Democracy As Problem Solving Civic Capacity in Communities Across the Globe

Democracy as Problem Solving Civic Capacity in Communities Across the Globe

Xavier de Souza Briggs

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data De Souza Briggs, Xavier N. Democracy as problem solving : civic capacity in communities across the globe / Xavier de Souza Briggs. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-262-02641-3 (hardcover : alk. paper)—ISBN 978-0-262-52485-8 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Political participation. 2. Democratization. 3. Community development. I. Title. JF799.D42 2008 321.8—dc22 2007037630

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Index

ABC Economic Development Agency, Agnos, Art, 235, 239 204–205 AIDS crisis, 288–291 Accountability, 34 Allegheny Conference on Community blended model of, 116–118 Development child advocacy and, 243–244 civic reorganization and, 156–160, civic capacity and, 118 163 consensus-building and, 86 diversiﬁ cation of base, 180–181 elusiveness of, 168 initiatives, 151, 152 of intermediaries, 181–182 merger with PEL, 159–160 lack of, 111, 115 as multifunctional organization, legitimate framework for, 247, 162–163 318n3 physical redevelopment campaigns, multiple forms of, 12, 15, 306–307, 157–159 318n3 private-sector participation in civic new conception of, 36–37 initiatives and, 147, 153, 179–180 of philanthropic leadership, 174 public meetings, 162, 164 politics of rights and, 290 redevelopment agenda, 133, in public decision making, 37 151–152 in relationship system, 307 regional government focus in 1990s, standards of, 213, 318n3 154–156 types/sources, 307, 318n3 Southwestern Pennsylvania Growth Achmat, Zackie, 289 Alliance, 160–162 AEC (Western Cape Anti-Eviction state government and, 152 Campaign), 261, 279–283, Strategy 21, 146, 152–154, 166–167 289–290 White Paper, November 1993, 156– African National Congress (ANC), 157, 159, 163–164 258–259, 291 working together strategy, 157–159, community groups and, 281 164–165 Democratic Alliance and, 271 Alliance (Shack/Slum dwellers development strategy, 263, 269 International), 103 government/civil-society relations evolution of, 90, 97–100 and, 264–265 leadership, 97 Western Cape Anti-Eviction multilevel negotiations, 98 Campaign and, 261 policy agenda, 98 360 Index

Alliance (Shack/Slum dwellers economic reform, ﬁ scal wars International) (cont.) between the states, 192–193 politics of, 90, 100, 300–301 economic reform, national, 186, resettlement/relocation projects, 104, 191–192 107–112, 114 economy of, 189–190 SPARC (see Society for the failed stabilization plans, 186 Promotion of Area Resource federal system, 194 Centres) foreign direct investment, 192– Alliances, vs. coalitions, 224, 301 193 Alvarez-Rodriguez, Deborah, 245– Greater ABC region (see Greater 247, 249 ABC region) ANC. See African National immigration, large-scale, 189–190 Congress import-substitution industrialization, Appadurai, Arjun, 90 185, 190 Arputham, Jockin, 94, 97, 98, 107, industrial employment loss, 187 108 industrial epicenter (see Greater Automotive industry, in Brazil, 202– ABC region) 203, 207, 210–212, 215 Minas Gerais, industrial progress, 200 Back to Prosperity (Brookings participatory budgeting, 195 Institution), 172, 175 Partido dos Trabalhadores (see Bargaining Workers’ Party) learning and, 304–306 petrochemical processing, 191 multilevel, 305, 332n3 rapid industrial expansion, 190 principled, 43 São Paulo, 19, 190, 196 problem solving and, 88 social movements in, 186, 193–194 Beacon School concept, 247 tax system, 192 Beliefs, policy-relevant, 305 unionism, 191, 193 Bell, Greg, 81 Brodkin, Margaret, 232, 237, 240, Ben Franklin Partnership, 168–169 249, 251, 253 “Big-bang theory” of economic Brown, Mayor Willie, 232, 236, 244, growth, 149 245, 247–251 Bolnick, Joel, 277, 278–279 Bureaucracy, 100, 301, 323n13 Bombay First, 91 Burra, Sundar, 104, 107 Bottom-up approaches, 307–310 Business, as stakeholder, 227 Brazil Business-government partnerships, automotive industry, 202–203, 207, 132 210–212, 215 constitution, new, 186, 194 California decentralization, 186, 188, 190, San Francisco (see San Francisco) 192, 212 Silicon Valley, 138–139, 153, 168 democratic manifesto, 185, 199 Calthorpe, Peter, 71, 81 democratic transition, 301 Capacity. See Civic capacity developmental history, 19 Cape Town, 257–293 domestic migration, 190 community development, 261–262 economic growth, Brazilian miracle driving equitable economic change and, 185 and, 262–264 Index 361

geographic and social divisions, reauthorization, 248–251 258–260 Children’s rights, 223–224, 232–233 government structure, 331n15 Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day homelessness in, 274–275 Saints (Mormon Church), 70, housing shortages, 274–275 319n4, 320n7 institutionalizing democracy, 262– Cities. See also Cape Town; 264, 273, 331n12 Pittsburgh; Salt Lake City; San Integrated Development Plan, 273, Francisco 331n12 civic life, contest view of, 28 Khayelitsha, 258–260 managing growth of, 50–61 N2 Gateway project, 278 political power in, 27 organizational forms/political problems in, 17–22 strategies, 292 São Paulo, Brazil, 19, 190, 196 poor communities in, 260–261 Citizens postapartheid political engagement and activism of, 36–37, fragmentation, 271–274 40, 76, 78, 85, 307–310 urban governance reforms, 273, grassroots vs. grasstops, roles of, 331n12 307–310 Western Cape Anti-Eviction “local knowledge,” blending with Campaign, 261, 279–283 professional knowledge, 37, 302, Carnegie Mellon University, 148, 311 153, 167, 169 Citizen’s Forum, 208, 327n8 Causal analysis, 22–23 Civic capacity, 40, 127, 142, CBOs (community-based 187–188 organizations), 265 accountability and, 118 Change barriers, 261–262 change agents, 34 change and, 299–301 implementation of, 299–301 characteristics of, 44–45 leading, 221–222 civil-society intermediaries and, litigation as a strategy of, 286–288 302–304 systems change (see Systems community-led, 119 change) context, 299 theories of, 223, 247 creating/building, 11–12, 23, 243, Child advocacy, 237–242, 252. See 298, 301 also Coleman Advocates for deﬁ nition of, 12, 13–14 Children and Youth deploying, 12, 301 Children/youth, 221–230 effective public action and, 34–41 ﬁ scal bill of rights for, 240 in environmental problem-solving, issues, stakeholders in, 226–227 57 outcomes, civics of, 224–226 in Greater ABC region, 208–212 politics and, 227–229 Grootboom case and, 287–288 programs/institutions for, 224, 232 historical perspective, 298–299 Children’s Amendment, 240–244, implementation of change and, 248, 251–253 299–301 Children’s Budget, 231, 232, 250 as problem solving resource, 243 Children’s Fund, 244–246, 253 producibility, 298–299 accountability, 248–251 purpose of, 42 362 Index

Civic capacity (cont.) Collaboration regimes and, 33 in Cape Town, 275–276 as resource, 27, 115–116 interagency, 200 role of, 110 in restructuring urban economies, in South African governance, 130–131 281–283 Collective action, 42, 94–97 strategies for, 15 as coproduction, 224–225 tests of, 23, 300–301 local, 297–298 urban growth management and, 59– as pressure politics, 224 61, 87–88 (see also Envision Utah) problems, types of, 139 using effectively, 14, 23 Collective effi cacy, 9–10, 328n1 vs. social capital, 222 Community, 9 well-being of next generation and, building, 10–11, 42, 44, 320n14 222–226 collective effi cacy and, 9–10, 318n5, Civic cooperation, 170–171 328n1 Civic engagement, 76, 78, 84 commitment to act, 31, 318n6 Civic environmentalism, 57 efforts to improve youth outcomes, Civic life, invigoration of, 31 226 Civic process and knowledge as ecology of games, strategic problems, 87 interaction, 135–136, 305, 318n8, Civil disobedience, 289 325n4, 332n3 Civil-society groups/organizations, goodwill in, 111, 318n6, 320n14 12, 13, 109, 110 involvement in problem solving, 37– Cleveland Tomorrow partnership, 38 (see also Problem solving, 133 collective) Clusters, economic, 137–138 as social capital, 318n4 defi nition of, 137 Community-based organizations in developing countries, 138 (CBOs), 265 innovative, 140–141 Community capacity, 269–270, 276, as policy panacea, 138 306 types of, 138–139 Community development system, 27, upgrading, 137 119–120, 307, 318n10 Coalition for Utah’s Future, 66–69 Community groups, 90, 281, 330n5 Coalitions Competition, political, 32 confl ict and, 133 Competitiveness, economic, necessary in Pittsburgh, 147, 155, 180 vs. suffi cient conditions, 182 vs. alliances, 224, 301 Confl ict Coleman Advocates for Children and coalitions and, 133functions and Youth, 251–253 organization of, 42–45 child advocacy and, 237–243 of interests/values, 32, 35, 42, 44, Children’s Amendment and, 240– 320n6 241, 248 resolution mechanisms, 29, 320n6 children’s budget, 232, 239–240 strategies of contention, 279–291 as hybrid group, 253–254 Consensus building proactive strategy, 244 accountability and, 79, 86 Proposition D, 249 approaches for, 56–57, 84–85 Proposition J, 240–241 facilitated, 39 Index 363

institutions and preconditions for, vs. bureaucracy, tension between, 67, 318n7 100, 323n13 legitimacy, 79 citizen engagement and activism in, and reframing, 320n6 36–37, 40, 76, 78, 85 Cooperation, 124 collective impact of, 311–313 Cooperative autonomy, 59 for collective problem solving, 32–34 Coproduction, 103, 117, 131, 270 conception of, 7–9, 310–315 as a form of governing, 117–118 as contest among interest groups, 7, collective action as, 224–225 24, 28–31, 297 leverage points, 225 defi nition of, 310–315 multidimensional challenges and, as deliberation, 24, 40–43 225 effective participation, 310 in urban slum redevelopment, enlightened understanding, 310 119–120 as fulfi llment of “community life,” Corporate welfare, 126 3, 7 “Creative class,” 171 institutionalizing, 262–264 Cronyism (patronage), 31 as instrument for deliberation, 7, Cross-sector approach, collaborative, 31–32 103 liberal, 311 “operating,” 23 Daniel, Celso, 201–204, 205, 216 power structures and, 310–312 da Silva, President Luis Inácio as problem solving, 24 “Lula,” 186, 196, 207 real vs. idealized, 42–43 Decentralization, 19, 27 small-scale, 42–43 in Brazil, 186, 188, 190, 192, 212 tension with bureaucracy, 100 in South Africa, 263, 267 unitary vs. adversary ideal, 42 Decision making Democratic Alliance, 271, 272, 273 alternative processes, 29–30 Developing countries, 134 consensus-based, 32, 208, 217 democracies in, 20 decentralized, 10, 19 economic clusters in, 138 fragmented authority for, 60 economic policy making in, 129 impasses, 29–30 resource allocation to child inclusiveness vs. effi ciency, 313–315 investment, 223 participatory, 27, 100 “slum-led growth” in, 53 (see also process of, 303 Slums) public-sector, 127 Development, 213 Decision outcomes, satisfaction with, bureaucratically directed, 292 40 developmental state and, 58–59, Decision points, 21–22 263, 267, 269, 277, 292 “Deep” democracy, 194 politics of, 126–128, 130 Deindustrialization, 147 planning of, 58–59 Deitrick, Sabrina, 125 rights, social and economic, and, DeLeon, Richard, 233, 234, 253–254 283–285 Deliberation, 31–32 transferable development rights (real Deliberative democracy, 40–41 estate), 102 Democracy, 310–315 urban growth and, 50–51, 53–54, aspirations, 38 58–59 364 Index

Dewey, John, 3, 7, 8, 9–10, 32, 297 social learning and, 60, 85, 88 Dharavi, 89 stewardship, 20–21, 322n31 Digital Greenhouse, 170 urban growth and, 50–54, 56–58, Direction setting, 109 60, 81 Duquesne Club, 166–167, 171 in Utah, 63–88 Envision Utah, 68–69, 298–299 Economic clusters. See Clusters, adoption of quality growth vision, economic 82 Economic decline, in industrial civic capacity and, 115–116 regions, 124–125, 143–146 community engagement process, 72– Economic development. See 73, 75–76 Economic restructuring consensus building, 75–76, 84–86 Economic development organizations, demonstration projects, 81–82 132 environmental policy and advocacy, coordination of, 180–181 66–67, 69–70, 72, 76–77, 84–86 merging in Pittsburgh, 156–157 ethnic diversity and, 83 Economic planning and policy, local, housing policy and development, 69, 130 80, 82, 88 Economic policy, local level, 128 impact of quality growth strategy, Economic restructuring 83–84 clusters and (see Clusters, economic) implementation phase, 78–84 as cultivating an innovative milieu, launch of, 70–71 136–141 long-range planning, 69–70, 76–79 driving vs. steering factors, 127 planning tools, development of, vs. economic development, 325n1 78–83 global competition, 27 layered public awareness of, 82–83 economies, multiple, and, 125, 168 public criticism, 74–76, 321n25 as partnering, 130–136 public education campaigns, 49, 77, in Pittsburgh (see under Pittsburgh) 81–83, 88 process, three models of, 125–126 quality growth principles, 81 as public policymaking, 126–130, survey results, 78, 321n25 325n2public subsidies for, efﬁ cacy table talks, 75–76 of, 325n2 transportation planning and, 67, Education, government reform of, 16 70–71, 80, 82–84, 88 Efﬁ ciency, 12, 301 two-level strategy, 76, 78–79 Empowerment, 10, 12, 38, 301 Values Survey, 72 Entrepreneurs, 16, 90, 186 visioning phase, 73–78 collective action of, 41 Wasatch Front target area, 71–72 culture of, 182 Winter Olympics and, 82 institution-building, 169 public networks of, 33 Federation, concept of, 98 Environmental sustainability Federation of the Urban Poor, South civic environmentalism, 57 Africa, 277, 292 environmentalists, 56–58, 76–77, Feedback loops, systems, 60 84, 234 Flaherty, Peter, 152 in greater Pittsburgh, 176–177 Flint, Anthony, 52 real estate interests and, 68 Florida, Richard, 171 Index 365

Forbes Funds, 178 GPNP (Greater Pittsburgh Nonprofi t Foreign direct investment, in Brazil, Partnership), 178, 179 186–187 Grassroots movements, 44, 103 Foundations, philanthropic, 173–174, ecosystems management, 39 181, 237, 247–248 participation in, 307–310 Framing, political strategy of, 224– styles of, 100 226, 318n2, 320n6 “Grasstops,” 12, 44, 116, 307–310 Fregonese, John, 71 Greater ABC region, 142, 217 ABC 2000 Forum, 201 Geography, new economic, 58 automotive manufacturing sector Ghandi, Indira, 94 and, 202–203, 207, 210–212, 215 Ghandi, Mahatma, 93 business-labor relationships, 199 Global competition, 27 Citizen’s Forum, 201–202, 203, 205, Good Government Alliance, 250 214, 327n8 Gore, Al, 77 competitiveness in, 197–200 Governance, 7–8 economic development tools, collaborative cross-sector approach, 198–199 103 Greater ABC Regional Chamber, inclusiveness vs. effi ciency, 313–315 202–204, 216 instruments of, 34 institution building in, 197–200 local level, 27 Intermunicipal Consortium, 201 vs. government, 33 jobless growth in, 192 Government, 29 location and context, 188–189 accountability of (see manufacturing-intensive strategy, Accountability) 215 authority, limits/obligations for, petrochemical industry, 209–210 284 plastics sector, 207, 210 decentralization (see population explosion, 190–191 Decentralization) training, 204–205 as developmental state (see unionism, 212 Developmental state) vs. Pittsburgh, 212–215 directing/steering, 35 Greater Pittsburgh Nonprofi t economic restructuring and (see Partnership (GPNP), 178, 179 Economic restructuring) Green technology, 37 elected offi cials, 226–227 Grootboom case, 286–28, 290 entrepreneurial, 134 Grounded theory, 23 learning-oriented engagement of, Grow, Robert, 69–70, 72, 75, 77, 79, 129–130 81, 83 limitations and roles, 35, 103, Growth machine model, 54–55 310–315 reinventing and reforming, 27, Haas Fund, 247 175–177 HI (Homeless International), 99–100, restructuring, 155 112–113 rules/priorities, vetoing of, 35 HIV/AIDS, 292 vs. governance, 33 Holbrook, Stephen, 70, 75, 79 Government-citizen relationship, Homeless International (HI), 99–100, 297–298 112–113 366 Index

Homelessness Infl uence. See Power Grootboom case and, 286–288 Infrastructure megaprojects, 103–105 in South Africa, 266, 274–275 Innovation Works, 169 Homeless People’s Federation, Innovative milieu, cultivation of, 275–279 136–141, 163, 168, 179, 213 Housing crisis, in South Africa, 266, Institutional culture, 138–139 288–291 Integrated Development Planning, Human service delivery, 267, 269, 331n12 fragmentation, 224 “Interested facilitators,” defi ned, 303 Huntsman, Jon, Jr., 79–80 Interest groups political roles of, 28–32, 233–235 Immigration, Brazilian, 189–190 urban growth and, 54 Implementation, 24, 109 Intermediaries as coproduction, 103, 117, 131, alliance relationships, 182 270 civil-society, 87, 302–304 of change, 299–301 leadership style and, 182 commitment to, 40 roles and capacities of, 87 Import-substitution industrialization, International Covenant on Civil and 185 Political Rights, 284 Incentives, 306 locational, 139–140 Jobless growth, 192, 266 for private investment, 102 India Kemmis, Daniel, 84 Bombay (see Mumbai, India) Kennecott Land, 81 constitutional reform, 101, 323n14 Knowledge developmental history, 19 learning (see Learning) economic boom, 91 “local” and other types of, 37, 302, governmental bureaucracy, 93–94 311 Hindu-Muslim confl ict of 1990s, Knowledge economy, 217 114 incentives for private investment, Labor-management relations, 124 102 Latin America. See also Brazil local governments, role of, 101, rise of pragmatic Left in, 194–195 323n14 Lawrence, David, 147, 151 post-independence period, 93–94 Leadership rapid urbanization of, 91–93 change agents, 34 rural development, 93 defi nition, 44 Shiv Sena political party, 101 leading change, 221–222 slum growth in, 94–95 Learning slumlords, 94, 95 bargaining and, 304–306 social welfare programs, 227–228 defensive routines as barriers to, 45 Indian Alliance, 278–279 as partnership purpose, 140 Indian Railways, 104 problem solving and, 88 Industrial regions Leavitt, Michael, 67, 70 in Brazil (see Greater ABC region) Legitimacy, 86, 120, 283, 332n4 economic decline in, 124–125 civic capacity and, 301, 306, 312 Infl ation, in Brazil, 186 of partnerships, 38–40 Index 367

of philanthropic leadership, 174 labor and transplantation and political support, 87 infrastructure, 91–93 productive capacity and, 303 monsoon rains of 2005, 114 as soft power, informal pavement dwellers, 95–97 authorization, 39, 85, 120, 217, slum dweller-based Alliance, 34, 299 332n4 slum dweller evictions, 95, 96–97 Liberals, 234 slum dwellers movement, 94, 97, Litigation, public-impact, 286–288 114, 299 Loan guarantees/subsidies, 111, slum encroachments, 92–93 113 slum redevelopment, 113–114, 120 Lofgren, Dan, 75 slum resettlement, community-led, “Lula” (see da Silva, Luis Inácio) 98 Lycos, 148 slums, context and development of, 89–90 Maharashtra (Indian state), 101, 102, urban transport project, 105 105–106 Murphy, Tom, 165 Mahila Milan, 89, 97, 99 Managerialism, 40, 227 Nanotechnology, 170 Mandela, Nelson, 259, 264 National Slum dwellers Federation Market (NSDF), 94, 97, 114 as production device, 86 Negotiations, 42, 43 as public support validator, 86 New Jersey, 57 rules, 306 “New public management,” 36 Markhandeya project, 112 Newsom, Gavin, 232, 251 Mass-producer clusters, 138 New Urbanism, 71 Mbeki, Thabo, 259, 263, 264 N2 Gateway project, 278 McLeod, Ruth, 99 NGOs. See Nongovernmental McMahon, Peter, 81 organizations Media, 227 Nirman, 113 Megasuburb, 81 Nongovernmental organizations Mehrabian, 157 (NGOs), 59, 265, 330n5 Mellon, Richard King, 147, 151 as civic intermediaries, 180 Metropolitan areas, 60 vs. community groups, 330n5 Metropolitan Negotiation Forum, defi nition of, 303, 330n5 272 economic development roles, 134 Metropolitan planning organizations, as intermediaries, 115 U.S., 175–176 slum redevelopment and, 105, Millennium Development Goals, 53, 108–110 223 as social development agents, 111, Miller, Larry, 70 330n5 Mori, Jeff, 244–245 for social equity and environmental Mormon Church (see Church of Jesus sustainability, 177–179 Christ of Latter-Day Saints) Nonprofi t social service agencies, 246 Multilateralism, 120 Nonprofi t technology intermediary Mumbai, India, 19, 20, 49–50, 54 organizations, 169 bomb attacks of 2006, 114 NSDF (National Slum dwellers economic plans, long-range, 91 Federation), 94, 97, 114 368 Index

“One-city-one-tax-base” principle, People’s Dialogue on Land and 267 Shelter, 275, 276, 277 Operating democracies, analysis of, Performance and accountability 23–24 problems, 87 Operational capacity problems, 87 “Performance revolution,” 36 Operations management, 253 Philanthropy (see Foundations, Oregon, 1973 landmark growth philanthropic) reform, 56 Pittsburgh, 133, 143–183 Organizations, 24, 97–98. See also Allegheny Conference (see Allegheny speciﬁ c organizations Conference on Community Development) Parent Advocates for Youth, 232 comeback in 1980’s, 146 Parents, as agents, 226 cultivating milieu of innovation, Participation, 40–41. (see also 163–165, 168 Citizens, engagement and activism) economic inequality in, 149–151 and democracy (see Participatory environmental sustainability, democracy) 176–177 importance of, 41, 307–310 government planning for, 175–177 in public life, 34 industrial job losses, 143–146 social progress and, 13, 307–310 industrial region, 19 wiser decision-making and, 41 job creation trends, 167 Participatory democracy, 37, 187, knowledge-based economy, 153– 222, 307–310 154, 164 Partnerships, 42, 44. See also manufacturing sector, 148–149 Collaboration multilayered restructuring, 149 ANC-driven public policies and, 270 organizing the region politically, as coproduction (see Coproduction) 160–162 degree of integration in, 132 philanthropies in, 173–174 developing, 39–40 physical landscape, 143–144 and economic restructuring, 130–136 politics of reorganization, 158 legitimacy of, 38–40 population loss from 1980–2000, as limited cooperation under 148 uncertainty, 135–136, 318n8, postindustrial agenda, 147–148 325n4 public-private partnerships, 144–148 forms and models of, 110, 131 real estate projects, large-scale, 143– organizations, 132–133 144, 148 as teams, 123 rebranding of region, 171 Patel, Sheela, 96, 99, 104, 106–108, regional economic analysis of 1963, 112, 120 145–146 Patents, 170 Renaissance I, 143, 151, 154 Patronage (cronyism), 31 Renaissance II, 143, 152, 154 Pease, Robert, 152, 154 Renaissance III, 165–16 PEL (Pennsylvania Economy League), reorganization in nongovernmental 158–160 sector, 156–160 Pelosi, Nancy, 234 service-driven economy, 148, 164 Pennsylvania Economy League (PEL), “stadium tax,” 160 158–160 technology-led growth, 167–171 Index 369

tension between old/established and bargaining in, 88 new, 145, 167, 175 bottom-up, 12 urban renewal, slum clearance, 152 for children/youth outcomes, 224 vs. Greater ABC area, 212–215 collective, 9, 32–34, 37–38, 305, Pittsburgh Regional Alliance (PRA), 310 158–159 cross-sector, 18 Pittsburgh Steelers football team, 171 democratic, accountability uses/ Pittsburgh Technology Center, 153 sources and, 116–117 Planning, 24, 27, 41. See also dual agenda, 222 Problem solving inclusiveness vs. efﬁ ciency, 313–315 Pluralism, 28–30 learning and, 88 Police power, 39 as legitimate process, 311 Policy advocates, 226 participation in, 40–41 Policy making, collaborative, 16 public, 305 Political economy perspective, 28, 30 public planning for, 49 Political elites, buy-in for system structuring participation in, 312 change, 229 support infrastructure, 169 Political management, 253 top-down, 12–13 Politics of local economic via partnership, 27 development, 126–128, 130 Processing models, for citizen “Politics of patience,” 100, 114, 292, engagement, 76 300–301 Productive capacity, 38, 303 “Politics of rights,” 290 Productivity, 137 Populists, 234 Professional knowledge Power, 14, 28–29. See also blending with citizen knowledge, 37 Empowerment superiority of, 41 inequities, 29 Progressive movement, San Francisco as leverage, bargaining, 215, and, 234 283–288 Progressive regionalism, 185–217 “power to” vs. “power over,” 29, Project model of social development, 33 100 The Power Elite (Mills), 29 Proposition D, 250 PRA (Pittsburgh Regional Alliance), Proposition J, 240–241 158–159 Public action Pressure politics, 306 effective, civic capacity and, 34–41 Private sector quality of ideas for, 40 partnering with public sector (see Public agency reform. See Public-private partnering) Government, reinventing and role in slum redevelopment, 91, 97, reforming 98, 102, 103, 110, 115 Public agenda setting, 24 Privatization initiatives, in Brazil, 186 Public education, philanthropies and, Problems 174, 181 analysis of, 24 Public entrepreneurship networks, 36 in cities, 17–22 Public investments, in education/ solutions for (see Problem solving) training, 137 Problem setting, 108–109 Public management, 226, 263, 281 Problem solving, 129–130 Public managers, 226 370 Index

Public organizations, effectiveness of, Research & development (R&D), 38–39 156, 164, 170, 210 Public policy. See also Government Resource management, participatory challenge, economic restructuring as, approaches, 43 126–130 Restructuring, economic. See lacking soft power, 39 Economic restructuring Public-private partnerships Rights in developing countries, 134 of children, 223–224, 232–233 local economic restructuring and, codiﬁ ed, 282, 306 136, 171–173, 179 and democratic accountability, 282– in Pittsburgh, 144–148 286, 306 in South Africa, 263 and development, 282–285, 306 university-based research and, 139 justiciable vs. aspirational, 282, 286 Public sector. See also Government “negative” vs. positive, 284 and speciﬁ c public sector problems vs. political interests and values, problems, adaptive vs. technical, 35 320n6, 320n14 and problem solving, 39, 44, 86, 87, “politics of rights,” 290, 293 297 social and economic, 282, 284–285 in restructuring-as-policy making transferable development (real perspective, 127 estate), 102 values, 71–72 Risk Putnam, Robert, 11, 298–299 civic capacity as tool for managing, 98, 104, 110–113 Quality Growth Act of 1999, 80 sharing, through organizations, 134 Quality Growth Public-Private types of, 112 Partnership. See Envision Utah Rolls Royce, 210–212, 214 Quality Growth Strategy, 82 Route 128 corridor, Massachusetts, 138–139, 153 Railway Slum Dwellers Federation RSDF (Railway Slum Dwellers (RSDF), 104, 105, 106 Federation), 104, 105, 106 Railway slum redevelopment, 103–110 Salt Lake City, 18–19, 20, 52, 61. See Rajiv-Indira Housing Cooperative, also Wasatch Front 89–90, 112–113 historical roots, 20–21 Rampton, Calvin, 68 starting points for community R&D (research and development), action, 21 156, 164, 170, 210 Winter Olympics and, 82 Real estate developers, 110–112, Sampling 1012 case selection, 18–21 Regimes, urban of interviewees, snowballing, 21, concept of, 33–34 317n4 schemes of cooperation, 116 San Francisco, 18, 229–230. See also Regional government, 175–177 San Francisco children’s movement Regulation, community-driven, 37 “antiregime,” 235 Reindustrialization, 133 child advocacy in, 231–255 Research, university-based, 139, 153, child poverty in, 236, 238 164, 167 “Manhattanization,” 236 Index 371

Offi ce on Children, Youth and NGOs and, 98, 103 Families, 239, 241, 245, 249 policy, 102, 113 policy agenda, 243, 252 private capital for, 110 political fragmentation, 234–235 progress in, 61 postwar economic success, 235 tasks, 103 progressive movement and, 234– vs. relocation/resettlement, 110 235 Slum Redevelopment Authority, 106, public school system, 247 109, 112–113 restructuring/capacity building, 246 Slums, 53 urban development confl icts, 243 in developing countries, 53–54 youth summit, 244 population estimates of, Mumbai, San Francisco children’s movement, 322n5 34, 231–255 redevelopment of (see Slum accomplishments and limits, 251 redevelopment)relocation vs. accountability, 252, 253 redevelopment of, 104, 110 Children’s Amendment, 240–242 as “shadow cities,” 53–54 Children’s Budget, 239–240 state-market-society cooperation Children’s Fund growth in 1990s, and, 58–59 235–236 as vote banks, 90, 94 Children’s Services Plan, 241 Small-N case study research, 18, 20, nongovernmental organizations and, 22 252 Smart growth initiative, 77 policy agenda setting, 252 Smart growth laws, 56 Proposition J, 240–241 Social capital, 8–9, 318n4. See also public spending priorities, 254 Collective effi cacy Sanitation projects, community- building, 11–12, 298–299, 318n5 driven, 104 vs. civic capacity, 222, 298–299 São Paulo, Brazil, 19, 190, 196 forms and sources of, 9–10, 98–99, Sarni, Vincent, 154, 158 119, 318n6, 324n20 Savings, 98–99 Social development, 111 Scheme of cooperation. See Regimes, Social learning, 117, 305 urban Social movements, in Brazil, 186, Scott, Allen, 205 193–194 Shack/Slum Dwellers International, Society for the Promotion of Area 90, 99 Resource Centres (SPARC), 96– “Shadow cities,” 115 100, 279, 303 Shaw, George Bernard, 27 accountability of, 118–119 Shiv Sena party, 111–112 commercial risk and, 112 Silicon Valley, California, 138–139, Dharavi slum project, 112–113 153, 168 as interested facilitator, 113 Slum dwellers as intermediary organization, 103, confl icts/aspirations of, 109 106–107 voting strength of, 90, 94, 111–112 international networks, 105 Slum redevelopment, 89–120 railway slum resettlement, 104, 108, bank role in, 113 109 defi nition of, 103 Soft power, 39, 85, 120, 217 housing and, 110–113 “Soft skills,” 108 372 Index

South Africa. See also Cape Town State policy coalitions, urban growth civic capacity, 230 and, 56 community development movement, Steel Valley Authority, 147 289–290 Stevenson, Jerry, 75 developmental history, 19 Stone, Clarence, 13–14 economic and social progress, Strategic alliances, 131 265–266 Strategy 21, 146, 152–154, 166–167, emergency housing program, 286 325n4 government/civil-society relations, Street science, 37 264–265 “Studied trust,” 140 housing crisis vs. AIDS crisis, Sustainable Pittsburgh, 176, 177, 288–291 178, 181 Integrated Development Planning, Systems change 267, 269 buy-in by political elites, 229 limits of government-led problem- deﬁ nition of, 224 solving, 301 vs. best-practice projects, 222 local governance role in progress, 266–270 TAC (Treatment Action Campaign), social and economic rights, 223– 288–289, 292 224, 282–285 Technology, 217 societal change, 258, 263 clusters, 138–139 “talk Left, act Right” political as democratic challenge, 35–36 strategy, 263 entrepreneurs, 166–167 transition to multiracial democracy, transfer, 169–170 19, 257–258, 291 Theories of change, 223, 247 urban management, 277 Thinking styles, divergent and White Paper on Local Governance, convergent, 42 267–268 Third World. See Developing South African Cities Network, 269 countries South African Constitution, 285 Time horizons, 75, 85 South African Human Rights Top-down approaches, 307–310 Commission, 286 Transferable development rights, 102 Southwestern Pennsylvania Transgressive politics, 42 Commission (SPC), 162, 172, 175, Transit-oriented development, 80 177, 179 Transnational network approach, 90, Southwestern Pennsylvania Growth 99 Alliance, 160–162 Trax, 82 SPARC. See Society for the Treatment Action Campaign (TAC), Promotion of Area Resource 288–289, 292 Centres Trust building, 59, 135, 140, 179, SPC (Southwestern Pennsylvania 332n2 Commission), 162, 172, 175, 177, Tutu, Desmond, 263 179 Sprawl, 51–53, 68 United Nations Development curbing (see Urban growth Program, 284 management) United Nations Millennium Stafford, Rick, 154, 157–159 Development Goals, 53, 223 Index 373

United States Urban land, exchange vs. use values, developmental history, 19 30 economic restructuring in (see US Airways, 148, 167 Pittsburgh) Utah, 61 urban growth in, 51–52 development in 1980s and early urban growth management, 63–64 1990s, 64–65 (see also Salt Lake City region) growth summit of 1995, 67 University of Pittsburgh, 153, 167 local resistance to urban growth Urban growth, 49–62. See also Urban management, 57–58 growth management natural growth boundaries, 65–66 areas of, 50 Quality Growth Act of 1999, 80 centralized metropolitan, 51 quality growth areas, 80 as civic capacity problem, 59–61 quality growth movement, 63–88 economic agenda, 55 response to rapid growth (see economic-interest-based conﬂ ict, 30 Envision Utah) in developing countries, 51, 53–54, Salt Lake city (see Salt Lake city; 319n1 Wasatch Front)state politics, 63– in Europe vs. U.S., 51 64, 67, 319n3 growth machine model, 54–55 uTshani Fund, 276 models of, 51–52 politics of, 55–56 Values/interests, conﬂ icting, 35, 42, problems from, 50–51 44 rapid, conditions associated with, Venture capital, 170 21 Vision Mumbai report, 91 regime analysis, 55 Voting regional solutions, 56 as accountability mechanism, 42, “slum-led,” 20, 115 54, 68, 77, 79, 83–84, 86, 88, 232, sprawling/decentralized, 51–52 245, 248, 282 uneven, 20 decision rules for, 32 in United States, 51–52 mobilization in San Francisco, 232, Urban growth management, 22, 30 234–235, 239, 240–241, 245, 248– barriers, 60 249, 252, 254 civic action and, 54–55 strength of slum dwellers, 90, 94, consensus-building approaches, 111–112 56–57 in developing countries, 58–59 Wage rates, competitive, 127 government-led efforts, 115, 116 Wald, Michael, 250 market-led efforts, 115, 116 Wasatch Front nongovernmental organization-led Envision Utah and, 71–72 efforts, 115, 116 location of, 65 public-private partnership for, 60– long-term future, 67 61, 64 urban growth, 65–67 reframing as quality growth, 115 Western Cape Anti-Eviction state-level planning frameworks for, Campaign (AEC), 261, 279–283, 57–58 289–290 support for, 56 Western Cape Economic Development Urban renewal, 270 Forum, 272 374 Index

Who Governs? (Dahl), 28 Wirthlin Worldwide, 72, 82 Workers’ Party, Brazil, 5, 191, 200–202 achievements and limitations of, 186, 196 civic participation and, 195 corruption scandal, 196, 205, 216, 327n9 evolution, 194–195 local government transformation, 206 participatory democracy and, 187 policy agenda, 198 political interest groups and, 195–196 procedural innovations, 195 “radicals in power” dilemma, 194– 195, 212 Working Together report, 157–159, 164–165 World Bank, 105, 107, 109, 213, 267

Young people. See Children/youth Youth Impact, 249, 251 Youth Making a Change, 232, 244