and Dr Christine Chettle on the intercultural and interdisciplinary aspects of fairy tales, folktales, and speculative fiction. My heartfelt thanks also go out to Adam Roberts, Andrea Basso, and Beatrice Ivey, who read and provided important comments on various chapters in my thesis. Finally, I am indebted for all the support given by my friends and family – in particular, Gari Ortigosa Pascual for being my pillar of strength throughout the years, and my mother Dr Marlyna Maros for her constant encouragement and belief in me. - iv - Abstract This thesis is the first to study female characters from Western Malayo-Polynesian oral tradition. It is also the first to apply an evolutionary literary analysis to these stories. The aim was to analyse the life history cycle of women as portrayed in oral stories from the Western Malayo-Polynesian language group, which includes languages spoken across southern Vietnam, the Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia, the island states of western Micronesia, and Madagascar. The general principle behind evolutionary literary theory is that any knowledge (including stories) generated by the mind is a biological phenomenon and worthy of scientific study. This tenet is then compounded with an evolutionary understanding of life whereby all animals, including humans, are driven to ensure somatic success through the preservation of life, and reproductive success through the proliferation of genes. It is argued that oral stories contain implicit evolutionary ‘lessons’ that may assist humans in obtaining somatic and reproductive success. The most recurring evolutionary theme in female-led Western Malayo-Polynesian oral stories revolves around reproductive success, with approximately 90% of stories in this thesis focusing either on family life or the search for a partner. In the section ‘Tales of Family Life’, stories portray the complexity of family dynamics, showing how family members must sacrifice their selfish interests for the sake of their kin in order to maximize the propagation of their genes. In ‘Tales of Searching for a Partner’, heroines take part in complex mate attraction and retention strategies, showing that the search for a ‘Happily Ever After’ (or evolutionary fitness) is not always a straightforward journey. Unsurprisingly, themes without direct correlations with evolutionary fitness form only 10% of the entire corpus. ‘Tales Beyond Family and Partners’ attempt to explore stories of evolutionary anomalies through the phenomenon of childfree and heroic women. Evolutionary studies, however, have yet to provide a satisfactory theory on women whose behaviour seems to hold little or no reproductive advantages, and analysis of these types of stories would benefit from further research. As a multidisciplinary study, this thesis is able to impact future research in three different ways. Firstly, it is hoped that it will bring attention to and increase knowledge of the lesser known and under-studied Western Malayo-Polynesian oral traditions. Secondly, the thesis can also serve as a model for the application of evolutionary theory to the folkloric study of oral stories. Finally, it shows the potential of applying evolutionary literary theory to non-Western cultures. It is hoped that future research will be able to expand the findings of this thesis either through larger or more concentrated pools of data, with the aim of emphasizing the universal drives that underlie our common humanity. - v - Table of Contents Page Acknowledgements iii Abstract iv List of Figures and Illustrations vii List of Abbreviations vii Introduction 1 0.1 The Broader Subject: Stories 2 0.2 Tools for Analysing Stories 4 Folk and Fairy Tale Research Methodologies 4 Evolutionary Science 7 Analysing Stories through Evolution 10 Rationale of Method in Thesis 11 0.3 Stories and the Storytelling Animal 14 The Science of Stories 15 The Science of Folk and Fairy Tales 16 The Functions of Stories 18 How Many Stories are there? 20 0.4 Geographical and Cultural Considerations 21 Research Area 21 Terminology 26 Collecting and Analysing Western Malayo-Polynesian Stories 27 0.5 Women, Stories, and their Life History 30 0.6 Structure and Summary of Thesis 34 Part 1: Tales of Family Life 36 Introduction: Beginning a Family 37 Chapter 1: The Mother-Child Relationship 45 1.1 Mother Knows Best 45 1.1.1 Derhaka 47 1.1.2 Abandoned Children 50 1.2 Children’s Need for Reciprocity 56 1.2.1 Escape through Land and Sea 59 1.2.2 Beyond Metaphorical Depictions of Disrespect 64 1.3 ‘Not My Child’: Stepfamilies, Polygamy, and the Cycle of 65 Discontent 1.3.1 The Reluctant Stepparent 67 - vi - Chapter 2: Sibling Competition and Cooperation 74 2.1 Sibling Rivalry: Birth Order and Competition within the Family 74 2.1.1 The Entitled Elder Sibling 77 2.1.2 Risk-Taking in Younger Siblings 81 2.2 Sibling Rivalry and Siblicide 85 2.2.1 Warring Sisters 87 2.2.2 Beauty and Goodness 92 2.3 Sibling Harmony 98 2.3.1 Helpful Siblings 99 Chapter 3: The Grandmother Hypothesis 104 3.1 Why Grandmothers? 104 3.1.1 Disastrous Desires 108 3.1.2 The Grandmother Figure 111 3.1.3 Examples of Good Behaviour 114 Part 2: Tales of Searching For A Partner 117 Chapter 4: The Search for Happy Endings 118 4.1 The Ardent Female 120 4.2 Pleasing the Woman 131 4.3 An Unlikely Match? 139 Chapter 5: The Ugly Face of Love 147 5.1 Deception 149 5.2 Aggression in Mate Competition 156 5.2.1 Direct Female Aggression 159 5.2.2 Direct Intersexual Aggression 163 5.2.3 Indirect Female Aggression 167 5.3 An Unfavourable Mate 170 5.3.1 External Disapproval and Pressure 171 5.3.2 ‘Stranger Danger’ in Malagasy Oral Tradition 176 5.3.3 I Will (Not) Always Love You 178 Chapter 6: Keeping a Happily Ever After 181 6.1 Conditions of Marriage 182 6.2 Fear of Infidelity 185 6.3 Masculinity, Power, and Spousal Conflict 191 6.4 Maintaining Marital Harmony 195 Part 3: Tales Beyond Family And Partner 200 Chapter 7: The Childfree Woman 201 Chapter 8: The Heroic Woman 213 - vii - Conclusions 222 9.0 Contributions and limitations of evolutionary literary theory to oral 223 tradition 9.1 Suggested Developments in the Application of Evolutionary Science 229 to Western Malayo-Polynesian Oral Tradition Gender Stereotyping and the Female Experience 229 Addressing Contentious Issues 230 9.2 The Inculcation of Personality and Emotion Studies 231 9.3 Considering Meme Transmission Theory 231 9.4 Concluding Remarks 232 Bibliography 234 Appendix – List of Stories 271 - viii - List of Figures and Illustrations Page Figure 1 The Austronesian languages family tree [REDACTED] 22 Figure 2 Meme Transmission Theory [REDACTED] 205 Tom Gauld, Guardian Print [REDACTED] 223 List of Abbreviations CST Costly Signalling Theory EI Emotional Intelligence RHP Resource-Holding Potential WHO World Health Organization WHR Waist to Hip Ratio WMP Western Malayo-Polynesian WTR Welfare Trade-off Ratio 1 INTRODUCTION 2 “Many stories matter. Stories have been used to dispossess and to malign. But stories can also be used to empower, and to humanize. Stories can break the dignity of a people. But stories can also repair that broken dignity.” - Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie (2009) This thesis aims to analyse female-oriented stories from Western Malayo-Polynesian oral traditions through an evolutionary understanding of female mate selection, childbearing, and childrearing.
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