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The Cinderella Effect: Parental Discrimination Against Stepchildren the Cinderella Effect: Parental Discrimination Against Stepchildren The Cinderella Effect: Parental Discrimination against Stepchildren The Cinderella Effect: Parental Discrimination against Stepchildren Cinderella stories about abused stepchildren are cross-culturally universal. Are they founded in reality? Because Darwinian selection shapes social motives and behavi- our to be effectively nepotistic, an obvious hypothesis is that stepparents will be over- represented among those who mistreat children. This possibility was long neglected, but stepparenthood has turned out to be the most powerful epidemiological risk fact- or for child abuse and child homicide yet known. Moreover, non-violent discriminati- on against stepchildren is substantial and ubiquitous. Martin Daly, Professor, Margo Wilson, Professor, Department of Psychology, Department of Psychology, McMaster University McMaster University Parents are Discriminative Nepotists selectively toward close relatives of the caretaker. A cornerstone of evolutionary psychology is the Usually, this means the caretaker’s own offspring. proposition that Darwinian selection shapes social Imagine a population of animals in which there are motives and behaviour to be effectively »nepotis- two alternative, heritable types of parental psyche. tic«, that is, to contribute selectively to the well-be- Type A invests its time and energy selectively in the ing and eventual reproduction of the actors’ genetic care of its own young, who are better than average relatives. In any species, the genes and traits that bets to be carriers of the same heritable tendencies. persist and proliferate over generations are those Type B nurtures any youngster in need, regardless whose direct and indirect effects cause them to of which type of behaviour it will display when it replicate at higher rates than alternative genes and later becomes a parent itself. If that is the sum total traits. Richard Dawkins captured this point, the of their differences, then the more discriminative essence of modern Darwinism, in his famous phrase type A will assuredly increase in prevalence at the »the selfish gene«.1 expense of type B. One implication of this proposition is that the This point now seems rather obvious. However, care of dependent young will ordinarily be directed for a century after Darwin first described the pro- SAMFUNDSØKONOMEN NR. 4 – 2002 39 The Cinderella Effect: Parental Discrimination against Stepchildren cess that he called »natural selection«, such impli- like those of guillemots, and if an experimenter cations of his theory were poorly appreciated. Be- places an unrelated egg or chick in a razorbill nest, fore the sociobiological revolution of the mid- the parents will nurture it as they would their own.6 1960s, many biologists subscribed uncritically to Discriminative parental solicitude in mammals the view that the attributes that natural selection follows the same principle.7 In those species, such favours must be those which best promote »the sur- as rats, who sequester and defend immobile pups in vival and reproduction of the species«. This view, isolated burrows, parents do not initially recognize which the English philosopher Helena Cronin has their young as individuals. Individual recognition aptly labelled »greater goodism«,2 was wrong. develops just before the pups become sufficiently A 1962 monograph on the reproductive behav- mobile that mix-ups might have occurred in the iour of a small mammal called the Mexican free- EEA. In other species such as sheep and horses, tailed bat provides an instructive example.3 Observ- however, young can mingle with those of other ing that thousands of helpless pups were left togeth- mothers very soon after birth, and an indiscriminate er in a squirming mass each night while their nurs- mother would be at risk of misdirecting her parental ing mothers went out foraging, researchers blithely nurture even on the day of birth. In these species, concluded that when females return in the morning, specialized brain mechanisms are dedicated to the they must nurse the pups at random, thus constitut- task of establishing an individualized bond between ing an »anonymous dairy herd«. But only a few a mother and her newborn at birth, and the mother years later, the greater goodism implicit in such in- will subsequently reject or even attack unrelated ferences had been critically dissected and demol- milk thieves of the same age and infantile appeal as ished,4 and such a conclusion could no longer be the youngster she is cherishing. In sum, there is no- published in a reputable biological journal without thing magical about parental discrimination: prefer- explicit discussion of the formidable theoretical ential treatment of one’s own young exists only grounds for thinking it must be wrong. The problem where a species’ ecology demands it, and is accom- facing the idea of an anonymous dairy herd is that it plished by means of evolved psychological mecha- is difficult to envision how costly lactation could be nisms for attending and responding to specific cues evolutionarily stable in such a case, since selection that helped parents behave in an appropriately dis- would surely favour those females who expended criminative manner in the EEA. We know of no rea- the least lactational effort and left their pups to be son why the evolution of the human psyche should fed by others. It should thus be no surprise that the have been exempt from this logic. anonymous dairy herd idea turned out to be wrong: the mother bats are now known to possess remark- Stepparents are Over-represented able adaptations for finding and feeding their own as Perpetrators of Abuse and Homicide pups.5 In 1976, we were among the participants in an ani- The psychological adaptations that produce dis- mal behaviour seminar discussing »sexually select- criminative parental solicitude vary between spe- ed infanticide«. This term refers to the lethal result cies, in ways that reflect regularities in each spe- of natural selection in favour of those who kill any cies’ ancestral environment of evolutionary adap- dependent offspring encumbering newly acquired tiveness (EEA). The guillemot is a marine bird that mates and thereby accelerate the timing of their lays its eggs on rocky ledges only a few centimetres own reproduction. Such behaviour was then well from nesting neighbours. Guillemots recognize documented only in lions and in one species of their newly hatched chicks and even their eggs on monkey, but it has since been shown to occur in the basis of individual markings, and reject any un- many other animals, and in both sexes, albeit main- related chicks or eggs that turn up in the nest unin- ly in males.8 During the discussion, a graduate stu- vited. The razorbill is a closely related species that dent raised the question of whether there might be nests in the same habitat, but with a crucial differ- any truth to the stereotype of »wicked« human step- ence: nests are dispersed and spontaneous transpo- parents, as illustrated by Cinderella and many other sitions of chicks and eggs do not occur. In the ab- folktales. Might stepparents be disproportionately sence of selection for chick and egg recognition, ra- responsible for various sorts of child maltreatment? zorbills have not evolved discriminative abilities To our considerable surprise, we soon learned that SAMFUNDSØKONOMEN NR. 4 – 2002 40 The Cinderella Effect: Parental Discrimination against Stepchildren this question had never been asked in the large and the victims of validated physical abuse as those liv- rapidly growing literature on child abuse, and we ing with both their genetic parents.10 therefore set out to answer it ourselves.9 There are several reasons to be cautious when in- In our first study of this issue, we used an ar- terpreting such evidence. One is that the detection chive of 87,789 legally mandated and subsequently or reporting of abuse may be biased: if there is a validated reports of child maltreatment in the Unit- stereotype to the effect that stepparents are hostile ed States, in conjunction with available estimates of and potentially abusive, then ambiguous evidence the prevalence of various living arrangements may be more likely to be followed up and eventual- among children in the relevant population at large, ly validated when a stepparent is involved. But al- to estimate rates of abuse in various sorts of house- though such biases may exist, we were certain that holds and by various categories of »parents«. Be- they could not explain away the over-representation cause the US census did not distinguish stepparents of stepparents as abusers, for the following reasons. from genetic parents, there were no solid data on As the severity of child abuse increases, up to the the incidence of steprelationships in the general extreme of lethal battering, it becomes increasingly population, so we made our comparisons conserva- unambiguous and difficult to hide, and distortions tive by adopting an estimate from the literature due to biased detection and reporting should there- whose simplifying assumptions guaranteed that it fore shrink. However, as we narrowed the case cri- would be too high. But despite handicapping the teria in such a way as to make them increasingly se- hypothesis in this way, a substantial degree of ex- vere and unequivocal, the overrepresentation of cess risk at the hands of stepparents was still appar- stepparents as abusers increased, rather than shrink- ent. For example, children under three years of age ing, and when we considered only the 279 fatal cas- who dwelt with one genetic parent and one steppar- es, the estimated rates in stepparent-plus-genetic- ent were estimated to be seven times as likely to be parent homes had risen to approximately one hun- Figure 1. Age-specific rates of child homicide perpetrated by genetic parents versus stepparents in Canada, 1974-1990, based on all cases known to Canadian police forces. Genetic Step Parents Parents Homicides per Million Parent-Child Dyads per Annum SAMFUNDSØKONOMEN NR.
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