DOCUBENT BESOSE

ID 174 424 SE 027 993 TITLE Biomedical Social Science, Unit II: Health, Culture and Environment. Student Text, Part Two: . Revised Version, 1575. INSTITUTICN Biomedical Interdisciplinary Curriculum Project, Berkeley, Calif. SPCNS AGENCY National Science Foundation, Washington, D.C. PUB DATE 75 NOTE 212p. ;For related documents, see SE 027 978-999 and SE 028 510-516; Not available in hard copy due to copyright restrictions; Pages 11-14 and 21-26 remcved due to copyright restrictions; Photographs will not reproduce well EDRS PRICE MF01 Plus Postage. PC Not Available from EDRS. DESCRIPTORS *African History; *Cultural Awareness; *Environment; Environmental Education; Health Education; Interdisciplinary Apprcach; Public Health; *Social Studies; *Social Systems; World Affairs IDENTIFIERS *Africa

ABSTRACT This student text deals with cultural, historical, and environmental issues specific tc Africa. The lessons are presented in various formats including readings, photographic essays, and exercises. The lessons are nct specifically couched in the ccntext cf health issues, but do contribute tc the integrated approach cf the biomedical interdisciplinary curriculum. (RE)

*********************************************************************** Reprcductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made frcm the original document. *********************************************************************** U S r,EPARTMENT OF HEALTH, "PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE TH5 EDUCATION & WELFARE MATERIALINMICROFICHE ONLY NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF HAS BEEN GRANTED RY EDUCATION THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRO. DUCE° EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM THE PERSON OR OROAN)/A7)ON ORIGIN- ATING IT POIN TS OF VIEW OR OPINIONS STATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRE- CkNT OFFICIAL NATIONAL INSTI TUTE OF TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES EDUCATION POS. T1ON OR POLICY INFORMATION CENTER ERICI

V BIOMEDICALSOCIALSCIENCE

UNIT II

HEALTH, CULTURE AND ENVIRONMENT

STUDENT TEXT, PART Two: AFRICA REVISED VERSION, 1975

THE BIOMEDICAL INTERDISCIPLINARYCURRICULUM PROJECT SUPPORTED BY THE NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION

Any opinions, findings, conclusionsor recommendations expressed herein are those of the author and donot necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.

Copyright (C) California Committee on RegionalMedical Programs, 1975 The materials in this portion of the Student Text for Unit II were originally developed by the American Universities Field Staff in Hanover, New Hampshire. From the many materials the AUFS devel- oped, the Biomedical Interdisciplinary Curriculum Project staff has selected some readings, illustrations and activities which will help you learn more about Africa. Those selections were compiled and edited by the BICP staff to form this Student Text. The read- ings may not always appear to belong togethereven though they deal with the same culture area. By using the questions included in

this unit, you should be able to gain from the materials theanswe7:s you are seeking. Remember that five of the question sets deal specifically with health matters. Few if any of the readings in this text are specifically about health, but most of them include health-related information. You and others in your group who are analyzing Africa should view this text as aresource. Because you are not able to visit the culture and do field research, you must rely on the impressions and reports of others. Your analysis is in the form of book research. There are exceptions t9 this. In some cases you will see illustrations, or participate in activities, that should help you get a "feel" for the culture. This is another way to investigate when you cannot be "in the field". Bear in mind that this text--this resource--is only oneresource. You can and should use other resources as you conduct your analysis of culture in Africa. Good luck. TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page

Handouts for the Study of Africa 1

Bibliography 2

Edom 7

South Africa's Helen Suzman, Conscience of a Troubled Land . . 11

Freedom Achieved/Freedom Sought 15

Photograph for Analysis 19 I Am a Witchdoctor 20

"Orbit: The Monthly Magazine for Young Zambians" 21 Death in 27

To Burundi from a Friend 31

Reflections of Africa: Tarzan 33 Ana Abdelkrim: North African Desert Boy 37 Mike: The City Life of Rural Males 41 Ahmadou: Rural to Urban Migrant from Upper Volta to the 45

Ujamaa Villages 53 An African Garden: Varieties of Nationalism and -Africanism 57

Independence Prelude 61 The Independence Struggle in 65 Zaire: Bold Experiment 69 The Independence Struggle in the Central African Confederation 73 Then 77 Algeria Now 81 Creating African Nations 85 Africa Today: Problems and Prospects 89 Great Expectations/Uncertain Rewards 97 : A Thousand Hills 101 : Economic and Human Progress 105 Deser4 Tragedy: Expanding Desert 107 Nature "Spoils" a Wildlife Paradise 111 Around Africa: B C 115 The Bat 116

Stone Age : Esthetics Among the Carrion Eaters. . 117 Bundu 125 TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)

Title Page The Girl Who Had To Die 127 Witchcraft Beliefs and the Roleof Secret Societies 129 A Meeting 133 Crime in Ivory Coast, 137 "New Nationhood" 141 What Is It Like To Be in Africa? 142 Drought: A Simulation of Human Experience Under Drought Conditions in the Sahel 150 Introduction 150 Instructions 150 Nomad Scenario 151 Farmer Scenario 155 Government Official Scenario 159 International Official Scenario 165 Trade Fair: A Simulation of an All-AfricaExposition 171 Instructions 171 Welcoming Speech 173 All-Africa Commodity List 174 Word Associations 175 Expanding Desert 176 How Large Is Africa? 177 Too Much Water or Too Little? 178 Where In the World Is ? 179 I Am Afraid 181 Liberians--Africans? Americans? 182 Boundary Dispute 183 My Land Is Your Land 184 Prejudice 185 How Do People Become White? 186 Development for What? 187 Who Is an African? 189 Africans: Citizens of Where? 190 All Men Are My Brothers 191 Extract 192 TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)

Title Page

Black and White Wages 193 Equal Pay for Equal Work? 194 What Will Happen Next? Photographs for Interpretation 195 News Out of Africa 196 World Press Reports on Burundi 197 Snacking--Ethiopian Style 199 What Do Africans Produce 200

In Praise of Chicken 201 African Books 203 African Images 205 African Stereotypes: A Poll 206

ADDITIONAL MATERIALS FROM UNIT II STUDENT TEXT, PARTONE

Faces of the Boran Faces of tha Sahel The Well of Wheat Proverbs Egg-Carton "Bao" HANDOUTS FOR THE STUDY OF AFRICA

You will need certain materials in addition to those which have been included in this Student Text and in Unit II Student Text, Part One. Your instructor will supply these materials. Note that the two simulations, "Drought" and "Trade Fair,"cannot be conducted without the supplies listed under those titles below. Ten masters for transparencies: Landforms Climate Vegetation Lakes and Rivers Population and Distribution Language Distribution Cities Political Boundaries Nations Who Rules? What Do You Know about Africa? My Africa: An Essay Drought: A Simulation of Human Experience under Drought Conditions in the Sahel (materials for simulation): -Game Board (one for every four students in the class) Trade Fair: A Simulation of an All-Africa Exposition (materials for simulation): -Gold Certificates (one sheet) Four Color Photographs:

Lesson 1, Photo 4 Lesson 15, Photo 3 Lesson 15, Photo 4 Lesson 18-37, Photo 3

t` BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

Abrahams, Peter. Mine Boy. New York: Macmillan, 1970.

Achebe, Chinua. Things Fall Apart. Greenwich, Connecticut: Fawcett, 1959.

. A Man of the People. New York: Doubleday (Anchor), 1967.

African Encyclopedia. New York: Oxford University Press, 1974.

Anderson, Robert T. : A Perspective on Man, Belmont, California: Wadsworth, 1972.

Armah, Ayi Kwei, The Beautyful Ones Are Not Yet Born. (sic.) : Heinemann, 1969

Bohanan, Paul. Africa and Africans. New York: Doubleday,

1972 (1964) .

Brooks, Lester. Great Civilizations of Ancient Africa. New York: Four Winds Press, 1971.

Clark, Leon. Through African Eyes. New York: Praeger, 1969-1972.

Cole, Ernest, House of Bondage. Nevi York: Random House, 1967.

Feldstein, Stanley, Once a Slave. New York: Morrow, 1971. Gay, John, Red Dust on the Green Leaves. Thompson, Connec- ticut: Intercultural Associates, 1973.

Genovese, Eugene D. Roll, Jordan Roll, The World The Slaves Made. New York: Pantheon, 1974.

Guggenheim, Hans. Dogon World: A Catalogue of Art and Myth for You to Complete. New York: Wunderman Foundation (New York: African-American Institute School Services Division (83) United Nations Plaza). ($2.00)

Journey Through Africa. Palo Alto, California: Kodansha (599 College Avenue), 1972.

Kenyatta, Jomo, Facing Mount Kenya, The Tribal Life of the Kikuyu. London: Seker and Warburg, 1959 (1938). Laye, Camara. The African Child: Memories of a West African Childhood. London: Collins, 1964 (1954).

Ojigho, A. Okion. Young and Black in Africa. New York: Random House, 1972.

O'Brien, Conor Cruise. Murderous Angels, A Play. London: Hutchinson, 1968.

Paton, Alan. Cry the Beloved Country. New York: 1948. Scribner's,

Radin, Paul, ed. AfricanFolktales. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press,1952.

Rich, Evie, and Wallerstein,I. Africa: Tradition and Change. A Survey-Inquiry Textbook. New York: Random House, 1973. Shreiner, Olive. Story of an African Farm. New York: Penguin, 1971 (n.d.).

Teaching About Africa South ofthe Sahara: A Guide for Ninth Grade Social Studies andResources Packet. Albany, New York: BuiaaTar Secondary CurriculumDevelopment, The State Education Department, 1970.

Turnbull, Colin. The Lonely African. New York: 1962. Doubleday,

. Tradition and Change in African TribalLife. New ).'ork: World, 1966.

. The Forest People. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1961.

. The Mountain People. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1972.

Tutuola, Amos. The Palm-Wine Drinkard. T,ondon: Faber & Faber, 1952. Articles

"Africa," A Special Issue of theUNICEF Magazine. New York: United States Committee forUNICEF (331 East 38th Street),Decem- ber 1971. (Gratis).

Africa Report, Magazine for theNew Africa, A Bi-Monthly Journal. New York: African-American Institute SchoolPrograms Division (833 United Nations Plaza). ($9.00 per year).

.1() Annotated List of Selected Syllabi: And Projects at the er;2-CollecIf Level in African Studies. New York: African Amer- ican Institute SchoolDivision Services (833 UnitedNations Plaza). ($1.25)

Background Notes on African Nations. Maps and text period- ically revised. Washington, D.C.: United States Department of State. ($10.00 each) .

Fersh, Seymour, "What We Ynow isOften Not So: Africa and Africans," in Learning aboutPeoples and Cultures. Evanston, Illinois: 'McDougal, Littel and Company, 19747

Fieldstaff Reportson Africa. Hanover, New Hampshire: American Universities FieldStaff (3 Street), 1951-- present. ($15.00 per year subscriptionrate for African Reports. $35.00 for all Reports,60).

Rich, Evie, et al., Teachingabout Africa: Effective Materials for Teachers. Periodically updated Mts. New York: African-American Institute SchoolServices Division (833 United Nations Plaza), 1974. (Send stamped, self-addressed legalsize envelope.)

Films

"The Adventures of Tarzan(1921-1928)." Silent Film. Davenport, Iowa: Blackhawk Films. (This and early films show stereotypes of Africa and Africans.)

"African Village Life," Twelve Sound Color Films, New York: International Film Foundation (475Fifth Avenue). (Twelve films by Julien Bryan.)

"Anansi, the Spider," ,color, 10 min., English. Land- mark Educational Media,Inc., 267 West 25th Street, New York,N. Y. 10001. An animated film with narration andmusical background. It is an adaptation of talesof the Ashanti folk hero, Anansi.

"Araba: The Village Story," Ghana, color,121/2 min., English. Mr. Sam Antar, ABC TV News,7 West 66th Street,New York, N.Y. 10009. The traditions ofa Ghanaian village asseen through the eyes of a little girl. Written by a well-knownGhanaian dramatist, the film is charminglystaged with originaluseof pantomime.

"Black Man's Land," Kenya, color,English. Part I: White Man's Country; Part II: Mau Mau; Part III: Kenyatta. Films Incorporated, 1144 WilmetteAvenue, Wilmette, Illinois 60091. Excellent films describing thedevelopment of modern Kenya.

"Come Back Africa," Black and white,English. Impact Films, 144 Bleeker Street, New York,N. Y. A Black South African's Laye, Camara. The African Child: Memories of a West African Childhood. London: Collins, 1964 (1954).

Ojigho, A. Okion. Young and Black in Africa. New York: Random House, 1972.

O'Brien, Conor Cruise. Murderous Angels, A Play. London: Hutchinson, 1968.

Paton, Alan. Cry the Beloved Country. New York: 1948. Scribner's,

Radin, Paul, ed. AfricanFolktales. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press,1952.

Rich, Evie, and Wallerstein,I. Africa: Tradition and Change. A Survey-Inquiry Textbook. New York: Random House, 1973. Shreiner, Olive. Story of an African Farm. New York: Penguin, 1971 (n.d.).

Teaching About Africa South of theSahara: A Guide for Ninth Grade Social Studies andResources Packet. Albany, New York: Bureau of Secondary CurriculumDevelopment, The State Education Department, 1970.

Turnbull, Colin. The Lonely African. New York: 1962. Doubleday,

. Tradition and Change in AfricanTribal Life. New York: World, 1966.

. The Forest People. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1961.

. The Mountain People. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1972.

Tutuola, Amos. The Palm-Wine Drinkard. London: Faber & Faber, 1952. Articles

"Africa," A Special Issue of theUNICEF Magazine. New York: United States Committee forUNICEF (331 East 38th Street), Decem- ber 1971. (Gratis).

Africa Report, Magazine for theNew Africa, A Bi-Monthly Journal. New York: African-American Institute SchoolPrograms Division (833 United Nations Plaza). ($9.00 per year).

3 Annotated List of Selected Syllabi: And Projects at the i=re-College Level in African Studies. New York: African Amer- Man Institute School DivisionServices (833 United Nations Plaza). ($1.25)

Background Notes on African Nations. Maps and text period- _ically revised. Washington, D.C.: United States Department of State. ($10.00 each).

Fersh, Seymour, "What We Know is OftenNot So: Africa and Africans," in Learning about Peoples andCultures. Evanston, Illinois: McDougal, Littel and Company, 1974.

Fieldstaff Reports on Africa. Hanover, New Hampshire: American Universities Field Staff (3Lebanon Street), 1951 -- present. ($15.00 per year subscription rate for AfricanReports. S35.-00 -for all Reports", 60)".

Rich, Evie, et al., Teaching about Africa: Effective Materials for Teachers. Periodically updated lists. New York: African-American Institute School Services Division(833 United Nations Plaza), 1974. (Send stamped, self-addressed legal size envelope.)

Films

"The Adventures of Tarzan (1921-1928)." Silent Film. Davenport, Iowa: Blackhawk Films. (This and early films show stereotypes of Africa and Africans.)

"African Village Life," Twelve Sound Color Films, New York:' International Film Foundation (475 Fifth Avenue). (Twelve films by Julien Bryan-)

"Anansi, the Spider," Ghana, color, 10 min., English. Land- mark Educational Media, Inc., 267 West 25th Street,New York, N. Y. 10001. An animated film with narration and musical background. It is an adaptation of tales of the Ashanti folkhero, Anansi.

"Araba: The Village .Story," Ghana, color, 121/2 min., English. Mr. Sam Antar, ABC TV News, 7 West 66th Street, New York,N.Y. 10009. The traditions of a Ghanaian village as seen through the eyes of a little girl. Written by a well-known Ghanaian dramatist, the film is charmingly staged with originaluse of pantomime.

"Black Man's Land," Kenya, color, English. Part I: White Man's Country; Part II: Mau Mau; Part III: Kenyatta. Films Incorporated, 1144 Wilmette Avenue, Wilmette, Illinois 60091. Excellent films describing the development of modernKenya. "Come Back Africa," Black and white, English. Impact Films, 144 Bleeker Street, New York, N. Y. A Black South African's

A experience as a mine worker andurban worker in white-ruled Johannesburg, .

"Kenya Boran," Parts I andII, "Boran Herdsmen," "Boran Women," and "Harambe." Five sound color films. Hanover,'New Hampshire: American Universities Field Staff (3Lebanon Street), 1974. (Five films on the Boran people ofnorthern Kenya. From a series of twenty-five cultural studies filmsby Norman Miller, et al. Four other film series deal with particularlocal cultures in Afghanistan, Taiwan, ChinaCoast, and Bolivia. All available through AUFS.)

La Noire de..." (Black Girl). , black and white, French soundtrack with Englishsubtitles. New York Review Presen- tations, 250 West 57th Street,New York, N. Y. 10019. A metaphor of European ;a beautiful Dakar girl is exploited and ultimately destroyed by herFrench employers.

"The Lion Hunters," ,color, 68 min., English. Contemp- orary Films, McGraw Hill, 300 West 42ndStreet, New York, N. Y. 10036. A masterful ethnographic documentationof an ill-fated lion hunt. Filmed on the Niger- border, itsrather poetic commen- tary is well translated.

"The Swamp Dwellers," , blackand white, 46 min., Eng- lish. Adapted from a play by Wale Soyinka; directedand acted by Nigerians. Image Resources, Inc., 267 West 25thStreet, New York, N. Y. 10001, and RTV International, 405Park Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10028. A son returns from the city to his parents and hisvillage to find the worst of both worlds.

": A Case Study in Development," Tanzania, color, 60 min., English. The United Nations, New York, N. Y. 10017. The film includes an interview with PresidentNyerere and discusses his ideas on development.

Film Catalogue on "Africa," African AmericanInstitute, School Services Division, 833 United NationsPlaza, New York, N. Y. 10017 ($1.00).

Teaching African Development with Film, byNorman Miller, Field- staff Reports, (NNM-1-'71), American UniversitiesField Staff, 3 Lebanon Street, Hanover, New Hampshire 03755.($1.00). Simulations

Afro-City Simulation. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Games Cen- tral (55 H Wheeler Street), 1974. ($75.00).

Slave Coast Simulation. Cambx:idge, Massachusetts: Games Cen- tral (55 H Wheeler Street), 1974., ($75.00). Media Africa in Perspective Transparencies. Eighteen trarsparency units. Rochelle Park, New Jersey: Hayden Book Company, 1974. African Transparencies for Overhead Projection. Monmouth, Oregon: General Media (660 East Powell). ($42.00). Black Studies Media Package. Chicago: Afro-Am (1727 South Indiana). ($11.60). Derryck, Vivian, et al. Yoruba Brown: Gods and Symbols and Yoruba Blue: Symbols on Cloth. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Educa- tional Development Center (15 Mifflin Place), 1972. ($3.00 set). "Folkways Recordings on Africa," A Series of Long-playing Records. New York: Folkways Recordings (701 Seventh Avenue). Gay, John, and Owen, Harrison. Changing Africa: A Village Study Unit. Thompson, Connecticut: Inter Culture Associates, 1973. ($500.00). Lelah, Joey. "Ecological Perspectives of Man, Wildlife, and Nature in --1974." A slide-tape set, Kings Park, New York: Joey Lelah--Environmental Associates. ($100.00). Schloat, Warren, et al. and Culture. Three color soundstrips. Africa: Musical Instruments, Textiles, Jewelry, and Architecture--Six color soundstrips, Tarrytown, NewYork: Schloat Productions, 1974. Secondary School Starter Kit on "Africa." New York: African- American Institute School Services Division (833 UnitedNations Plaza). ($15.00). Teaching About Africa South of the Sahara: A Guide for Ninth Grade Social Studies and Resource Packet. Albany, New York: Bureau of Secondary Curriculum Development, The StateEducation Department, 1970.

6 Edom Mwasang witch-finder, clean He would also like homestead in the S is a testament to hi wives, and numerc 4,41r.vs 4i , ,...-:,

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,elieved by many to be a Id medical practitioner. acclaimed a prophet. His n Highlands of Tanzania :ss. There live Edom, his vs, chickens, and ducks. DOM

--Edom with display of poison containers taken from alleged witches.

Their gardens provide well in this lush region of hills and valleys:-And Edom, often denounced by government officials, claims "inspiration from the Almighty." In his unique way, Edom is powerful. Norman N. Miller visited Edom at his home in April 1969. Mr. Miller, a Field Staff Associate, had

7' heard conflicting reports of Edom's work. Some Not everyone has a positive opinion ofEdom. called him courageous. Others thoughtEdom was insane to stand up "against known Government officials are the most disapproving witches." and witch-finding has been declared illegal.Ordi- nary citizens also may criticize. Many haveseen Edom moves with quick deliberatemotions. He Edom's accusations destroy the good reputation of talks rapidly. His appearance does not suggest the afellowcitizen.Sometimes Edom'sactivities charisma he apparently has. Ofaverage size, his deprive people of their right to trial. Thus only notable physical feature is Edom's his large no. e. work may seem "unjust." Still, ethicalconcerns put Edom's thin face lends his expressionan ascetic look. aside, there seem to be many whoapprove of his services. To greet visitors, Edomwears a "bush jacket," When working on a case, Edom's main problem knee socks, and shorts. His clothing is reminiscent is to detect the witches believed to be causingsome of the outfits worn by former Britishcolonial ad- calamity. Then he must provide proof of their ministrators and "safari" plot movie characters. witchcraft and extract confessionsifpossible. Edom moves about and even seats himselfwith an Finally, Edom tries to cleanse the witches and often air of authority. the entire village. Born nearby in 1920, Edomwas the son of a Edom also provides protective medicines. For farmer and herdsman. Atseven, young Edom was this effort Edom usually receivessome remunera- sent outside his home region to attend primary tion, although he claims he has often workedas a school in Iringa. There he lived witha relative. At form of public service. If payment is made, it is in thirteen he entered the Iringa TechnicalSchool. On the form of cash, cows, goats, or for major personal returning to Rungwe, he taughtcarpentry at casesindentured daughters. It is the latter which Mpuguso Boys' School. Dismissed for "incompe- has evoked the most persistent criticism. Edom has tence" inhis second year of teaching, Edom accepted these "teen-age daughters"as chattels to became a coffee farmer and part-timecarpenter. work on his homestead. Rumors that he mistreated At nineteen he married for the first time.This first the girls aroused public indignation. But Edom's wife had two sons, the elder of whomwas born career has been relatively free of trouble. This may lame. be attributed in part to the "awe-inspiring" char- acter of the ceremonies he performs. Edom divorced his first wife,then selected a second wifefrom among theyoung women Having been called to a village, Edom,accom- indentured to him as payment forhis services. panied by an assistant, extends formal greetingto the elders. Then he sets un camp outside the vil- Edom claims to have received his gift forwitch- lage. Often three or four village boys help him. finding and also his courage "fromheaven." Sim- They are chosen both for physical strength and ilarly, he believes his political activitiesare a result general rowdyism. Critics who have little faith in of divine guidance. Long active indistrict politics, Edom's claims of divine guidance report that the he had early membership inthe Tanganyika local boys usually serve as informers. To enhance Afri,anAssociationtT.A.N.U.). Edom wasa their sleuthing abilities, Edom gives them beer and founding member of the local coffeegrowers coop- hallucinatory drugs. erative and branch of T.A.N.U. The witch detection procedures may begin with Edom is one of only a few witch-findersamong peaceful home-to-home visits. Edom, sometimes the Nyakyusa, who live in southwesternTanzania. with local elders as well as his- assistant. systemati- But his services are in considerable demand.When cally inspects each villager. Other times, Edom someone in a village is suspected of practicing sends youthful "assistants" running through the witchcraft, Edom is invited to detectthe witch. The village to drag in suspects and bring back evil searchis considered "courageous" becausehe medicines. invites witches' wrath, laughs at their threats,and often ties them up with twine and leadsthem away Confronting a suspect, Edom typically positions to "justice." himself in front of theman or woman. Then he

8 1f rests his right fis listen to the bod another technique suspected witch's may observe the si above his own sho Edom sometimes the suspect. ne is enough to icions are strong, witch-finder, to

;estoproduce ions. Medicines, are all potential

9 signs of guilt. And because the objects are,,ten TANZANIA relatively common ones, it is easy to associate the The Southern Highlands subject with the "poisons." It is considered best if the objects have been buried or hidden in the thatching of a hut. Then, Edom says, it appears to be "convincingly dirty and evil."

It is believed that one can be a witch without being aware of it. As a "touch doctor" Edom helps such people by providing "counsel, inspiration, and medicine." Sometimes it is believed thata whole village is afflicted. Its cleansing and purification require "sprinkling" each homestead with special "medicine."

Edom's most dramatic accomplishment, he told Mr. Miller, was his denunciation and capture of eight local witches. They had bragged openly of killing many people. Brought to trial, eachwas banished from Rungwe District,where Edom worked. Banished "witches" may be sent north to the area around Chunya.

Edom insists he is a "pagan." Observing his activities, it is clear, however, that he has also been influenced by the Lutheran inhis area. As for Edom's world view, he is "unconcerned District Borders Main Roads about events outside the district." Aside from one International Borders trip to Dar es Salaam, Tanganyika's capital city, Rural Councils and the schooling at Iringa, Edom has not traveled outside his home region.

io PAGES 11-14 REMOVED DUE TO COPYRIGHT RESTRICTIONS PRIOR TO ITS BEING SHIPPED TO EDRS ANVT President Felix Houphouet-Boigny of the Ivory Coast. 1961.

FREEDOM ACHIEVED The achievementof ;ndependence was an historic milestone for most African states. For most it marked the peak of the anticolonial struggle and the beginning of nationhood. The rhetoric of inde- pendence had beenbrilliantlyarticulatedby Africannationalists.Amongthem,Kwame Nkrumah and . Nyerere, Kenneth Kaunda and , Sekou Toure andFelix Houphouet-Boigny inspired a generation of Afri- cans and other colonized peoples. They encouraged high aspirations for rapid economic development and material prosperity. wame Nkrumah, President of Ghana (left) Sekou Toure, President of at ristianborg Castle, Accra. Ghana. 1958.

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- esident Jomo Kenyatta and of .nya lead the motorcade for Independence iv celebrations. '1

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The Old: A Kikuyu woman votes for the first time. The New: African leader Tom Mboya at the ballot box.

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4 5.

Julius K. Nyerere, President of Tanganyika (now. Tanzania) on Independence Day in 1961. (His mother is at lower right). Alhaji Sir Ahmadu Bello, K.B.E., Sardauna of Sokoto and Premier of the Northern Region. b. 1909, Rabbah, Sokoto Province, Northern Nigeria. Fulani. Great- grandson of Othman Dan Fodio, founder of the Sokoto Empire. Entered politics in 1949.

Alhaji Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, K.B.E., M.H.R., Prime Minister of the Federation of Nigeria.- b. 1912, Bauchi Province, Northern Nigeria. Fulani. Teacher, principal, and education officer. Entered Federal politics in 1954.

Chief Obafemi Awolowo, M.H.R., Federal Leader of the Opposition, and Leader of the Action Group. b. 1909, Ikenne, Ijebu Remo, Western Nigeria. Yoruba. Admitted to English . Bar, 1946. Leader of Government and Premier, Western .., , . \ I --i. Region, 1952-60. i 4,

,' I /7-1------."-,.1-....- The Rt. Hon. Nnamdi Azikiwe, P.C., Governor-General and __...--. Commander in Chief of the Federation of Nigeria. b. 1904, '1":--'--- .---1 Zungeru, Northern Nigeria. Ibo. Higher education in the United States. Journalist and organizer African Continental ,...'d Bank. By the 1970s only Azikiwe remained active among the Nigerian leaders. Like Tom Mboya, the Kenyan leader who was killed byan assassin's 3ullet, the Nigerians were victims of civil discord. Kwame Nkrumah was overthrownas President of 3hana and died inexile.Houphouet-Boigny, iekou Tour& Jomo Kenyatta, Julius Nyerere, and kfrican aspirations for a better life survive.

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Africans waited expectantly. In great cities like Abidjan, Ivory Coast (below), and in small towns in Guinea (above), FREEDOM SOUGHT individually and collectively, Africans wanted freedom. Many problems facing Africa at independence were not realized. Some new leaders and international well-wishers seemed blinded by belief inthe sovereignty of freedom. Slowly, often after disillu- sionment, Africans realized that independence did . ..VA: " k .t not guarantee future well-being. Governments had .. so...70.--1... fq.ttr .i.titr-f: to face the harsh economic and social realities that remained dependent on their former colonial rulers. The economies remained interlinked. In- ternal disharmony threatened many countries with civil war. Different nationalistic perspectives com- peted. Agricultural production did not keep pace withpopulationgrowth.To overcomethese \ liabilitiesthere was wide agreement onthe necessity to industrialize. Some Africans pursued 4'1's ideals for social organization which were without %, I precedent. All sought the political, economic, and socialstability which can make genuine inde- pendence possible. 4o; ,

18 PHOTOGRAPH FOR ANALYSIS

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Who? What? When? Where? Why? 1. Where was the picture taken? 3. What clues does the picture contain concerning: 2. How would you describe: (a) the power and status of the people (b) general level of technology (a) the people (b) the terrain, topography 4. What type event appears to be taking place? (c) the climate, weather (d) the vegetation (e) the architecture

Data: Photograph courtesy of the Information Service of the Ivory Coast. Picture was made in Feb- ruary 1965 at Nouakchott, capital of . According to Field Staff Associate Victor Du Bois. "the Nouakchott Conference" was the scene of a significant new development in French-speaking Africa's search for unity when representatives from 13 countries met there February 10-12, 1965 fora major policy conference. (Victor D. Du Bois,The Search for Unity in French-Speaking Black Africa, Part 1: The Founding of the Organisation Commune Africaine et Malgache (O.C.A.M.),[VDB3-'65]. Fieldstaff Reports. West Africa Series, Vol. VIII, No. 3. 1965.)

19 I AM A WITCHDOCTOR

In Yoruba village in Western Nigeria, a boy had dici. Since I looked more like him thandid anyone else, it was expected that I wouldwear his clothes on his birthday. As is our custom, his would greet me as their returning parents son. I got to eat all his favorite foods, and for thatday, the village people treated me as if Iwere the other boy.

We all knew of course that thiswas just a ceremony. Ordinarily customs and holidays like fun. this were

But when I returned to the school the next day and entered thechurch, there great noise. Soon I had been chased outside.The missionary was beatingme with a broom. He said, "Get out of the House of the Lord. This isnot your church anymore. You stay." are a pagan. Go back to your village and

I was stunned. Itwas a great disappointment. I still do not Nobody was hurtexcept understand why what 1 did waswrong. me. Why? I have not understood this for all,these years. The dream of learning to read andwrite and going to England andbecoming a doctorall these hopes were dissolved. So I returnedto this village. The old witchdoctorliked me and taught me his skills. Look, here aremy medicines. See, I have penicillin and sulfa. them. 1 haVe the traditional medicines And these books tell me how touse too. I have herbs that work in the bodyand stories to ease the mind. My life is dedicated to thesepeople. I help them all Ican.

QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER

1. What events changed theyoung African's life?

2. Why might the missionaryhave behaved as he did? Wouldyou have behaved differently? 3. How would you describe the position of the witchdoctor in thisAfrican village society? 4. As the boy expelled frommissionary school, what wouldyou have done? 5. M the boy's parents, whatwould you have done when hereturned home? 6. What are the differences between "traditional" and "modern"medicines?

7. How might the "penicillin"and "sulfa" be obtained by thewitchdoctor? a. From classmates who became doctors? b. From visiting Europeanand American doctors? c. From the market? d. From another source? 8.In your own culture, can similar events occur? If so, whatare they and how? 9.li you were the person interviewing the Yoruba witchdoctor,what would you say to him? 10.Is there anything in his lifethat is related toyour own? If sowhat?

20 PAGES 21-26 REMOVED DUE TO COPYRIGHT RESTRICTIONS PRIOR TO ITS BEING SHIPPED TO EDRS DEATH IN BURUNDI Did you hear? Hear what? About Burundi. No. What happened there? At least 100,000 were killed. Oh?

Officially only 50,000.

My, my. Maybe up to 200,000.

Well.

June 1972, Lake Tanganyika.

27 - MAY 2, 1972 - RWANDA AND BURUNDI RADIO BURUNDI , To all the people of the republic whose vigilance and determination have won a victory over its enemies,theimperi- alists, and their agents... Hunt down the "traitors to the republic wherever RWANDA they may be found."

..t..V! VOICE OF THE REVOLUTION TANZANIA Responsibilityforthe incidents is with the "re- actionary forces of im- B U R U N D.I perialism...." REPUBLIC OF - SEPTEMBER 1972 - ZAIRE ...0 Nestled among green hills on the northeast shore of Lake Tanganyika, Bujumbura appears to be a RWANDA and BURUNDI garden. The bright colors and fragrant aromas of frangipani tree blossoms and bougainvillea soothe the visitor. Attractive buildings rise above tree lined streets.

Europeansmostly Belgianslive in the sub- I.r.. urban hills. Their large homes remind one of the 1 . colonial era. Burundi began the colonial period as a German territory, between 1885 and 1916. With in prOgress, the Belgians took over the barbarously massacred. Government and government. They administered the joint territory nongovernment sources differ in their esti- of Rwanda-Burundiuntil1962.Sincethen, mates. But both range between 100,000 and Burundi has had an independent government, 200,000 people killed. centered in Bujumbura, the capital. Fieldstaff Associate Victof Du Boisvisited WHY DID IT HAPPEN AND HOW? Bujumbura in September of 1972. He wrote: Three ethnic groups share the language of The first impression made on the traveler Kirundi and the land areas of Burundi. The pygmy is one of undisturbed peace. Twa are the earliest known inhabitants of the land but they make, up less than one per cent of the This impressionisdeceptive.Forin population. The settled next. These short, reality this is a city gripped by fear, stalked sturdy farming people comprise 85 per cent of the by death, and giving proof of man's in- Burundian population. The tall, pastoral humanity to man on a scale difficult to settled most recentlyperhaps 300 years ago. They grasp. comprise 14 per cent of the population. Approxi- Tens of thousands of Burundiansmen, mately the same proportions of Hutu and Tutsi women, children, old peoplehave been occur in Rwanda.

Z.9 28 Europeans came to to "admin- Ten years later, Burundi has not yet recovered from ister" and "civilize" it. The pattern of colonial the inter-ethnic strife and political instability which control in both territories favored the . followed that act of political terrorism. Tutsi warriors over a period of years defeated the Tutsis won control of the political party, Union Hutu kings. The Hutu became a virtual servant du Progres Nationale. Hutu leaders went into exile. class to the more militaristic Tutsi. The relation- In 1965 Tutsileaders named aHutu, Pierre ship has often been compared to those of royal and Ngendendumwe, as Prime Minister. A week before serf classes in Medieval Europe. Tutsi cattlecame being officially appointed he was assassinated. to be accepted by all the Africans in Burundi as the most important symbol of wealth and status. The struggle expanded into the military where both Hutu and Tutsi had formerly servedas The master/servant relationship between the officers and troops. Hutu officers feared a Tutsi Hutu and Tutsi was formalized. Hutu agreed to attack, so they attacked first. The king's palace was serve and ,,ve labor to Tutsi overlords in return for raidedonOctober18,1965.Northeastof protection in times of danger. The arrangement Bujumbura, Tutsi families were attacked near was not entirely one-sided. Hutu subjects preserved Muramvya. The campaign failed. Most of the Hutu the opportunity to gain status over time by acquir- officers were executed. Other prominent Hutu in ing cattle. Burundi were arrested as alleged supporters of a Hutu in Rwanda rebelled against their subservi- Hutu takeover. A total of 120 Hutu were executed. ent role in 1959. The shock waves shook neighbor- Thousands more were imprisoned. ing Burundi. Inthe course of the successful King Mwambutsa IV clearly had lost control. He struggle to depose the ruling Tutsi in Rwanda, fled to Switzerland. Eventually he abdicated in about 10,000 Tutsi were killed. Almost all the other favor of Charles Ndizeye, his eldest son. Prince Tutsi in Rwanda fled south into Burundi. Perhaps Ndizeye took a new title, King Ntare V of Burundi. 60-80,000 Tutsi escaped the new Hutu-dominated Following this pronouncement September 1, 1966. government in Rwanda and enlarged the minority he selected and promoted another Tutsi, Captain Tutsi population in Burundi. Embittered, these Michel Micombero, to head the army's 3,000 exiles dreamed of revenge. The Hutubecame the troops. enemy. Both Rwanda and Burundi became independent of Belgium in 1962. Tension between Tutsi and Hutu continued to simmer. The effect of colonial rule in fact Fad increased the competition between From lefttoright:President Gregoire Kayibanda of the two ethnic groups. For seventy-five years the Rwanda, President Sese Seko of Mobutu of Zaire, and Presi- Hutu minority had been treated less favorably by dent Michel Micombero of Burundi. colonial administrations than the more respected Tutsi rulers. Hutu were seldom given equal educa- tional opportunities. When a job was open which would have given Africans experience in leader- ship. the Hutu tended to be overlooked. Hutu social mobility in independent Burundi seemed to be even less than before the Europeans had come. The big question atthetime of Burundi's independence was "Would Tutsi domination con- tinue?" In particular, would the Tutsi monarch survive? The ruling family Mwambutsa IV, took steps to reduce the growing tension. Tutsi Prince Rwagasore took a Hutu bride. He also founded a new political party which, he hoped, would appeal equally to both groups. Then, on the eve of independence. Rwagasore was assassinated.

29 Ntare never ruled. Micombero exercised the real organizedandpreparedoveralong power. When King Ntare left Burundi on an period.... [Tutsil one of the ethnic groups official trip Micombero and other officers seized were[sicjsystematically massacred and power in name as well as in fact. The monarchy was often only after the most horrible, unimag- abolished November 28, 1966. Micombero was pro- inable tortures. This genocide, which was in- claimed president of the new Republic of Burundi. tended to end with the overturning of estab- Ntare went into exile in Belgium. lished institutions, had been planned by In 1972 Ntare wanted to return. He waited in Burundian citizens and in carrying it out it Uganda. President Micombero wrote assuring the was they who distinguished themselves the ex-King he could return and live in peace. But he most,theforeignelement contributing must refrain from any political activity. When his moral,financial,andmaterialsupport helicopter landed at Bujumbura, theyoung king which those outlaws had received from and his cousin were arrested. The official explana- certain powers. tion was that Ntare had been in contact withmer- In the new order which they counted on cenaries in Belgium and elsewhere. The implication setting up, the racial element is again shown was that he was seeking to regain the Burundian up by the setting up of one throne. [Hutu] as the foundation of the new state. In short, during the last few days the Republic A month later the President's Cabinet debated of Burundi had to face the bloodiest ethnic Ntare's fate. His death was urged only by the Tutsi reaction whose aim was to upset the estab- members of the Cabinet. That night, President lished order and to use genocide as its prin- Micombero dismissed the entire Cabinet. cipal weapon. The next day, April 29, 1972, between 7:00 and The radio report alleged that 10,000 Hutu and 8:30 P.M. according to government reports, there others had killed 50,000 Tutsi. The government were five attacks: launched a counterattack on April 30,1972. Victory was claimed almost simultaneously on all Burundi was invaded by armed bands fronts. coming mainly from the neighboring Re- public of Tanzania. Theywere composed for In Bujumbura and privately some say that not t!-!c must part of Burundians andsome more than 1,200 to 2,000 Tutsi had been killed. Zairian rebels who ravaged theeastern Could there have been large camps housing 8,000 section of the country under the leadership or more Burundian rebels in Tanzania and Zaire? of Pierre Mulele, whence theirname of "Doubtful," some say. "Easily," reply others. Mulelists.Theirattacksweredirected How could such forces enter Burundi unde- chiefly against the militarycamps.... Fur- tected? LakeTanganyikais patrolled by thermore, their flag had flown for at least Burundian gun boats. Without planes, parachutes two days over several centers.... or vehicles, how could 8,000 move across Burundi and attack five points? Another column, the Radio reported, penetrated the eastern region. Might someone have lied? ....Having been repulsed by our security Who? forces, these criminals fanned out among thepopulation,killingand massacring Why? thousands of victims, making no distinction between men, women, children, and old What really happened in Burundi? people. But it was soonverified that this bloodthirsty madness was no blind stroke What is happening there now? but rath...r had been directed against one of the three ethnic groups that compose the nat has been done? Burundian nation.All of a sudden the countrywasexposedtoagenocide How has thg world reacted? J

30 TO BURUNDI FROM A FRIEND

The Presidency President Michel Micombero The Republic of Rwanda The Republic of Burundi Kigali, Rwanda Bujumbura, Burundi June 16, 1972

Mr. President and Dear Friend: For the last several weeks our attention has been drawn to the difficulties which our sister Republic of Burundi is undergoing. The few reports that have come to usif they be trueare such as to render every human heart uneasy. The situation strikes us as serious and we understand it all the better since it is a question of a neighboring and sister Republic, with a social, economic and ethnic structure very much like our own of a few years ago. Dear Friend: We have learned that, in addition to the difficulties caused by politicians, you have had to deal with the murder of simple folk, with the murder of school children, with the burning of foreign automobiles. All of that is counterproductive, above all ifaccording to the declarations of collaborators who are more malicious than human, more conspirators than African nationalistsour neighboring and sister Republic of Burundi were to pursue the path of butchery. And butcherywhat purpose does that serve? The feudalists who, in our country, resolved to organize a massive and carefully organized slaughterwhat good did that do them? As you well know, the Rwandan revolution did not go so far as to massacre school children, no matter what ethnic group they belonged to. And the people so organized themselves that the adults whom the feudalists intended to liquidate were not all killed. A poor man who carries on his head a basket of manioc grown in his field, to feed his children, why should he deliberately be crushed by a Caterpillar [tractor]? But let us leave aside all those considerationsderived nevertheless from reliable sourcesand let us exam- ine what must be done to halt a game as cynical as it is outmoded: (a) Halt the killing: that does Africa no good or, particularly, Burundian development. We realize that that is very difficult, once the murderers have taken to the road. (b) Keep your colleagues informed, so that eventually they may give you counsel and advice. (c) Do not confuse foreigners with your own peoplethey may be of many different origins. (d) Let no one disturb people who are not armed, save the courts; and they only in good and due form. (c) You personally transcend the game of clansmen and regionalists, which game the foreigners love to play to fabricate a neocolonialism which will never be a success. (f) Do not reinforce opposition that is foreign-based: that kind of opposition is at work in all the independent countries of the Third World. As you know, we have always condemned that type of opposition. (g) Give more thought to simple folk, to people who have no defense, either economic or political. Think of the mass of the people and reorient all of Burundi's activity toward the economic, social and political develop- ment of the people. (1) We do not wish to involve ourselves in the internal affairs of your country: this is the code of the UNand of the OAU which the Rwandan Republic respects. (2) As a neighboring count,-J, we give you our counsel, sound advice drawn from experiencewhich you arc acquainted with: As a brother and a neighbor, we have thought it necessary to give you this modest advice without involving ourselves in the internal affairs of Burundi whose direction Providence has entrusted to you. We wish that the present crisis may be brought to an end; with you do we weep for the dead; it is urgent that the living who desire peace may find it. As for the fugitives. use clein:ncy in such fashion that "those who wish to return in peace to their native soil" may not be disturbed. These are the wishes which we express to Your Excellency and to your people. assuring you of our prothund fraternal esteem. The President of the Republic

(sgd) Gr. Kayibanda 31 QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER

1. In the role of Burundian President Micombero what wouldyour reaction to the letter have been? 2. What do the following news reports indicate were the actualreactions of Micombero and others?

- Friday, June 30, 1972 - A group of 11 Burundians were students at the National University ofRwanda in Butare. Five military men and fourwere civilians. Nine of the students were 1972. the Burundians visited were Tutsi and two were Hutu. On Friday,June 30, Kigali. While thegroup was visiting a bar one of the locals calledone of the Tutsi an "assassin." The Tutsistudents became alarmed. sador in Kigali, the Rwandan Immediately they got in touch with theirambas- capital. They said their liveswere in danger and asked to be repatriatedat once. On July 1 the Rwandangovernment provided a vehicle to Burundi) in thecompany of a Burundian diplomat. transport the Tutsi students to N'gozi(in remain in Rwanda. They Significantly, the two Burundian Hutustudents chose to were convinced that to return to theircountry would mean certain death. - May 27,1972 - The United Nations' role was limited by two factors: (1) Burundi insistedthat what was taking place purely internal affair; and(2) The UN membership was a was unwilling to engage that organization inyet another African venture which couldprove as costly and difficult as its intervention secession of Katanga. in the in 1960-61 to endthe On May 27. 1972, ina meeting with Burundi's Ambassador to the United Nations, Mr. TerenceNsanze, Mr. Waldheim offered hisassistance. He proposeda UN aid program. Given that daily continuing massacre of the press reports related a Hutu, Mr. Waldheim felt impelledon May 31 once again to state publicly his offer to the Burundiangovernment.

In Burundi a number ofdevelopments contributed greatly requisitioned a number of UNICEF to the UN's distress. The Burundian policehad trucks in Bujumbura to gatherup people who were later executed. The same trucks were used to transporttheir bodies to burial sites where Military authorities also seized they were dumped intomass graves. a UN fishery vessel. It had been carryingon research in Lake Tanganyika. They armed it with machineguns, and used it to patrol the lake the water into Zaire. so that Hutu refugees could notescape across On June 22 a UN mission arrived in Bujumbura. Itwas headed by Mr. Issoufou Djermakoye of Niger,an Adjutant Secretary of the UnitedNations; Mr. Macaire Pedanou of , United Nations' High Commission the Regional Representative of the for Refugees; and Mr. S.J.Homannherimberg, an Austrian diplomat. On their arrival in Bujumburathe three envoyswere received by President Micombero. In the President lauded the an address of welcome magnanimity of the UN'sSecretary-General, "who did not listento those who mis- represented the events that hadoccurred in the Republic." President makoye an honorific distinction Micombero then awarded Mr. Djer- of high rank. During theone week that the UN mission spent in Burundi it conferred with governmentauthorities. Whether its members with members of the Hutu made any effort to discuss the situationalso community, the principal victims,is not known; if such contacts public mentionwas ever made of them. were made, no On July 4 Secretary-GeneralWaldheim called a press conference in Geneva. He said that thehumanitarian mission sent to Burundi hadconfirmed the enormous suffering victims. Although precise there. The strife had claimeda great many figures could not yet be obtained,he said that different ber of dead between 80,000and 200,000. These sources estimated the num- there was a stunned silence. were the highest figures yet cited byanyone. In Bujumbura

- June 2, 1972 - The Belgian Foreign Minister. Pierre Harmel, in Julyinvited his Burundiancounterpart to Brussels. The Burundian delegationwas headed by the Foreign Minister, Rector of the University. of Artemon Simbanaiye and included theJesuit Bujumbura, Father GabrielBarakana. They arrived in Brusselson July 24 and began a series of discussionswith Mr. Harmel, Mr. Pierre and other Belgian officials. At van Haute (the Belgian Ambassador to Burundi). the conclusion of thesediscussions, no final communiquewas issued by either delegation. The Belgian ForeignMinister simply described the m ore. talks as "productive"; he wouldsay nothing (1 32 u REFLECTIONS OF AFRICA: TARZAN

That night a little son was born in the tiny cabin beside the pri- meval forest, while a leopard screamed bejore the door, and the deep notes of a lion's roar sounded from beyond the ridge.

The year was 1913 and the boy was Tarzan. Along with books like King Solomon's Mines and movies such as "The African Queen," Tarzan books and movies have contributed enormouslyto the popular image of Africa. It is difficult tomeas- ure the influence of any single source but of the three, Tarzan probably did 'Most to stir public imagination. Consider a few facts about Tarzan. 1. Tarzan is the principal character in 26 novels, all of them widely available.

2. Tarzan has been translated into 31 languages. 3. Tarzan novels have soldover 50 million copies. 4. The first Tarzan film was made in 1914. There have since been 14 legitimate film Tar- zans in about 40 movies grossing more than $500 million. Certainly Tarzan, a character of fiction,cannot be blamed for initiating misconceptions about 5. Tarzan comics began to appear in 1929. By Africa andAfricans. Tarzanor the Tarzan 1942, Tarzan was appearing daily in 141 mythis a symptom. It expresses existing miscon- newspapers in the United_States_alone_On_ceptionsItis-also-a-means-of-transmittingand Sundays Tarzan leapt forth in full color from maintaining social values and stereotypes. But Tar- the pages of 156 Comic sections. zan is not the cause. 6. Tarzan has lent his name to citiesTarzan, Edgar Rice Burroughs was the creator of the Texas, Tarzana, Californiato sweatshirts, " Man." Burroughs never set foot in Africa. bubblegum, and bows and arrows. He ap- For him, Africa was a continent of the mind pears in uncountable imitationsBomba, the imaginary. When he began writing, his only valid Jungle Boy; Tam, Son of the Tiger; George of information about Africahad beenobtained the Jungle;Walt Disney's, The World's during his childhood. He had sketchy memories of Greatest Athlete, and, of course, as the most books in which he had read about animals and liberated woman of all, Sheena, the Jungle Victorian adventurers who travelled in India, Asia, Queen. and Africa. The haziness of his memory is easily demonstrated. Sabor, the tiger, was one of Tarzan's 7. Finally, in 1932, there was a concerted, half- companions in the early novels. Thereare no tigers serious attempt in some newspapers to nomi- in Africa. When someone finally pointed this fact nate Tarzan for president. out to Burroughs, Sabor became a lioness.

33 Tarzan books and films didand tosome extent remained, forbidding inquiry. It was reinforced by still docontinue toillustrate popularbeliefs theextraordinarilyhighdeathrateamong about Africa. According to this image, Africa isall Europeans who went to Africa.* "jungle." It is hot, humid, pestilential. It is full of became famous as "The White Man's Grave." insects, reptiles, and carnivorous animals. It is in- Such a negative image of Africa was furthercom- habited by primitive, backward peoples oftwo plicated by two more factors. Onewas the growth types. The first and most feared are the big, tail and acceptance of "pseudo-scientific racism." The men with spears. The second are pygmiessmall, other was the social implications of slavery in the tiny men with poisoned blow darts. Everyone is New World. half-nude or in funny, flowing robes. When they are not busy killing someone, they are inevitably Pseudo-scientific Racism employed on safaris. They carry heavy loadson their heads for the white hunters and explorers Between the 1840s and the 1940s, this type of whom they always call "Bwana." racism dominated European and North American thought about Africans. One product of the Indus- The Tarzan image is evenmore subtly racist. The trial Revolution had been a blind faith in "sci- lives of black Africans arenever worth as much as ence"that body of knowledge which was sup- those of Europeans. Africansare presented as posed to be rationally derived front empirical ob- being expendable. (In one tense moviescene, two servation. It invoked science to bolster the belief white hunters edge carefully alonga narrow ledge. that race determined ability and intelligence. Dr. Behind them are the African porters,each with a Robert Knox, a doctor in Edinburgh, Scotland, was pack atop his head. Below them is the bottomless the most influential spokesman. In a book entitled pit of the unknown. An African carrierslips, The RacesofMan hedeclared,"Raceis plunging with a scream towardan unseen death. everything; literature, science, artin a word, civi- One white man turns to the other andsays, "What lization depends on it." According to Knox, the was in that pack, Parker?"). dark-skinned peoples of the world were the first to evolve. But they soon reached their maximum de- Europeans appear only as masters. Africansare velopment, and then stagnated.Light-skinned either wild men in the jungleor servants of the people evolved later and developed "civilization." whites. To his credit, Burroughs doespresent both Although Knox thought that dark-skinned peoples good and evil in white and black. But thescale is would eventually become extinct, he felt that they definitely tipped in favor of whites. Europeansare remained a threat to "civilization" until that time. the "civilizers," Africans the "children" to be civi- lized. Africans are primitive,savage, and black, Darwin'stheoriesreinforcedandextended Only Tarzan is a noble savage, and he is white, the Knox's racist error. Darwinism appeared to give son of Lord Greystoke. Knox even more scientific support: superior races were marked by their superiority. To most people, Background to the Tarzan Myth thissuperioritymeanttechnicalachievement. Steam engines and steel mills were contrasted to Black Africans, in the not too distant past,were Africa's subsistence agriculture. The difference was believed to be a people hardly human. TheAfrican offered as proof of Africa's inferiority. continent was to a great extenta mystery. It was separated from Europe and the Americasby Slavery treacherous seas of desert andocean. Even those travelers who came to Africa's shoresseldom saw For several centuries, most white contact with more than the coast. Africa's isolation brought black Africans was through slavery. North and forth legends about ape-likemen, bearded mon- South Americans and Europeans bought, sold, and sters, and, in the words of one ancientaccount, of owned slaves. They came to associate African "men whoseheadsdo growbeneaththeir shoulders." *Before the discovery of quinine as a treatment for NewtechnologygraduallyerodedAfrica's malaria, many Europeans in Africa died either isolation. But the image utI,e "Dark Continent" from Malaria or its complications.

34 physical characteristicsskin color,hair texture with the African way of life in Africaand the status of slavery in the Americas. Thecondition of slavery was an inferior one. It followed that those whowere enslaved were also inferior. Slaves,however, were also black. The inferior status ofslaverya social judgmentwas extendedto includeallblack people, whether free or enslaved.Blinded as they were by belief in technology asa measure of superiority, Americans and Europeansfrequently judged that Africans had "noingenious manu- factures among them,no arts, no sciences." Changing Attitudes

Since the early 1940s,many, of these old beliefs have begun to die. Africansand people of African descent have made forcefulassertions of their cul- tural equality. At thesame time, Americans and Europeans no longersee one's level of technology as the sole measure of civilization. Infact many question the materialism ofour civilization. The relative value of the spirit andmind is being recon- sidered. There isnew interest in African and Eastern religions, in art, andin the role of the senses.

New discoveries in medicine,for example, have also placed some historicalevents in proper per- spective. One of thereasons that blacks had been 4 Ir." 74 favored as slaveswas their apparent ability tosur- vive in the tropical New World.Europeans died of feversnative Americans died ofEuropean dis- eases.Scientists only recentlyunderstoodthe mechanisms of differential mortality. ._"44-131).* Africans hadacquiredresistancetoboth -4.-...4m.m4=4.4111+41. endemic African diseases andthose of Europe. The on= indigenous peoples of the New Worldhad no re- sistance to either. Europeans diedof African dis- eases in adulthood because thatwas usually when they had first contact. Africans,with some excep- tions, succumbed to thesame diseases in similar numbers but in infancy. Africans oftenhad another survival advantage, the sickle-celltrait. Sickle-cell n. trait tends to develop in .? areas where malaria is endemic. It has the effect ofprotecting against the disease but it may alsocause sickle-cell anemia. In Africa, most victims of sickle-cellanemia also die during childhood. Thusa whole set of beliefs about Africans which underlay the rationalefor enslaving them was based on scientific,not to mention moral,

; 35 error. But to the people in the seventeenth, eight- He shares the stage with Mickey Mouse, Franken- eenth, and nineteenth centuries, it appeared to be stein and his Monster, Superman, and James Bond. true. Today we have the tools, and the will, to show He has appealed to every stratum of society. From them false. illiterate to literate, from low to high income, Tar- zan has fired imaginations. It is even rumored that Examples illustrating the destruction of old Emperor Haile Selassie of has his own myths could be multiplied one hundredfold. Tar- collection of Tarzan films. Whether high bornor zan will, in one guise or another, no doubt continue low, audiences in the future will begin to relegate to swing from bookshelf to newstand and from Tarzan to his proper placenot in Africa but in movie screen to television set. He is the superhero. the continent of the mind.

4944141a4PhiO's~

QUESTIONS FOR CONSIDERATION 1. How and why do stereotypes arise? 2. Do stereotypes conform with reality? 3. Are stereotypes always bad? 4. How can one evaluate popular stereotypes about Africa or elsewhere without personal observa- I II koliti OUS 43 41 14 41 w lS1444C tion?

5. What has been the strongest influence on your image of Africa?

Abidjan, Ivory Coast.

1

36 Street sceneFreetown, Sierra Leone. `.) ANA ABDELKRIM: NORTH AFRICANDESERT BOY A Story of the Moroccan Sahara by Stuart H. Schaar

There was no route to follow, -justa trail which "I was six." disappeared every few yards onlyto reappear in unlikely spots. First the dunesrose, then the terrain "But how did you come?" became pebbly, then as hardas concrete. Rocks emerged, endless rocks of all sizes andshapes. Sud- "They killed mama, papa.." denly I spotted a child sittingon one of them. He waved. I stopped. Smilingas he approached, he "Where?" introduced himself: "Ana Abdelkrim, M'sieu.Ana Abdelkrim." "Colomb-Bechar.... I came ona camel." He was small, possibly eleven. Hishair was "But how?" dusty and uncombed, but it matteredlittle. This solitary boy was a striking figure. Thetwo sweaters "A man let me sit on top." he wore covered a worn shirt, frayedand blackened at the collar. Two pairs of baggy trousers girdedhis "Andhat do you do, oh Abdelkrim?" waist. The outer pair attached tosuspenders, kept the inner ones aloft, His dark bluesuit jacketa "I sit... I wait .I wander." luxury in the Saharan summerwas threesizes too big for him, as were his mauve-coloredshoes. "Where do you sleep?" "Anywhere." "I'm going south. Willyou take me with you?" he asked. His smile widened. Hiseyes were bright "What do you eat?" and they seemed to grow biggeras he stuck his head through the open car door. His sharpfeatures, "Anything." turned bronze by the sun,were perfectly set in his face. His thick eyebrows, which perchedhigh above "Do you work?" the crown of his nose, drewout the mischief in his eyes. His lips were just right too, openingonto a "Sometimes the shepherds letme guard sheep." glittering set of teeth. I laughed andnodded agree- "Where are you heading ment. In he climbed, makingsure to remove his now?" shoes before he closed the door. "M'fiss." I began talking to him in Arabic.Although his "What do you do there?" native tongue was Berber, he had pickedup enough Arabic in his travels to get by, anda smattering of French words as well. "They give me a shovel, I find gold." "What do you do with it?" "Where are you from, ohAbdelkrim?" "Algeria." "A man gives me bread." "How did you get here?" "Have you any friends, Abdelkrim?" "Across the dunes." "M'sieu, ya m'sieu,ana miskeen. Andi walo." "When?" The Arabic was meaningful. Ordinarilythe word miskeen means "poor," "miserable,""humble,"

37 "submissive," "servile," "a beggar"andsome- Now and then a truck driver would carry him to times all of these at once. But the undertone of pain M'tiss where he would work in the abandoned gold in Abdelkrim's voice signified muchmore, some- mines, picking nuggets out of the rock in return for thing like "mister, hey mister, I'm the dogyou some shurba, the thick soup he loved so much, and kick, the scum you abhor, the bitch that wallows in soft white khubs, the kind of bread that only city her stinking milk." After that andi walo, "I have people ate. But his body always ached when he nothing and no one," followed naturally. Abdel- worked at this digging, and invariably he wouldrun krim had only the ragged oversize clothes that he back to the refuge of the desert. wore. At times he would hurl himself over the dunes and scream in the dark, listening to the echoes Abdelkrim came to the Moroccan desert five vibrating through the dust and sky and watching years ago as part of a small caravan escaping from his shadow dancing over the hills. When his voice the horrors of the Algerian war. He had been six quavered and when he shivered in the cold night when the paratroopers came dressed in leopard air, he would kneel down and whisper to Allah, spots and green berets. They cut down his family's knowing that the sounds would carry far into the tent, machine-gunned papa, raped mama, killed still distance. When he grew weary of his games, or her, cut her into pieces, and stole off with his when his hunger got the best of him, he would wait sisters,Lai laand Fatima,leaving Abdelkrim at the crossroads of the Sahara until some strangers screaming into the empty night. arrived who would dispose of him as they wished. He followed anyone in return for bread and water. He escaped miraculously.How? Either he did not know or he refused to tell. But somehow,some lucky day, he begged his way out of that nightmare By now it was dark. The dunes had risen up and of war onto the back of a camel. Now all that he cut off the road. We were stuck six miles from wanted to remember from that dim past, filled with Taouz, unable to pass. Both of us jumped out of the blood and violence, was his camel ride across desert car and began digging our way down to the hard sands into freedom. Freedom was a camel's ride layer of caked sand beneath the tires. Abdelkrim away from grotesque memories. It was the liberty to stopped suddenly, scrutinized the situation, then roamhaphazardlywithoutcaringaboutthe ran off. After about fifteen minutes he returned morrow. carrying an armful of sticks which he began to insert methodically tinder the tires. He panted all One grows up quickly as a desert scavenger, the while, breathless from his mission. It worked. grubbing for survival amidst a sea of sand. Other Back we drove northwards worlds cease to exi it.it' they had any meaning to start with. Sub :istctice becomes an abiding pre- Along the way I planned Abdelkrim's future: occupation, a continuous tormenting theme. But -Take :tint back to Rabat. Send him to school. Get the desert, with ail its barrenness, is generous to him squared away. Give him the 'chance,' the kind those who know it well and respect its laws. The of chance that the Arab:, always say insha'allah for, desert rewards disciples just as it kills belligerent fatalistically and believingly." But my fantasies strangers. ended as reality emerged ahead in the form of two more hitchhikers, this time a couple of local yokels Abdelkrim was a child of the desert. The only who worked now and then in the mines, digging out home he ever knew was the sand and the shade of lead fcr a pittance. We picked them up. and they the dunes. He knew all the stars by heart, and the sat next to Abdelkrim in the back of the car and sun and moon were his constant companions. ob- smoked cheap, smelly cigarettes. They offered one jects of adoration, never of fear. He knew all the to my little friend who lit it immediately. I looked watering spots betw,!eu Riy,ani and Taour.. and he around, saw him pulling onit,and without knew the months, the days, even the hours, when thinking snatched it away from his lips. "You're the shepherds would arrive with their flocks. The still too young to smoke," I scolded. A guilty smile meaner ones he had learned to avoid long ago. filled his face. When he was far from water he would live on grass and lizards, or the bread offeredby passing I stared ahead then and wondered about what I nomads in return for his labor as a shepherd. had just done. My reflexes were so out of tune with 4 the setting. What do "old" and "young" mean to he turned away and gaited off. I couldn'tmove. I someone like Abdelkrimmiskeen, alone, without had to do something for him. anything but the clotheson his back? Was Abdel- krim really a child? Yet, could one call him a man "Abdelkrim!" I shouted after him. Heran back. at eleven? What sense did all of thismake of our rules of logic? Perhaps Together we went to a Jew's shop hiddenin a row of we need a new logic for the stalls. We searched throughopen boxes until we likes of Abdelkrim. Onlyour arrival in Erfoud found just the thing for hima stopped me from lighting warm woolen shirt. a new cigarette for him. By now tears were wetting his bronzeface, but he didn't know what to say. Neither didI. He put the I had told him that I wouldtake him as far as shirt on over his sweaters and it fit perfectly. Erfoud. the first substantial It also town after the desert. rounded out the jacket and made it onlytwo sizes Ilk eyes had lit up with excitement,for he had been to Ft foud once before and "it too big for him. I stared at him, held him bythe was such a big shoulders. and whispered, "May Allahpreserve place." fic lid eaten well thereand met a friend you, oh Abdelkrim." his ownage.Erfoudthat dusty,fly-ridden, twopenny townwas Abdelkrim's New York. Now and then I think of that solitaryfigure and see his shadow moving somewhere between Taouz And so we stood facing each otherin the middle and M'fiss. Now he stops. then he of Erfoud square. I starts again. gave him five francs, shook his moving over the sand. as if he belongedthere and hand, and said good-bye. Littlewet drops formed only there. in the corners of his eyes as he staredat me. Then

40 MIKE THE CITY LIFE OF RURAL MALES

Each week in Kenya hundreds of young people begin early and hope for the best.In three years he school leavers mostlyare departingthe rural has not been late for work. areas. They make their way to the big city. Morning ends at 12:45 which begins Mike is a Public Works Clerk during the lunch- the day. He time break. Everyone departs fromthe office and shares a flat with his brother andtwo other males enjoys the social activity. Food by of his age from thesame rural area. He is relatively comparison is of secondary importance. Workersmeet friends and lucky. Often six orseven people live in a tiny apart- discuss politics and football ment or even one room. or soccer. Lunch often consists of a coke or milk witha meat pie or sugar The thoughtful guests bring foodto share. Still bun. Window shopping andobserving people play- the meals are often light becausebudgets are light. ing checkers are popular pastimesduring the In the city all one's food must beboughtthere is 75-minute lunch break. Age-mateswhoare pre- no room where they live for a garden. sumed to share a special bondmaywalk around holding hands. Suchopen displays of affection About 6:15 A.M. Mike awakens. Hethen among people of the same sex washes, and dresses for work. His toilet is are customary in outside muchofAfrica.Thereare nonegative and semiprivate. During the rainyseason it be- connotations. comes inconvenient and uncomfortable. The neigh- bors sometimes let their sanitary habitsfall below At 2 P.M. the work daycontinues. Most standard. governmental offices remainopen until 4:30 P.M. Then the rush to the bus stationbegins. The ten- He is fastidious about hygiene anddress. Mike sions of the day are released. calls it getting "smart." Whenready he sips some tea and dashes out the door for the busstation. On In the evening Mike does hislaundry. Because he hurried mornings hemay munch buttered toast has so few clothes, he must washand iron every day while jogging to the busstop. in order to look "smart"at work. Lacking a refrig- erator, he also has to shop Mike's work day begins at 8:15 every day for food. These A.M. Usually he chores accomplished, ivlikemay spend a few hours arrives earlier. With erratic busservice one must with friends.

The big city.

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41 Pay day is the last day of the month. Mike often 414-fel4. celebrates by going to a movie, a dance, or a trip to , z .,"4 the local tavern. Beer is the most popular drink in East Africa. And Mike, like most Africans, likes his served by the liter and warm. It is a night of modest .tt pleasure in a sober life.

This rural exodus, of which Mike is a part, brings with it a host of social problems. These trouble not only government officials but the rural and urban communities as well. "How," officials are asking themselves, "can rural areas be made more attractive to the young people who now flee to the cities?"

Even when answers to this problem are available, sufficient financial support may not be. George Jones of the Institute of Current World Affairs recently intervieweda cross-section of young people in , Kenya, East Africa. He concluded, "that the attractions of the city are Mixed feelings about the city. similar the world over. The adventures, the wide range of entertainment, the potential market for finding a companion or mate and the possibility of making the fast shilling are certainly attractive forces for any rural youngsterespecially after he hears the story of the city as told by some of his more 'seasoned' friends."

None of the interviewees was born in the city and they insist that they are not Nairobi residents. They have been "away" an average of five years. Yet their allegiance and ties remain with the family back homein spirit, if not physically. On holidays they return "home" to the farm. They look forward to "a good home-cooked meal" and often their families prepare food packages for them to bring back to the city. Each interviewee was an employed male between 21 and 25 years of age. Many, many school leavers remain unemployed. When asked about the difference in the people with whom they come in contact most answer that people "back home" take "a personal interest in their welfare." Of the people they meet in the city,

42 "no one seems to care" except perhaps those with Julius feels the long working hoursof rural life whom they live closely in the urbansetting. provide satisfactions. "All thesweat that comes." he says, "goes for a goodcause, me and my family." "All of these youngmen reported that they He remembers a typical &ty would someday like to return to the farm. on the farm. At 6 A.M. Many felt the family sits down to a light breakfastof tea, the city was moving ata pace far too rapid for them bread, and porridge. Afterwards the to join in. They all felt their women and wages to be sorely out girls clear away the breakfast dishes.Then they of balance with the cost of living.Food, housing, clothing, and occasional began preparation of the next meal. Boys helptheir entertainment"mostly father milk and tend the cattle. Oncethese chores movies--consumed their salaries. Anotherportion is sent "home" each month. It helps are completed the family, except for thevery old. with the on- move to the fields. Labor is divided so thatmen going expenses of the "farm" and isexpected. The city brothers' income helps prepare the soil. Women plant and pull weeds. pay the school fees of Children of 6 and older watch the cattle. Soonit is younger sisters and brothers. It worksout that time for some of the children having gone to the city, "one to go to school. They can never amass will return later to assist again in thedaily work enough capital at any given timeto return home cycle. financially secure." Nursing babies are strapped to theirmothers' Though these youngmen have worked about five backs while field work is done. At feedingtime the years, none has been able to save enoughmoney to baby is simply shifted to the frontand mother buy an automobile. Theyuse the bus and other continues her work. One hears fewcries. The public transportation to get to work.During leisure babies apparently enjoy the motion andcloseness. they travel by bicycle. Just before sunset, the field workends. Cows are again milked and fed. The eveningmeal is pre- Chris, a clerk, and Arthur.an apprentice, say pared. It is the day's largest. Typical that if they are to return to rural life it foods include must provide , similar to hominy grits,or irio, a mixture of more leisure time. To guarantee farmers at leasta maize, beans, potatoes, anda green vegetable. subsistence income, they feel thegovernment might Other foods are likely to be vegetables, consider subsidizing farm sweet pota- wages. Arthur hopes toes, arrowroots and fruit. Oranges,mangoes, and someday to study in the UnitedStates. bananas are all popular.

3 Supv. r isrund .9 P.M. the feels that the intellectual life in Nairobi is More visisith other families in the area. They stimulating than in rural areas: "Most of our talk politit.% and then rush home. Following a good parents," :le said, "completed their eduCation at r.igl-c't.seep the routine will begin againto Standard IV [4th' gradel.Most Of my friends and morrow. age mates have completed Form IV [high sehoolr Sam also complains that education in the rural "f.ilking is an institution in the lives of these rural areas is impractical. They teach "white collar" mattf.T how strenuous the day's work, Subjects, he says. They should be teaching about at night neighbors and village councils. are willing advanced farming techniques,' animal husbandry, to sit around and discuss their affairs. t.' plumbing, and other technical subjects. Sani is pleased that the Kenyan .goVernment is' beginning Sundays are special in farm life. They involve to change the curriculum. But it will' take time, he church, trips around the countryside, and hours of acknowledges. talk. Many ride a bus to the nearest city. They take furniture, strapped atop the bus, to relatives. The topic of education recurs frequently in all Bicycles are tied on to be used on arrival in the City. the interviews. George Jones asked, "What advice And riders find themselves surrounded by clucking will you give your children in order for theM to be chickens and fresh vegetables. In a word, the successful in life?" The answers all were the same: Sunday buses are crowded. "Get as much education as possible." They also would advise their children to maintain some ties to When one lives in the city it is customary for the land. unexpected guests to arrive. They may stay a day or two. Some remain for months at a time. Relatives Mike and his mates all see themselves as part of have been known to appear at the door with suit- Kenya's transformation from a traditional to a case in one hand and a bed in the other. A tradi- modern society. They are ambitious. They are in- tional host wouldn't even raise an eyebrow. terestedinfurthering 'Africanizationof ' the business sector. But they also want to preserve It can be annoying but the good city host must some of the traditional valuei. The land still has a not show impatience. While one's savings are being strong grip on their emotions. drained and one's food eaten, a host smiles. It is an obligation to treat one's guests well. George Jones asked a single question to end the interview: "What individual' has most influenced The city offers people more than a variety of your life?" The unanimous answer was Mzee Jomo social activities. Sam, an apprentice accountant, Kenyatta, the .

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The morning rush.

Solitude.

44 AHMADOU: RURAL TO URBAN MIGRANT FROM UPPER VOLTA TO THE IVORY COAST

I met Ahmadou through a real-estate agent. Upper Volta. Madame flashed a quick smile. She Madame, the agent, was in her sixteenth year "in was pleased. The Mossi are known as hard workers the colonies." I was looking for a combination cook and enjoy a good reputation all over West Africa. and houseboy. She said I would have no trouble finding one. But when Madame turned to the two Africans She cautioned me to be careful about whom I she was all sternness. Again there were no intro- hired. Abidjan was full of thousands of migrant ductions. "Comment t'appelles-tu?" "What is your Africans. These "shiftless" people flocked here name?" she demanded. The older man replied. His from the Ivoirien hinterland. Someeven came from name was Ahmadou Konate. "Comment?" in- neighboring countries hoping tofind work.I quired Madame. She had not caught the name. assured Madame that I would heed her warning. "A hniadou Konate," he repeated. As I started to leave her office she called afterme. "Maybe," she said, "I can find someone foryou Madame treated me to another smile. "They right away." have such funny names," she remarked, obviously amused. I had heard him perfectly well and said, "I Opening the wide glass doors on the street side of believe his name is Ahmadou Konate." Madame her office, Madame stepped out on the balcony. ignored my effort. "Tu es Mossi?" "Are you a She shouted to an African, one of a group sitting Mossi?" she continued. "Oui, Madame," the man under atree below. "Lansana!" sheshrilled. replied. "Tu sais faire la cuisine?" He assured her "Lansana. viens ici!" "Come here!" The Africans that he knew how to cook and pulled from his instantly stopped talking. A man of about thirty- pocket a tattered but carefully folded letter which five, in dirty work clothes, detached himself from he gave her. the group and looked ,up. "Oui, Madame?" "Yes, Madame?" he replied. "Viens ici tout de suit!" Holding the letter at a distance as if it were some "Come here immediately!" Madame commanded foul object, Madame glanced at it for a moment. with authority Lansana seemed to respect. Then it was handed to me. The letter had appar- He bolted up the stairs. In a moment he was entlybeenwrittenbyMr.Konate'sformer standing before us. Madame did not bother with employer, an American diplomat. It ended reas- introductions. Working-class Africans are seldom suringly with the phrase "...an excellent cook, formally introduced to anyone. To most "Euro- good worker, and of high moral character." Mr. peans" and other whites and Africans of any status, Konate had been the diplomat's employee for two common laborers exist only to do one's bidding. years. His salary had been 18,000 francs, about $72 Their status is so low that few would even think of a month. I asked if he would work for me at the the simple courtesy of a handshake, or a "thank same salary on a month's trial basis. He replied you." that he would. "Lansana," Madame began, "Monsieur isa Before we could leave, Madame wagged her professorun americain. He is looking for a cook. finger at Konate. In severe schoolmistress tones she Tu connais quelqu'un?" "Do you know someone?" proclaimed rather than asked, "Tu n'es pas voleur, He did know someoneright downstairs. The pros- heir ?" "You are not a thief, are you?" For a pect was one of those to whom he had been talking. second a glint of hate seemed to come into Mr. "Go down and get him and tell him to come up Konate's eyes. But then he looked at Madame and here at once!" Madame ordered. "Oui, Madame," assured her he was not a thief. said Lansana and back down the stairs he ran. At the door Madame favored me with a final On returning Lansana was accompanied by smile. Konate she admonished: "I'll be keeping my another man. This African was older, dignified, eye on you. I watch all the help I hire." Later when and neatly dressed. The vertical scars on both sides I apologized to Mr: Konate for the humiliating of his face identified him as a Mossi from the question abouthishonesty, he shruggedhis

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0 I0 20 30MINN,40 50 4 How are these scenes apart of Ahmadou's world?

A typical shanty in old Adjame. Adjame street scene in the morning hours. shoulders. "Oh, I'm used to that," he said. "The he returns home to Adjame. It and 'll'reichvilleare white patrons often ask it before hiringan Afri- the main "African" quarters of Abidjan. can." Geographically, Adjame is less than Over the next few weeks, we gradually a mile from came to the neighborhood where I live. But sociallyand know each other. A touchy issuewas how to economically it is in another world. It isa part of address Mr. Konate. He was olderso I felt uncom- the city where few tourists go. Nor does itappear on fortable using his first name. I knew he wouldnever travel posters for the Ivory Coast. Thereare few call me by mine. wide boulevards or tree-shaded villas here. Except Finally I decided the best way to solve the prob- for a handful of French who livein secluded lem was just to ask him which name he preferred. pockets and Lebanese merchants who live above "Call me Ahmadou," he said. "I know it is your their stores along Adjame's main street, the neigh- custom to call people by their first names." He borhood is African. Few streetsare paved. Open never used my first name or even my last name. To sewers run alongside,relatively clean in some him I was simply "Monsieur," just as the lady I had places, debris-clogged elsewhere. gone to see about an apartment was "Madame." Most Adjame houses are made of mudor of The young lady down the hall was "Mademoiselle." concrete blocks. The roofs are rusty corrugated In Ahmadou's world of the domestic servant one iron. Water and indoor plumbingare rare. Few never called one's patron anything else. A simple houses have electricity. Adjame people relyon the "Oui. Monsieur" or "Out% Madame" usually an- public water pumps in every second block. They swered any request or command. The whites for have long since learned to ignore the stench of whom Ahmadou had worked and whose daily lives public toilets. he had witnessed, lived in a world remote from his own. For all its nearness, this was a glittering world, During the day, Adjame is ablaze with colors. unfriendly, and unattainable. His only contact with There is an atmosphere of a bazaar. Along the whites was as a servant or an employee. A person of streets petty merchants hawk their wares. Notions, Ahmadou's station never knew such people as sunglasses,cheapplastictoys,andgaudy friends. wristwatches are offered to passers-by. Thousands of women sit along the sidewalks. Some holda Being my cook and houseboy is a full-time job. nursing child with one hand while the other tends Ahmadou works from eight in the morning until the stock of kola nuts, mangoes, bananas, and one in the afternoon. He then takes four hours for a oranges in basins propped firmly between the legs. lunch and rest at home and returns to work until Hundreds of young boys sell cigarettes of every nine in the evening or such timeas the dinner brand.Tailors,theirSinger sewing machines dishes have been washed and putaway. After that sputtering like machine guns, offer ready-made

4

47 shirts and trousers. Cars, trucks, andbicycles old way." If he did want to take a second and third choke the streets crowded with people. Thedin of wife, Ahmadou would probably have to return to traffic blends into the overall clamor of thetens of his native Upper Volta or go to another neighboring thousands of shouting, waving, and laughing country to do it. The Ivory Coast government Africans moving slowly along the sidewalks. enacted a new Code Civil in 1964. All forms ofmar- riage are outlawed except monogamy. Unlike the European quarter, Adjame has few street lights. At night it is lighted by candles and Home for Ahmadouisasmallone-room lanterns. From small shabby bars come the monot- appartement divided by a flimsy partition. One side onous, vibrant musical strains of high life. In front of the room serves as a bedroom for Ahmadou,his of some houses along the back streets,young wife and the two children. The other side isa small women wait for the evening's business to start, but sitting room. The dwelling isone of ten in a therearefewcustomers.For mostAfrican compound shared by about 40 residents. Thecom- workingmen the fees are too high. Besides, there is pound is built around a courtyard about 30feet a good deal of noncommercialized promiscuity. long and 20 feet wide. Here Ahmadou's wifeand the other women do family cooking, washing,and Ahmadou is married and has two small children, other household chores. There isno running water a boy of two and a girl of three. Although he isa and no bathroom. A single outdoor toilet Muslim Ahmadou does not anticipate on one ever taking side of the courtyard serves all the inhabitants.It is another spouse. His religious beliefs would permit a simple cistern deeply embedded in the earth. It is him to have four wives. Hesays his wife Fanta emptied about twice a year. Compound residents "would never stand for itand, besides, that's the have rigged a makeshift shower stall enclosedby Razing of old buildings in preparation for the buildingof a new community in Adjame. How is this scened related to Ahmadou's past, present, and future?

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One of the new housing developments in Adjame. The government hopeseventually to provide all of its citizens with pleasant, low-cost housing of this sort. How does this housingcontrast with Ahmadou's?

boards. Here they bathe. Eachperson brings water advance of 2,000 francs, $8, to take her to from one's own barrel. a private physician. Though doctors are expensive,one can For these quarters Ahmadou paid 4,000 francs, have confidence in them, he explained: "Hssont roughly $16, a month in 1965. His house istypical des diplomes." "They have medical diplomas." of the vast majority of urban dwellings in theIvory Ivoirien President Houphouet-Boigny hasprom- Coast. And as elsewhere, rent and food costs have ised his people that he will replace the slumareas increased steadily. with decent low-cost housing. Muchprogress has The lack of proper facilities disposing of human already been made, but the housing problem in waste, flies and other disease-carrying insects, and Ivory Coa-St is acute. Many are housed in makeshift the absence of hygienic habitsamong many of the shelters. Accommodations meant to house threeto people make all the compound residentseasy prey four persons are sheltering ten to twelveandon a to disease. They can seek help at the dispensaries Permanent basis. built by the government in Abidjan. But theseare Nevertheless, the Ivoirien government is attack- not always satisfactory. One may wait in line for ing the problem with determination and withas hours. And one does not always get the attentionof many resources as it can spare. It has launched an a doctor, only that of a medical assistant. So when ambitious housing program designed to meet the Ahmadou's wife recently fell ill, he askedme for an needs of people in lower-incomegroups. The new

49 houses are simple but pleasant in designand pro- others left." Three of his brothers live in the Ivory vide the luxuries of electricity, runningwater. and Coast. Two others are in Ghana. indoor toilets. These housesare made available at modest rentsabout what Ahmadoupays for his Once a year Ahmadou returns to the Upper present dwelling. Like many other heads of house- Volta to visit family. Andon such occasions he holds. Ahmadou has applied for sucha house. But takes each relative a present bought in Abidjan: A the waiting list is long and he hasno idea when his loincloth or bolt of cloth will do for thewomen. turn will come. And perhaps some tobaccoor sandals for the men. For the children there are little plastic toys that What worries Ahmadoumost. however, is the come in the huge boxes of Helio Soap Powder. steadily rising cost of living in the Ivory Coast.It is Asked why we had so many big boxes of Helio one of the highest in Africa. Food is the mostex- around my apartment, Ahmadou assuredme it was pensive item in the householdeconomy. Once a because he wanted to keep my clothes clean. month he buys a 120-pound bag of rice. It is the Ahmadou usually stays a month in the Upper staple of the family's diet. Each day hegives his Volta. His wife does not accompany him for she wife money to buy meat, manioc, is a corn, or bananas Guinean. When Ahmadou is away she visits her to supplement the family's meals. He buys coal own family. Ahmadou usually manages to purchase which his wife uses to do the cooking. There is no three or four sheep or goats. These will be tended running water in the house,so every other day by relatives and become part of the family's Ahmadou buys a large barrel of water. Itis de- common property. In Ahmadou's life they provide livered to his home and used for drinking,cooking, a sort of insurance. Something to fall back on in laundry, and bathing. When asked why hiswife did case of illness or when he is not draw water from the public too oldto work pump, Ahmadou anymore. He hopes the flocks will increase and he said it was because the closest pump was two blocks will be a "wealthy"man. away. This was too far for a woman to carrya heavy load of water. Moreover, she would probablyleave Living conditions are made worse for Ahmadou him if he insisted on it. "Awoman is not a slave," and others by the steady stream ofnewcomers to he observed, "and she must not be treatedas one." Abidjan. Thousands migrate to Abidjan each month. Because most have nomoney, they move in Each month Ahmadou makesa payment on a with relatives or friends from their home villages. used motorbike. He bought iton the installment Thus an alreadycriticalhousing situationis plan two months ago. The cost of living is so high in worsened. Few new arrivals have educationor Abidjan that he hasvery little left to save by the skills. Many are unable to speak time the end of the month rolls around. What or understand little French and therefore cannot find employment he does have is kept locked in ex- a box hidden some- cept as laborers. Even these jobs are not plentiful. %%here in his house. Ahmadou's expenses do not permit him to send Traditionis strong among Africanfamilies: much money to his relatives in the Upper Volta. Those who have must share with those who have About once every six months. however, he receives not. Thus a person, like Ahmadou, who enjoysa a letter, sometimes a telegram. He is requested to steady wage is expected to shelter, feed, and other- send money home. He does his best to comply with wise help suppoft any relative orperson from his these requests. He knows that his relatives would village who comes to him for help. To refuse hos- not ask him for money unless they were truly des- pitality would violate one of the most deep-seated perate. African traditions.It would provoke anger and contempt among the homefolk. Since most Afri- Like other Mossi who have come to work in the cans have close ties with friends and families up- Ivory Coast. Ahmadou still feels fondly toward the country, few are willing to run risks. Yetmany Upper Volta. But he has no intention of going back Africans abandon the countryside for the citiesto until his children are grown up or he istoo old to escape these heavy familial and tribal obligations. work. "Life is hard there," hesays. "The land is They are not always successful. In the cities rela- not rich as it is here. Often the earth does not yield tives, friends, and fellow villagers seek themout. enough for everyone to eat. That is why I andmany The pressure to aid the less fortunate is very strong.

50 Even after years of city work many Africans have women were allowedto go tothe mosque," little to show in the way of savings. Fewown homes. Abir,vlou ::rollingly admitted, "we men would not At the risk of alienating relatives and friends, be to concentrate much on our prayers." increasing numbers of young Africans refuseto support anyone but their immediate families. Such Like other adult Africans in the Ivory Coast, rebels are a minority. It will be years before their Ahmadou has been required by the government to influence becomes popular. Yet the feeling remains contribute to a general fund for the construction of strong among them. If life is to be better for them three religious centers in Abidjan,a cathedral for and their children, if the country is ever to be mod- Roman Catholics, a church for Protestants, anda ernized. then great changes must somehow be mosque for Muslims. wrought in African customs, even at the risk ofpro- voking some social disintegration. For recreation, Ahmadou and his wifevisit friends or entertain them in their own home. Since RelationsbetweenVoltaicimmigrantsand most of their friends are Muslims, alcohol is taboo. native Ivoiriens are cordial. There have beena few Only fruit juice or soft drinks are offered: Oncea scattered conflicts but nothing serious. Onereason week Ahmadou and his wife go to the cinema in for the good relations is that most Voltaics who Adjame. The admission is less than half what the come to the Ivory Coast are willing to accept jobs "European" theaterscharge.Great occasions, which Ivoiriens think are beneath them. And the particularly important Muslim feasts suchas the Ivory Coast's new prosperity has creatednew jobs last day of Ramadan, or Tabaski, call for consid- which have permitted many Ivoiriens to giveup less erable outlay of funds. As an employed head of a attractive work. household. Ahmadou is expected to buy a lamb, slaughter it, and offer an elaborate dinner to neigh- Stability is likely to continue as long as the Ivory Coast continues borhoodfriendsandrelatives.Theherders, toprosper anditseconomy knowing the demand for sheep will be great, often expands. However, if expansion slows and curtails double their price. Pressure from Ahmadou's social opportunities, trouble might develop. There are group is so great that he must make the expendi- several potential threats. A major one is the con- tures even though they cripple him financially for tinued migration of Ivoirien and Voltaic youths to months. towns in search of employment. The Voltaics' repu- tation for being the harder workers might be dif- Ahmadou andhisgenerationarescarcely ficult for Ivoiriens to overcome. As educational literate. Yet they see allthese problems. They level rises, Voltaics might enjoy job preferences. understand and readily acknowledge that Africans Tension could then be expected to develop between must become more self-reliant if they are to get the natives and the immigrants. aheadif the country isto develop. They are Ahmadou is not greatly concerned with politics. convinced that with the development of educational Like many other Voltaics and Ivoiriens he paid 200 facilities and with the new opportunities opening francs (5.80) at the beginning of the year for a upfortheyoung,theproblemsthathave membership card in the Parti Democratique de la handicapped their society can be solved. Theysee a Cote d'Ivoire which rules Ivory Coast. But the gradual transformation of their country. Roads will P,D.C.I. puts no real pressure on him to attend its he paved. Water mains will be laid. There will be meetings or turn out for political rallies. As in other more schools. African countries, the Party is regarded as the Adjame itself is changing. The old marketplace major vehicle of national unification. In the Ivory with the colorful confusion has given way to a new Coast, however, the government is the stronger modern center of revolutionary design. Bulldozers force for unification. are razing the old mud houses and new commu- nities are being built. There is a general feeling More important than politics in Ahmadou's life more a certainty than a hopethat life will be is religion. At least once a day he goes to the better next year than itis this year. Adjame mosque. His wife never accompanies him. Only a few older women go to the mosque. Young This must be, Ahmadou says. Otherwise, "What women are discouraged from attending. "If young will independence mean?"

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QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER

1.How would you describe Ahmadou's "World"?

2.How do the past, present, and future differ in Ahmadou's world?

3.Howwould you describe therelationships between: a.Ahmadou and Islam? i. Colonialism? b.Wife? j. Independence? c.Family? k. Politics? d.Village? 1. Economics? e.Job? m. Society? f.Madame? n. Global human culture? Employer? o. Self identity? h.French culture? 4. How does Ahmadou survive?

5. How like people in your own society are Ahmadou's employer; madame,and Ahmadou himself?

5. 52 UJAMAA VILLAGES

Many people disagree about the true meaning of member may be expelled only forgross miscon- socialism. Some feel that socialism in Africa isan duct. Following a meeting of the entire village, ideology based on the theories of Marx andEngels. expulsion is immediate. Others claim that Africans havean independent claim to socialism. It existed in Africa, theyargue, Why do people join an Ujamaa village? Some Tong before Marx and Engels were born in Europe. hope to obtain free and plentiful food. Some seekto escape crowded urban conditions and frequent un- There is agreement though that theterm African employment. Some wish to secure land. Formany it Socialism is new. It symbolizes the struggleof is a means to get services whichwere previously un- African peoples to rid themselves ofattitudes ac- available. They want schooling for their children quired during the years theywere subject to - and sometimes themselves. They want medical nial domination. It proclaims theircommitment attention. Ujamaa villages also provideaccess to a toward establishing eventual economicand social safe, reliable water supply. stability. Whatever their motive, people whocome to the Tanzania has taken the most positivesteps villages usually develop a stronggroup spirit. The toward that goal. African Socialism,says the coun- villagers tend to be very optimistic. try'sPresident JuliusNyerere,isTanzania's national philosophy. The practiceof African The meeting is a key element in Ujamaa village Socialism, he declares, has three broad objectives: life. It gives the people an opportunity to talkabout individual as well as common problems. Theycan 1. To establish a community where equalrights talk about local and national issues. The meeting is and equal opportunities are accordedto all its also a means to introduce new technical informa- members; tion. It provides an opportunity to demonstratenew 2. To create an atmosphere free ofinjustice, suf- equipment. Because of the importance of the fering, and exploitation; meetings, people attend and participate. 3. To elevate the baseline of materialwelfare be- fore any person is able to live in individual Meetings usually conclude withsome form of luxury. social activity. Picnics and dancesare common. Sometimes the members read documents prepared Nyerere contends that these objectivesare exten- by their President Mwalimu (Teacher) Nyerere. sions of traditional African customs.They are based on the practices of the extended family. Kerege The government of Tanzania hasorganized a The village at Kerege was started in 1965.It is village system, called Ujamaa,to make socialist about 40 miles from Dar es Salaam, the capital of ideals a reality. Tanzaniansare encouraged to live Tanzania. Until about 1970 Kerege accommodated communally in Ujamaa villages. They poolscarce 250 families. Officials now envision its growthto a resources and technically skilled people so that the maximum of 700 families occupying the 7,000acre entire economic base will be elevated.Membership site. in the villages is strictly voluntary. Andno village Kerege village is made up of families from all receives financial or other support fromthe govz_over Tanzania. Most are not from nearbyareas. A ernment until it has demonstrated commitment to large number of the participants formerly lived the objectives of a socialistic community. in other cooperatives. They came to Keregebecause it offers a prospect for producing lucrativecrops. New village residents have a six-monthprobation period before full acceptanceas members of the Cashew nuts and coconutsare the basic cash commune. A new member must be judgedcom- crops. Four hundred acres are planted in cashew patible by all the older members. Onceaccepted, a trees,three hundredincoconut palms. The Adapted with permission froma newsletter of the same title by George Jones. Fellow, Institute ofCurrent World Affairs. October 1970.

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Pre-visit orientation. villagers also grow food for their own consumption. the philosophy and practical aspects of Ujamaa. Rice, cassava, maize, bananas, and potatoesare For example, farming techniques are taught. Some- grown in cooperative fields and in private gardens. times additional schooling becomes no longer pos- The village in 1970 owned over one hundred cattle, sible or desirable for an individual. When that including a large number for dairy production. The occurs, the student is qualified to take a position in milk is processed in a nearby town. It is then dis- almost any area of work in the village. Reading tributed among the villageresidents. The re- comprehensionprogramsareofferedduring mainder is sold to the who live evening hours. These are for people, mostly adults, just outside the Ujamaa villagearea. The village is who must work during regular school hours. The expanding its flocks of chickens in the hope ofpro- curriculum can also accommodate students seeking ducing eggs and meat for external sale. college level education.

The political structure of the Ujamaa isstream- It isnot uncommon for a person to workmore lined. There is a chairman. Peopleare elected and than ten hours on the shamba, or farm. Many appointed to serve on a series of committees.The attend school and a committee meeting for several executive committee of fifteen members is thetop more hours. It has been reported that women espe- decision-making group. It is the court of appeals cially finditdifficult to stay awake during the for disputes arising among othergroups. Among meetings. They must work in the fields and else- the committees are those for finances, social life, where with as much effort as the men. In addition, agriculture, and building. Every villager works they have the responsibility of the children. A few under a committee's direction. The villagersmay women have recently created babysitting coopera- choose the committee under which they prefer to tives. This arrangement allows more women to work. Attendance at committee meetings is obliga- participate in more activities of the village. tory. Salaries paid individuals are basedon the committee attendance records. School teachersareprovidedby the larger Each Ujamaa village has national community. The medical staff is madeup an area of specializa- of people from the local village. They have all been tion. The specialty reflects locally availablere- trained in the medical center at Dar sources. Specialization is also a result of the na- es Salaam. tional effort. The desire is to develop the economic Basically, the staff consists of a midwife, several medical aides, and a registered nurse. Severecases base equally in the different parts of Tanzania. are referred to the District Medical Officer in Dar es Salaam. Kerege's specialtyis producing cashew nuts. They are harvested, then processed and sold. Anew The village consists of four basic processing plant has been built. A consultant from areas. The largest portion of the 1,000 acre tract is givenover India aided in the design and construction. The to communal farm lands. Residences are clustered beginning factory work force of 240 people isex- and adjoined by the business, service and factory pected to grow to 2,000. Cashew sales bring in area. In addition, there is the area for private culti- about 52,429 monthly. This is Kerege's main crop vation. Usually, each villager has twoor three acres and cash income. of land for his own use. Most of the inhabitants raise a few animals or crops to sellon the open During the dry season there is little farm work. market. As long as one remains a part of the Villagers are employed on a buildingprogram for Ujamaa community, such activityispermitted, the village's expansion. They also makesoap and even encouraged. But as soon as he decides to weave cotton fabrics. Most timber products are leave. or is expelled by the group, the landreverts processed during the dry season. Many peopleare to the community. It is rare, however, for people to engaged in small carpentry projects. willingly give up their land after spending timeand energy cultivating it. Kerege village has a school and a medical dispen- sary. All the teachers are provided by Tanzania's National Service Unit. They areallcertified. Children are given a basic educationreading. Ujamaa villages arc not without problems. In writing, and arithmetic. They are also schooled in some areas they have not been able to attract

55 members. Because membership is voluntary, the requires faith and patience. So government must work tomake villages thatare do other systems for remote from urbancenters more attractive. developing human and otherresources. Some big moneycrops, On the other hand,the governmentmust guard like coconuts, take against cultivating several years from plantingto harvest. People must dependent attitudesamong vil- depend on and plan for lagers. They should dotheir own problemsolving alternative sources of in- according to Ujamaa come and food during the longwaiting period. principles. The experiment Time and time again the will have failed if thegovernment has constantlyto Ujamaa experience has intervene. Although food demonstrated thatsuccessisin the planning. rations are made avail- Village, regional, and able in emergencies,officials sometimes fearthat national planningare all crops will be neglected in order essential. These plansmust be integrated toensure to collect free food. Ujamaa's success. And the government hasmade mistakes, the e: too. In The Ujamaa participants days of zealous enthusiasmfor Ujamaa, it in Kerege and various introduced a large number Tanzanian officialsare optimistic. Mistakes, they of tractors in several say, are also "lessons." Their villages. Fewer peoplewere then needed to farm the accumulated experi- crops. Unemploymentwas a serious problem. ence can lead to a sound andviable program for future growth. The hopeis that these Tanzanian Decisons have usually experiments in living will providemodels for others been made with adequate around the world. Organizing planning and study.Crops must be locatednear people and resources appropriate processing in beneficial ways isa basic need. Kerege and other facilities and viceversa. So Ujamaa villages in Tanzania large an effort requirestime. And skillsmust be are efforts through built up, techniques which the goals ofAfrican socialismmay be refined. As productionis realized. increased new marketsmust be developed. Ujamaa *OkadoutillOrkel

56 Nkrumah receiving a delegation of traditionalchiefs.

AN AFRICAN GARDEN

Varieties of Nationalism and Pan-Africanism

Ghana searching for the exotic in Africa. An theseinter- ests combined for a time to make the affairsof Immediately after World War II, the GoldCoast Accra the focus of the African political (Ghana) attracted attention. Therewas a glam- spotlight. orous young politician, Kwame Nkrumah. There Nkrumah recognized froman early date that the was a long tradition of genteel political opposition. traditional political elite had The country had a highly articulate, a strong stake in the well-educated colonial system. But this traditional elitehad little class of Africans. Nkrumah's personalitywas com- wealth to invest in a modern pelling. Western publicity concerning economy. They also Nkrumah represented local, not national interests.They were flowedfreely and favorably.Europeans were rivals for power. Nkrumahwas the first Prime

57 Minister of the Gold Coast Colony.He became unit. The colonial authorities did President of the Republic of Ghana not recognize when it distinct ethnic groups. Toure and his PartiDemo- achieved independence in 1957. cratique de Guinee capitalizedon this aspect of the Nkrumah worked steadily to reduce thepower of colonial legacy. They carried it further. Theymade the traditional rulers. He forcedthe pace of mod- the subordination of the individual to the nationa ernization in government by successfullyneutral- leading principle of Guinean ideology. Thesense of izing the challenge from the traditionalquarter. In national unity also benefited fromanticolonial so doing, he achieved national unity by abolishing feeling. It was strengthened by Guinea's resolveto the bases of local, ethnic loyalties.He also elimi- triumph over French President de Gaulle'sdis- nated his political opposition, whichrested for the favor. most part on both tribal and regionalallegiance. In 1966 he proclaimed Ghana President Toure interpreted nationalismas the a one-party state. He end product of the decolonizationprocess. It had to turned increasingly from his positionas national leader to that of spokesman for continue beyond the achievement of politicalinde- continental unity. pendence. In Guinea, Toure proclaimed, "wewant Guinea to destroy the habits, conceptions andway of con- duct of colonialism. We are determinedto replace Guinea gained complete independencein 1958. them with forms that are Guinean forms,conceived President S6kou Tourt madea peaceful but radical by the people of Guinea." withdrawal from the French community.It cost his Tanzania country trade preferences, technical assistance,and financial aid. Sekou Toure found a counterpart in EastAfrica in Julius Nyerere. Nyerere French rule in Guinea was a sympathetic and was unlike that of the equally idealistic nationalist leader. Hebecame British in Nigeria or Uganda.For 60 years the president of Tanganyika in 1961. (Zanzibar French had treated the peoples of united the territory as a with Tanganyika in 1964 to become theRepublic of

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58 Tanzania.) There were neither powerful ethnic groups nor historic kingdoms in Tanganyika. No one challenged Nyerere's political legitimacy nor The official policy of Zambia is humanism. that of the single political party. He called his This means that everything undertaken in political philosophy African Socialism. It empha- Zambia is done with the interests of the sized an egalitarian society. Like Toure, Nyerere common man uppermost in mind. The ex- focused on the necessity to eliminate the colonially pansion of education, employment, and the inspired mentality of subservience. He wantedto economy are considered worthless if the end create a society that was culturally African. goalis not a fuller, happier, andmore meaningful life for the people. Humanism is Nyerere's Ideal the political antithesis of fascism.* The ideal of national developmentwas elo- Kenneth Kaunda, President of Zambia, shares quently summarized in the Arusha Declaration of many beliefs with Nyerere. But he has not been as 1967. It predicted the emergence of anew African, successful in guiding Zambians toward African frugal and self-reliant. Discrepancies in wealth Socialism. Kaunda has problems, however, which between urban and rural dwellers would not exist. Nyerere does not. Tribal tension, intensified by re- No privileged class. such as that which inmany ligious separation. is perhaps the worst. African countries has succeeded the colonial elite, would be crewed. Nyerere and Nkrurnah were Linguisticdivisions.areanothersourceof equally committed to Pan-Africanism. But Nyerere trouble. No single language is dominant in Zambia. sought in the cultivation of a Tanzanian national The six largest groups compete. On the other hand. consciousness the simultaneous creation ofa new Zarnh:,a had the wealth of the Copperbelt to fill the African identity. treasury when independence came. Tanzania had no great natural resources to exploit.It was Julius Nyerere. predominantly a nation of peasant farms, little industry, and few skilled workers. Zambians work- ing on the Copperbelt held positions inferior to COMPLETE those of Europeans. They were nevertheless privi- leged by the standards of other Africans. They also -411OEPECPENCV, acquised many of the technical skills regardedas necessary to a rapidly developing economy. 1961 Kaunda's Humanism Kaunda's philosophy of "humanism"isan attempt to avoid the evils often associated with rapid development. Zambia'seconomy is split into two extremesmining and subsistence farming. One is wealthy, the other very poor. The feware wealthy, the many :are poor. The nation is tryingto bridge the extremes throughprograms for general as economic development. Kaunda asks the direct questions: "Is there any way my peoplecan have the blessing of technology without beingeaten away by materialism?(2c.nthey retain the spiritual dimension of their lives?"

.of Humanism emphasizes the quality of life. Har- mony of people together and people with nature isa recurrent theme in his speeches. The rewards of

*Excerpt from "Information Guide for Delegates" Third Summit Conference of Non-AlignedNa- tions, Lusaka. Zambia. September1970. Jt

6 59 development must be shared equally, Kaunda be- inhabitants were more intensivelyexposed and lieves, among farm and citydwellers, among farmers, miners, and office workers. responsive to western culture. The southhad eco- nomic products--like oilthatwere valuable to Zambia today is far from Kaunda'svision. And Europeans, the north had less obviouslyattractive there are disturbing signs thatKaunda is no longer wealth. Thus economic developmentin the south willing to accept criticism. Studentdemonstrations heightened regional distinctiveness. are suppressed by military troops. Thecountry can Nigeria became independent undera federal no longer afford to support "liberation troops"who constitution in 1960. It was designed fight in the Portuguese colonies. to provide Agricultural pro- stability by a delicate balancing of regionalinter- duction is down and so iscopper. Boycotts aimed at ests. But the very concept of central government Rhodesia have hurt the Zambianeconomy. In- was weakened from the beginning. Every ethnic creasingly, Kaunda is dependentupon the tolera- group, large or small, made continuing demands tion of powerful, white-ruledneighbors. He must for local autonomy. There speak softly and carry only were no political parties a small stick. in Nigeria without strong tribal associations.No Ivory Coast traditions of cooperationexisted betweenthe various and powerful ethnicgroups. There was Unlike Nyerere, Toure, andKaunda, President little regional integration. In short, therewas no Felix Houphouet-Boigny of theIvory Coast had compelling reason why sucha large territory should downplayedideology.TheIvoirienPresident remain unified after its Europeancreators with- emphasized a pragmatic approachto economic de- drew. velopment. Even after independence,he relied heavily on France for financialaid. He cultivated Nigeria endured sixyears of regional bickering. trade preferences in Europe.He sought techno- Rigged elections and widespreadgovernment cor- logical assistance, including personnel.But he did ruption destroyed popular confidence.Increasing have to confront the challengeto national unity violence and public disorder culminatedin a series presented by the Ivory Coast'smany language and of military coups followed by civilwar. But there is ethnic groups. Houphouet-Boignychose to pro- much reason for optimism today.The struggle to mote the use of French languageand culture as a preserve the framework of national unityappears binding force. to have a good effect. The Biafran (EdsternNigeria) secession ended in January 1970; Nigeriathe state Economically, Ivory Coast policieshave been may yet become the nation. successful. They have not beenvery popular, how- ever, with Pan-Africanists. Ivory Coast'sbuoyant Nigeria today is a dynamic country, powerfulin economy is oriented primarily toward the West.Its the African context. Because of Nigeria'ssubstan- overall growth rate has been high. Ithas averaged tial oilfields and other valuableresources, it be- some 8 per cent expansion for a decade.Exports comes richer daily. And Nigeria is large, about sixty consistently exceed imports. Reservemoney and million people. It hasmore than twice as many domestic credit have consistentlyrisen, and con- inhabitants as any other country in Africa. sumer priceincreaseshave been gradual.In The task of deploying Nigeria's wealth and general, the Ivory Coast has wieldedcontinental influence, balancing the drift directing development falls to GeneralYakubu away from capitalism. Gowon. He is one of the youngest heads ofstate in Nigeria the world. Nevertheless, his leadershipover the past seven years is termed "miraculous" by Nigerians The British had ruled Nigeria through the tra- andoutsideobservers.Heisadmiredand ditional political elites. Thiswas especially true in respected. He has capably led the Muslim north. There the semi-feudal Nigerians and political Nigeria toward reconciliation andreconstruction. structure of the Hausa Emiratewas maintained practically intact. The traditional"nations" were Nigeria's government calls recognized itself a"military bythecolonialgovernmentand democracy." Elections to return thecountry to therefore strengthened. Some criticscalled Briti,,h civilianrule are scheduled .)licy "divide and rule." for1976.Perhaps Gowon will even become a candidate. Hiscommit- It ment to Nigeria's successful development is total. Nigeria's eastern and westernareas,the "If we fail." Gowon once said. "thewhole of Africa colonial governmentwas more intensive. The and the black race will not forgive us."

60 INDEPENDENCE PRELUDE

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For some the symbols of power were clear, easily attainable, and quietly transferred. The state seal of independentSierra Leone now adorns old Fort Thornton from which Britishgovernors once ruled the colony. Similarly, the British West Africa Regiment stationed near Freetown became thecore of a national army after independence.

The future is always affected by the past. African Africans sought to "win back" whatcolonialism struggles for independence wereno exception. The had given to people with Europeanancestry. There nature of independence movementswas strongly were farms and factories and trading affected by the colonial experiences which arrange- came ments. "How best to put African destiny backinto before. the hands of Africans?"was the question. Two patterns emerged. Where Europeanswere present European colonialism made a deep markon inlarge numbers, conflict tended Africa. It continues long after political indepen- to develop. Transition to African rule tended to bepeaceful in dence has been won. The character of the colonial areas where large European settlements had not experience differed from country to country. In been established. large part those differences were reflected in the nature of each country's struggle for independence. In Uganda and Nigeria the "settler"community was small. Most Europeans in these new nations The Role of European Settlers had been British colonial officials. "Indirectrule" had been their policy. They had ruledthrough the Large numbers of European settlers considered traditional power structure and its Africanpolitical certain parts of Africa their home. In Algeria, elite. Europeans had negotiatedand arranged. Kenya, the Rhodesias, and South Africa White set- African social structureswere largely left intact. tler minorities ruled the Black and Brown African Later this produced another sort of problem.Tra- majority. Only a few of these Europeans had served ditionalAfricaninterestsplayedagainst one directly in the colonial governments. Most engaged another, as in the Nigerian/Biafran Civil inbusiness War. Or and commerce,agriculture,and traditional leaders clashed with thosepositions of education. When African nationalists attempted to power createdbytheirsocieties'effortsto take control, conflict followed. The clash between modernize and industrialize. Many Africanswent their hopes and aspirations and the powerful "alien abroad seeking higher education. In theprocess majority of Europeans often tooka violent course. they also became, to some extent, Westernin their

61 attitudes and behavior. They traveled and studied The Nature of the Struggle in Europe, America,and in the U.S.S.R. Newelite systems began to riseamong urban, educated Africans andwage laborers. Two importantpointsemergefromthese examples. With the exceptions ofMau Mau in Tanganyika, a United NationsTrust Territory, Kenya and Congo-Zaire, anticolonialviolence was transferred power peacefully.There were even limited in scope and duration. Itoccurred infre- fewer Europeans than inUganda or Nigeria. An quently for short periods, and in fewplaces. For the African government receivedcontrol gradually and most part it also lackedmass participation. quietly from a colonialone. Confrontation Secondly, the violence that didoccur was con- sistently exaggerated in thereports of observers. Kenya, on the other hand,suffered a highly publicized confrontation.The "Mau Mauup- rising" was dramatized, Colonial government officialsworried openly perhaps overly so. It pitted that bloodshed would characterizethe end of the Africans against Europeansand Africans against era of European colonialism in Africans in a classic dispute.As Robert Ruark de- Africa. White scribed in Something settlers,the European press, andmany Black of Value, the European Africans also worried thatthe new independent settlers were reluctant to giveup the farms made prosperous and nationalistic governmentsmight misuse power, by European marketsandcheap promoting fear and bloodshed. A African labor. Whites heldpower and were sur- fer: did. Most did rounded by a black majority. not. Love of life seems to becharacteristic of all Shortages of land peoples. But the transition ofpower in Africa cre- wert forcing Africans to abandona way of life they ated tense periods. had followed for generations.One kind of power confronted another. "Mau Mau" became another With almost the whole African name for black and whiteconfrontations. In the continent shifting West African from colonial to independentstatus, why was there and within the Central not more violence? Tworeasons stand out among African Federation bloodwas also shed. But inde- pendence many. was achieved almosteverywhere. was an exception. Peaceful Transitions The most prolonged andviolent independence struggles were experienced inthe Congo, which be- Agriculture is the basis of thelife styles which came Zaire, and in Algeria. Internationalpublic characterize the majority ofAfrican peoples. Ag- opinion was a major factorin the first case. Bel- rarianism in Africawas often a pace-keeping in- gium was urged to giveup its claim to the Congo. fluence.Rural elders and traditionalpolitical Decision makers in tinyBelgium acted hastily. authorities could "cool" thelocal agitators. The People in European Brussels,the Belgian capital, violence-prone leaderswere forced to rely on the cut the ties. Europeans in ,Leopoldvilleand else- urban residents. The citydwellers' ties to custom where in the vast CongoRiver basin struggledto were lessened by distance and bythe new experi- retain control. Theywere willing toally with ence of urban living. The breakdownof traditional Africans who might insuretheir privileged position values and belief's, urbanization,unemployment, in the future. A secessionistmovement followed and sometimes violencewere all linked in with the independence. Eventuallya united Zaire developed growth of anticolonialism.Where water and land out of what had been the BelgianCongo, then the were plentiful in ruralareas, and traditional social . organization undisturbed, thelevel of violencewas very low. Similarly, European colonistsin Algeria foughta long "blood war" againstboth their own central While most Africans remainedoutside the cities, government in France and theAlgerian indepen- the effects of changing dence fort. "Keep Algeria French"was their economic conditionspene- motto. When invited trated deeply. More andmore not quite urbanized to return to France,many Africans were drawn closer replied "no. never!" Somedied in Algeria. Most to the centers of colo- eventually returned to nial power. Their viewswere expressed forcefully. France. A few stayed andare Theirfearsand being joined now bymore returnees. frustrationswere heardby Europeans and other Africans.The energy created

6.! PREPARATION FOR INDEPENDENCE var. The Decolonialization Process In a word, the preparation European govern- ments gave their African colonies was "inade- quate." Too little and too late. The experience of the Congo is an extreme example, There, a frenzied political situation followed the rapid withdrawal in 1960 of Belgian control. Retreating in similar haste, the Britishon the East African island of Zanzibar failedto pass politicalresponsibilitytotheBlackAfrican majority. The situation resulted in a bloody revolu- tion against Zanzibar's Arab rulerssoon after its achievement of independence in 1963. Zanzibar and Tanganyika then joined togetheras Tanzania St under a single government. Loss of life in Zanzibar For many outside the cities, desire for political change came might have been avoided had preparationfor more slowly but eventually penetrated deeply. independence been more carefully handled,as in Tanganyika. Maybe not. Lack of understanding causes much grief. Well- meaning colonialofficialsperceivedeventsin Africa in a manner conditioned by their European in an independence movement inone place in- background. Tension between Africans in different creased the momentum elsewhere. areas or culture groups was often increased by colo- nial policies. Sometimes the effect was intentional, A second reason for the relative lack of violence more often it was not. In Kenya, for instance, as Africans gained independence may have been colonialist stereotypes led to the classification of the "law and order" policies of the colonialgov- the Nandi people as "good police." Kipsigiswere ernments. From the beginning their survival had classified as "good house servants." The Luowere depended on maintenance of nonviolent condi- thought to be "good dockworkers." Kikuyuwere tions.Police were "well armed." Fieldforces, seen as the most receptive to modernization but parading battalions, and visiting warshipswere all also the "most dangerous." These stereotypes led reminders of the tremendous power which the colo- to advantages for somealso jealousy and rivalry. nial power could unleash. "Showing the flag" and In Uganda, the Bagandawere historically and "maintaining the peace" worked together. When economically "on top." Colonial favoritism Mau Mau incidents spread in East African Kenya, inten- sifiedexisting tensions. Theseso- called ethnic British colonials countered with modernweaponry, rivalries continue long after Uganda's includinganti-personnelandnapalmbombs. indepen- Algeria was a far bloodier battleground. These dence has been achieved. In Nigeria the lboand weapons and large-scale arrests "maintained the other Eastern ethnic groupswere favored as colo- nial administrators. They appearedto be ambitious peace." Their very existence intimidatedpeople and kept them quiet. in a way that Europeans could understand.Ibo aggressiveness in post-independence Nigeriawas a major factor in precipitating the Nigerian Thus the colonial period wasa prelude to the in- civil war. dependence of African countries and their various Reluctant Liberators attempts to act in concert. But simplyto say that the nature of European colonialism affected the Colonialism dies hard. To consciously preparea outcome isnot enough. Where? When? How? colony for independence is inconsistent with the Why? To consider these questions is to beginto very idea of colonial status. People in colonies are understand modern Africa. subjects. They are always viewed as dependent

63 upon the ruling power. Because racist beliefspre- figures who received power from the dominated among White colonialists departing in Africa, colonial regime!. had spentmany years abroad. Blacks were usuallyseen asinevitably dependent. White rule was often defended as the "natural Another training ground for anticolonialleaders scheme of things." Thus independencein Africa was provided by the prisons and jails and other meant more than a transfer of politicalpower. It forms of detention. Those "detained" was also the negation of a system of beliefs which could later be called martyrs. The graduates ofcolonial im- proclaimed that Black and Brown Africanpeoples and cultures were inferior. prisonment became a new elite. Amongthose earning prison certificates in the schoolingfor inde- pendence were Kwame Nkrumah, Hastings Colonialism in Africa, however, K. provided reasons Banda, Jomo Kenyatta, and the Kabaka (King)of for pride as well as regret. Takethe issue of educa- Uganda, Mustesa II. tion. Education of Africans inWestern-style schools was always a two-edged sword. To educatewas Other things contributed dangerous. And it was dangerous tothe "winds of not to educate. change" which began to blowover Africa. Some Educational policies varied. Policyobjectives were began long ago. The myth of "the invincible inconsistent.Edu, ition white wasdesiredsothat man" was shattered during World WarII by the Africans might staff lower-level civilservice posi- tions. But education Japanese. African troops were usedas packers and was not supposed to foster in- bearers in Asian Burma and in African Ethiopia dependentspirit.Particularly as intheEnglish- wellaselsewhere.TheseAfrican"carriers" speaking colonies, however, theavailability of edu- brought home stories of European defeats in cation contributed to all formsof African unrest. battle. Having been given a "peek into They saw the possibility of defeating theEuropean the European colonials in Africa. Some of thembecame leaders world of plenty" those Africansreceiving extensive speaking in behalf of independence. schooling seldom moved intoa Many more conditionof gave solid support as the growing agitation forin- "plenty." "Not having" ismade more difficult dependence intensified. when those who "have"are nearby and visible. After World War II, world marketprices for The seeds of "high expectations"were planted by books and educational agricultural commodities fluctuated wildly. programs. These hopes Whether the crop was cocoa,peanuts, or coffee, often exceeded the rewards thateducated African clerks and junior officials Africans seemed to lack controlover their own received. They read fortunes. Local economic depressionswere the too about "justice," "dignity," "freedom,"and "free- dom from want" in European-dominated frequent result of reduced marketprices. Then the schools. Korean War of the 1950s again broughthigh de- Such words were likestrong medicines. Bright mands for African metals and young men were encouraged to dream about foods. The pros- what perity was short lived. As thewar tapered off, so did could be. Then they turned theirheads and saw the the demand for many goods. Laborers poverty which often surrounded them. in urban Frustration areas were unemployed. Many returned destituteto was one result, pressure for independencewas their poor home villages. But the another. pressures on sur- vival had increased theretoo. The cash economy was barely existent but money was nonethelessre- One scheme for preparingleaders for Africa's quired to pay taxes. future was to sendyoung Africans to other nations for education. Like magnets, the European colonial Both the British and the French triedto derive powers, the United States, the Soviet Union,and enc!gh income from taxing their colonies otherso-called to defray "developed"nationsattracted the cost of administration. Thusthe climate of young scholars from Africa. On returninghome, ager and frustration was easily maintained in city many of these became leaders in anticolonialmove - and village alike. And it spread. merits. The returning "messiah" whorallied the people to dissent became an important character in The next chapter was written ina decade for all the decolonialization drama. Thescene was played the French and British colonies.In South and again and again. Al! of Africa'smajor political Central Africa, it is still being written.

64 THE INDEPENDENCE STRUGGLE IN KENYA

What was to become the Kenya independence were at the forefront of cultural contact with Euro- movement began peacefully. It was well within the peans. Kikuyu were close enough to the centers of legal bounds permitted by British colonial auth- European society to see and understand their rela- orities. Various African groups pressed for reforms tive deprivation. in colonial policies. But the local administration was dominated by the European settlers in Kenya. Jomo Kenyatta is a central figure in the modern . He left his native land in 1931 Fearing a loss of privilege, the whites tookno and remained in Europe for 15 years. There he be- meaningful action toward resolving the black griev- came a well-known spokesman for African nation- ances. Some Africans began to look to other tactics. alist causes. In London he shared attention with They formed new political organizations to achieve Kwame Nkrumah, who later became president of their goals. A desire for African controlover gov- Ghana, and Hastings Kamazu Banda, who became ernment replaced the older ideal of reform. The presidentof . BythetimeKenyatta best known of the new organizationswas called returned to Kenya in 1946, his name was well "Mau Mau." known. His reputation earned him positions of leadership in the rapidly developing organizations The years 1951 to 1955 were marked by startling among urban Africans. These groups, along with violence in Kenya. That experience wasa not-to-be- labor unions, had two major goals. They wanted an forgotten lesson for the British when they consid- expansion of AK an economic opportunities and ered the disposal of their other colonial possessions. land reform. Early Mau Mau incidents were first reported in These reform-minded groups did not get their the European press as "native uprisings." Later support from traditional land-based African polit- they were attributed to political terrorists. Wenow ical authority. They were themselves creations of know that they were immensely more complicated. the colonial system and a modern economy. Sig- nificantly, these organizations had the most direct Mau Mau reflected a civil war among the Kikuyu appeal to Kikuyu. Among the Africans in Kenya, people, who predominated in the national organi- the Kikuyu were Ideated closest to the government zation. Mau Mau was also an African challenge to centers. They were the most affected by land pres- European settler rule. The British response was to sure in the competition with Europeans for space. meet violence, real or implied, with violence. Perhaps most important, Kikuyu were culturally oriented toward change. A number of basic issues divided Africans and Europeans in Kenya. Most were economic. The The first terrorist killing of a European had not single most important issue was European occupa- yet occurred. But fact and fiction concerning the tion of African land, especially that of the Kikuyu. exotic character of Mau Mau were at the tip of A minority of the Europeanpopulation was every European tongue. Ignorance of African ob- involved. Only 23 per cent of the Europeans were jectives and fear of change made the colonialists engaged in agriculture and fishing, according to inflexible. the 1948 Kenya census. Urban-based occupa- tionsgovernment service,commercial,profes- Soon after the first wave of Mau Mau crimes, sional, clericalaccounted for most of the re- Kenyatta was arrested. He was tried and then im- mainder. Nevertheless, European settlers in what prisoned. John B. George observed the subsequent were called the White Highlands shaped British trial. His report expressed the mood of the country policy in the colony and prevented land reform. and the atmosphere in the courtroom in addition to The land reserved for Kikuyu was increasingly recording the legal proceedings. overcrowded with people. Geographically, it was sandwiched between "white-only" Nairobi and the At 10 A.M., December 3, 1952 six African Highlands. Kikuyu and their ancestral homelands defendants were seated in a courtoorn in

65 remote Kapenguria, Kira le District, Kenya. Mau Mau using testimony from witnesses The courtroom itself is improvised of from a Mau Mau initiations. One witnesstestified school building. It is fifteen milesinside the that the oath included three district border, which is closed vows. Members except to must take an active role in driving outor those who carry officialpasses. There is no killing Europeans. They should jury. Under emergency regulations, say nothing Ken- if witness to the murder ofa European by an yatta and his five co-defendantsappear before a single judge in African. They must assist any African who a Mggistrate trial. stole from a European. Theextent, if any, of Kenyatta's involvement with MauMau is as The magistrate is Justice Thacker.An unclear today as it was then. Nevertheless, elderly man, he was broughtout of retire- he was convicted of "managing Mau ment JO,- this case. Dr. Louis S.B. Leakey, Mau" and sentenced to prison, He remainedin famed for his archaeological discoveries,is detention from October 1952to August court interpreter. Both the Crown Prosecu- 1961. tion and the Defense Counselare Euro- peans. The incarceration of Kenyatta andhis co-defen- The accused illustrate the diversityof dants failed to halt African agitation. Moreex- East African racial types. Jomo Kenyattais tremist views came to dominate inboth camps, a large man, lightly bearded. His corduroy black and white. Moderate African leadersin the trousers are topped by a beige-colored (K.A.U.) lostcontrol to zipper jacket. His heavy belt isdecorated urban militants from Nairobi andMombasa. The with colored beads. His smilehas several urban activists carried the notion of violenceto the gaps but his eyes are bright and penetrating. peasantry. Its spread was accelerated greatly by the At Kenyatta's left sits .He is a flight of urban leaders to the countrysideafter the labor leader representing organizedtaxi and European government declareda state of emer- truck drivers. Kubai issecretary of the Nai- gency. Those who did not flee were hunted down rob branch of the Kenya AfricaUnion and imprisoned. [K.A.U.J. Next is Richard AchiengOneko, atall, young, extraordinarily handsome Urban workers had been relativelyeasy to recruit man in a grey business suit. He isa Jaluo, for the independence struggle. Thiswas as true in not Kikuyu like the first two. Onekowas the Kenya as it was in Ghana, Zambia, Nigeria,and K.A. U. representative presentingthe organ- the Congo. Labor movements and labor leaders, ization's land case to the UnitedNations. like Kenya's Tom Mboya,were ready political allies. They joined the independencemovement in BildadKaggia,asmall,leanman. order to achieve control over economic opportunity. occupies the fourth seat. His backgroundin- These urban workers had already left theintellec- cludes service in the army. Paul Ngeiis a tual security of custom-regulatedpeasant society. Wakamba. His peopleoccupy land to the Yet they were often disturbed by whatwas per- southeast of the Kikuyu. Ngei's membership ceived as the harsh discipline of industriallabor. In in K.A.U. probablyrepresents an attempt to the midst of the city's wealth, theywere told to attract African rather than only Kikuyu stand aside while Europeans enjoyed what African support. Kenyatta is particularly concerned labor helped produce. thatK.A.U.shouldbeanational organization. Kungu Karumba is last.He is Nationalist political leaders next soughtsupport the oldest and is the only defendant whodis- among the rural peasantry. The first successeswere plays the distinctive facial markingsof the amo...tg those farmers who were participants in the . cash economy. These African farmerswere often frustrated by the price fluctuations. OnlyEuropean ** buyers and not African producers seemedto have any control. In some remote areas where the sub- Mau Mau had no list of membership.It had no written sistence economy had not been disturbedand there constitution, no written was little Western educational influence,anti- records. The Crown triedto link Kenyatta to colonial agitation was practically unknown.

66 Mau Mau was defeated by 1955, but whitesettler effort to prevent Mau Mau's spread, theBritish pretensions were also crushed. It is estimatedthat finally attacked the rootcauses of African dis- 30,000 Kikuyu had been killed. Another68,000 content. Kikuyu, Meru, and Emba homelands were imprisoned in detention camps. Thirty-five once centers of Mau Mau strengthwere objects of Europeans had been killed. agricultural improvement projects. Thegovern- ment lifted the ban which prohibited Africansfrom Military victory by theBritish,FieldStaff growing cash crops for export. New jobs Associate Edwin S. Munger observed, were was irrele- opened to Africans at every level ofgovernment and vant to Kenya's problems. In fact, itwas the be- commerce. The Kikuyu, Munger remarked,were in ginning of the end of colonial rule.The political the forefront. center of gravity shifted away from Nairobi, where white-settlerinterestsdominated,toEngland. "The tide of African advance is unlikely European unity had dissolved. to be stemmed," Munger concluded. "Thenext waves are clearly already on the horizon." Indeed, Kenya Economically,Africansmadegreatstrides was granted independence December 12, 1963. It during the Mau Mau Emergency. Money, men, and was eleven years after Jomo Kenyatta wenton trial machines were poured into Kenya.Britain tried to and only two years after his release from prison.He spur development to win African support. In the became President of the Republicone year later.

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(Counterclockwise from upper left) Kenyan women preparing maize for grinding;a Kenyan farmer cutting sugar cane; the Parliament of Kenya; President Jomo Kenyatta of Kenya withPresident Obote of Uganda (left) and President Nyerere of Tanzania (right).

68 6 9 ZAIRE: BOLD EXPERIMENT

In the Republic of Zaire today an excitingnew crops to grow, and which of their traditions they experiment is under way. Inspired by Presidentcould keep and which they must discard. Ina Sese Seko Mobutu, its goal is to remove all traces of thousand different ways Africans were induced to the colonial past. It aims to restore to the Zairian believe that their own civilization was of littleor no people a sense of pride in their oWn traditional cul- value. The greatest good to which they might ture. The movement has been labeled by Presi- aspire, they were told, was to assimilate theways of dent Mobutu himself a "return to Authenticity." the colonizer. Yet they were never to even hope to achieve the social and economic status enjoyed by The concept of Authenticity has been eagerly the Europeans. 4 embraced by the Congolese people. Onereason for its great appeal is that the to -m can serveso many The first five years of Congolese independence purposes. It can be used to justify a vast array ofwas disillusioning. Despite their achievement of government policies. It can be a rallying cry uniting political independence from Belgium, their country people in the difficult task of buildinga nation. remained an economic captive of thesame forces. Most important in the Congo, it counters tribalism A relatively small group of businessmen back in andregionalism.Boththeseforcesseriously Belgium ("300 messieurs") seemedstillto be threatened the territorial integrity of the state in its making decisions crucial for the prosperity of the first tumultuous years of independence. Congo. They decided how the country's mineral resources should be exploited and to whom they Unlike other philosophical concepts, Authen- should be sold. They decided what basic invest- ticity is not exotic. It is immediate, relevant, and ments in infrastructure (dams, roads, railroads. practical. Moreover, it offers something toevery- etc.) should be undertaken and to whatpurpose. one. For the intellectual it is a foundation for a new sense of pride in himself, in his people, and in their Congolese began to realize one reason for their history 'andartistic accomplishments. For the high cost of living. Much of what they had been ordinary man it provides a frame of reference ina taught was desirable, and to which theywere now changing environment. It permitsa complete re- habituated, came from Europe. Such goodswere examination and a gratifying reappraisal of the sold in the Congo for more than they were worth. past. European, Christian colonizers hadcon- Congolese began to ask themselves fundamental demned traditional African life out of hand. The questions. What isthe economic relationship Congolese themselves had discarded their tradi- between the Congo and the outside world? Are tions out of an instilled sense of inferiority and there alternatives to the existing pattern? shame. Authenticity leads the way to the future by General Mobutu came to poweron November reclaiming history. 24, 1965. The Congo was still sufferhig from the The 0-21r,n,Background preceding five years of internal strife and foreign involvement. Large parts of the muitry still lay 'ive years of Belgian rule in the Congo devastated. Infrastructure had 7.;:er4 allowedto was a corrosive force in African society. Kingdeteriorate. Many of thetoes v5 were without Leopold II personally ruled the "Congo Independ- trained administrators. Thus the centralgovern- ent State," for 23 years. He regarded the land and ment's authority was tenuous. Theeconomy was its people as his private property. Thiswas the most sluggish as foreign investment lagged. Thousands humiliating chapter in Congolese history. Agents of of Congolese were out of work. the king were at work to make the vast territory in the heart of Africa safe for free trade andcom- The competition of political partieswas intense. merce. They also worked toward the eventual There were fifty when Mobutucame to power. Christianization of its people, and to hasten their Most of them represented merely local,tribal adoption of Western civilization. During this entire interests.Factionalismsappedthenation's period the Congo-80 times the size of Belgium strength. was ruled by a handful of white aliens. They dic- In sum, the cv;vry was dispirited and frag- tated to the Congolese how they must live, what mented. It despe.;:vly needed a leader who could

(.1 69 110,7:72

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Kinshasa (ex-Leopoldville), capital of-theRepublic.of-Zarrev. View of the Avenue du 30 juin, the city'sleading thorough- fare.

A view of Kisangani (ex-Stanleyville)in the Republic of Zaire.

take it in hand and revive the hope andconfidence President further informed his startled that the Congolese had felt countrymen on the eve of independ- that the Congo River would henceforth bethe Ziire ence. River. A number of other municipal and provincial place names were changed. The President A New Name for a New Nation also re- placed the country's flag with the MPRParty's flag (which shows a hand holding alofta lighted torch). President Mobutu madea surprise announce- A new national anthemwas introduced. ment on October 27.1971. The Democratic Republic of the Congo (or Congo-)would Some people feared that the henceforth become the Republic of President had made Zaiie. The an embarrassing mistake. The Portugueseexplorer,

70 Diogo CAo, had given the name "Zaire" to the mouth of the great river which he discovered in 1482. Other skeptics pointed out that Zaire is the name by which the Congo, nation and river, still are known in Portuguese. President Mobutu, however, reported that, although Zaire may have been Portuguese, it was a corruption of the -Bakongo name, "Zadi," meaning "the river that swallows all others." Even mountains did not escape. Mount Stanley, named for the Welsh-American journalist, Henry Morton Stanley, who explored vast portions of the Congo for King Leopold II, regained its traditional name of Mont Ngaliema. Congolese militants also begantopulldown thestatuesof various Europeans in the capital city. Leopold's impressive Women of Zaire parading in support of President Mobutu in equestrian statue, which stood in front of the a village upcountry. Zairian Parliament building and Stanley's statue atop Mont Ngaliema, overlooking the city, were In past centuries peoples who threw off both removed. From the capital city of Kinshasa the colonial alienationmost of the world's throughout the vast republic a similar renaming peoples, totell the truthreconstructed campaign was begun. .their own culture and rediscovered their own souls. They did this unconsciously with Then came perhaps the most startling change of the means available at the time. Some of all, a new Nationality LAW. It obliged everyone in them required centuries to do it. the country who had a foreign-sounding first name or family name to change it to a Zairian one. All In the period in which we live we must be Zairians born of a Zairian mother and ofa foreign conscious and we cannot spendyears father were told that they would have to take the waiting. To give our ideas a basis, let us set mother's name. All persons who exercised official eight years, the eight years that separate us functionsof any kind, and who kepttheir from our objective-1980. By that time European names automatically would lose their nobody must talk about Authenticity except citizenship. Even priests and nuns of Zairian as the recollection of an historic victory. nationality were not exempted. Failure to do so Then people will not think about having would result in their being consideredas foreign recourse to it, for the Zairian people will missionaries, and as aliens, not citizens. have become themselves, and recourse to Authenticity rarely was presented to the Zairian Authenticity will come about naturally, people in harshly uncompromisingways. Rather, it automatically, as a mere reflex. It will be insinuated itself into their lives. Popular music, part of ourselves; it will be our nature. At folklore, television, and party rallies tookup the that time Zairian culture will be able to theme. To be caught up in it, to be a part of it,was assimilatewithout riskthe contributions at once an exhilarating and unforgettable expe- of the entire world. There will be an original rience. Zairian way of life which will inform the nation's every activity. Politics, letters, arts, If anyone had asked the question, "Why all this science, our very mind will have become attention to Authenticity?" the Zairian journalist, unchangeably Zairian. Sakombi lnongo, had a ready answer: In the face of such an exalted goal, is it The reason is that in the immense task of not right that we should do things on the building a nation, which requires so much double? We are rather like the mountain energy and so much original genius, there is climber who puts his back to it, summons at least one factor on which we should up all his strength to reach the radiant economize: time. summit.

71 p >tit

President Mobutu hailing the welcoming crowd duringone of his President Sese Seko Mobutu addressinga crowd in Kinshasa. frequent visits to the interior.

BothPresident Mobutu andother Zairian Authenticity differs in a number of important leaders often said that Authenticity didnot signify respects from older, better-known concepts suchas a return to paganism. Nor did it mean a complete Leopold Senghor's negritude. Negritude defines the rejection of all things Western. It implied, instead, African cultural values primarily in racialterms. a more discriminating attitude on the part of Mobutu's philosophy is universalistic. Itsprecepts Zairians. It meant a readiness to accept whatwas of are as accessible and relevant to Americans cr value in other cultures (including their technical Europeans as to Africans themselves. Themessage knowledge), while maintaining their faith in and it seeks to convey is a very simpleone: that unless a commitment to that which is authentically Zairian. people take a legitimate pride in their national Will Authenticity Last? heritagein what they have been as wellas in what they arethey will never be atease, happy, or free. Virtually everyone in Zaire is at present caught up in the excitement of the mission which Authen- Authenticity is not reserved for intellectuals. It is ticity embodies. They are inspired by thesense of a philosophy belonging to the people. Individual devotion to the nation which it unquestionably im- identification with it does not dependupon having plies. But will it last? been to school or having lived ina city where he was exposed to European influences. Authenticity has Zaire, like a number of other countries, is ruled been readily embraced by upcountry people.They bya man of extraordinary andcharismatic feel themselves to be the most "authentic"of character.Persons who have known General Zairians. They are flattered to be regardedbythe Mobutu for years and who have had occasionto nation's leaders and by the .ity people whofor observe him closely all attest to hiscourage, his yearsdisdained themas thecustodiansof dedication, and above all, to his self-confidence. ancestral values. It is an entirelynew experience for This last is derived at least in part,no doubt, from many of them, and intensely gratifying. the knowledge that, after years of watching from the sidelines, he is now himself the undisputed The real importance of Authenticity isnot to be master of one of the largest and richest countries in measured by such superficialchanges asthe Africa. In Zaire politics is a blend of compromise, adoption of new names and a new flag. Itmust be coercion, and theater. Mobutu has understood this measured in terms of the fundamental change in very well. Re performs with equal astuteness and attitudes and spirit that is evident everywhere in dexterity in all three realms. Zaire today.

72 THE INDEPENDENCE STRUGGLE IN THE CENTRAL AFRICANFEDERATION

Africa'sequatorial region includedtheold carried the burden of finance within the Federa- French and Belgian Congo and what the British tion. Southern Rhodesia, on the other hand, had called Central Africa.The regionwas another cen- about three times as many Europeans. Theycon- ter of worldwide attention in the 1950s. trolled the government which the wealth incopper made possible. In the British colonies a white minority domi- nated a huge, largely silent African majority. They Gradually the mining companies in Northern ruled by virtue of arms and repressive legislation. Rhodesia passively consented to African majority The British territories, Nyasaland and the two Rho- rule. Kenneth Kaunda and the United National desias, were dissimilar in many ways. Nyasaland' Independence Party peacefully led the country,re- (now Malawi) was too poor to be -of much interest named Zambia, to independence in 1964. alone. (Zambia) had vast copper deposits. Southern Rhodesia (Rhodesia)was The Role of the Copper Companies a cattle and tobacco economy and focus for white settlement. The colonial administration joined the One test area for the doctrine of "partnership" three in the Central African Federation in 1953. was industry. Industry was concentrated on the Copperbelt, a compact area containing about 14 Britain hoped the Central African Federation per cent of the world's supply of copper. There two would combine each country's resources for mutual huge companiesOppenheimer's Anglo-American benefit. The copper industry of Northern Rhodesia based in Johannesburg, South Africa, and Ameri- was to be coordinated with the secondary industries can Metal in New York, called the shots. They paid and agriculture of Southern Rhodesia. Both would some of the world's highest wages to a large group draw from Nyasaland's pool ofexcess labor. But of Europeans on the Copperbelt. A much larger the Federation was forced by a London-basedgov- number of Africans worked in the mines. They ernment upon unwilling partners. formed a labor elite relative to other Africans. But they received far less in wages thanany European. Britain hoped to avoid in the Federation the type of violence that had occurred in Kenya. The Fede- The year 1955 might be considered crucial. If the ration was supposed to promote whatwas then "partnership" experiment was to succeed, it hadto termed "African advancement." Whatever the have the backing of the minersall of them.A Federation did, it was too slow for most Africans Field Staff Associate, Edwin S. Munger,went to and too fast for the privileged white communities. the Copperbelt that year to find out what people really thought about "African advancement." This Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) was the cornerstone of partnership's ideal. He recorded the following comments. All thequotes A great deal was at stake in Northern Rhodesia. are from European miners for it was they who There were valuable copper deposits, andan enor- exercised power. mous European investment in the mining industry. There was a sizable white populationas well. All 0 0 0 0 0 these factors tended to promotean inflexible approach to emerging African nationalism.Like "Sure I work in the minenearlyevery man in Nyasaland, there were few Europeans settledon here doessure I work undergroundIcame out agricultural land. On the Copperbelt, however, here for African Lakes*--come from Edinburgh whites monopolized all but the least skilled jobs. bought up my contract for two hundred quid** so's The European miners thought the greatcompanies I coula stick in at the mine-1 cansave on my base would back them against demands formore rapid pay,I'm saving a thousand quida year with the African advancement. (In the end, they didnot.)

There were other grievances. Many Northern The name of a copper mining company. Rhodesian whites believed that the Copperbelt Quid is English slang for the pound sterling (£).

73 copper bonus and retirement schemea working 0 0 0 man in Glasgow or Edinburgh be lucky tosave fifty quid for two weeks at Blackpool and live in a hole "I got a second engineer'sticketI've done well the rest of the yearthere hasgot to be this African heredon't mind ya knowing advancementour union will slow it itI was lucky to up but it's got have ten quid atone time at homenow I can write to comeI don't say much at unionmeetings me a check for a hundred pounds without because some of themen feel pretty sore about the thinking natives but it'll comeRST* about itfigured I'dstay out ten yearsdoneme ispushing these nine and going homehada bit of an argument natives too hardthe Anglo-Americanchaps know with a couple of the betterthey've had more experience with boysalways knew I'dgo natives homebut I gotno kick about the company like when I came out I thought I'dsave up and take some of these guys who stagger out of myself back to Scotlandtookmy first here to their leave Jaguarsbut I'm forty-twoinfive years I'll be too therelast time I went downtothesouth old to start in me own businessbusiness coastyou know out Durbanway [South Africaj-- that's me cup o'teaI got a few thousand so's Ican have me some new plots being opened up there lookpretty goodI used to be in the a nice shopwhat I want is to be ableto see me grocery businessnot peopleand I like togo down to the local* for a enough profit margin in groceriesI'dlike tobacco and magazines like this bloke few when I feel like ittheydrink a lot here but down the street there ain't no locals likehomebesides I want to therebetter profit margin andshorter hoursI raise me the odd pigeon prefer Natalto Scotlandmaybe Salisbury or twoI've lost a bloody or fortune on them heremusthave fed half the Bulawayo would be all rightbetterchance for the bloody hawks in the countrytime kiddies in AfricaRoan'sa good companyI give I got me family them a day's work." homeI wantmegrandchildrentospeak Englishnow my daughter'sso lazy she can't walk 0 0 0 herself down to the swimmingpoolthe African has got to get a chance butI'm glad I won't,be here. "Hell man where doyou come f :11jy is 'n Amerikanerek dink jy is 'n baie goeieman**I 0 0 0 likeit herea man's gota chancetoo much "I've been here bloody racialism in the UnionJockand I are good seven yearswent tothe university after being demobbed**and then drifted friendshe doesn't have topraat die taalthe up hereI like the countryit's Scotsman the Welshman the Yugoslav changed a lot the Pole all since I camemuch nicernowmy wife's a Rho- get along here inthis bar andallover this desian from the southshe doesn't countryI left the Union in forty- nine like the Union worked on of South Africa and Iwouldn't go to the United the railways for twenty yearsI'man Afrikaner Kingdomwhere could I .make but the way they treatedsome of the English types money like this what came out here and the climate isn't bad formy little girls and the worked to build up the schools are much betterthis ismy countryI like railwayswouldn't let themearn maximum salary itthe African has toget a better job but that for five years so's they couldearn a decent pension takes time--you can't teach just because their Afrikaans wasn't him to be respon- too goodyou siblebut it has tocome and fighting about it from Stellenboschtoomany bloody Nationalists won't help." down therewe get along all rightin this coun- trylike I saidexcept for the bloodycount * * * let the rriunt advancegive himevery job in the 0 0 0 0 0 0 placeit's all right withme as long as you make it in a thousand...yearsno bloody kaf/ir * * ** is "Another forty-six men from allover the mine going to take this man's job." broaden the picture," Mungerwrote. "Most of the United Kingdom workers look forwardto opening' a fish-and-chips shop at a British seasideresort. *Rhodesian Selection Trust, an American Metalholding Most of the South Africans plan toreturn to their company with headquarters in Rhodesia. "Afrikaans, one of the two official languages ofSouth Africa. Slang for African. *Tavern. Also slang for African. .___,....,"Dernobilized. Leaving military service. native land. Nearly all the Afrikanerstherewere keep the peace so that they might withdraw grad- sixteenwant to use their savings to buya farm in ually and gracefully. When the British intent be- the Transvaal or the Free State. However, two said came clear, African agitation decreased. Colonial they 'hadn't saved a tickey' but they'd get startedas officials worked cooperatively to train Africans in soon as one bought a few things and the other paid governmentadministration.Transition from for his 1955 car. Nine menwere claiming the British to African rule was smooth. Copperbelt as their home. FroM their conversation, Iinferred that several others will probably put Nyasaland was renamed Malawi. It became an down roots even though they say they plan to independent republic on July 6, 1966. Dr. Hastings leave." Kamazu Banda was elected President. "Perhaps half the men who plan to leave want to make every penny possible," Munger observed, Southern Rhodesia "then never look back." They want to keep Afri- cans "in their place," but not if it means strikes or The only people who really wanted the Central interruption of earnir.gs. A few of them argued with African Federation to succeed were the Southern sincerity that African advancement was essential to Rhodesians.AtleastthewhiteSouthern- the future of the country. But all e-xceptone man Rhodesians wanted Federation. They were out- said he would be gone when the Africans tookover. numbered by black Africans at least twenty toone. Surprisingly, trouble came first in Nyasaland. It Some Africans gave provisional support to Fed- was the least-known and .:.:ast-developed country. eration. The crucial issue was political representa- As late as 1962 there were only 9,400 whites in the tion. Africans asked for a "one man-one vote" entire country. Most of those were either mission- system. They also demanded an end to legal dis- aries or government employees. Europeans anda crimination againstAfricans.Africans wanted few Africans produced an inferior tea andsome equal opportunities for employment. They also rather good tobacco. There was little else to note asked to be free to aspire to the same social status about what today is Malawi. Yet that countrywas as Europeans. Most of the black nationalist leaders the most reluctant to enter the Federation. Africans were considered moderate by the standards of the feared that a government dominated by whites in day. They were willing to accept policies aimed at the Rhodesias would forestall indefinitely gradual reform. Nyasaland's independence. Rhodesian whites, on the other hand, feared that Credit for the uproar in Nyasaland, and perhaps to give an inch one day would mean a mile the next the violence, must go to Dr. Hastings Kamazu day. Many of the Europeans were settled on the Banda. He returned there in 1958 after 40years best agricultural land. They controlled big agri- abroad. His arrival in Nyasaland sparked the inde- cultural estates. The cities were theirs almost pendence struggle. Banda's careereducation in entirely.Southern Rhodesian whites were exile, imprisonment in his native landis typical of uncompromisingintheirdefianceofblack the colonial experience of many Africans who be- aspirations. They were fearful of minority status came nationalist leaders. under conditions of political equality. Britain feared 'hat the confrontation in Nyasa- When the Central African Federation was dis- land would be as violent as in Kenya. But they had solved on December 31, 1963, Southern Rhodesia far less at stake. They would not hang onto the became a self-governing colony of Britain. Euro- colonyifitwastocostmoney,lives,and peans in the colony and those in England could not embarrassing questions in Parliament. reach agreement on terms for full independence. The issue was African political rights. In November There were brief outbreaks of violence in 1959. 1965, Ian Smith, the colony's Prime Minister, de- Banda, and almost every other educated African in clared independence. Despite economic sanctions Nyasaland, was detained by colonial officials. But and United Nations censure,- Rhodesia hasre- the British acted with restraint. They tried only to mained independent.

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Hippo Valley. Most African labor is of this stoop variety, rvising. (2) Prime Minister Ian Smith and his family. (3) Afi feel plant at Que Que. ) A partial view of Algiers looking toward the East.

ALGERIA THEN

The war for independence in Algeria beganon President Charles de Gaulle called for a French November 1, 1954. Psychologically it had begun national vote to decide Algeria's future. The refer- years earlier. On that date, however, the National endum was held on January 6-8, 1961 both in Liberation Front (FLN) opened military action France and in Algeria. The vote favoring Algerian against the French colonial administration and its independence was almost three to one in France armed forces. Bitter fighting continued. In 1958, and two to one in Algeria. Yet the OAS continued the Algerians set up a provisional government in to work against these majority views and official Cairo,.Itbroadcast radio messagesto policies. "freedom fighters" in Algeria. Also it gathered international support for the Algeriancause. French settlers in Algeria, the colons and the OAS increased terrorist activities. The FLN fought The Algerian revolt against colonials becamea back. Violence and tragedy were daily occurrences. passionate issueinboth France andAlgeria. France itself was on the brink of civil war. Acts of Algerians were shot at random from passing terrorism were common events in both countries. A cars. Women and children were murdered and left secret organization, the OAS (Organisation de to die in the gutters while others shopped and l'armee Secrete) was organized to "keep Algeria drank coffee. Bombs were exploded in libraries, at French." The OAS was composed of French colo- lunch counters, in taxis. Meanwhile a cease-fire nists and military who opposed official French was being negotiated secretly. The FLN and the policy in Algeria. government of Charles de Gaulle were parties to

77 the agreement. On July 3, 1962, Algeriawas pro- around the city's edge. By 1954 the population claimed independent. Ahmed Ben Bella of became Algiers was about half Algerian, halfEuropean. Prime Minister, then President ofAlgeria. but the two populationswere segregated. Algerians When Algeriawas a French colony, the capital appeared in the European sections onlyas laborers. was Paris. France, especially Paris, providedthe After the revolution, Algerians wenteverywhere. administrative and cultural hub forcolonies such Because many Europeans left, they outnumbered as Algeria. French behavior was the model. French Europeans seven to one. Algerians could beseen policies were the law. Travel andcommunication standing outside fashionable shops. Parisianstyle and education centered for French colonialpeoples shops remained open for business butempty of around Paris. customers. Most Algerians were unemployed. The capital of independent Algeriais Algiers, Wages and prices came to be totallyout of one of the major metropolitan centers of North balance. The wartime years had been Africa. A walk along Algiers' streets abnormal. in early 1963 They provided heavy military spending andvirtu- gave observers a feeling for the Algerian situation allyfull employment, even at independence. fortheunskilled. Because Algeria had been a Europeansettlement The mood of the city was reflected inthe mass of colony, few Algerian workers had acquired tech- handbills and posters pastedon walls. "People! nical skills. The war was over. Sowere the jobs. This property belongs toyou. Take care of it." City buses carried an admonition: "This vehiclebelongs to the people. It is also yoursifyou respect the Square of the Amir Abdelkader, Algiers. It employees and help the old and was formerly the infirm." The named after General Bugeand who"pacified" Algeria signs were in French, although the officiallanguage between 1830 and 1947. of Algeria was Arabic. Thegovernment understood that literate Algerians had learnedto read French. More people spoke Arabic but they couldnot read it.Thus messages writteninthe"colonial" language, French, were completelyAlgerian. They carried forward the egalitarianand puritanical principles of the Algerian socialrevolution. Radios played in open windows andstreetside cafes. Ordinary Algerians had beenpoliticized by the long struggle for independence.They listened to the radio for every sign of change.They wanted evidencethat new government policieswould actually improve their lives. Some of thebroadcasts were in French, some in Arabic. The Frenchlan- guage broadcasts stressed building Arab socialism. Islamic religious and moral influencedominated the Arabic languageprograms. Koranic readings and comments were common. Therewere long ser- mons on properbehavior andresolutionof problems according to religiouslaw. The govern- ment-controlled radio stations andpress demanded austerity and purity. Governmentofficials were told to set a good example. Therewas to be no 4.47171"."..41.1"."1"11.1""4 pomp in independent Algeria. The audiencewas sober, quiet, reflectiveand expectant. - Algiers had always been a European city. Itwas built by the French for the French. Algerianswere concentrated in the "Casbah." They lived in this special all-Algerian quarter, and insettlements

7S State boundaries ALGERIA Wilaya (Province) boundaries Administrative Boundaries Wilaya capital.

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What geographic factors could account for the small northern a.td largesouthern Algerian provinces?

The departure of many Europeans furtherde- form of assistancemostly surplus Europeanand pressed the Algerian economy. Agriculturestag- American food just to stay alive. nated at prewar levels. Thewar had destroyed homes, livestock, vineyards, and equipment. Urban Algeria had been exhausted by the longwar for Algerians. about three million people in 1961, independence. The FLN's fervorgave way to earned only around $250 eachyear. Half were fatigue. There was exhilaration when independence unemployed in 1963. Some six million was announced. But Algerians seemed to realize peasants that building a new life was not earned about $50 annually in 1961. Theywere des- easy. Economically titute then and remained destitute twoyears later. and psychologically more struggle lay ahead. Itwas President Ben Bella estimated that perhaps fourhard for ordinary Algerians. Itwas hard for the and one-half million people depended French-educatea elite who remained. Thestory of a on some typical encounter, in July 1962, is illustrative.

79 Lakhdar Brahimi was a young official in the "Well, it was political work,madame. Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Hereturned to Algiers after many years abroad workingwith the F',N. He "Ah. I see." Her phrase went to an apartment buildingto renew the ac- was automatic. But she quaintance of some old friends. In was beginning to see the truth for the firsttime. the hallway he dimly and falteringly. The little met an elderly Frenchwoman whomhe had known old lady began to in his youth. Outside the see a vague connection between the conversation building was the chaotic with the nice young. Algeriangentleman and the noise of independence celebrations.The little Euro- raucous mob outside. But she still couldnot .fully pean lady greeted him with that purelyFrench politeness of formal sincerity: grasp or believe. "But. M. Brahimi." and she pointed "Ah. M. Brahimi. its goodto see you again. It toward the has been a long time." street. "You vere not,you are not... with them?" She could hardly utter the word. Hewas embar- "Yes. madame. severalyears since we last met." rassed and pained. They lookedat each other hesitantly for a minute before he found the soft. -You ~were in France.were you not? Studying at measured words. the university ?" "That is correct, madame.- "Yes. madame. I tiwus. Iam with them." Then there was only silence. Between themthe -And now you havecome back. How nice. Did you .finish your studies, Mr, Brahimi?" unwavering stare of timorous hope reachedout. trying to understand and knowing it couldnot. "No. madame. Iwas prevented from completing them." "Oh, what a pity, It is always sad when young The former heart of the Europeanlower-middle class in people are unable to finish theireducation. Did you Algiers, the Place des Trois go to work then in France?" Horloges, Bab-el-Oued. "No, madame." and he hesitated.'1 did not work in France." "What have you been doing thenall this time. M. Brahimi? Why didyou nor come back home to see us?" -I was unable tocome back. madame."

"Unable to come buck? I don'tunderstand, M. Brahimi. Did you not have thepassage?" "No. it was not that. madame.I... was called on to do other things." "But. if you did notcome back and you did not work in France, where didyou go? Did you go abroad. M. Brahimi? Wereyou traveling?" "Yes, I was. madame. I visitedmany countries and I worked in them." "Ah. Was your workinteresting. M. Brahimi? Muy I ask what sort of workwere you doing?" The jungl, of noise seemedto close in on them from the doorway.

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-itar.m2 's ColonelHouari Boumedienne,Presidentof comes ..rom money earned by migrants to Algeria, announced a four-year plan for economic cities or Europe. development beginning in 1974. It is more than a a is a textbook example of a dual economy. plan to raise the Gross National Product (GNP) and L peans in colonial Algeria owned the best agri- per capita income. Its main purpose is to carry on cultural land. This ranged from vineyards in the in economic terms the war for liberation. west to grain-growing plains in the east. Their The colonial period "' methods were modern, mechanized, and capital- geria was more than a intensive. Products from estates owned by French confrontation over,;, a European, largely settlers called colons accounted for 80 per cent of Christian minority indigenous,largely exports. Muslim majority. There was violence, racism, and segregation. There was also the deep cultural im- After tndependence most of the Europeans left print of France. The language, living styles and and their farms were nationalized. The government eating habits, intellectuallife and bureaucratic set up a series of state-owned farms. Between procedures of contemporary Algeria all reflect this 1962-1965 the farms were badly managed and pro- French influence.Economically and culturally duction was halved. Under Boumedienne's direc- France and Algeria are bound. tion,the farms have been regrouped to form workers' cooperatives. Some of the cooperatives Industry have been relatively successful. They also have the advantage of employing more people-115,000 Algerian leaders have chosen to emphasize com- full-time and 120,000 temporary laborers. plex industrial projects using advanced technology. Wit the country lackstheskilledmanpower. The so-called "traditional" sector of Algerian During the colonial period, education was open to agriculture is in trouble too. As in colonial times, it only a few Algerians. The language of instruction ispeople-rich and production-poor. About six was French. Little technical t:aining was available. million peoplehalf the populationearn their Since independence Algeriahas extendedthe livelihood from this land. The traditional sector in- school system. The use of Arabic has been greatly cludes mountain, steppe, and pre-desertarea. It is expanded at all levels. It will be years, however, dependent on inadequate and inconsistent rainfall. before the country can produce enough graduates As much as 50 per cent lies fallow everyyear to for developmental needs. Algeria remains depen- recover some fertility, Erosion by water and wind is dent on imported, skilled manpowerengineers, widespread and overgrazing iscommon. Every year architects, project advisors, agronomists. the Sahara desert subtracts cultivable land while the population growth adds to the number of in- habitants. Average farm income here is equalto The greatest industrial asset which Algeria has about US$34 per year. presently is oil. The oil and gas industry in the 1970s has contributed between 16 and 24 per cent of Algerianleaders do notintendtotiethe Algeria's Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The economic future to agriculture. Agriculture is of entire industry employs only 16,000 people. The oil secondary but critical importance in the four-year industry typifies the capital-intensive nature of development plan. But a major effort is underway Algeria'seconomicdevelopment.Wherecan to modernize and intensify methods of production. ordinary, unskilled Algerians of working age find The modern sector is almost totally understate jobs? control. It can be more easily integrated withgen- eral development planning, The traditionalsector Agriculture isbased on private ownership and subsistence farming. It will he difficult to change the agricul- Agriculture employs about 60 per cent of all tural technology unless there is reorganizationof economicallyactiveAlgerians. Yet agriculture social and economic relationships. For example, contributes only about 15 per cent of GDP. Most the planned reformforthetraditionalsector important, less than half the income of rural people includes the takeover of tribal, communal,and re- derives from w..,rking the land. The bulk of rural ligious property.

82 Transformationoftheagriculturalsector, look for jobs in the cities. The urban population is modern and traditional,is crucial to Algeria's increasing at a rate of 4.2 per cent annually. Rural economic future. It is less important for the food it areas increase at 2.8 per cent. will produce than the jobs it will create. Most important, it will generate buying power among the bulk of ,Algeria's population. Without this market forindustrial and consumer goods,industrial development itself will fail. Algeria must industri- a1;:r.e in order to modernize agriculture. Agriculture must modernize to absorb the products of industry. ,c, Employment

Fully one-third of males in the 15-65 age bracket Namst.r. that defines the work force are unemployed. For every one industrial worker, there are three who are unemployed. The four-year development plan calls for the creation of 68,000 new jobs a year outside agriculture. Yet, population growth alone will con- tribute 120,000 new job-seekers annually. Given the more rapid increase of population over jobs, 0.7 unempls.r-rnent will probably get worse. 711110111.' One reason for high unemployment is urban Algerian workmen atthe "Tuuerie," migration. Hundreds of thousands of Algerians El-Hadjar Steel Complex. Annaba. have fled rural poverty and underemployment to V Engine Assembly at the SONACOME Tractor Plant, Constantine.

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Gas Liquefaction Plant at Skikda (ex-Philippeville). Migration to the cities has intensified unemploy- return of Algerian workers from Europe could bf.: ment. Migration abroad has partially compensated. disastrous. It could flood the dnmestic :market with About 300,000 Algerians are employed abroad, experienced but dissatisfied mostly in France. Counting their wives and depen- dents, perhaps one millionAlgerianslivein There are some poritive firtors working in Europe. Worker migration is a social safety valve. Algeria's favor. The world energy crisis gtilrantees It is also a major source of the hard currency vital Algeria growing- profits fawn 1.;i1 anti gas to Algeria's development. There is some fear among Algerian leaders that Algerians began their development drive before foreign migration isa. two-edged sword. The off- rapid population growth..:ouldoverwhelm the spring of migrants may lose their emotional ties to effort. Some economists expect Algerians will vel- Algeria. They may choose not to send money home untarily limit family size as higher living s;ar,.'ardF. to poorer relatives. Someday Algerians want these are achieved. Also; Algeria needs skilled workers to return home. They can use the skills nicalworkers. The plannedrat,-of ecvuo:nic acquiredinEurope.Inthemeantime, (the expansion could absorb all the graduates government does its best to assurethat the flow of Algerian universities and technical instittn, s. cash from Europe to .-".1geria continues. Perhaps the 1..ost favorzble factor is p-ycho Outlook for the Future logical. The government hassetthesiy;eof icrifice and hard work by its own example. There Algeria's development plans are bold. Failure are individual cases of corruption but these are few. would be hard to hide. The risks are enormous. The expectation of corruption is not widespread. Urban unemployment could boil over creating Austerity is shared at all levels. The exhilati:aio.i of social disorder and political instability. Agricul- newly-won independence has passed. Still present turalunderemployment andrapidpopulation among Algerians are a militant spirit and the will growth add further dangerous pressures. Forced to succeed.

84 CREATING AFRICAN NATIONS

Most African states achieved independence in coincided.'sMuslimpopulationwas the.te 1950s and early 1960s. The leaders of the almost 100 per cent homogeneous when the country new states accepted the territorial boundaries of achieved independence in 1960. And modernizing the old colonies. Somalia was the only majorexcep- leadership was still linked closely to traditional tion although other countries also complained. authority. There was only the most minimal split in Some called the boundaries "unnatural" and attitudes between urban and rural populations. "artificial." The boundaries often did not coincide with ethnic, linguistic, or social divisions. People Somalis define the political communit: to in- speaking the same language were split by bound- clude all people who share the same genealogical aries as between Ghana and Togo. The culturally system. All Somalis claim descent from a common similar people were separated by the boundary be- a- :estor. Some who share that system lived at least tween Dahomey and Western Nigeria. There are part of the year under Kenyan or Ethiopian juris- many other examples. On the other hand, Nigeria diction. This fact presents another kind of bound- -icluded in its many regions peoples who thought ary problem. Many Somalis are pastoralists. They of themselves as very dissimilar. These examples, follow their herds from place to place with the too, could be multiplied again and again. Allover seasons.Pastoraliststendtoignoreborders. Africa people were worried about conflict arising Borders do not appear to exist as meaningful fea- over border dispites. tures on the environment. Borders are seen as legal fiction, not as physical barriers. Settled agricul- External Borden turalists, on the other hand, tend to accept bound- aries as logical limits to farming activities. The borders between African countrieswere lines on maps drawn in European chartrooms. Somalia's pastoralists pressed territorial claims Some were drawn in the eighteenthcentury, more in the neighbori nuntries. The government took in the nineteenth. Others were negotiated afterthe up their cause. I ,isued territorial claims af ainst Second World War. None of the borderswas Kenya and Ethiopia since independence. The dis- established by Africans. No local politicalprocesses pute has been a recurrent threat to regional order. determined their location. Nevertheless, thesewere the internationally recognized boundariesbetween Internal Divisions African countries. The land and peoplewere di- videct.lay decisionmakers outside Africa. Internal recognition of an independentstate with a specified territory was one step. It took place out- There were good reasons, however, for retaining side Africa. But it took many steps tocreate mod- the old, European boundaries inpost-colonial ern, nations in Africa. Internal activities whichcon- Africa. Thesecre the boundaries of the colonial triouted to the concept of a nationwere more prob- exper:cnc,.:4,11 the -iodern elements of the eco- lematic. nomic and :,d,liinistrative systems had developed A nation is defined by the people'scommon insidethecolonialborders.Mostnationalist loyalty to a culture, language, territory, historical leaders wished to stimulate modernization in their traditions, and institutions.Nations existedin countries. They :ad to build on what existed. Thus Africa before the colonial period. The Ashanti the goals of modern development reinforced the Kingdom in Ghana, the Bakongo in Zaire (Congo), enisting boundaries. the Buganda in Ugandaall met the requirements for nationhood. Other nationalgroups actually Somalia: An Exceptional Case came into being during the colonial period. The Ibo of Eastern Nigeria are one example. But the bound- Somalia differed from most other newly inde- aries of the -traditional- nationswere not the same pendent states in several ways. It was the only as those of the modern political state. Continued African country which seemed to fit the model of expression of loyalty to the traditional nation has the European nation-state. Ethnic, cultural, lin- come to be called "tribalism." Tribalism seeks to guistic, religious, and territorial boundaries roughly promote local interests over those of the common

( 85 welfare. Tribalism, like economic development,has been a major problem to Africangovernments from 111/Weal colonial times to the present. It' The interplay between traditional and modern in any society is complex. The lines are seldom clear. This is true in Africa, in the United States,or else- 10' where. Take the problem of leadershipas example. African politicians sought to become leadersof entire nations. They needed to demonstratetheir I. .aft claims to represent all the people,or at least most of them. The means to do thiswas universal suffrageone person, one vote. But the democratic notion this implies had not been ^ ,:olonial ideal. In 5. Mk Vkteu the newly independent countriesdemocracy came into existence at the highest level of * government. Demo1/4:ratic mechanisms were new to peopleat the local level. They were not used to being askedto 7 er vote on policies affecting their own future. Most Africans were living in rural areas withpoor com- munications resources. As an electorate, theirper- ceptions were largely local. They hadno experience 1 and little understanding of policy-makingfor the e I interests of an entire nation. Thus the modern democratic format for political participation was often footless. It existedmore in form than substance. The form could bemanipu- o 20 lated oy indiv:ouals for their private benefit.This is , , `1 """ one of the themes that runs through much modern 2' African literature. Ayi Kwei Arrrah titled hisnovel about corruption in Ghana The Beautiful OnesAre This man sf GhaLla shows the areas in which distinctive Not Yet Born. That is, perfect, incaruptible people 'tribal grz-,ups were dominant.. Ashanti occupied the south- do not yet run the .society. Nevtrtheless, the ideal central area in the twentieth century but in the nineteenth remains. century their influence reac:led much further north. Ghana's total land area is roughly equivalent to that of the state of The fragile nature of democracy createdmany Oregon. problems. Democratic forms could be manipulated by factions. These could be basedon ethnic (tribal) Source: Atlas of Population Characteristics, Accra.1964. interests. Others might form aror,nd religiousor regionalinterests.The mliitsrayoftenformed another focus for special interests. Over andover, strength of support from traditional leaders.Ken - the tensions caused by rapid changewere expressed yatta used the support of the economically domi- in the political arena. Civil war in Nigeria and in nant Kikuyu people in Kenya. When he became Burundi have been extreme expressions ofa com- President, it was difficult to convince non-Kikuyu mon problem. that he also represented their interests. Kwame Nkrumah in Ghana chose another strategy. The Political AuthorityModern and Traditional traditional political elite representedan alternative to national allegiance. Nkrumah tried to destroy Nearly all African nationalist leaderswere on a their power. Instead, he sought to buildon the politialtightrope when their countries became image of a national "founding father." He wanted independent. Many had achieved poweron the Ghanaians to think of him the way people in the

86 United States view George Washington. Ghana- people to benefit from modernizationas quickly as ians, he hoped, would identify with the nation,not possible. Thus they demanded both independence local authority. andindustrialization.

The Modernizing Elite Who was the modern African elite? It included Colonial society permitted little popular political government bureaucrats and clerks. It drew from participation. Ma forpoliticaldecisionsatthe the labor elite of mine, railway, and dock workers. national level were made by a few colonial admin- Like the political elite, they linked their country's istrators. In the newly independent Africancoun- lack of development to foreign domination. Hos- try, decisions were made by a few leaders at the top. tility was directed toward the colonial rulers. Anti- Few common people challenged their rightto do so. colonialism brought together people of different It appeared to them that the systemwas as it always languages, customs, and religions. We have called had been. Only the people had changed. this response nationalistic. But unitywas based on recognition of a common enemy. Itwas also an These national leaders were, for t-'e most part,a assertion of the worth of Africans, of Black people. modernizing elite. They had received most of their In the days immediately following independence, education abroad or in Europeanized schools in Pan-African feeling was often as strongas national Africa. For the most part, it was an educationcon- patriotism. Few ordinary people felt themselves to sistent with an industrially advanced society.But be Nigerians, Kenyans, or Congolese. To create the countries they governed in Africawere not in- such a national identity has been the task of the dustrialized. The new leaders wanted theirown national parties and of every national leader.

t; I

87 In northern Kenya, the seminomadic Boran people are at a crucial transitional point in their history. Members of the group, especiallythe older ones, continue to live their lives in a tradi- tional manner. Others are being formally educated in Western-style schools. Still others are working as clerks in the govern- mentbureaucracy,or participating in local level po'itical decisions. t I f - 1 a

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Independence produced a kind of euphoria. internal disharmony. Dissension has frequently African leaders had known that this wouldsoon charaCterized their domestic life. wear off. Sovereignty, once achieved, was not enough. It did not automatically bring national Stability and Development unity. Nor did independence alone provide the means to nanage "underdeveloped" and depen- Ivory Coast and Guinea were both colonies of dent economies. France. Yet they have differed in many respects. They have approached economic development But many people expectedat leasthoped fora rapid improvement inliving conditions. differently. Each has attempted to createa unique 'These expectations built up during the decoloniza- national identity. tion period throughout Africa. Later, these hopes Guinea was a one-party state from the earliest were reinforced by governments and the press. Low days of independence. Its militant approach toward costtransistor radios,television,and popular cementing national unity has been successful. The magazines carried the message.Governmentswere effort to avoid neocolonialist entanglements has under constant pressure to produce real benefits been less successful. Eastern-European-Bloc forthepeople. The result was an enormous nationshaveprovidedconsiderableeconomic increase of energy and enthusiasm. Therewere also assistanceto Guinea's government headed by certain unfortunate events and trends associated Sekou Toure. Rigid limits on personal liberty have with haste and inexperience. been the pattern. Yet neither foreign aidnor Some leaders chose to undertake spectacular internal restrictions have been enough to halta projects to gain public favor. Such schemes,even if decade of economic decline. completed, have had uncertain economic value. As things fall apart, living standards deteriorate. Ghana's enormous and lavish convention facilities Citizens become angry and resentful. Sdkou Tourd are but one of many examples. Flamboyant inter- has reacted with new policies. He did not wantto be national politics captured the imagination of other replaced by a military coup as was Nkrumah in leaders. Again, Kwame Nkrumah's example is out- Ghana. First, Toure attempted to establish cordial standing. Becoming famous abroad came to beone relations with other French-speaking Africancoun- way of gaining popularity at home. tries. And some of these have been financially bene- ficial. Slowly, and in small measure, Tourd has also There has been substantial progress neverthe- reopened trade with France. less. Africa's leaders can point to solid achieve- ments. Production and prosperity, education and Ivory Coast health have made gains in many places in Africa. In Ivory Coast the government of HouphouEt- In the late 1960s and early 1970s, most African Boigny has been comparatively stable. Contrasted countries wrestled with two big issues, political with Guinea, it has also been productive. Ivory stability and economic deielopment. The issues are Coast remained snugly within the protectiveeco- interrelated. And although African nations shared nomic network of the French community of nations the same problems, they chose different solutions. after independence. It has been a profitable rela- These fall roughly into two categories. tionship.

In Guinea, Ivory Coast, Zambia, Malawi, and The Ivoirien president approved policiesfor even Rhodesia, foreign involvement has been the gradual Africanization. Selcou Tourd requested major issue. Is foreign capital necessary? Should that the French give up their jobs immediately after foreign labor and management be permitted to Guinea became independent. Africans in Ivory enter or stay? How much foreign investment is Coast have been, replacing Europeans in jobs at all enough? How much is tc o much? These countries levels. But slowly. The pace has been steady, grad- have tried to balance on the tightrope between ual. Boigny has been unwilling to hasten Africani- foreign aid and "neocolonialist" domination. zation if it risked losing technical skills and effi- ciency. So the nation has remained dependent upon Liberia, Kenya, Uganda, and Somalia, on the French personnel. French and even French Cana- other hand, have concentrated on problems of dians have held many responsible positions. There

90 to create a multiracial government. Recently he has appeared to be almost a friend. His solicitations of financial aid have been made to European nations, Israel, and the neighboring White governments in Africa. Over the years Dr. Banda has cooperated openly with South Africa. Many Malawiansgo there to work in the mines. Theyearn higher wages than they could in Malawi. But Banda regards this as a temporary humiliation. He hopes to make Malawi self-sufficient. "What," Africans have often asked, "is Banda's objective?" Malawi's economic developmentseems the best answer. And the goal is little different from ae As"ra- 1.- those of other African national leaders. But they and he differ considerably in discussions of how is a growing chorus of criticism. The "goslow" best to achieve development. approachhasbeendenouncedregularlyby students, laborers, and white collar workers.Today Malawi has long been the poorest country in in Ivory Coast it is noticeablethat the pace has Central Africa. As recently as 1970,some 300,000 quickened. Malawian workers found itnecessary to work outside their country, usually in South Africa and Along with demands for more rapid Africaniza- Rhodesia. President-for-life Banda does not accept tion, there is a growing national consciousnessin this economic situation as a permanent fact. And Ivory Coast. It is broad-based and has-beenex- his emphases on agriculture and related industries pressed in several ways. One of the most significant have begun to pay dividends. However little, there expressions is in protests against the numberof is today more steady employment for Malawiansat non-Ivoiriens employed in Ivory Coast. Thesepro- home than in the past. Some of the industrial and tests are directed at Africans from Ghana and agricultural development that makes this possible Upper Volta as well as Europeans, mainly French. has been financed by South African grants. This is because South Africa wants to cultivate "friends" Tensions among the diverse ethnicgroups within in Africa. In the relationship between Malawi and Ivory Coast remain visible or are easily uncovered. South Africa, it is unclear just Who is "cultivating" ',lone of these, however, has beena threat to the whom. governmental regime. Money reserves have alsoincreasedunder Malawi Banda's guidance. -Pi::: trade deficitexcess of im- ports over exportshas been reduced. Imports Malawi, too, stands in contrast to Guinea. But have mostly been heavy equipment, which iscon- the situation in Malawi is also quite unlike thatof sidered an investment in creating future production Ivory Coast.President Banda has createda for export. Neighboring Zambia has provideda practical policy for accommodation with the white- market for agricultural products. ruled governments to the south. Suchan arrange- ment is necessitated both by Malawi's poverty and Critics have not been taken lightly by Life Presi- dent Banda. Inside the country he has eliminated its geographical position. It is surrounded by white- dominatedordependentblackgovernments. political opposition. His is a distinctly undemo- Malawi is in a uniquely dependent position. And cratic style. Yet he appears to be genuinely poplar President Bapda seems to win advantages for in Malawi. His policy of "contact and dialogue" Malawi in a situation that most African leaders has gained support among many. Ivory Coast has could not tolerate. been friendly. So have other former French colo- nies. In terms of his own standards, Banda issuc- The irony is that Banda wasonce feared by Euro- cessful. Large amounts of financial aid from South riea.r Some say he single-handedly wrecked the Africa have been helpful. And i.:41awi is not with- otrait'riean Federation, Britain's weak attempt outupport elsewhere.

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C * , agricultural ,-roduction has fallen since indepen- OAT. dence. At times food shortages have been so acute jii4o4 as to require purchases from Rhodesia. Having to -1 h..., .Awt buy maize from white-ruled Rhodesia has been a '4l,gc..44,-/ipoltr CAIEPPILLAP particularly bitter pill for Kaunda to swallow. tar*, Zambia's domestic crisis compels drastic meas- ures. Kaunda's interests have had to shrink from the global and pan- African levels to survival at rh f home. Kaunda, like Sekou Toure in Guinea, is especially mindful of the fate that befell Nkrumah. Zambia Rhodesia Zambia and its leader Kenneth David Kaunda have suffered a series of setbacks since 'indepen- Rhodesia is wealthy. It is wealthier than all its dence. Kaunda has been one of Banda's harshest Africanneighbors.Of course,itenjoys a critics. Today he is happy to buy food produced in geographic advantage. Its soil is rich and the min- Malawi. On a small scale, Zambia's problems are eral deposits are plentiful. The role it plays in typical of those which have affected African states Africa is that of a neocolonialist intermediary. since independence. Rhodesia helps to maintain its African neighbors Tribalism has been a continuing problem, built hostage to European economic interests. But Rho- in from the start. Additionally, vigorous religious desia is also an African country. It is subject to the movements have complicated the old ethnic rival- common African problem of a dual economy. This ries. The Lumpa Church of Alice Lenshina has has been distorted by the racial divisions of the openly defied the Zambian government's authority.. society. She commands a substantial following and takes an active role in politics. Such political factionalism The Blacks have been tied to agricultural sub- has been exasperating for Kaunda. He offered to sistence or to menial urban labor. Whites mean- resign in 1968 if such a move would provide while have enjoyed the benefits of commercialized national unity. He stayed. agriculture and modern industrialization. Kaunda has allied Zambia ideologically with Rhodesia made a unilateral declaration of inde- Nyerere in Tanzania and Sekou Toure in Guinea. pendence in 1965. Against British resistance, Rho- He has tried to underpin Zambian nationalism with desian Whites rejected colonial status. A new sort his theory of Humanism. But the shoes haven't of "independence." was won. Around the world, quite fit. His descriptions of the good society to be people wondered what the government of Ian created seem vague and unsystematic. They have Smith would do. Rhodesia's agriculture provided failed to stimulate a strong sense of national pur- enormous production and cashflow.Ithad pose. desirable minerals and worldwide financial connec- tions. Rhodesian Whites also had a determination to succeed on their own terms. Zambia's civil service has been dispted, ineffi- cicnt, and sometimes corrupt. Public disorder has The question remains, "How long will 250,000 become commonplace. In the mines and elsewhere. Whites dominate a country of 5,000,00) Blacks?" Africanization has been slapdash. Appointments The question and discussionshaveheldthe were made to gain political favor. Job training was attention of the United Nations and the Organiza- haphazard. Management has faltered and produc- tion of African Unity (O.A.U.) for years. The tion has dropped. long-range answer is not it, sight. F..)r the short

92 Rhodesia's White control hasbeen a fiasco for the O.A.U. goals. It has beena continuing im- pediment to regional and continentalAfrican accord. Yet Rhodesia and theWhite-dominated regime of Ian Smithcarry on. Rhodesia's food production is an increasingly importantasset in this era of world food shortages. Theirchromium for plating automobile parts and othermodern devicesalsoremaindesirablecommodities throughout the world. Somalia Somalia, too, has a ozerit politica! crises. For mere than a de( -raalia had beenpre- occupied by disputes( nya and Ethiopia. The argument was over , and the nationality of nomadic herding peoples. Thesenomads migrated seasonally from one county) toanotherand back. killed by There have been cIRches between a politically-motivated assailant. Yet his military forces entire career had been a condemnation oftribalism and civilians. Mt:), a peaceful détente with and an affirmation of Kenya's Kenya in 1968. Cc.: adic hostilities national spirit. continue with Mboya symbolized a new order of Africanaffairs. Ethiopia. One rc..,ult has beenpolitical internal stress. But on his death the Luo and thenthe Kikuyu peoples went on emotionalrampages. These dis- Somalia experienced electionscandals in March, orderssuggestedthatethnicidentification 1969: Then President AbdirashidAli Shermarke continues to be deeply felt. And in timesof stress, it was assassinated October 15, 1969.The military may still be paramount over national loyalty. took over the government sixdays later. Somalia's people are very homogenous.Over 99 per cent of Much of the emotional intensity stemmedfrom Somalis are Sunni Muslims.Somalia's leaders have economic and not political problems.Kenya's been spared the search fora common national Kikuyu, for example, continue to dominate theeco- identity. But Somalia is experiencinganother kind nomic sphere, just as before independence.They of stress. It is attemptingto change a traditional outstrip the other ethnic groupings intheir aggres political system intoa modern governmental ad- siveness and adaptability. Whether hewanted it or ministration. Nomadic pastoralistscontinue to be not, Mboyr, was perceived by Luo peasantsas their loyal to class and communitiesthenational loy- representative. They were proud of him andtrusted alty is third behind family andthese. A network of him to see that they alwaysgot fair treatment. They institutions to tie the peasantryto the modern gov- felt let down and frustrated when hewas assassi- ernment is being dzveloped. It isan uphill effort. nated. Men die easily, ethnic identificationdies Localism and parochialism remainproblems here hard. as well as in neighboring nations which share few other Somali characteristics. There are many otherreasons, however, why Kenya's political activity tends oftento be tribally oriented. One stands out prominently.The Emer- Smoulderingdomestic problems gency Act imposed during Kenya's Mau Maucon- suddenly frontation erupted in Kenya during July 1969.They burst prohibitednational organization. forth again In Uganda duringJanuary 1971 and the During this time the wealthy traditionalelite had months which followed. an advantage over younger leaders without strong ethnic t'es. Bossism, personalities, andregionalism Kenya grew out of the old Kenyan power bases. The modern political structure is still tryingto free itself The triggering event in Kenyawa, 'Ile assassina- from those earlyinfluences. Thus Mau Mau tion of Tom Mboya. A Luotribesman and re- marked Kenya politicsas deeply as the psycho- nowned Kenyan and Africanleader, Mboya was logical scars it left on bothraces.

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After Mboya's assassination, order was restored disappear by contrast. And the problem will cer- by President Jomo Kenyatta. The technique was a tainly get worse before it gets better. Most of the show of authority and emphasis on his image as the population in Kenya, as elsewhere on the continent, father of the Kenyan nation. The December 1969 is very young. The future promises to be an even elections were held orr schedule. A sort of peace greater challenge to the nation and its leaders than prevailed though opposition leader Oginga Odinga was the past. was detained by the government. The government realized that Odinga could be viewed as a martyr. Uganda Still, outmaneuvering him bought Kenyatta more time. Odinga's party was declared illegal on the eve Across Kenya's westernborderinUganda, of the elections. Nevertheless, opposition party Milton Obote was Prime Minister. from 1967 to candidates were permitted to compete for votes. January 25,1971. He ruledin an atmosphere Election results show that the younger," more edu- charged by political factionalism. In-fighting was cated, and more moderate politicians won many the mode. important positions. This trend has continued. At a time when ethnic sensitivities were high, There is another problem that threatens Kenya's Obote was overthrown. The economically dominant stability and development. It is becoming one of the Baganda people were embittered over the death of biggest problems in every country in Africa. Job- their King, Mutesa II, who had been in exile. Con- lessness is severe in Kenya. And wealth is unevenly sumer prices had risen sharply. Then the export distributed. Extremes of wealth and poverty assault price of coffee, the major money crop, dropped the observer. The problems of ethnic rivalry almost dramatically. Disorder spread across the nation

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` . s.* and violent crimes were occurring frequently. to exist as nations, they must build a national con- Obote was caught in the middle. Many thought he sensus. People must work together toward common had drifted too far to "the left." Most of all, goals at least enough to preserve the nation. Ugandansdemandedchange.Thecountry appeared to be on the verge of anarchy. Nationalism To "restore order," prevent "civil war," and "end government corruption" a military coup took Africa inherited an embryonic national system. charge. General , a professional soldier, It is a European model brought in during the colo- became Chief of State. He exhorted Ugandans to nial period. Efforts to achieve national unity in make tribalism a thing of the past. All government Africa differ, however, from the European expe- ministers were inducted into the army to indoctri- rience. In the latter it was a gradual evolutionary nate them into military ways of thinking and effi- process. In the former it was by design, the pace ciency. No few people died, many were imprisoned, forced by political necessity. In Europe nationalism or were driven out of Uganda. The ordering of looked inward. Strong regional and continental Asians to leave the country was one of the better- cooperative movements have been prominent in the known events. There have been many. African struggle. There are other important dif- ferences. The size and scope of Africa and Europe differ tremendously. Europe is very small in con- Amin faces the same challenges as other African trast to Africa. European nations seem smaller still leaders. The reality is simple. If African states are when compared to the size of African nations.

95 Nc.4 ;;;. 41,.

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Both modern Africannations and modern traditions and experiences were mixed. Today the African peoples are young. More than half the con- result is something which has 'never before existed. tinent's 352 million population is under 25 years of. Africais unique. age. In the colonial period African and European

96 ,REAT EXPECTATIONS/UNCERTAIN REWARDS to herald a new era in their hopes were written and spoken in the con- ie independent African ference resolutions. thefuture. Thefirst :oncerence was also Africans sought fulfillment of the expectations ere held in Ghana at the built up during the decolonization period. Their imah. success depended upon rapid industrialization and agricultural development. But the Africans lacked nt for dreams of future investment capital and many countries had no their achievement of exportable natural resources. The rate of popula- le them to enjoy a life of tion growth on the African continent cancelled the r since has such rhetoric small production increases in food crops. The nary expectations.All rate of growth necessary to achieve prosperity

100 97 seemed an almost impossible achievement. In 1958 Africanleaderstriedtosatisfythesedesires no one wanted to appear to be pessimistic. Hope quickly, if not realistically. Sekou Toure in Guinea prevailed. Some African countrieswere indeed suggested proceeding without help from the former fortunate. They could turn to exploitation ofoil or colonial overlords. Guinea's slowprogress and the minerals to finance national development.While people's impatience finally led him toa "returning farming techniqueswere being improved,for to friendship" with France in 1968. This rapproche- example, some countries could finance the develop- ment with a former colonial master symbolized the ment with revenues from mineral sales. One form hope and progress many thoughtwas being made. of production could assist in thedevelopment of other kinds of production. If some disillusionment was inevitable, Africans were not the only ones to,blame. The great colonial In Congo-Kinshasa, mining exports in 1967still powers soon decided their strategic interests were provided about four-fifths of exportrevenues. The not at issue in Africa. Much of the economic back- economy was also experiencing healthy growth in ing they promised the Africansnever developed. other sectors. When independence was achieved, Hopeful Africans applied for loans which failedto Zambian development could benefit fromcopper materialize. Vast projects were often planned, then exports. Yet few other African nations hadsuch not built, or begun but not completed. readily exploitable and profitableresources. Many depended on exports of oneor two agricultural The world press did its share in promotingun- products. One bad harvest could be ruinous. Some- realistic expectations of the new African national- times the price for Ghana'scocoa or Senegal's pea- ism. Publicity was given to the flamboyantperson- nuts was so low the farmers madeno profit. Every- alities such as Nkrumah. Hewas the first of many one suffered. Fluctuations in world market prices African leaders partly manufactured by thepress. could and did have disastrous effectson struggling When old nationalist leaderswere displaced by national economies in Africa. their own people, theirsuccessors were sometimes discredited by a press biased in favor of the old Giving Up the Illusions nationalist heroes.

Some disappointmentandfrustrationwas Finally, "foreign" fascination with Africa simply inevitable. If the new African governmentswanted waned. So too did much of the international atten- to modernize rapidly, they remained dependenton tion which might have led to investment in thenew industrializedcountries.Skills,money,and African states. machines had to be imported, usually fromformer colonial powers. Promises of futureprosperity The Decade of the 1960s could satisfy hopefu! people only fora limited time. Sooner or later, real benefitswere demanded. By the mid-1960s, independent African nations were directly confronting discouraging economic Some aspects of modernizationwere easily and situations. Economic "policy" scarcely existed, quickly achieved. Transistor radios andbatteries only remnants of the colonial period. "Foreign" could be imported ine:,pensively. Schoolswere ex- organizations continued to dominate banking, dis- panded and improved. Therewas an international tribution, and mining in most of thenew nations. effort to offer assistance in such efforts. American "Foreign"businessmenandformercolonial Peace Corps Volunteers and the British Volunteer officials continued to occupy top positionsin Service Organization offer two examples. management, the professions, and technology. All too few Africans had been trained to replace them. New crops were introduced. They weregrown on And employment practices inhibited African ad- demonstration plots. Israelis, Nationalist Chinese, vance. and others sent agriculture advisors.Ironically, such improvements often resulted in still greater Most of the countries depended on imported expectations. Some Africans became impatient fuels to generate electricity and operate machinery. with the pace of change. What they heardon radios Nigeriawas anexception. The country was and learned in schools encouraged Africans towant practicallyself-sufficientinfuel.Eventhere, a more satisfying material life immediately. Most however,"foreigners" were prominentinthe

98 export of crude oil and the import of refined petro- Foreign Enclaves leum products. "Foreigners" formed enclaves in almostevery Machinery and most consumer durables were new African nation. Plantations, timber conces- imported from industrialized nations. "Foreign" sions,oilconcessions, mining companies and capital was imported and interest was paid in order financial institutions were a part of the new "inde- tostimulatetheeconomies.Formercolonial pendent" scene. The enclaves consisted largely of nations loaned money to their former colonies. extractive industries like mining. Their effects on For many years Guinea was theonly major the general economic situation were not often bene- exception. The President, Sekou Toure, said "no" ficial. "Growth" in the industry could occur with- to offers of loans from France. His counterpart in out affecting permanent "development." Although the Ivory Coast, President Felix HouphouEt-Boigny, technological innovations in the mining of copper, accepted all the assistance he could get. Both men for example, increased production andrevenues. had the same objectiveeconomic self-sufficiency. other sectors of the economy were not ,timulated. They sought it by different paths. The Price of Development Throughout the early 1960s, former colonial powers boughtabout 35percentoftheir The cost of "development" was high inmany ex-colonies' exports. They also provided about 40 ways. Developing African states invited European per cent of their imports. These relationships were specialists to advise and direct projects. These tech- documented in a United Nations Foreign Trade nical and other specialists had expensive life styles. report in 1966. The study did not recommend a way They demanded housing for their families suchas to change the balance in Africa's favor. they had enjoyed in Europe or America. New states provided them with high wages, housing, vacation At issue was who controlled Africa's wealth, allowances, transportation, and fringe benefits. existing or potential. Heavy reliance on a few agri- Africans were willing to pay, for they wished go culturalproducts limitedthepossibilitiesfor acquire the specialist's skills. More often than not, growth. An economy dependent on onecrop, for theAfricansweredisappointrA.Low-budget example, could not afford to risk crop diversifi- nations were stuck with high-price help. cation. Market agreements createdincolonial times bound the new national economies to world "Foreign aid" was an equally complex and fre- market conditions. Cocoa in Ghana, peanuts in quently misunderstoodrelationship. What ap- Senegal, coffee and tea in Kenya, cotton and coffee peared to be low interest loans tended tocarry ex- in Uganda, these were the "backbones" of the pensive price tags in the small print. Mostcommon national economies. Their continued production was a requirement to purchase equipment from the was the price of survival. creditor nation. Sometimes the contractsalso included hiring mechanics and purchasingspare Agricultural products also had to compete with parts from the same nation for years to come. technologicalinnovations.Naturalrubber,an "Foreign aid" could be used by industrialized important product in Liberia, was challenged on nationstoexpandtheirowneconomiesby world markets by synthetics. Tanzanian sisal lost providing credit to developing African and other value because synthetic replacement fiberswere newly independent nations. developed. To compete, sisalprices had to be lowered. The result was a declining income fora Toward Economic Independence nation with a rapidly growing population. Continued dependence on the West has been the Sometimes Africans secured contracts providing major economic problem in independent African "favorite nation" treatment by a European power. states. Perhaps the second has been that of the dual More often market price variations created serious domestic economy. The problem already existed problems over which Africans had no control. Not when the colonial governments withdrew. There all these problems were economic. As prices fluc- was a growing disparity between city and country. tuated, so did the political situations. The hoped A modern urban-based economic sector cateredto for security and stability had not yet been found. a small westernized elite. The subsistence economy

111

99 of the agrarian hinterland was largely undisturbed. in an attempt to provide economicopportunities in Most African leaders chose temporarilyto deepen rural areas. President Hastings Banda the schism by emphasizing further in development of has also attempted to inject vitalityinto the agrar- the modern sector. HouphouZit-Boignyof Ivory ian economy. Dr. Banda's efforts lack Coast and Jomo Kenyatta of Kenya the philoso- were chief ex- phical justification provided bytheories of African amples. They aimed to expand the modernsector socialism. to But they have beenpracticaland includeeventuallythemajorityofthe effective. Malawi has angered would-be population. In Zambia where Kenneth Kaunda supporters has like Nyerere and Kaunda by pursuinga policy of chosen a modified socialist approachto economic political and economic accommodationto the development, the duality is still striking.Malawi white-ruled south. and Tanzania, for differentreasons, have empha- sized development in traditional economicsectors. These ..;rifts in domestic economicpolicy have frequently had wide implications.Many govern- Economic growth in developing countries is like ments decreed compulsory Africanization ofcer- the chicken and the egg. Few peopleagree where to tain levels of employmentor areas of trade. Govern- start. Industrial growth depends onconsumer de- ment restrictions were placedon the activities of mand from the mostly rural population.This resident aliens. suchas the Lebanese in West growth would enable the internal marketto absorb Africa or Asians in East and CentralAfrica, Kenya the products of domestic industry. But expanded as early as 1967 and Ghana in 1968 barred aliens consumer capacity has had to await improvements from retail trade. In the 70s Zambiaand Malawi in the still virtually stagnant agriculture'economy. increased pressure on Asian tradersthere. In Ivory There is another crucial facetto the problem. Rela- Coast there has been renewed agitationagainst tively high wages and economic opportunityhave non-Ivoirien workers, mainly residentsof Upper been located in the urbanareas. Africans have Volta and Dahor sought them in cilies across the continent.There Education and Employment are too many applicants for too few jobs. Rapid urbanizationmayhave createdamongthe In every case the objectivewas the same. Agri- unemployed what will become the mostexplosive culture was emphasized to increase material political situation African governmentshave yet and encountered. nutritional standards and to increaseemployment. But certain side effectswere not fully considered. More and more Africans, many with In the 1970s most African states have some formal reoriented Western-style eduction, have migratedto towns. development priorities in favor of the agricultural There are not enough jobs. The sector. This has been accompanied by the establish- question of education again becomes critical. Whenthe rural ment of related processing, supply, andservice environment begins to offer opportunities industries. Julius Nyerere in Tanzania and his and ideo- require skills, the educatedcan be employed there logical allies, Kaunda and Sekou Tour& havemade and begin to form a bridge between notable progress. They call their policies rural and "African urban, agricultural and industrial.Harmonizing socialism." Kenya, too, has begun directingatten- these economies is tion away from export production. The Kenyans an important part of nation building. And developing nations is whatAfricans have designed an agricultural resettlementscheme are about.

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1 0 0 RWANDA: A THOUSAND HILLS "Rwanda?" rivers flowing out of this African nation eventually become the Zaire and Nile Rivers. From Rwanda, "It is the Switzerland of Africa." water flows west to the Atlantic and north to the Mediterranean. Yet this small nation of more than "It is about the size of Vermont." four million Rwandans receives little attention in books and films and in the press. "It is the land of the thousand hills." These gentle green hills extending farther than There is only one Rwanda. Despite the frequent one can see are the historic home of three African comparisons, it is unique, in Central Africa or the ethnic groups. The Hutu are a short, sturdy world. farming people. They make up almost 90 per cent of the Rwandan population. Hutu young people, as Geographically it is an area of grassy uplands, shown before, tend herds of cattle. These Ndanga thousands of hills and valleys. There are volcanoes cattle are as unique as the Rwandan hills which in the northwest. Rwanda is a land of lakes. The they graze. DEMOGRAPHIC DENSITY

,aaa+ ANNEXE:I 160-220 inhabitants/km2 UGANDA) 100.160 inhabitants/km2 olimm=mc=5 VO 15 20 Krn 80-100 inhabitants/km2 Ech.1/1000 000

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BURUNDI 101 Nor are the Hutu, the Tutsi and the Twa the only people in Rwanda. Called locally Bahutu, Batutsi, and Batwa, they share Rwanda with about 3,000 Asians,2,300Europeans,and 130North Americans. The Asians are mostly from India. Belgians are a majority of the Europeans. And most of those from North America are missionary families from the United States. Between 1890 and 1960, included Rwanda and also what is now neighboring Burundi and Tanganyika. The German colonial effort did not last long. Already in control of Zaire, the Belgians invaded Rwanda in 1916. From then until 1962 when they became independent, Rwanda and Burundi were administered by Belgium. Hutu youngsters keeping watch over herds of Ndanga cattle. Intermarriage has not been common between Rwandan ethnic groups. Rimily traditions remain The Tutsi make up about 9 per cent of Rwanda's strong. Families tend to be large. About 65 per cent population. These tall, slender people also herd of Rwandans are Roman Catholic. The Papal cattle. During or before the 1600s, the Tutsiare position condemning most forms of birth control is thought to have migrated from the southern part of taken seriously. Religious beliefs and cultural tra- what is now Ethiopia. The Tutsi lifestyle and ditions have combined to produce in Rwanda one physique are distinctive. of the highest population densities in Africa. It averages some 400 people per square mile. Twa pygmies are the third ethnic groupamong Both cooperation and competition have kept Rwandans. Of the three indigenous peoples, the Rwandan peoples in fairly close contact. The Tutsi, Twa settlement of Rwanda has been the longest. for example, have provided protection for the These people now find themselvesa minority inthe Hutu. In return, Hutu have Nerved the Tutsi much land where they arrived "first." Culturally and as Medieval European serfs served their lords. The physically the Twa are as distinct from the Hutuas from the Tutsi. Twa have tended to lead a more isolated life in small villages. They too have occasionally been in- cluded in the semifeudal system established by the Tutsi (Watutsi) dancers performing in Kigali during a punc Tutsi conquerors. ceremony. Mountain areas can deceive the unwary. What looks close can be far away. And what appears to be rich land may provide a poor living. To German adventurers and the administrators who followed, the Rwandan hills seemed a promising land. "Milk and " will flow, they thought. A large Euro- pean-German population can be "settled" here. Their expectations were short-lived. There is little good agricultural land to be developed. Dry scrublands make up a large portion of the territory. Rainfall is unevenly distributed over the land and through the year. The best lands already had large populations when the Germans arrived. Not only were the people densely settled before German colonialism, but also overgrazing was common.

I ; 102 This contributed to the rapid erosion of the soils and a general and continuing decline in their productivity. Poverty is no trivial matter in Rwanda. Thou- sands have died in the famines which periodically visit these hills. There is also feuding, particularly during periods of food scarcity. Intertribal warfare exists. Massacres have not been uncommon. Scenes of the tranquil rural life, such as in the picture on this page, contrast dramatically with the realities of life in Rwanda. 1. Average lifespan among Rwandans is 35-40 years. 2. Around 12 per cent of Rwandan babies die before the age of one. Rwandan peasants tilling their fields. 3. Almost 25 per cent of young Rwandans die by age fifteen. 4. The Rwandan population doubles each 13. Rwandan President Gregoire Kayibanda has twenty-one years. opposedeffortstoencouragefamily planning or to curb population growth. 5. Over 51 per cent of Rwandans are young. 6. Over 43 per cent of Rwandans are adults. During 1972, when this photograph was taken, 7. About 5 per cent of Rwandans are old. President Kayibanda spoke of the problems of underdevelopment among Third World nations. 8. The major causes of death among young Rwandans are malnutrition, respiratory in- fections, digestive tract diseases, malaria, and tuberculosis. From left to right: President Gregoire Kayibanda of Rwanda, President Sese Seko Mobutu of Zaire, and Presi- 9. Almost 74 per cent of the Rwandan popula- dent Michel Micombero of Burundi. tion live on 60 per cent of the land which re- ceives the highest rainfall. r 10. Neither cities, towns, nor villages are com- mon in Rwanda. According to the Rwandan government, less than one per cent of the people lived in urban areas in 1970. 11. Most Rwandans farm or herd cattle. They live at a subsistence level. Yet every year there are more people making more de- mands on the same amount of land. !ti

12. Population increaseisnot perceived by Rwandans as a basic problem. Usually eth- nicity is perceived as the number one prob- lem.

1 103 The solution of this problemdoes not imposing a single-crop agricultural reside at all in family planning but system on in the Rwanda. (2) He cited the deterioration oftrading mobilization of the material andhuman terms with large and rich nations. (3) He abhorred resources in the struggle against under- the tendencies of rich nations to give aid withone development. harki and take it away with the other. Those who heard this speech, May1, 1972 were attending a workers' rally in Kigali,Rwanda's capital. The explanation thyheard dealt with reasons for underdevelopment in the Third World andinRwanda.Kayibandaidentifiedthree problemareas.(1)He blamedBelgiumfor 10k110910101449%

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104 LIBERIA Economic and Human Progress

Liberia, sovereign since 1847, was spared the edgeofcivildisorder.Streetdemonstrations struggle for political independence.It was not became occasions for vocal expressions of hostility spared the quest for national unity. For almost a between Americo-Liberians and other Liberia:, century the country's Black-American settler popu- Africans. lation separated itself culturally. They were out- numbered four to one by Africans indigenous to the Yet Liberia's government was courageous.It area. The division between the two dominated all conducted the trial openly. Members of the local social and political relationships. As an inde- and international press were admitted to the pro- pendent state, Liberia was ruled politically by the ceedings. In many one-party states, such a trial small Americo-Liberian elite. Economically it was would have been conducted behind closed doors. heavily influenced by United States-based business The Liberians did not even censor press reports. It firms. Liberia was legally a state; it was not yeta is true that Fahnbulleh was subjected to degrading nation. attack. He was incarcerated unjustly. Only after more than two years of international effort President W.V.S. Tubman took office in 1944. through the World Court and other organiza- He introduced limited educational and political tionswas he freed. But in Liberia the nation gave reforms and the goal of national integrationwas vent to its tensions and did not break apart. made official policy. Progress toward that goal was helped during the postwar period by Liberia's in- President Tubman launchedhisUnification creased prosperity. This was especially true in the Policy back in 1944. It contrasted favorably with 1 9S0s. Expansionofeconomicopportunities previous policies but it hanot been a complete allowed for increased social mobility between the success. The cleavage between the "Descendants of two groups. In addition, Americo-Liberians were the Pioneers" and the "Sons of the Soil," as exposedto Pan-African propaganda during this Liberians characterize themselves,isstillgreat. decade. They began intellectually and culturally to Political power rests with the Americo-Liberian identify withallAfricansasbrothersinthe minority.DespitePresi,let.t Woman's i:arnest anti-imperial campaign. Pan-African sentiment led efforts, this minority has been very, very slow in to more sympathetic relationships with indigenous changing its attitudes. It is still unwilling to share Liberians. There was a greater willingness to grant fairly with the great majority of Africans who are them opportunities for advancement. At the same also Liberians. time, Liberians tried to lessen dependence upon Firestone and the United States government. But this is only part of the explanation. Liberia, like other countriesunderdeveloped and devel- A decade later Liberians were tested. A Liberian opedis in the throes of change. It is change that diplomat, Henry Fahnbulleh, was charged with political leaders do not understand and therefore treason. Mr. Fahnbullah was, at the time, Liberia's fear. It is change that derives mainly from the ex- Ambassador to Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda. He traordinary growth of education. Ideas, many of is a lawyer with a long and distinguished career and them revolutionary., are widely diffused. These a descendent of warrior chiefs of the Vai, one of ideasareexcitingtheimaginationofyouth Liberia's principal indigenous peoples. Fahnbulleh everywhere. Theyquestionoldbeliefs.They is among the very few non-Americo-Liberians to challenge institutions which make those in power have reached high public office. feel secure. The charge of inciting rebellion was preposter- In every society there are a few men who try to ous. The Prosecution's conduct was scandalous and understand change. They analyze historic events the Judiciary was clearly buckling under political and try to find their meaning. They try to guide pressure. During the trial, out crept all the un- their own so,:ieties so that change is productive, not pleasantnessofLiberia's age-old conflicts. destructive.Theyseekaccommodationand Fahnbulleh's conviction brought the country to the adaptation. Such men often inspire fear or jealousy

105 Ambassador Fahnbulleh testifying before thecourt.

n others who, not understanding the books they youth was disillusioned by the trial. Thel -ead nor the things they talk about, despisethem. bitterecr by the corruption and hypocris3 Fahnbulleh is one of thesemen. nessed. Will they remain loyal to lea society in which there is no room for dis Indigenous Liberians remained loyalto the gov- they support a government which conden :rnment. But they will not forget the fate ofone of at least in part, for the books he read; he few of their number who succeeded in achieving nigh public office. Equally important, muchof the Fahnbulleh's trial is over. Liberia's tri;

I

106 were em- they wit- ers of a nt? Will s a man,

goes on. DESERT TRAGEDY EXPANDING DESERT

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Gorom-Gorom region of the Sahel in Upper Volta.

In the Sahelian-Sudanic zones of Africa,a the Sudanic zone, which is farther south. There the terrible drama is being performed. The actors are annual rainfall varies between 25 and 60 inches a millions of people and tens of millions of animals. year. Vegetation ranges from tall grass and scat- These captive participants enact their roles against tered trees to steppe and brush savannah. The a desert background. The sandy wastes and scrub- Sahel contains six former French coloniesSene- land seem endless. gal, Mauritania, Mali, Niger, the Upper Volta, and . These nations, independent since 1960, have "This-tragedy illustrates human dependence on been most seriously affected by the drought. To- the basic natural element of water. Fearful conse- quences result when natural calamity or human gether they have a population of about 25 million. mishandling of the environment reduces access to Once the Sahel was a very important region in its life-sustaining powers. Africa. It lay between the Arab and Berber areas of and the Negro regions of the Sahara. The Sahelian-Sudanic area is a vast, semi-arid Across this vast hinterland of sand and savannah bioclimatic region. It extends southward from the flowed currents of two major civilizations. Peoples Sahara Desert roughly to 14° north of the equator. of Arab, Berber, and Negro descent mingled in the Eastward this desert area extends from the Atlantic Sahel. Ocean to the Red Sea. Comprising nearly two mil- lion square miles of land, it contained a population The high point of development in the Sahel came of over 60 million people in 1972. Included are between the eleventh and seventeenth centuries. major portions of Senegal,Mauritania,Mali, Then its major townsGao, Djenne, Timbuktu, Niger, Chad, and parts of Upper Volta, Dahomey, and othersrose in importance. Not only were they Nigeria, Cameroun, the , entrepots for trading caravans winding across the , and Ethiopia. Sahara. But they were also centers of large, powerful and well-developed empires. When early

. The Sahelian zone or "Sahel," lies immediately medieval Europe was virtually asleep, the Univer- south of the Sahara. Here the rainfall averages less sity of Timbuktu attracted scholars throughout the than 25 inches per year. The Sahel is distinct from Arabic-speaking world. There was a high degree of

1 1 107 civil administration, economic wealth,and cultural attainment. This period undera militant Islam was a golden age. Religion, education, law, and archi- tecture flourished. Such factors as the spreading slavetrade and tribal wars led the Sahel intoa period of decline during the eighteenth century. Muchof West and Equatorial Africa were conqueredby the French and the British at the end ofthe nineteenth century. In the early twentieth centurythe people of the Sahel were subjects ofEuropean colonial empires. Their former nationswere now colonies.

Following the colonial period, independencewas again achieved. This time theSahel was divided into nations. These countriesof the Sahel are mostly poor and underdeveloped. Chad, Mali, Niger, and the UpperVolta are among the poorest nations in the world. Their known natural resourcesare few. Often these are remote and costly to exploit. The vast majorityof their peonies are either nomadsor subsistence farmers. 'i hey barelymanage to eke out an exis- tence from t;,is harsh and unyieldingenvironment. Of e.ery four childrenborn, one dies before reaching the age of five. Theaverage life span is 40 years. The literacy rate is justover 10 per cent.

Since 1968 the Sahel's annual rainfalldecreased The states of the Sahel. each year. Not until 1972, however,did the lack of rain lead to widespread famine. United Nations officials reportedan emergency resulting from poor harvests throughoutthe Sahel. The first clues appeared inSeptember 1972. Typical were widespreadcrop failures, dried-up Government authorities reported the southward water sources, declines in undergroundwater levels movement of large numbers of nomads.They had and suffering among people andlivestock. The normally inhabited the northernareas of their scale far exceeded earlier estimates ofthe situation. countries. Nomads with herds ofcattle, sheep, goats,camels, and otherlivestockhad long Cries of alarm were sounded in Africa and in the migrated during the latterpart of the year. For- world press. The six Sahelian nationswere the merly they had waited until therainy season ended hardest hit. But Dahomey, Nigeria, Cameroun, the and crops had been harvested. Nowthe migrations Central African Republic, the Sudan and Ethiopia were sti.ting earlier than usual. Andthey were also felt the drought effects. much more intense. Foreign journalistsvisitedthescene. They Large numbers of nomads arrivingunexpectedly confirmed the magnitude of the disaster. Already produced anxiety in thegovernments of the six the drought had destroyed 50 per cent of the live- Sahelian countries. Theirconcern was heightened stock in Mauritania and 40per cent in Mali. by the nomads' accounts of widespreadsuffering in Throughout the Sahel thecarcassesol.dead the northern regions. Northern rangelandsreceived animals testified to the absence ofwater and no rain. Thus there was no grass for grazinglive- fodder. stock herds. Rivers and wells hadrun dry. Pasture- Thousands of nomads having lost their herds lands gave way to desert. People andanimals were were fleeing to already overcrowded towns and dying from thirst and hunger. cities in the Sahel. They searched for food and

10S water. They sought a new livelihood. By their sheer number these refugees created serious problems. Local authorities were unprepared tocope. Those more fortunate who still possessed herd animals fled southward by the thousands. Water and pastureland were sought. To those who became hosts, the migration amounted toan invasion. New crises were provoked. Disputesarose between farming peoples and the newly arrivednomads. Land and water rights were questionS. Tribaland ethnic conflict rose sharply.

Even with large quantities ofemergency food, medical supplies, and animal fodder, the problems of transporting supplies remained.

Time was of crucial importance. Reservesup- plies of food, grain, and planting seed for thenext season had -been 'exhausted.--And 'withina few weeks, by mid-Junethe annual rainyseason was expected. Though rainfall would be too littleto end the drought, it could close the few roadsleading into the Sahel's interior. .. The catastrophe which grips the Sahel isnot due to any single cause. Rather, it results from three major factors: (1) climatological changes; (2)dis- ruptions in the ecological system caused bycen- drer.4..40 turies of improper land use and increasing popula- pa tions; and (3) the failureto develop adequate - 4 systems for water control and conservation. ZVC A common sight in the Sahel: the death of cattle. Dori region, the Upper Volta.

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by Boyce Rensbergers

V A.

.'---....13A 1,724c,.. ,,,,:qL :S.N ' ' 1 1 -.. A Masaiherds- man driveshis ..peoloc 4 cattle across the parched dust of Amboseli in searchofany- ' 4:441. thing green. x'.n:

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.4 Perhaps the best known and most enduring semi-nomadic Masai tribe (legally entitled to use single feature of East Africa is the massive, snow the reserve until it becomes a national park) and crested mound of Kilimanjaro, rising through the damage by elephants, recent scientific studies have clouds to over 19,000 feet. largelyexoneratedtheaccusedandrevealed In the foreground of many thousands of tourists' instead that a completely natural phenomenon is photographs of the-Mountain, however, is one of the basic cause of the change. the most fragile-and transitory features of Africa the splendid yellow-barked acacia woodlands of The study has. also suggested ti.*t the same Amboseli with herds of elephant or zebra or-giraffe phenomenon, part of a natural ey,:.!; :..tending over spectacularly silhouetted against the mountain. many decades, has occurred in the past and that the present seeming deterioration of the habitat For some 20 years the once lush vegetation of may eventually reverse itself and return Amboseli Amboseli has been gradually dying, turning parts to its former glories decades from now. of Kenya's most profitable game park into a barren r-landscape and threatening to destroy much of what The Amboseli phenomenon dramatically illus- 1 remains of one of Africa's best wildlife viewing trates a principle of ecology that is usually less ob- areas. Since 1950 some 90 percent of the trees have vious: There is no such thing as a pristine state of died. Scrubby bushes have taken their place and nature. Habitats are continually changing every- the change in habitat may lead to a decline in the where, responding to completely natural causes game animals for which Amboseli is famous. from cycles of rainfall abundance and drought to geologic faulting that rents and drains a lake to Although the destruction of the habitat has long population explosions that force habitat-modifying been attributed to overgrazing by the cattle of the animals into new areas.

* Boyce Rensberger is an Alicia Patterson Foundation award winner with support from the L.S.B. Leakey Foundation. This article was first published under the auspices of the Alicia Patterson Foundation and the L.S.B. Leakey Foundation and is reprinted with permission. //Y 111 Much of the part of Amboseli that has had the most animals and tour- ists now looks like this.

na Saar.. I:011dg 0./AO . Itis a common enough phenomenon almost 2. This has raised the underground water table, everywhere that it is likely to confound most efforts bringing subterranean water up near the roots of to draw boundaries between what shall be left as the trees. wilderness and what shall be "developed". Nature rarely maintains a habitat in an unchangingcon- 3. But the water is carrying with it dissolved dition from year to year. Nature keeps her balance mineral salts, that were deposited in the ground over very large areas, sometimes over the planet as long ago. a whole. Deficits may occur in one area but they are 4. Roots immersed in water with a too-high salt compensated for by surpluses elsewhere. content will shrivel because the laws of osmosis will As long as such major ecological factors as the cause water to flow out of the root into the soil in- water cycle (global circulation of clouds and oceans stead of the other way around. and continental flow of rivers and underground (Osmosis, quite simply, moves water across water) obey no political boundaries, many things a membrane from a region of lower mineral that are inside a national park will continue to de- content to a region of higher mineralization. pend on factors outside the park, whether those The "goal"of osmosisistoachieve factors are man's work or nature's. The Everglades equilibrium between two originally unequal will die because farmers hundreds of miles away concentrations of minerals. Groundwater drain bogs for cultivation. And Amboseli will lose normally flows through the cell membrane its remarkable variety of wildlife because, ironi- into the root when the soil water is less min- cally, its rainfall has increased in the last few eralized than the contents of the cell. At decades. Amboseli the reverse situation is true.) Dr. David Western of the University of Nairobi 5. The same thing doesn't always happen. Else- 111.z found, after a five-year study of Amboseli, that where there are rising water tables because Am- the trees and grass are dying because of this se- boseli has an unusually rich concentration of min- quence of events: erals in its soil. 6. This is because, a few thousand years ago, 1. Rainfall in recent decades has bcen greater Amboseli had a large shallow lake into whichsev- than in the decades before. pal rivers drained but which had no outlet. It lost /57

112 water only by evaporation, which resulted in grad- move them." Only when he could persuade the ually increasing concentrations of dissolved min- Masai that a white man actually wanted to know erals in the lake that had been brought in by the technical aspects of raising Masai cattle, did streams. (Today in East Africa there are many such they begin to open up. "soda lakes" or "alkaline lakes". Lake Nakuru, the famous flamingo sanctuary,isone.) Eventually Western found that the Masai were extraordi- Lake Amboseli dried up, leaving thick crusts of narily know ledgeable about the growth cycles of the minerals on the ground just like the deposits inan various plants in their region and that they moved old teakettle. Later, rains redissolved the minerals their cattle from one grazing area to another so as and washed them down into the depths of the soil. to minimize damage to the habitat. Scouts are sent out to look for areas where isolated showers have Western said records from explorers of the last produced a brief greening. If the greenest grass is century, a time of heavy rainfall as now, indicate tot, Far from drinking water to drive the cattle back that Amboseli was then very much like what itnow and forth, the Masai donkeys are brought into seems to be becoming. One old record even states action. Long trains of donkeys with water con- that Amboseli was dominated by a kind of bush tainers on their backs are led by the women back known to favor soil of high salinity. The Masai, who and forth between the water hole and the pasture. have long lived in the area, told Western that the woodlands did not grow up in Amboseli until the turn of the century or shortly thereafter. Two lions rest in the lush, salttolerant grass that has sprung "We now know," Western said. "that Amboseli up where the rising water tablehas fed salt to the roots of is subject to periodic changes and must be regarded these dying Acacias. as an ecosystem in a continually dynamic state." Until Western's detailed ecological analysis of Amboseli, traditional conservationists and tov0.its saw no reason to doubt that Amboseli's decline was the result purely of trampling and overgrazing by the vast herds of cattle kept by the Masai, the tall, elegant tribesmen of East Africa who have long dis- dained Western ways and, for that matter, the ways of every other African tribe. The huge dust clouds swirling up from a herd of cattle being driven to water were proof positive to Europeans that the Masai were responsible for the destruction they saw. After all,they noted,it couldn't be drought .because the rains in recent years had been better than ever. The trees were said to be going as the result of elephant damage as well and, indeed, there was some elephant damage.

Conservationorganizationsmountedstrong campaigns to evict the Masai from their traditional lands. To learn whether overgrazing was really at fault. Western began a study of Masai methods of cattle keeping. His attempts to learn how the Masai decide where to graze their cattle or when to move on to another area were initially futile. Questions like, "why do you move your cattle from this place to that?" brought answers like, "Because it's time to

113 If the available grass is too little inan area the big revenue, Amboseli alone earns 75 percent of the herds are split into smallerones which scatter revenue produced in its district. widely over the region to reduce the grazingpres- sure. Yet, virtually none of the money filters downto "The Masai really live quite harmoniouslywith the Masai living in the area. That, Westernbe- their environment," Western said. To liveany other lieves, is why the young warriors,a class with few way in an arid climate would, of course, be suicidal duties, have no compunctions about spearing and the Masai have been living in theirpresent rhinos for kicks. They used toprove their bravery lands for at least 200 years. by raiding cattle from neighbors but thathas largely been stopped. Some rhinosare also killed by Western also suspected something other than herdsmen defending an area for their cattle and cattle were at fault because theareas with the most others are lost to poachers seeking the horn. marked decline in vegetation had been freeof cattle for up to 20 years and theareas with the heaviest If rhino spearingcan be stopped (national park Masai settlement had the healthiest trees inthe status would exclude Masai from living in the area) region. and if the replacement of the dying trees bysalt- Attention turned to elephantsas the possible tolerant bush does not remove so much favorable culprit. Over 80 percent of the failingtrees showed habitat that there are not enoughgame animals to signs of elephant damage. But 17percent of the attracttourists,Amboseli willface a further dead and dying trees showed no sign of elephant problemthe tourists themselves. Theirharass- activity. Soil studies eventually revealed that these ment of lions and cheetahs has drivensome away trees were rooted in earth witha high salinity. and may have led to missed kills that causedsome Further study found that virtually all of themost cubs to starve. And the criss-crossing ofsafari severely elephant-damaged areas also hadsalty vehicles over the fragile alkalinegrasses is actually soil. destroying more vegetation than the Masaicattle, Western said. Western has concluded thatas increasing soil salinity killed off trees, fewer and fewerwere left to At present some 100,000 people visit Amboseli withstand the elephant damage that hadpreviously each year but the number is growingso fast that by been negligible. The result wasan apparent but 1980 the number may reach halfa millionmost of nonexistent increase in elephant damage. Conser- them determined to see elephant, rhino,lion, vation officials had considered shootingsome of the cheetah and buffalo in a single day. At presentit is elephants to halt the woodland decline. That plan still possible to do this. That is Amboseli'sgreat has now been dropped. attraction. Ifthe Masai cattle are not the chief culprit in Amboseln-, decline, the tribe's young warriors do QUESTIONS TO BE CONSIDERED pose a threat to the reserve's rhinoceros population. A study made by Western and the thenwarden of 1. What is meant by a balance of nature? Amboseli, Daniel M. Sindiyo, himselfa Masai, has found that the rhinos are being spearedso fre- 2. Why is this balance important? quently that, if the practice is not curtailed, there will be no more rhinos in Amboseli by 1977. 3. How do the Masai interact with theirenviron- ment? Although rhinos are still rathercommon else- where and reintroduction could boost theirnum- 4. Are all the Masai values consistent withpre- bers, the Amboseli populationseems to be geneti- serving environmental harmony? cally unusual in that the rhinos have extraordinarily long horns, some measuringover four feet in S. What is the role of tourists? length. Until recently the rhinos have beenthe biggest draw for tourists. The tourists, inturn, have 6. Why are they important? made Amboseli one of the most profitable ofgame parks, producing some 200,000 dollarsa year in 7. Should the tourists be better educated?How?

[14 AROUND AFRICA: B.C.

Herodotus knew of Africa. He wrote of it as crime more heavily than the king himself ' Libya" sometime before 425 B.C. had designed. She would force him, she said. to sail around Libya and return to For my part I am astonished that men Egypt by the Arabian gull Xerxes gave his should ever have divided Libya, Asia. and consent: and Sataspes went down to Egypt, Europe as they have. for they are exceed- and there got a ship and crew. with which he ingly unequal. Europe extends the entire set sail for the Pillars of Hercules. Having length of the other two, and for breadth will passed the Straits. he doubled the Libyan not even [as I think] bear to be compared to headland. known as Cape Soloeis. and them. As Or Libya, we know it to be washed proceededsouthward.Followingthis on all sides by the sea, except where it is course Or many months over a vast stretch attached to Asia. This discovery was first of sea. and finding that more water than he made by Necos, the Egyptian king, who on had crossed still lay ever before him, he put desisting from the canal which he had about. and came back to Egypt. Thence begun between .the_ Nile and the Arabian proceeding to the court. he made report to gulf sent to sea a number of ships manned Xerxes. that at the farthest point to which by Phoenicians. with'orders to make for the he had reached. the coast was occupied by a Pillars of Hercules, and return to Egypt dwarfish race, who wore a dress made from through them, and by the Mediterranean. the palm tree. The people, whenever he The Phoenicians took their departure from landed. left their towns and fled away to the Egypt by way of the Erythraean sea, and so mountains: his men, however did them no sailedintothe southernocean.When wrong, only entering into their cities and autumn came, they went ashore. wherever taking some of their cattle. The reason why they might happen to be. and having sown a he had not sailed quite round Libya was, he tract of land with corn. waited until the said. because the ship stopped. and would grain was fit to cut. Having reaped it. they no [sic]go any further. Xerxes. however, did again set sail: and thus it came to pass that not accept this account for true: and so two whole years went by. and it was not till Sataspes. as he had ,failed to accomplish the the third year that they doubled the Pillars task set him. was impaled by the king's of Hercules. and made good their voyage orders in accordance with the .former sen- home. On their return, they declaredI for tence. One of his eunuchs. on hearing of his inpart do not believe them, but perhaps death, ran away with a great portion of his others maythat in sailing round Libya wealth, and reached Samos. where a certain they had the sun upon their right hand.* In Saurian seized the whole. I know the man's this way was the extent of Libya first dis- name well. but I shall willingly forget it covered. here. Next to these Phoenicians the Cartha- QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER ginians. according to their own accounts. made the voyage. For Sataspes. son of How did "Libya" become known as "Africa"? Teaspes. the Achaemenian. did not circum- navigate Libya. though he was sent to do so: 2.How accurate is this report by Herodotus? but. fearing the length and desolateness of the journey. he turned back and left unac- 3,How could circumnavigation around Africa be complished the task which had been set him proved in Herodotus' day? by his mother. This man had used violence towards a maiden. the daughter olZopyrus. 4.What are the major points emphasized by son of Megabyzus. and King Xerxes was Herodotus? about to impale him ,far the offence. when his mother. who was a sister of Darius. 5.What is the relevance of these perspectives to- begged him off undertaking to punish his day?

The sun was to the north of them, because they were in the southern hemisphere.

115 THE BAT

One day Eagle, the King of the birds, met Lion. at dawn. We must teach that Eagle and his kinda King of the animals. As they browsedaround lesson. After tomorrow, the birds will bow before searching for food they began toargue. Lion, the King." "Animals are best." declared Lion. "Our skill in "Poor monkey. you've climbed this ragged cliff and strength in combat make us superior. all because of me. But you are mistaken. Lookat Everyvtere animals go we are feared andre- my wings." said Bat, "and watch me fly." Bat did spected. Even the wind turns back beforethe an aerial pirouette and returned to his rock. "I am mighty elephant's charge." a bird.I cannot join your fight." Eagle was not to be outdone. "Ohno, friend Dawn slowly crept up the sky. The stars wentout Lion," Eagle replied firmly, "birdsare admired one by one and were replaced by birds. They came and revered around the world. You animalsare from every direction and filled the sky like the confined to the earth. We birdssoar through the Milky Way. Beneath the grass therewas a whirring skies. The wind is our slave. Wecan hunt with sound as all the tiny animals scurried to the clear- cunning and ease while you animals tire yourselves ing. The trees bent as great cats leapt fromtop to in the brush. It is clear that birdsare superior." top. The ground shook with the footsteps of ele- Su the argument continued through phants and the water in the river boiled with the the day. movements of the hippopotamuses. Neither Lion nor Eagle could convincethe other. As twilight approached their tempers were becom- Suddenly the battle began. It raged formany ing hot. But they parted in apparent friendship. days and many nights. Bat dung to the cliff,not Secretly. Eagle hdd decided to call all the birdsto- daring to venture out. Finally the sounds ofbattle gether to attack the animas. Certainly thatshould died away. prove their superiority. But Lion had thesame idea. Allthatnightandallthenext dayLion's Bat had been alone for a long long time. He messengers went from place to place informing all wanted to talk to someone. Besides he had become the animals. Eagle'smessengers did likewise. very hungry. Bat flew down to the clearing by the river to look for insects. He saw the little bird who Bat 'ung silently froma tiny rock jutting out came to him before the great war. trom the face of the cliff. His bellywas still full of insects after his successful hunt the night before. "Hi there," Bat called. "How areyou today?" Bat had chosen a spot in deep shade. Hewas warm "Go away." said the bird. "Youwere not a friend and contented.Bat didn'teven hear Eagle's when the birds needed you. Youare not a friend messenger until the little bird perched nearby. now!' "You must join us." said the little bird. "Allthe Bat was saddened by the bird's harsh words. birds will gather at dawn in the clearing bythe Then he saw the little monkey sitting by the river river. Then we will attack the animals and show and eating a banana. them that we are the greatest." "Hi there. Bat called, evenmore cheerfully. The bird spoke eloquently but Batwas unmoved. "Look at my fur" Bat said. "andsee my teeth. You "Go away." the monkey snapped. "Getaway have chosen badly. little bird. for Iam an animal." from here and never come back. Youwere not a friend when the animals neededyou. You are not a Actually. Bat just vi anted to continue hissnooze friend now!' undisturbed. But only a few minutes passedbefore a tiny monkey tugged at Bat's wing. Bat looked around. The clearingwas full of birds and animals, each going about its own business. "Wake up quickly! Weare late!" The monkey They all turned their backs to Bat. Sorrowfully. Bat practically knocked Bat off his perch he spoke%v it h lle\% away. He returned to the cliffs. From that day. such haste. "Lion sent me to bring all the animals Bat only ventures out at night. He hunts aloneor to the clearing by the river. We will attack the birds with other bats. fellow exiles from society.

*dapted both t, lkt.tle Africa ret.ord:d by 1)r. A.C. Jordan. the late chairmanof the1)eparitnerdofAfrican 1 angnage% and Literature,Univ-rsitv uC .v'11,,eon.,in. Madison, iseomin. 116 STONE AGE OLORGESAILIE: ESTHETICS AMONG THE CARRION EATERS

by Boyce Rensberger

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) tkt IS, ..a.: :-: .2^ :. .- Scattered "rocks- are handaxes washed out of sekl;ments 400,000 years old. The thatched roof protectsexcavation of intact "living floors."

It is a wild and rugged placehot. dry, unin- mile above the valley floor. Fifteen miles to the east habited most of the year and then only by wander- is the wall of the Rift Valley, a precipitous escarp- ing Masai herdsmen tending their ragged cattle. ment rising nearly 3,000 feet to the flat, more It is called Olorgesailie and it is 100 miles south typical East African plains beyond. of the Equator on the floor of Kenya's Rift Valley, where the earth's crust cracked open millions of Here, along one of the gentler slopes of the valley, years ago. Ever since, earthquakes have tossed the the infrequent rains have for decades been deli- still wilening and subsiding valley floor intoa cately washing away the soil to expose one of the wrinkled and broken landscape. most remarkable displays of the technology of early man to be found anywhere. Here, lying on the sur- Commanding the scene, five miles to the south. is face of the ground, unrecognized until the 1940s, Mt. Olorgesailie, a dormant volcano peaking half a are hundreds of stone handaxes--mul:purpose

12 117 The ancestorsof Man

e4'

Age ref Dinosaurs (150 tllion years ago, five feet to

the left of fossils remain unfound this chart)

1k-- 0 o

20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 5 3 2 1 g

millions of years before present Olorgesailie cutting and whittling toolscarefully hewn by a race of people who stood very close, in the evolu- tionary sequence, to the earliest members of our .V.rrb

own species. They lived perhaps 400,000 years ago .16 and, if a sense of estheticsis any criterion of humanness, they were among the creatures who crossed the last great bridge from brutish hominid .1,.'k7," to feeling, sensitive human being. .7r. Because no bones of Olorgesailie Man have yet been found, he cannot be judged by the prominence of his brow ridges or the thickness of his skull. All 11IN we have to go on is his craftsmanshipthe unmis- tar- takable fact, virtually ignored by anthropologists, that some of the handaxes he fashioned are shaped An Olorgesailie Handaxe more regularly and symmetricallymore beauti- fullythan would have been necessary to produce an efficient and practical tool. Most of the handaxes to be seen at Olorgesailie where much of the material unearthed by archeolo- PROGRESS gists has been allowed to remain as foundare THROUGH irregular and lopsided, but clearly would be effec- tive as cutters and choppers or even stabbers and THE STONE AGE slicers. A few, however, are more artfully sculp- tured. Care has been taken to flake away bits of . - stone so that edges are straight or gracefully curved. 4*** The proportions are quite pleasing, even to an eye schooled in Brancusi or Calder. r4C So, nearly half a million years ago, there was a people beginning to display what could only be called a sense of art and, it seems reasonable, a pride of craftsmanship. Until they made their handaxes as they didthat is, until a few of them chose to make their handaxes as they didearlier men and pre-men had shown no more indication of chopper handaxe dagger an esthetic sense than to make crudely chipped 2 million 400,000 4000 pebbles that were used to chop up prey. years old years old years old The handaxe, a pointed wedge of stone chipped to an oblong shape, was man's first standardized tool. Even today it can be counted as one of his most popular, billions having been made, with gradually improving technique, for more than half a million years, up until about 75,000 years ago. Handaxes have been found all over Africa, through- Africa out most of Europe (where the first finds, in Saint Acheul, France, gave the technology its name, "Acheulean") and well into Asia Minor and India. Nairobi But nowhere have they been found in the numbers Olorgesailie to be seen at Olorgesailie, which, perhaps signifi- cantly, is situated near the geographic center of the Acheulean world.

119 The handaxe was undoubtedly a versatile tool. It There were proto-giraffes with flat, moose-style can, and has been, in tests by modern man, used to horns. Giant wild pigs, as big as a modern hippo, cut up an animal carcass, dress and cut hides, chop rooted among the trees. Troops of giant baboons down small trees, whittle poles andspears and the size of' bears dominated the few rocky high carve crude wooden vessels. It was not hafted toa spots. Lions, sabre-toothed tigers andan ancestral handle but held in the handprobably fromthe elephant with downward curving tusks also lived side, to use as a knife. around the lake. The earliest handaxes look like little more than And along the sandy banks of the streams that fortuitously shaped pieces of naturally shattered ran into the lake there lived the makers of the stone. Gradually, however, early men learned to handaxes,probably Homo erectusmen and select the more suitable minerals and to control the women of the same genus as we, but of an earlier chipping and flaking process by rapping thestone species with a brain only three-quartersas big. with a cylinder of wood or bone to producea more or less consistent shape. The average handaxe at Imagine you are on one of the foothills of Mt. Olorgesailie is nine inches long and weighs three Olorgesailie with a pair of binoculars. Abouta mile and a half pounds. The biggest isa six pounder or so away from the lake, near a long row of that is 13 inches long and must have been used bya flat-topped Acacias that line a stream, thereare large and powerful man. moving formsnaked, dark people. One,a female. is squatting, and scratching at the ground witha At about the time primitivemen were camping in stick. Now and again she picks up something and small bands around the foot of Mt. Olorgesailie, pops it into her mouth. A male is walking, quite the esthetic dimension of' creativity appeared erect, heading for a low rockpile where two others probably not at Olorgesailie itself but atsome other sit straight-legged on the ground. With the left place like it and at a similar stage of evolution. hand they are holding stones against their left Man sought for the first time to transforman thighs and hammering them with whatappear to abstract ideal into the concrete, at leastina be sticks or bones. The ground is littered with rock material that wouldsurviveuntiltoday. The chips. Back, in the shade of a large tree, three little material world was made not onlymore useful and ones play under the watchful eye of another adult, a comfortable but more beautiful. female. From this distance they look like ordinary people Most anthropologists consider that art didnot and from the neck downjudging by the bones of truly come into being until the time of cave paint- Homo erectusfoundinotherpartsof ings some 370,000 years after Olorgesailie. Yet, it the worldthey are virtually indistinguishablefrom should be clear from the ancient handaxesthat the us. artistic impulse that would create those magnifi- cent and artistically mature paintings in European Their heads, however, are rather different. With caves was already beginning to glimmer among a low forehead, a heavy brow ridge shading the man's beetle-browed and nearly chinless African eyes, a flattish nose and weak-chinned jaws jutting ancestors. forward. they are definitely not like us. Back then Olorgesailie was a different world. Because the earliest known agriculture didnot Although the volcanoes, then still active, rumbled begin until some 10,000 years ago, and from the and smoked, it was mostly peaceful by the shores of ancient animal bones scientists have dugup at a wide lake that has long since dried up. Judging by Olorgesailie, it is certain that these people lived by fossil pollens found at the site, the lakewas sur- hunting the game that abounded in the valley, then rounded by swampy areas that receded into low as now, and by gathering edible shoots, berries and scrub and trees along tributary streams. Away from roots. the lake the valley was. as Fast Africa generally is The most common bones are those of various today, open savannah. grassland with patches of :inici,,pcs. hippo and an ancestral zebra. There are low hush and lacy trees. oico r;:mains of elephant and an extinct species of will pig. Virtually all of the long hones have There were antelopes not greatly different from been ,nlit for the marrow and the skulls bashed for those of today. and warthogs, ichras ind hippos. thy 1-; :on.. There is no evidence of fire, andsome

120 authorities have concluded that Olorgesailie Man , who with his wife Mary conducted ate his food raw. One expert, however, has argued the first serious studies of Olorgesailie some 30 that ashes do not preserve well in this part of the years ago, suggested another method of hunting. world and that no judgement can be made. Few other authorities accept the interpretation, but the speculation is intriguing in any event. On one occupation floor exposed by carefully lifting away the overlying soil, archeologists have Among the many handaxes, cleavers (chopping found a large number of baboon bones, enough to tools with flat rather than pointed edges), and indicate that a minimum of 63 adults and juveniles rocky debris, Leakey also found what he considered were butchered and eaten at this place. to be clusters of three nearly spherical stones two to threeinchesindiameter.Cobblestonesand Dr. Glynn L. Isaac, before joining the faculty at spheroids are common at Olorgesailie and other Berkeley, spent four years excavating and studying sites of the same vintage. They are generally Olorgesailieinthe1960s. He hasraisedthe thought to be pounders for mashing up tough roots possibilitythatthelargenumber of baboon and seeds or bashers for opening bones and skulls. remains, correlating in age and sex distribution Some speculate they were even missiles for warding with living baboon troops today, may represent not off wild animals. (Olorgesailie Man was prey as well the accumulation of many successful hunting trips, as predator.) but the single massacre of an entire troop. Leakey contended the 13 groups of three stones Even today, Isaac said. the of that he found were the remains of bolases. The northern Tanzania occasionally band together at bolas, a weapon now used only by some South night to surround a sleeping baboon troop. The American Indians and some Eskimos, consists of Hadza then shoot a few arrows into their midst and three spherical stones tethered to a single knot. The club the frightened animals to death as they bolas is swung around the head and let fly at the attempt to break out of the trap. legs of the hunted animal, entangling them and Olorgesailie Man had no bows and arrows, but a bringing him down. few rocks tossed among the baboons should have served as well. If Olorgesailie man had invented the bolas, a relatively sophisticated device, the leather pouches and thongs would have long since rotted away to It was in grassland and among scattered trees such as these leave three closely spaced spherical stones. Similar that Olorgesailie Man hunted his game. In those days a evidence for the bolas has not been found in any shallow lake flooded much of the foreground. almost to the other prehistoric site of comparable age. Most foot of Mt. Olorgesailie. authorities consider the spatial arrangements of the "bolas stones" coincidental or less. Picking out the spheroid trios from all the single round stones is about like finding constellations among the stars. There is,however, an intriguing other fact. Although no modern African tribe is known to use the bolas for hunting, some groups innearby Uganda and Tanzania have a "bolas and hoop" children's game. The object is to bring down a rolling hoop with a bolas of three little pebbles. There is also a "spear and hoop" game that young boys play to learn an important hunting skill. Could the "bolas and hoop" game have survived from its days as a training method even after adult hunters switched to superior stone-tipped spears? A more probable method of hunting was to drive ,do the animals into soft ground, perhaps the marshes 71.' around Lake Olorgesailie. and to club or stone them to death as the animals wallowed hopelessly in the mud. At , 120 miles to the f..i1404f

- ;

-;

A trench through one living floor reveals that itrests upon two feet of sediments burying an earlier campsite.

After this elephant leg boneleft froma Stone Age feastwas dug up, curious

Masai herdsmen hacked at it with their Ir ", spears. A guard points to patches over the damage.

south, Leakey found the intact kgbones of some It may have been, however, thatman did not animals standing vertically in thenow solidified always have to compete for thesame dead animals. mud, suggesting that the game became stuck in the With the invention of the handaxe, he wouldhave swamps and were killed and butchered down to the been able to fill an ecological niche theretofore mudline. In Spain, Clark Howell, anotherBerkeley vacant. The hide of elephants and hippos istoo anthropologist, has found the intact right halfof an tough for ordinary scavengers to breakthrough. elephant at a Homo erectus site. Hesuggests that When the beasts die (they have fewnatural about the only way an elephant could loseonly its enemies), the worms usually take them. With his left half would be if the ancient huntersdrove it surprisingly sharp handaxe, however, Olorgesailie into a bog where it was killed and fell, embedding Man would have had no trouble hacking hisway its right side. The bones of the left sideare prob- into a dead pachyderm. ably to be found, disjointed and smashedopen, at some nearby, still-buried feasting site. At Olorgesailie scientistshave located what Like thehunter-gathererpeoplesof today, appears to be a hippo butchery. Most of the bones Olorgesailie Man undoubtedly ate a greater variety of a single hippo were found there, leftin just the of foods than industrialized peoples who dependon state and with just enough handaxes nearbyto a few domesticated species. The Rift Valley was suggest that the hunters either killed and cutup the abundant with game and, contrary to stereot,..pe, hippo on the spot or found him therealready dead. the life of prehistoric man was probably notone of privation and hardship. Some studies of the ;i4dza This raises one of the least appealing interpre- and the Bushmen of the Kalahari, both hunting tations of the life of early man. Though, doubtless, and gathering peoples, show that the adult male they sought their protein on the hoof, it is entirely hunters can meet the food needs of their families in reasonable that they would not turn down several less than 20 per cent of their waking hours. The hundred pounds of meat if they found it already hulk of the day is spent in leisure and in crafting dead. Our ancestors were probably carrion eaters, new tools. The women, traditionally the gatherers, scavengers, competing with the vultures and hyenas can find all the vegetables their families need in less for food. than hail a day.

122 "It is probable," Isaac says, "that the widespread volcanoes showered ash on the area, further bury- notion that early lifewas filled with ing and preserving whatever was there. deprivation and the need for continuous questing after food is erroneous." In an area little bigger than a football field, no For alithe bones that have been foundat fewer than 14 occupation floors have been found, Olorgesailie, none have belonged to the human one containing over a ton of hand axes, cleavers and beings themselves. This contrasts with thesituation spheroids. In one place there was even what might at many other Acheulean sites and suggests that be called a handaxe factory, judging by the high the dead were removed, perhaps toan open field proportion of stone flakes and chips, the waste of for scavengers. This isthe practice with some manufacturing the implements. modern African tribes, who consider ita far more civilized and natural way of dealing with thedead Today the lake has dried up completely, leaving than preserving corpses. Almost certainly the dead onlya wide shallowdepressiondottedwith at Olorgesailie were not buried, a custom that did Acacias and Comiphoras. Giraffes browse among not appear until about 40,000 or 50,000years ago. The lack of human remains also suggests that Homo erectusas he might have looked at Olorgesailie. cannibalism was not a significant practice. Else- (Artists' conceptions and misconceptions of the appearance where, in human cultures dating up to modern of early men often vary even though all are mentally fleshing times, the split and cooked bones ofmen have been out the same bones. Compare this version ofHomo erectus clear evidence of cannibalism. bya British Museum artist with that on page two by an artist at Time-Life Books.) From the size of the occupation floors that have been found at Olorgesailie and from the quantities of worked stone, it is possible to deduce that bands of two different sizes lived there. The smallerwas about four or fivepeople, probably a nuclear family, while the larger comprised about 25 to 30 individuals. Perhaps several families. Most of the sites appear to have been occupied for at least a few months. The people appear to have moved away from time to time, perhaps to follow migrating herds. Slight differences in stoneworking style sug- gestthatdifferentgroupswithcharacteristic patterns of craftsmanship used the area at one time or another. Over tens of thousands of years, changes in climate caused Lake Olorgcsailie to fluctuate, first shrinking in diameter and then expanding to flood areas that were situated a mile or more from its earlier shores. When the water was high, aquatic sediments slowly buried the flooded occupation floors, handaxes and all. Then, as the lake grad- ually receded over many thousands of years,new sandy beaches were created over the buried hand- axes. New bands of hunters moved in and, in some cases, set up housekeeping only a foot or two above theartifactsandgarbageheapsoftheir pred ecessors. Again and again the lake expanded and con- tracted, creating layer upon layer of alternating beach and bottom sediment. From time to time

4. 123 the trees. Lions prowl the grassland.Leopards stalk baboons. And, in recentyears, elephants have appeared in fair number.

Most of what has been unearthedat Olorgesailie remains exactly as itwas found. Thatched roofs protecttheoccupation floorsexposed by anthropologists over years of excavation.A rickety catwalk carries visitorsover the eroding hillside that first gave away thearea as an important arch- eological site.

That was in 1944 when theLeakeys were tramp- ing over the Rift Valley floorlooking for potential sites. Mary Leakey reached thecrest of a small hill and saw, on the eroding downside,hundreds of handaxes lying on the surface.Higher up on the slope a few were jutting out ofthe bank, still partly resting on the floor where theywere dropped some 400,000 years earlier. Thenext hard rain might wash them out. Far from the beaten path, Olorgesailie offersvisitors and scientists only the most rudimentary ofaccommodations. With little money and thewartime rationing ofThe walls and roof of this "banda"are made entirely of supplies, the Leakeys couldwork the site only on bundles of grass. weekends. Later theywere assisted by three Italian prisoners of war being heldby the British in what was then . In 1947 a council of Masai When Isaac left, Olorgesailie againbecame scien- elders was persuaded tifically dormant. to give a 52-acre area containingthe sites to the government. It became the smallestand most And so it remains today, visited unusual of Kenya's nationalparks. The first only by the occa- warden was one of the Italian sional tourist who doesn't mindtaking two hours to POWs who returned drive the 40 miles from Nairobi, from Italy to takeup his post. More recently the bumping down the rocky road into the Rift Valleyand across the floor, area's status has been changedfrom National Park to National Monument. fording seasonal streamsto reach the site. Only five per cent of the After the Leakeys wenton to Olduvai Gorge, area known to have been little scientific effort inhabited by prehistoricman has been excavated. was put into the site until the For lack of money and because mid-1960s when Isaac, thena doctoral candidate at the hottest area of anthropology today reaches backfor fossils ten Cambridge, became warden. Forfour years he con- times as old, 95 per cent of the ducted extremely detailednew excavations and evidence Olorgesailie made rigorous statistical analyses Man left including, perhaps, hisown bones,is of the stone tools likely to remain buried forat least a few more that yielded many of thecurrent interpretations. years.

Boyce Rensberger isa science editor and writer for theNew York Times. reprinted with his permission This article is ;;n d that of the Alicia Patterson Foundationand the L.S.B. Leakey Foundation. Theauthor is an Alicia PattersonFoundation award winner. He wrote this andother articles while in Africaduring 1972 and 1973.

C.

124 BUNDU

Bundu,or Sande, is a women's semisecret association. It is widespread in Sierra Leone and Liberia. Bunduis primarily a means by which to instruct young girls about their role in society. Before Western-style schools were common, it was the major educational "institution" for women. The officers ofBundumay also serve as a family court. They hear marital disputes, decide divorces, and punish cases of sexual assault involving a minor. At the highest level,Bunduofficials participate in political decision-making in traditional West African Societies.Bunduworks in conjunction with Poro, the most powerful men's association. Partly as a consequence, women in this part of West Africa may assume regional and even paramount chieftaincies. Even today,Bunduand Poro operate parallel to modern administrative systems. Sometimes they are acknowledged by the official governments and allowed to function as local courts giving decisions based on common law.

Madame Yoko (left) and Nancy Tucker (right)ruled powerful chieftainciesin Sierra Leone around the turn ofthecentury.

The association is highly structured. At the top is the Sowa or head of aBundulodge. She is assisted by senior and junior officials. It is from among this second level that the impersonator of theBundu spirit is chosen. Her identity is kept secret beneath a helmet-like mask and raffia and sackcloth costume. She also may carry the ceremonial staff which belongs to the Sowa. It is she who dances on ceremonial occasion and presents theBundugirls, like a group of debutantes, after their bush-school training. Bunduofficials are paid by contributions of money or food and other necessities from the girls' families and fiancés.

The Bush School Girls around the ages of ten to fourteen leave their families in villages or towns for a period of seclu- sion at aBundulodge. A bush shool may be constructed in any unsettled area known commonly as

125 "the bush.- During this initiation period girls mayor may not be circumcised. In either case, they are given the information about sex and childbearing that makes themeligible for marriage after graduation. In this lodge they are instructed by the Sowa. who is oftenalso the local midwife. She and her assistants teach cooking, sewing, nursing, sanitation, handicrafts,and other women's tasks. They are taught to be hard-workig and modest in their behavior. The Bundu girlsare expected always to show special respect toward older people. They learnsongs and dances which they will perform publicly upon their return from the hush. These will be repeated on ceremonial occasions throughouttheir lives. Girls who graduate in the same .lass sharea bond that continues until they die.

Graduation from Bundu is a joyous event in the towns and villages.First there is an exhibition of dancing and singing. The Bundu officials compliment the girlson their superior character and virtue. All the girls are sworn to secrecy concerning the knowledgeand rituals they have learned recently, then led in a procession from house to house. Since the girlsare considered marriageable only after this Bundu initiation, marriages previously contracted by theirparents are announced publicly. Actual mar- riage may still be deferred for severalyears.

Traditionally girls might spend three or four months in the bush school.Today the constraints of modern urban life and Western-style school systems have reducedthe time to a few weeks. The bush schools are normally confined to school holidays. The institution continuesto flourish, however, even in urban areas like Freetown, Sierra Leone. Government officials have capitalizedon its existence. They use it to provide information, for example, on nutrition, modern hygiene, and family planning.

126 THE GIRL WHO HAD TO DIE Monica Betsy Onukagua

Adube is the spirit of water who owns a stream in Omu was unhappy and happy. She was happy Nkanta. She also claims to own the town and the because she had a baby of her choice, and she was inhabitants therein. Those who have seen her re- sad because she feared losing her at the age of six- ported to others that she is an elegant woman with teen. At home with her daughter, she looked at the three heads, seven legs, five hands, and she goes girl and said, "Until the time comes, I will know about always with seven children, three on the left what to do and how to get hold of her. She is and four on the right. nothing but Ogbanje" (a child who has repeated her life cycle several times). The stream was named after her. Adube forbids so many things in her stream: no one should wash Omu came home and narrated the history of her blue clothes in her stream; certain leaves should daughter to a few close friends and relatives. Some not he cleaned in Adube; light complexioned girls consoled her, while others said to her "Neva Min" should be kept out of the stream. Mostly, she wants (never mind). the people of Nkanta to dress up always in white clothes. She has a mandate over the town and is Kirishy grew up to be a very beautiful girl, the purported to have given barren old women children epitome of her age group. She had so many quali- in remuneration for their services and worship. ties which differentiated her from other girls and made her the topic of the day. She was tail, light In Nkanta, there are four market days, namely, complexioned, and well shaped with a straight pair Nkwo, Eke, Olie, and Afor. Eke's market day is of legs. Rumors said Kirishy's face was a mirror to predominantly owned by Adube, the water spirit. those who stared at her. She had dreamy, romantic No soul ever goes near this stream when the sun is eyes, and her nose was like a bird's beak. In school, overhead or very intense, particularly those who Kirishy was an outstanding figure. Before boys, she have been reincarnated by Adube. Those who was a model they adored. doubted in the past learned lots of lessons, and those who refused to compromise with the above Omu admired her daughter so much so that she custom, met their fate. talked of nothing before other women but Kirishy. Soon they became jealous and murmured, "Kirishy Kirishy was born by an old woman (Omu) who .is Ogbanje and will soon die. Wonder if she will live had served Adube all her life. She was purported to again after she dies?" have teen incarnated severaltimes and most recently came to life in the year 1940, December 25. Before Kirishy grew up, she was well indoctri- Because Christ was born onthisdate, Omu nated by her mother about Adube. But Kirishy had believed Kirishy was a blessing to her and named one little fault, she always doubted the existence of her Kirishy after (Christy) the name Christmas. spirits and witches. This may have been partly because she was a Christian and partly because she After a few days, Omu consulted an oracle to was overprotectedby her mother. She never predict what her daughter's fate would be. "This believed in Adube and was not prepared to honor child was born as a gratification for your service to the Eke market day. Many a time, she tried to Adube. She is Adube reincarnated. She may or may accompany her friends to the stream on Eke not live long, but fear her at the age of sixteen and market day, but was prevented. on Eke's day. Always be in on this market day or else you will regret it. Never permit her to go to the The time was fast approaching when Kirishy stream on Eke market day. She is going to be an would either obey or go back to the underworld. outstandingly beautiful girl and do well in school," The 15th day of March 1957 was a red letter day, said the oracle. naturally predestined for Kirishy either to live or to

127 die. Miss L)uni was Kirishy's teacher and wanted cried her friends, still going toward the spring. her to fetch a tin of water from the stream. The "Mama," shouted Kirishy again at the entrance of request coincided with Eke's day when Kirishy was the stream. 'At this moment, she was at the equilib- forbidden near the stream premises. Kirishy could rium of her life cycle. She gasped for breath. With not disobey her teacher by rejecting a demand, or tears. her friends prayed and at last she gotup, else she would have to be punished. rested, left her empty tin in the stream, then went home. How did Kirishy avert this request? Silently she stood looking atthe teacher and atlastshe Omu was nowhere to be seen. She had forgotten exploded. "Miss, my mother told me not togo to all that an oracle told her about Kirishy's sixteenth Adube on Eke's day." "Don't be superstitious," year on earth. At last, Omu came back, butwas intoned the teacher. "You are a Christian." Kirishy surprised to see her daughter being surroundedby wept bitterly and mourned, for she had seen so friends and relations. She wept bitterly, and all ofa many who deliberately died owing to disobedience. sudden, she recollected what had been told herin She collected her friends to intercede, but Miss connection with Adube, and Kirishy's sixteenth Dom. being a devout Christian. could not givea year of age. She knew immediately that the hour second thought to superstitious ideas. had come when she would again be childless.

UnfortunatelyforKirishy,her mother had Kirishy sat near the tire to getwarm. Adube was traveled sixty miles away from Nkanta, andwas not beckoning to her. Kirishy refused, shouting "Mba! expected to return home until night. Reluctantly, Mba! (No! No!). It is not yet time! Om isvery good Kirishy went to the forbidden stream accompanied to me." Omu placed her hands around her depart- by two of her friends. ing daughter. begging both the ChristianGod and the traditional Gods to have compassionon her A yard before the shrine of Adube, Kirishy daughter, but the invisible forceswere beyond shouted. "Who isthat?" Her whole body was those of humans. She invited native doctorsto help shivering. She saw nothing but death. Death, avert the death of her only daughter. They tried indeed, for no being can exist after seeinga spirit. and failed. Her friends were miserable and wept for her. Soon, the time came when Kirishywas to disappear from the arms of her beloved mother. It One of her friends tried to find out what precipi- was 12 midnight when Adube came back with the tated her shouting, but Kirishy could not speak underworld powder and mesmerized Kirishy. The until after thirty minutes. With quivering lips she native doctors were sent to sleep bymeans of said, "I saw a tall. fat woman with three heads, mesmerism. Adube then blew the mystic powderon seven hands, and five legs. She had seven children Kirishy's face, sending her to everlasting sleep. It with her, three on the left and fouron the right. was death. Kirishy was dead. had no Each of them pointed at me beckoning me to come, power over her for she was predestined and her fate calling that my time has consummated." "What?" was predicted early to her mother.

NOTE: Monica Onukagua is a native lbo writer ofmany short stories and a cookbook of African recipes. She offers this articleas a true story of her homeland. For further insight into (ho and Nigerian culture. she recommends the booksor Chinua Achebe: Things Fall Apart. No Longer at Ease.AManofthe People.andArrowof God.

Monica Onukagua is an lbo who has taught in the Biatran regionof Nigeria. Upon com- pletion of a masters degree in social studies educationat Syracuse University, she returned to Nigeria. She is living and teaching therenow.

128 I

WITCHCRAFT BELIEFS AND THE ROLE: OF SECRET SOCIETIES

P.t?"' aSA vyY s'

r I si A

44-4,4"

''.:11,;41::.;

Medicine Man, Rungwe District, Tanzania,East Africa, 1969.

The belief in witchcraft is a closed, self-perpetu- transferred to objects, spirits, and to persons con- ating, and self-encasing system of thought.It sidered to be social outcasts, misfits, or rebels. It is provides important answers for people pressured to a system of control and may be used unconsciously, change their traditional habits. or with conscious intent.

Belief in witchcraft and others practicing it, Disclaimers about African witchcraft state that provides a means of reducing tension among "similar European and American beliefs have only people.Itcanreducecompetitionbetween recently declined," and "thatallpeople have individuals.Mysterious eventscalamities,un- reverted to explanations based on the irrational, timely deaths, and other misfortunes can be the mysterious. or the supernatural." explained. Fear of accusation can insure that local codes of etiquette are observed. Deviants can be Man's tortured search for explanations of cause, censored as witches. the disclaimer goes on, has led to more irrational beliefs than those manifested by peoples in Africa. Witchcraft is a system of thought which.1113;s Here, the thought systems supporting witchcraft responsibilityforunfortunateeventsnobe beliefs reflect the problems of small, agrarian tribal

129 groups. Their lives are harsh. Uncertainties of related to the witch's crime.For example, among natureunderstandablycausepeopletoseek the Nyakyusa, a punishment for witches suspected answers. Often they are foundin a supernatural of bringing crocodiles to the villagewas to be world of spirits, shades, and witches. placed in a fish trap in a crocodile-infestedarea. Among the Nyamwezi, witches believed to be in Witchcraft belief's are part of the social fabric in communication with hyenas were mutilated and these rural areas. Without understanding such be- left to the hyenas. liefs, there islittle chance of comprehending the complex behavior of many Africans who havenot There is evidence that witchcraft and witchcraft been acquainted with what we call "scientific''ex- accusations have increased during the past decade. planations. The neededinsightisdifficultto Tanzanian elders are reporting more witchcraft obtain. Those who embrace witchcraft live ina than during their youth. During the early German mysticalworldoftheirown. It is largely colonial period, 1880-1900, witchcraftwas rarely impenetrable when only logic is used as the probe. reported. Few healers, sorcerers or witch-tinders It serves to remind us of other ways of perceiving attracted attention. Yet, during the last days of the reality. British colonial administration, 1956-1961, there occurred a number of witchcraft trials, resulting in tines and imprisonments.

There may be several explanationsforthis apparent increase. As tribal wars and other illicit communal activities were banned by European ad- ministrators, increased witchcraft practicesmay have provided alternative outlets for tension and competition. Moreover, it can be expected that these practices will continue to flourish under the post-colonial African leadership. Witchcraftcan be a response to modern pressures, particularly the stresses not easily resolved by either traditional or modern ways.

- MEANINGS -

Witchcraft cures in Kenya. Witches exist in the minds of those who embrace the beliefs. Their witchcraft is innate and usually covert. Sonic professed witches may admitor brag Witchcraft has been recorded in Tanzania, to about their power. Or it may be unconsciousor take but one example. since early European ex- suppressed. Sorcery, on the other hand, is thecon- plorers venturedinlandfromthe Coast.Sir scious practice of evil. A sorcerer practices learned Richard Burton in 1860 related that in some parts techniquesformaliciouspurposes.Sorcerers ofcentral Tanzania witchcraft was punished by the manipulate medicines, poisons, charms, animal stake. Heaps of ashes and blackened bones along parts. and other paraphernalia. A wizardisa the track, he wrote, were mute evidence of recent sorcerer who is also believed to be a witch. Addi- tragedies. John Spt'kc in1863 reported similar tionally there are practitioners who are not con- findings in Zaramo country near the coast. sidered evil. These include witch-finders, medicine noted that execution was carried out mostly for men, herbalists, diviners, oracles, soothsayers, and witchcraft and adultery. Trial by ordeal-- forcing those who believe themselves to be prophets. the suspect's hand into boiling water to determine guiltwas common. Underlying witchcraftpractices may be religious elements from ancestorworship. animism, and Traditionally, in most areas of Tailiania, witches tribal mythology. In East Africa there are often were condemned to death either by a chief or a elements drawn from Islamic beliefs concerning group of elders. The mode of execution often animal sacrifice and polygamy. In some areas there t21 130 are traces from Judeo-Christian thought in the number of progressively less powerful officials. form of messianic cults and prophet movements. High rank is ascribed by birth, but it may also be attained by bringing in new recruits ("sons"). Witchcraftbeliefsareusuallyarticulated Family-widemembership is mostcommon, through secret societies. The practices make up a although individuals may join.Christians are self-reinforcing system. Leaders impose ideas and usually excludedMuslims, or quasi-Muslims who practices through initiation rites for the new mem- also practice ancestor worship and variations on bers. An overall effect of such secret societies is to animism are often members. create an environment permitting if not encour- aging belief in the supernatural and a climate of When new members areinitiatedintothe acceptance for irrational, mystical thought. society, they take new, Baswezi names. Members also speak,in a distorted tongue. They offer prayers BASWEZI in the form of vows ("If I safely pass this lion, I will give Baswezi two goats."). The leaders' regeia Secret societies in Tanzania exist for a number of includes the kishingo, a leather crown of cowrie reasons. Some are organized to educate young shells with an ox tail attached. The leader carries a members of a tribe into its customs. Others seek to kiranda, an ox-tail, fly-whisk, and nkimba, a rattle give protection and to heal. Still others may spe- made from a gourd. Other symbols of office include cializeincommunicating withtheancestors, beads, drums, and spears. hunting certain animals or driving out witches. Some societies are open only to clan members, or to Sick men are often taken to the society for treat- a particular age group such as elders or young men. ment. They become members thereafter. Curing The Baswezi, a secret society widespread in Tan- usually takes place in a secret bush camp. There, as zania,isan excellent example of how such part of the ritual, Baswezi leaders in full regalia organizations can help to support beliefs in witch- gaze at the ill person for a number of days. Medi- craft and sorcery. cines are administered. Special food is prepared and beer is brewed. The members drum and dance Baswezi, according to its leaders in the Tabora around the ill person. A Nyamwezi peasant related region of Burundi, Rwanda, and western Tanzania, how he joined the society. His experience was originated in the Congo and Rwanda. This took typical: "Baswezi men came to me and took me to place be /ore the coming of Europeans in1880. the bush when I was sick and could not walk. I was Baswezi's initial purposes were to heal the sick, to crippled, but when they finished the ngoma [dance] give advice, and to bring good fortune to itsmem- and let me go,I could walk. Then I became a bers. By 1930 the society had spread and become Baswezi." well known. Baswezi provides opportunities for members to The early records of the British administration, display leadership abilities. Early reports indicate particularly inthe1920s, describe Basweziin that it was necessary to perform ritual murder to diabolical terms. According to the British,its attain high rank in the society. These institutional members engaged in secret rites, human sacrifice, forms of killing may have been methods of elimi- "black magic," and poisoning. Adultery and incest nating unwanted tribal members or known crimi- were suspected. Some administrators, moreover, nals. Since World War II, there has been little evi- believed it to be a "secret bolshevism" opposed to dence of Baswezi murders. But thethreat of the advance of European government and "civiliza- murder undoubtedly serves as a method of local tion." In recent years there is no evidence for the control.In some cases, moreover, the society's early charges. And the society has not had any name may be used as a cover-up for a random political aspirations since Tanzania's independence killing. The society leaders, however, do perform in 1961. services as diviners or oracles. They occasionally dispense both good and bad medicines. They may Baswezi is linked to ancestor worship. It has its also threaten to use witchcraft, and capitalize on own mythical history and hierarchy of gods and fear and ignorance concerning the society's exact leaders. The authority structure includes the local activities. Sometimes an individual comes under chief as the supreme leader. Under him exist a Baswezi attack. This may be inthe form of

131 poisoning, beating, or extortion of property.In rather than lion attack, was hard toprove. When lesser cases Baswezi members may descendas un- these cases were brought to trial, some of the welcome guests. They insist on the traditional eti- accused claimed their victims had practiced witch- quette and, in effect, cat their host out of house and craft. The murders, they alleged,were therefore home. justified. Usually the authorities found the witch- craft accusations untrue.

Other societies, similar to Baswezi,are organized for more specialized tasks. Medical practitioners, healers, or witch-finding groups exist and have special rites of membership. Traditional dance groups can also be semisecret. They serve to reduce tensionsandmaintainlocalsolidarity.The Basumba, in the Sukuma-Nyamwezi areas, ises- sentially composed of roving work parties. Mostly young men, they travel the country threshing grain, buildinghuts,andharvesting crops forpay. Bayeye, among the Nyamwezi, was originallya society for snake charmers. The members secretly built up immunity to venom through smallarm in- cisions, and thereafter demonstrated fearlesscon- Baswezi secret society leader (left) and retainer, Nyamwezi trol of snakes. chiefdom, Central Tanzania. Note the leader's nkimba. symbol of his office. Many of the secret and semisecret societiesare gradually losing support. Some have adjusted their activities to contemporary concerns and opened membership to younger members. Nevertheless, the basic contribution of the secret societies is to perpetuate conditions that support witchcraft be- liefs. Baswezi is often a kind of local social action organization. It may organize such local festivities - CONCLUSION - as Independence Day celebrations and Republic Day ceremonies. It reportedly is strong enough to In precolonial times accusations of witchcraft have an office in the capital, Dar es Salaam. The often led to poison ordeals. Even when the accused society claims broad membership intribes ofindicated innocence by vomiting the poison, ban- western Tanzania. Overall, Baswezi provides intra- ishment or execution might follow. Traditional tribal cohesion as well as healing services. punishment varied according to the popularity, status, and economic position of the accusedand Societies such as the Baswezi, however, are often that of the victim. accused of involvement in witchcraft murders. Two main patterns seem to occur.First, the secret European colonial administrators established society is made an agent of village control. It is en- trial procedures for those accused of witchcraft. It gaged collectively in dispatching an unwanted vil- became an offense to attempt witchcraftor to lager, criminal, or senile chief, usually by suffoca- accuse anyone of practicing it. tion or poisoning. (For some tribes, in fact, the ' murder of senile chiefs was traditionally accepted Since ,Tanzanian independence, official witch- and expected.) Second, secret society murders may craft investigations may be initiated either by the occur simply for profit or personal revenge. Bas- local political party, officials representing the dis- wezi, for example, was implicated in the "lionmen" trict council, or local police. Witch-finding too has murders in Singida district in the 1940s and early been declaredillegal.The successof Edom 1950s. In these cases demented youths were trained Mwasariguti,recorded in another reading, by "keepers" to attack designated victims with sets is testimony, however, to the continuing of lion claws. Blame, or indeed the fact of,morder demand for such services.

132 136 At4,(4.11, f 11,

7 1z 40

Dance and choral groups praising Edom.

A MEETING

"Join us forthe ceremony,"invited Edom adulationtowardthe'prophet.' They danced Mwasanguti. He was sitting in a tea shop in the forward and backward while singing. town of Tukuyu, Tanzania. Across the table sat Fieldstaff Associate Norman N. Miller, who would Then Edom addressed the crowd. He thanked report on "A Meeting." them for their faith. He assured them that evil witches can be eliminated. He spoke at length of The meeting was held about two miles from the many evils brought by witches. But those of true Edom's house in a clearing surrounded by banana faith, he explained, could be spared the horrors of trees. When we arrived, a crowd of some three disease, ill-fortune, and untimely death. Conclud- hundred had gathered. They were singing hymns of ing, Edom asked all those who were afflicted to Protestant origin. come forward. They were to form lines on his right. I was given a chair at the edge of the clearing. There was a general commotion. A murmured The assistant who directed me to this seat dressed singing continued. And gradually some twenty like Edom. Both wore official-looking bush jackets, women formed a double line. Farther back there knee socks, and hats. were six or seven men. These, one an Asian, emerged from the crowd and shuffled into another When the singing ended, Edom stepped in line. Another man was carried forward on a front of the crowd and was greeted by a rousing stretcher. chant. Another hymn was sung. This time the name Edom was substituted for that of Jesus. All the Edom started down the line of men first. He while, six young women were making gestures oftouched each one on the chest. Listening to their

137 133 "body rhythms" he would nod his head. Then Namr...r Edom walked back to the center of the clearing. There a basin of water, a bar of soap, and a towel were arranged near a bush. After touching each "patient',' he washed. When Edom approached, the old man lying on the stretcher began to talk rapidly. For eight days he had been ill and was paralyzed. Edom calmed him, touching his chest and murmuring softly. The old man nodded. sIC The next two men had been brought to the 4 "meeting" by their village elders. The elders wanted to have them both "cleaned." One young man was accused of bewitching the other. As Edom touched their chests the men stood passively side by side. They eyed both Edom and each other but said e nothing. rte. Next was the Asian man. He had crossed the LivingstoneMountains comingfromSongea southeast of here. There he had been hospitalized forwhat were called"fits." Whateverhis ailmentperhapsepilepsythetreatmenthe received in the hospital had not helped his condi- tion. He lived in a village where the Africans accused him of being a witch. To allay their sus- picions, he wanted to be 'cleansed." Systematically, Edom went down the line. He ignored the commotion. Of those to whom he Thesefirstencounters with Edom's healing talked, one believed herself bewitched. She said she powers were brief. The afflicted could stay over- wasunabletobecomepregnant.Another night near Edom's house and receive further treat- bewitched woman told -of frequent fainting spells. ments and medicines. Accused of witchcraft by her neighbors, a third woman had come because of their insistence. As Edom moved closer to the line of females, wails and shouts rang out from women apparently One hysterical woman had been in that condition suffering varied forms of hysteria. Those in the for a week. No particular reason seemed apparent. larger crowd watched silently for the most part. Edom calmed her. One group, however, continued to sing softly, a musical background for Edom's procedures. The woman who had rolled on the ground con- tinued to wail until Edom came to her. As he As Edom approached the first woman in line, touched her withfreshly washed hands, she others began to wail and shake from the shoulders. stopped wailing. Yet she continued to stare straight He touched the woman's neckbone with his fist. ahead. Others told Edom that two of her children Immediately, one of the wailing women shuffled had died, both recently. And her in-laws accused forward with stiff tottering steps. Her eyes were her of witchcraft. Obviously, she was beside herself fixed. She lurched onto the ground and began with anguish. rolling in the dirt. Those who came to Edom brought an assortment of gourds, bottles, and leather pouches. Some con- One of the woman's friends came to help her up. tained medicines for Edom to see. The others Both returned to their places in line as others con- served as containers for the medicines Edom might tinued the wailing. prescribe. As Edom finished with each patient, his 0

134 Women treated for witchcraft while others wail. Edom greeting followers before a cleansing ceremony. assistant collected their containers and attached The assistant closed the meeting with announce- yellow tags identifying the owner. ments and profuse "thank-yous." Coming to the end of the line, Edom returned to the bush. Again he washed his hands. Then the Followingthe"meeting,"NormanMiller "prophet" stood erect. accompanied Edom to his home nearby. They As if signaled, the choral group began another shared a meal and discussed Edom's "gift." hymn. The patient's wailing soon faded, drowned out by the singing. Edom confessed that his call from the Almighty was probably not as strong as that visited on two Four or five people came forward. Most were other practitionersChikanga of Malawi and elders. They praised Edom's work. One old man another Tanzanian, Nguvumal. Nevertheless, he testified to Edom's success. He told the story of a said he wanted to keep his following and hoped it girl who had not spoken for three years. He said would expand. "There is a need for my work," Edom cured her. Another described how "good" Edom argued. Quietly he hinted that someday his Edom was. According to this testimony, Edom took following_might be large enough for him to have no money, meat, or milk. Nor did he beat or cut the political influence. "Then," he mused, "perhaps witches he found. the old days can return, and I can do my work with There were more testimonies, alternating with the government's help." the singing. "You witch-doctors, you have no power now" was the theme of one song. "Edom has seen The reference was to earlier events. Edom had you," it continued,"Go, you witches, go!" Vaguely been witch-finding since about 1954. But the resembling the well-known "Hallelujah Chorus," authority of Edom and others like him was increas- was "Edom has come...Hallelujah!" ingly challenged. Nevertheless, the government ad- ministrator in Rungwe permitted Edom to "work." Toward the end of the meeting there were new Following an investigation, Edom was described as events. Several young girls danced forward and follows in a District Commissioner's report: presented a large bowl of eggs to Edom. It was a traditional sign of hospitality in this culture and [Edom Mwasanguti]iskeen on witch- numerous others. Their "prophet" tha'iked them. hunting ...recent activities suggest a con- He assured the crowd that their faith was well siderable lack of balance [suchashis placed. Finally, with a hand-waving gesture remin- reported] (discussion with God at 11:30 iscent of the one which opened the meeting, Edom A.M., and discussion withithe dead] King withdrew. George VI).

t. 135 His reputation is high... andcan quickly Still, Edon; held out hope that the government evoke popular response. Itis not certain would change its policy in his favor. Then he could how far the work is now voluntaryas he has return to practicing openly. He wrote long letters to become a private practitioner. people who might be helpful. He showedme one of the letters. Typewritten on mildewedpaper, it de- In December 1962, the District Councilordered scribed how the government had interfered with his Edorn to stop practicing. It accepted therespon- work despitt the support that local people and..ten sibility for investigating complaints andinitiating tribal chici; gave him openly. Police officers'were prosecution. By popular request, however,Edom assigned to accompany him. Finally, he wrote, "I continued to witch-hunt. got annoyed and stopped the business." Yet, "the witch-doctors have increased and many people are The Tanganyikan vice presidentbecame in- complaining"thatwitch-findingservicesare volved. Edom traveled 550 milesto the capital in needed. Dar es Salaam. There forover a month in 1963, he argued and reargued hiscase before the govern- ScaisO o2. a mat eating curried chicken with ment. Following a meeting with Edom, thevice guests following the meeting, Edom seemed to president telegraphed thismessage to the District realii:e that the hoped-for day mightnever come. Commissioner in the town of Mbeya: Witch - girders,kuinchape, couldmeet people's need. but t. ,lv privately and secretlyas in the case Interviewed [Ed om IMwasanguti... today. of the unl;:iv:Tui -meeting" just held. Edomwas He should not, repeat not, be allowedto philosophicli,givinghis own perspectiveson practice. If he is allowedwe shall have to change and time. "There have beenmany kam- allow all others in Tanganyikaand there c ha pc it these valleys," he said. "They come as shall be chaos. they arc neeoed. I am just one...."

Signed, "Who knows about the future?" R. Kawawa Vice President

Poison containers taken from ailegkid 'uitces. ir

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136 CRIME IN IVORY COAST, WEST AFRICA

SEMENT COU

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, t 1 -10 *?I '4.. A gang of thieves with their loot at an Abidjan police station.

Crime and the need to provide treatment for In most former French colonies south of the criminals followed the rapid growth of cities in Sahara, systems of justice today are essentially the Africa and elsewhere. Responsibility for coping same as during colonialism. The emphasis is on with criminal activity passed from the hands of punishment rather than rehabilitation. colonial officials into those of police authorities in the new states. The Incidence of Crime in the Ivory Coast The Ivory Coast, a West African nation of more than 4,000,000 people, gained independence from Theft is by far the most frequently committed France in 1960. It is one of the more progressive crime in the Ivory Coast. More than half of the nations in dealing with crime. Under the en- recorded crime is of this type. Most of the thievery lightened leadership of President Felix Houphougt- takes place within the African community. It in- Boigny and associates, an efficient police depart- volves the stealing of personal possessions such as ment has been established. Modern scientific pro- bicycles, clothing, radios, and modest sums of cedures for detecting and preventing crime have money. Although the European residents would been introduced. The nation's penal code has been seem to provide a more inviting target, they are revised to make it more responsive to the social cir- better protected and less frequently robbed. Their cumstances of the country and to the mores of its houses are securely locked and guarded either by people. servants or watchdogs.

137 n INte: hl vt I

II ;

A woman registering a complaintagainst a group of young men.

The second most important crime is fraud. It in- As crime increases, so does the police capability cludes swindling, embezzlement, breach oftrust, for dealing with it. Policemen are better trained. and the falsification of documents. Investigative procedures are effective. Moreover, the crime increase is not alarming. Ranking third are sexual offenses, including rape. In the Ivory Coast, as in many African coun- Most of the crimes are committed bymen. tries, the age at which youngsters, especially girls, Women are usually involved in theft and various begin having sexual relations is generallyyounger kinds of fraud. Althoughthey,are sometimes the than in European society. That the government cause of homicide, women rarely commit it them- takes this into consideration is reflected in the facts selves. Women are almost never involved in traf- that a charge of statutory rape must be supported ficking in counterfeit money and drugs in Ivory by a medical certificate. Such an accusationcannot Coast.Minorsofeithersex,personsunder be maintained if intercourse with the accused has eighteen, are involved mainly in theft, fraud, and occurred on more than one occasion without being sexual offense. reported. Counterfeiting and traffic in drugsmore often involve non-Ivoiriens. The police havea good The largest single group of people in jails or record in suppressing these activities. Theyare not prisons are not Ivoirien at all. Most detainees are considered serious problems. immigrants from Upper Volta, held on charges of petty theft. Away from home and the constraints of While there is certain amount of organized a watchful family, and perhaps frustrated by crime inprostitu on and in the drug traffic, failure to find work, they are tempted to commit Ivoirien police officials keep in close contact with crimes. the international police, INTERPOL and the police departments in France. They are well informed, in Bank holdups, gang warfare; and train robberies advance, of the arrival of undesirables. are rare in Africa. Three factors seem to be

2 138 involved: (I) the absence of Europeancriminal ele- thief, shout insults, rush ments in the African states; (2) the up to strike and hurl gar- difficulty in- bage at him. Generally a thief makesno effort to volved in escaping from thescene of a crime; and defend himself against such attacks. (3) the greater likelihood of detection Any effort to and capture. do so would be futile and might furtherenrage the mob. Most African capital cities have onlyone or two exit routes. These can be quicklyblocked by police The Criminal at the Police Station once they have been alerted. Executinga successful getaway through Abidjan's traffic would bea major Finally delivered to the policestation by the task. The number ofpassengers passing through angry mob, the thief probably hasa feeling of airports and seaports is small enoughso these exits relief. Here again, heencounters a climate just as are easily controlled. hostile. For persons caught in theact of committing a crime, there is a presumption of guilt.The African cities generally have all thesociological accused is treated as guilty if the evidencewarrants. problems which often produce juvenilegangs and Stripped downtoundershorts,photographed, wars between competing groups. Theseare general fingerprinted, and entered on the policerecords, he poverty, unemployment, fragmentation intoethnic is then led into an inspector's officeand subjected groups, poor housing conditions, limitededuca- to questioning. Any resistance invitesa blow from tional opportunities, etc. Yet thereis a minimum of the investigating officer. Such inquiries tendto lead this type of destructive behavior.There are reasons. to a prompt confession. The disciplining of African childrenis regarded as a responsibility of the entire community, not just Protections for the accused whichare taken for of granted in Western countries simply donot exist parents. This means that anyone, anywhere,can take it upon himself here. If they do, theyare not invoked by either the reprimand or even punish Police or the accused. an African child who is doingwrong. And since poverty is the general state rather thanthe excep- In the entire Ivory Coast thereare only around tion, people are either unaware or do not view their two dozen attorneys engaged in privatepractice. social condition as unfortunateor harsh. Because Most of them have their hands fullwith civil suits most African youths do notseethemselvesas of various kinds. An African accusedof a crime unjustlydeprived,they do not tendtoward and taken to the police station wouldnot dream of antisocial acts. requesting the counsel ofan attorney before agree- ing to answer questions by the police.It simply The Criminal in the Hands of theMob would not occur. Certainly the policewould not suggest that anyone else be brought into theaffair. Most criminals in Africaare not apprehended by the police. They are caught by the alertpublic. A The Criminal in Court thief who has the misfortune of beingcaught in the act and then falling into the hands ofa mob has a Under the French and Ivoiriensystems of law, tough time of it. Few crimesso outrage the public offenses are classified in threecategories. These as theft. In African society, where most peopleare depend on the degree of seriousness.(1) Crimes, poor and have to work very hard and longto felonies include the most seriousoffenses: murder, acquire even a few possessions, theft islooked upon manslaughter, rape, and burglary. Aconvicted as the most odious of crimes. criminal may be sentenced toa term of imprison- ment of at least five years: (2) Delits,misdemeanors The public shows neither compassionnor mercy are less serious offenses than those in thefirst toward a thief. He is surrounded, seized,and led off category. Still they bring imprisonment fromone to the police station to the rhythmicchanting of month to five years. Such offenses inthe Ivory coast -Thief! Thief" Vo-leur!" His torment include theft, fraud, embezzlement,breach of' trust, begins along the way. Forevery bystander, however and falsification of documents. (3)Contraventions unconnected with the incident, feelspersonally in- include the less serious infractionsof the law. They volved. This general feeling ofempathy with the consist mostly of traffic violations. victim of the theft gives the publiclicense to vent its wrath on the accused. People Once a complaint is lodged withthe police, de- surge around the positions are taken and it is sentto the office of the :v.. &

139 Procureur de la Republique, States Attorney. The involving theft or the abuse of property seem to be Procureur decides in which of the three categories punished more severely than those involving loss of the offense belongs and then sends thecase to the life. In principle the courts are permitted to inflict appropriate judge. The accusedisformally ar- sentences of five to twenty yearS for murder, and raigned and ordered to face theaccuser and answer from one to five years for theft. One finds, on exam- the charges. ining local press reports, that the courtsare much Most criminal offenses which are tried before a more likely to consider extenuating circumstances tribunal in the Ivory Coast involve chVits rather in the loss of life crimes than in the property than crimes and are dealt with by lowercourts. crimes. It is not uncommon for sentences of twelve Persons caught in the act of a crime are generally months or more imprisonment to be given for theft judged within fifteen clays of their apprehension. of such relatively minor things as school documents or a carton of cigarettes. A murderer, on the other Two categories of offendersare automatically hand, often receives a sentence of only fiveor six assigned defense attorneys: minors andpersons years in prison. indicted by the Court d'Assises. Personsarraigned before the Tribunal Correctionnel donot have this One of the reasons for the relatively light right. They are free to plead their sen- own defense be- tences for felonies such as murder is that they are fore the court s magistrate. One who pleads guilty tried before the Court d'Assises. It is both judge and requests the mercy of the court is not given a and jury.Here the accused has access toan less severepunishmentrathertheopposite. attorney. And African juries, like American and Ivoirien judges reason thatan innocent person European kicks, may be swayed by the eloquence would never falsely admit guilt toa crime. It there- of the defense. Moreover, African juries often feela fore follows that when a person confessesto having strong sense of identification with and compassion committed the offense as charged. that person fortheaccused.Theyarenotinclinedto should he made to feel the full weight of the law. recommend maximum punishment for those they Once a bill of indictment has been delivered by convict. the Court d'Assises, the individual may apply for provisional liberty under bail. Fewpersons avail The Ivory Coast, like many other African states, themselves of this right. Some are simply ignorant has a death penaltyon occasion it has even been of their rights. Others are unable to raise themoney inflicted in absentia on persons who have fled the to pose bond. country. But it has never been actually carried out.

If the judge convicts the accusedan appeal may In recent years Ivoirien judges have become in- be tiled immediately. In the Ivory Coast there is creasingly severe in penalizing crimes connected only one Court of Appeals. It is in Abidjan and it with witchcraft and sorcery. No crime is more likely meets for two to three weeks twice a year. This to bring down the full wrath of the court than means that delays of from six months to one year poisoning. Government leaders and judges alike are not uncommon before an appeal may come up feel that if the country is truly to be modernized, for review by the court. Pending the hearing ofan then such ancient practices must be done away with appeal, the convicted individual is, of course, kept and examples made of those who commit them. in prison. One may, however, requesta transfer to Abidjan'scivilprison while awaiting thenext session of the Court of Appeals. The severity of punishment in the Ivory Coast de- pends on the seriousness of the crime. It isa reflec- tion of contemporary African values that crimes alM.1.11111.WINIF

11I

140 New Nationhood FORMALLY granting in- feured a group of guerrillas to what dependence to what will becomewas described as a "heroes' recep- the new nation of Guinea-Bissau tion.** on Sept. 10 is a shrewd move by Much of this can be perhaps put the Portuguese government. down to an effort by the settlers SinceGeneralSpinolaseized toingratiate themselves with the power in last April's Lisbon coup,Africans who may very soon be he has made it quite clear that hethe official government. Yet there was determined to end the 13-yearare hopeful signs that the Africans rebellions in all three of Portugal'stoo are prepared tolet bygones African colonies, by granting in-be bygones. In , they dependence ifthat was the onlyhave stopped fighting in all districts way. where there is a considerable white Setting free the smallest of thesettlement, apparently as a gesture threeoverseasterritoriesmakes of goodwill, a token to dhow that good his pledge. It also should warmthere will still be a place in Mozam- the atmosphere of the ongoing talksbique for the 200,000 white minori- concerning the future of the twoty in a total population of some big ones, and Mozambique. 7,500,000. Portugalwouldliketocontinue * benefitting from their rich natural SomethingtheLisbongovern- resources. ment will have to be wary of is *4 declining morale intheoverseas MeanwhilethereishearteningPortuguese army. In one isolated evidenceofreturningp e a c e.place, nationalists took advantage Fighting has disappeared in all butof the reducedtensiontotrick twosmall localities. Elsewheretroopsintosurrendering,a n d tension has been reduced tothereports say each day the situation point where Portuguese soldiers andcontinues without any kind of of- the African national guerrillas theyficial document being signed the were so recently fighting are co-soldiers become more apprehensive. operating in police duties and in Now that General Spinola has removing land mines along ruralfound the means to grant Guinea- dirt roads. In several areas the whiteBissau its freedom, perhaps the next population seems to be doing itssmart move would be to at least best to be friendly with the guer-draw up an official ceasefire with rillas. They invite them to dinner.the former enamies who now seem In one town they actually chauf-so friendly.

31 August 1974 THE TELEGRAPH-JOURNAL ti Saint John, New Brunswick, Canada

141 WHAT IS IT LIKE TO BE IN AFRICA ?

20 30 Where are the hottest places inAfrica? 1115.Stamma umarma. Where are they in relationto the equator? 1101116111112118111111 Where is the greatest seasonal variationin high and low temperatures?

Where do you expect to finddeserts? Jungles? INIUMEIVIS1111111111B011 Savanna and plains? LUNigalialtinra Where does it get cold? wittildiNEVES111010. 111111111111111=111111114111M What effect does altitude have on temperature? IMM11111110111111111111111 What effect does temperaturehave on vegetation? IMMEMINNIMEM11111 What effect does rainfall haveon vegetation? 1111111111111111NEM11111111E 0 1111111111111=2WIME What effect do altitude,temperature, and rainfall have on vegetation?

30 What effect do altitude,temperature, and rainfall have on settlement? I 1111111111111111

Record your ideas about Africa's climate andvegetation. Then turn to the nextpages. Compare the maps on climate and vegetation. What do they suggest abouttemperatures? Rainfall? Settlement pat- terns?

Do you wish to revise any ofyour answers to the questions above? Why?

Look at page144. Consider the dataon average climatic conditions in some African cities. Afteryou complete the questions and decide whereyou would like to live, look at page 14S. Where do people live in Africa?

Continue through the remainingpages. Consider each question, accumulating information from the maps as you proceed.

146

142 CLIMATE

OWARM TEMPERATE

ISTEPPE (semi arid)

0 DESERT (arid)

0 TROPI CAL CONTINENTAL

II TROPICAL MARINE

GRAIN FOREST il MOUNTAIN

VEGETATION

OMEDITERANNEAN FOREST

NGRASSLAND

EITROPICAL SAVANNA

DiSUB-TROPICAL FOREST

VI TROPICAL RAINFOREST

El SEMI-ARID SCRUB

°DESERT SCRUB

111HIGH MOUNTAINGROWTH

MARSHLAND

148 AVERAGE CLIMATIC CONDITIONS

J FM AM J J ASOND ACCRA 808282828279777577798282 temperature 0.61.52.23.04.97.6 2.0 0.61.52.31.40.9rainfall

CAIRO 565863697781 848379756859 0.20.20.20.10.10 0 0 00.10.10.2

DAR ES SALAAM 81 81 81807875747474767880 2.83.25.611.87.41.11.11.11.42.32.73.1

ENTEBBE 7272727271 7069697071 7171 2.63.66.310.19.64.8 3.0 2.92.93.75.24.6

JOHANNESBURG676663605449495359646566 6.25.24.41.70.70.2 0.3 0.50.92.65.05.4

KHARTOUM 747581 879292888689898275 0 00.050.050.10.3 2.0 2.90.70.20.050

LAGOS 808282 81 8077767677788080 1.12.13.75.710.518.7 10.7 2.85.37.82.60.8

LUSAKA 707170696461 61 65717674 71 9.17.55.60.70.10.05 0.05 00.050.43.65.9

NAIROBI 687070696764626367686867 1.52.15.37.75.21.6 0.61.00.91.94.02.5

TRIPOLI 535559677279827982746455 3.11.81.10.40.20.1 0 00.41.62.63.7

CHICAGO 252737485969747265543928 1.81.42.92.83.74.12.7 3.23.23.22.61.9

LONDON 404043485460646358574441 1.81.51.71.51.72.2 2.2 2.21.92.72.22.3

MIAMI 6768 71 737780828281 777269 2.82.12.53.26.87.0 6.16.38.09.22.82.0

NEW YORK 3231 39496069747367564534 3.63.53.83.33.33.4 4.3 4.33.53.43.23.3

SAN FRANCISCO 48515254565960 61 62595449 3.53.42.41.30.40.1 0.05 0.050.10.91.63.6

144 Algiers .1.MII / r 442111F.Y.

Suez Cana/

Gulf of Guinea Lake Albert Entee

Locate the African cities on a map, then to evil le at the average temperature for each. Lake Tan an ika 1. Where is the greatest seasonal variation? 1=-1 How would you explain it? Lua Lake 2. Where is the rainfall greatest? Nyasa 3. Where is the greatest seasonal variation in rainfall? How would you explain it? 4. What is the relationship between tempera- Salisbur ture and rainfall? Does it differ from city to city, north or south of the equator? 5. How do you explain the differences and similarities between Cairo and Tripoli, be- tween Nairobi and Lagos? 6. Where do you think it would be most pleasant to live? Why? Orange 7. Compare the Africancitieswith geo /14.1. _MO/AN OCEAN graphicallydistantAmericancities. Which appear to be most similar? 8. How do you explain the differences and --- similarities between Miami and Cairo, be- w. tween Chicago and Lusaka? 9. What does "tropical" mean? 10. What information in addition to average rainfall and temperature would you like to have about a city's climate? Humidity? Number of cloudy days? Altitude? Daily variation in temperature? Why? 150 145 WHERE DO AFRICANS LIVE?

Where would you suppose most Africans live?

In cities? 10 10 20 30 40 In villages? In migrating tribes? 11111110711111111 IMM1111111111111161111111- remi Mat1 20 20 111111111161111111EM

S 10INIWASS11111111121 0 NEREMIEMW 1111111111/16M IIIII 2161111111NIMII INEWAIIIIMEN I ZANZ ISAR

MEN11131111 10 What combinationsof geographicconditions would support the greatest numbei of peopleper square mile? rI

Highlands? WINENIMITA20 Lowlands? CoastaI? 111111ISTONEMI Hot-wet climates? Hot-dry climates? SW.0MINIM Cool-wet climates? COol-dry climates? 111112111111111111M 1111111111111111111 11111111111liffm 20 30 40 50 Where are the largest concentrations of population?Are thry associated with countries ruled by Black African majorities, White African minorities,or Africans of Arab descent?

. Are they associated with agriculturalor industrial economics? What languages do the people speak? Your views can be discussed and recorded: Keepthese in mind when you analyze photographs throughout this Student Text. 15r 146 El PLAINS PLATEAUS MOUNTAINS

1 ;2 147 INHABITANTS PER SQUARE MILT 1:3 UNDER 2 El 2-60 111 60-250 111 OVER 250

153

143 LANGUAGES

CONGO-KORDOFANIAN (includes 'Bantu)

ig NILO-SAHARAN

AFRO-ASIATIC (Includes Semitic and Berber)

KHOISAN (Hotlentot)

MALAYO-POLYNESIAN

GERMANIC (English or Africans)

ROMANCE (French, Portuguese,Sponish) I

WHO RULES ?

IBLACK AFRICANS'

°WHITE MINORITIES

°NORTH AFRICANS

1.4 'Including Ethitioions and Malagasy 0 151

155 DROUGHT: A SIMULATION OF HUMAN EXPERIENCE UNDER DROUGHT CONDITIONS IN THE SAHEL

Introduction:

Since 1968 drought has affected the region in West Africa knownas the Sahel. The drought is centered in six nations, former French colonies: Mauritania, Mali, Chad, Niger, Senegal, and Upper Volta. It also extends south into northern Ghana and Nigeria and east to the Sudan and Ethiopia.

This simulation allows a group of four to role-play people involved in the Sahel's drama. You are recreating the drama of human beings trying to cope with natural catastrophe.

Natural catastrophes--floods, drought, epidemic disease--can occur in any part of the world. And, except for earthquakes, for example, such catas- trophes are seldom a consequence of natural factors alone.

In the Sahel, as is so often the case elsewhere, human beings haveuncon- sciously contributed to catastrophe. Poorly planned agricultural development, increase in population both of humans and animals- -these tooare factors in the present catastrophe. You may speculate on what the human actors in this drama might have done differently, or might do now to prevent another catas- trophe in the future.

Instructions:

Four players, each represent one of the foliovring: Nomad Farmer government Official International Official

Each player-actor receives a scenario, a series of scenes describing events associated with human life-and drought.

The course of action over time is represented by placing a marker, any small object, representing each player on the game board. Survival is each player's goal.

Players take turns reading, scene by scene, from their scenario. When all players have read scene one, for example, and made the appropriate move on the board, they begin reading scene two. (You may p.Lay the roles in any order.)

When the scenario has been completed, discuss the evaluation questions.

150 DROUGHT SIMULATION NOMAD SCENARIO

Scene I My lineage is a proud one. Generations of my family have crossed the Saharatrading gold and salt. We have always been prosperous. My camelswear silver medallions on their harnesses. The wife I will take in a few years already has fine silver jewelry and gold earrings.

I was sixteen a few days ago. I've heard that thereare places where I would be considered a child. Thankfully, I am a man here, with my own herd too. Iwant to have many, many livestock so all my people will be proud of me. Only I will scatter the cattle when thetax collector comes from the capital. They are so easily fooled, those southerners.

This spring there has been rain in areas that Inever saw green before. This land is magic. It looks dead, then the rains bring life to it overnight. Theremust be no other life so wonderful as my own. [Move to Square 2 and wait] This year we're moving toward the southern towns very slowly. Our cattleare fat on the grass. They'll bring a fine price. Scene 2

Only a few years ago there was plenty of rain. Some placeseven had too much and it washed out the trails. Now there is too little. One year or even twoyears with little rain doesn't do too much damage. More and more people begin to suffer. Some of the young animals die. The bigones eat all the grass and the mothers don't want to feed the calves.

My family split the herd among all the male children. I had already startedmy own herd. Now I have twice as many cattle, goats, and camels but they are notso fat anymore. We've decided to spread out somewhat in traveling to the next oasis. Thatway the livestock will have a bit more to eat. We must hurry though, or the oasis will be crowded. Then we will have too little food theretoo. I plan to stay only a few clays, then push on quickly into the farmland further south. I may even sella few cattle if I can get a good price. And I ought to. A lot of farmers have done very well since the government helped them install mechanical water pumps and irrigate some of the land. [Flip a coin to determine whether you move to Headsor Tails] Scene 3 Heads arrived last night, further south than I've ever been. The trip was pretty bad, and two yearlings didn't make it. But everything is okay now. I've never seen so muchgrass. I'll let my herd fatten for a week or so. then start bargaining. No sense being in a hurry. The herd is better off here than anyplace we've been in the last six months.

This community has about a half dozen wells with diesel pumps. They have some regulations about how often the pumps are used and how much water each farmer receives. I guess that's all right if you are limited to one area like these farmers are. I wonder if one of these new deep wells with a pump might improve the situation back at the last oasis where we camped. The water supply has been irregular there my last two trips through. If my herd doesn't get enough food and water there, it's nearly impossible to make itall the way across to the next oasis. Someone said there is a government administrator here who deals with agricultural development. Maybe he knows something about how to get.a well dug and a pump installed. I'll tryto talk to him while I'm here.

5 151 [Move to Square 4] Tails

What a trip! I thought I'd lose my whole herd. Therewas so little grass everywhere that I had to push them all the way. Two of the best calves died,one camel, and half a dozen of the sheep and goats. I didn't even dare take the time to skin them properly. If theworms haven't gotten to the hides, I'll tan them here.

This is further south than I've evercome before. If we hadn't followed the dry riverbed, we might never have made it. Every evening when it became cool, we'd dig holes in the riverbed. Alittle water would seep in during the night. We'd drink first, then letthe animals have a share. None got enough. It looks good to me here bu. that's not what the farmersare saying. Two of their mechanical water pumps burned out last week because the water level droppedso low. The government has put a "temporary" stop on all the irrigation projects. Theysay people have to save every drop they can. But they're offering pretty good prices for livestock. Consideringhow thin my animals are, I ought to be pretty happy. [Move to Square 4] Scene 4 The herd got a pretty good rest. The goatsare almost back to normal and so are the camels, but the sheep and cattle are pretty weak.

I didn't sell the livestock for as muchas half that many brought last year. The farmer said he ought to charge me for letting the herd graze the stubble in his fields. I toldhim that if they didn't graze, his fields wouldn't get fertilized at all. I've heard that chemical fertilizerscost a fortune. Fortunately, we don't have to worry about such things.

My grandfather and two of my oldest cousins decidedto stay in the farm community. I almost left our daughter with them. She is sickly, and she doesn't like toeat the coarse grain. But my wife didn't want to leave her. She sold one of her bracelets to buy dehydrated milk forthe little girl and the baby. I guess we're in for hard times. It would be difficultto sell any of our other ornaments or the good rugs but things may come to that. I've heard that some foreigners willpay a high price for such things. Maybe when we come back I'll findsomeone who will take these old coins to the capital and sell them there. [Move to Square 5]

Scene 5 Today I am twenty-six years old. It ought to bea happy day, but instead it's miserable. The baby and the little girl both died. My wife is hardly able to walk. The camelscan barely carry the tents. I think the family must split. I must leave my wife at the oasismaybewith the boy. His hair is turning orange and his belly is swollen. People say it's because he is starving. Heeats what we do but I guess it's not enough for a growing person. He'll havea better chance to survive at the oasis.

I'm taking all that remains of the herd to the firsttown. There I can sell them. Then I'll buy food for the family and returnif the camel lives. With food,we can all stay at the oasis. There is no need to travel anymore. There isno grass, no water. It doesn't even help to dig in the dry stream beds. The wind has blown so much dust that youcan hardly find the old water holes.

152 158 The government has set up a camp for refugees nearby. I don'twant to go there. But if we can't get water and food, we'll have to. I've heard they give barely enough food tostay alive. The place probably stinks with all those people around. But we'll surely die in thedesert without help. [Flip a coin to determine whether you move to headsor tails] Scene 6 Heads A shipment of food and medicine arrived atnoon. Each of us received a cup of grain, another of powdered milk, and a quart of pure water. "Make it lastas long as you can," they say. They are vaccinating people too. There is a medicai unit to treat sick people inthe camp. I feel better than I've felt in weeks. [Flip a coin. If heads, move to Square 9. If tails, to Square 7] Taili The-shipment of food that has been expected for overa week still hasn't arrived. Neither has the medicine. We've been getting a little meat from the animals that die. Theyare so thin and diseased that I wouldn't eat the stews if I weren't starving myself.

My family must have all diedI had two cousins and their families here. I haven't heardabout my wife and the boy for several months. No one travelsnow. I share food with the people in the next tent. We've formed a new kind of family. It's terrible to be alone. Sowe share and help one another. Maybe tomorrow we'll have food. They say itcomes from people far away. Why should they send it to us? Maybe they won't. Why should they? [Flip a coin. If heads, move to Square 9. If tails, to Square 7] Scene 7 [Read this scene only if you are on Square 7] I'm still at the camp. There is no reason to leave. My wife andson died. A government official read to us a list of the people who had died at the oasis. Now I am alone, yet people surround me and the desert surrounds us all. One of the children in my adopted family has died. The olderone is very ill. He can hardly stand upright. Mostly he sleeps. His breathing makesa noise in his chest. I try to keep flies away and protect him from the sun so he doesn't become blind. He needs help thatwe cannot give. Perhaps food and medicine will arrive today. There is nothing left to eat now. All the animalsare dead. There is no brush left to build a fire either. I walked around a bit hoping to find something but nothing at all is alive in this parched earth. Iam too weak to go out again. [Move to Square 8] Scene 8 Food arrived this morning. It is not very much. But I amso weak that I can eat little.

'he government official who distributed rations said they would keepa person alive for five days. He did not know when he would return with more. He seemed sorry that he could promise us nothing.

People all over the world have been donating food, he toldus, but it is difficult to find trucks to carry it to the refugees. Many of the trucks are old. Driving conditions are terrible. Sand gets into the engines

1 59. 153 and the radiators overheat. Often they aren't serviced properly and break down needlesslyen route. Rains in the south washed out several roadsnear the capital. Engineers are working to repair them but there has been a labor dispute which delayed repairsmore than a week. A man asked to take my photograph. Hesays he works for a newspaper. He said photographs would make people in other places sendmore food. I had no reason to say no. What does a picture matter now?

[If you are hopeful, move to Square 9. If youare pessimistic, move to Square 10] Scene 9 [Read only if you are on Square 9]

I'm at the camp and have been for almost ayear. We've had good food for about six weeks. I am stronger now. There are some children, though, who look as if they willnever grow straight and strong.

I listened last night to a speaker sent by the government. He spoke througha loudspeaker. It made his voice sound like the radio.

He told us we had two choices. One, we can stay in thiscamp. The government will continue sending food until we can return to the desert. The government will providewater until rains fill the wells. Maybe it will be one year, maybe many.

The second choice is difficult. It means leaving the desert. It ismy home, the only place where I am happy. He says the government will help move to settlements in the south. We willhave to talk Much of the way but vehicles will aid those who falter. In the southwe will live in refugee camps. They are near paved roads and can provide regular supplies of food. There will be betterhealth facilities too. The man spoke from his heart. He is only twenty-six, likeme. He wants to help. I think he sees a better chance for people like us in the south. Maybe he is only afraid.

He says the government will eventually help us to get jobs if we go south. I mighteven farm for a few years and save some money. Then, when the drought is over, I can buy some animals and return to the desert.I might get rich again. Tonight we must decide.

[Choose. Move to Square 10] After making your individual decision, consider the following questions, discussing them with the other players.

1. How long could you live on a basic minimum of food and water? 2. What are the future prospects of the one child who is still living?

3. Events which could increase the probability and desirability of startingover in a new and good life? 4. What would you as an individual do under such circumstances?

[Now write your version of Scene 10]

1 6' 0

154 DROUGHT SIMULATION FARMER SCENARIO

Scene 1

I turned sixteen the day the spring rains began. The rainsare the heaviest this area has received in many years. The first crop we planted was a total failure. The seeds just rotted in the mud.But my family is prosperous. We had plenty of seed for replanting rightaway. Now the fields of grain are beginning to ripen and the livestock look healthier than I'veever seen them. Some of the farmers were not as luckyas we were. They had to apply for credit to get seeds for a second planting. The delays will cost them dearly. Production is likelyto fall below average and they will be forced to borrow again next year.

The nomads haven't arrived yet. With all the rain, theyare traveling slowly. The grazing is good, even at the edge of the desert. But they will come eventually. Trade should be brisk,especially for salt and cattle.I plan to sell some of my young animals this,season. It looks like a good year. [Move to Square 2 and wait] Scene 2

A few years ago there was too much rain. Now there is too little. Butwe are managing quite well. The new motorized pump we put on the well allows us to irrigate a few fields. Thepump cost a lot but the government guaranteed the loan. My father says that we'll make enough offthe next two crops to pay for it, if the supply of water doesn't fail.

The market for our crops is getting better all the time. Somany people have moved south to the capital. Even the provincial capitals are growing. I wouldn't likethe city very much. It is too crowded. There is no room to grow gardens or keep animals. Ofcourse, that is luck for us. We sell most of our surplus in the capital.

The nomads will probably arrive this week. Because it is unusuallydry to the north, they will be anxious to let their herds graze the stubble in the fields. Iintend to buy a few more cattle this year and fatten them up a bit. Then we'll herd them south wherethe market for meat is better.

[Flip a coin to determine whether you move to Headsor Tails] Scene 3

Heads

The first nomads and their herds arrived this morning. Thelivestock look thin and weak. I heard many of them walking about during the night. They smell the water in our irrigated fields. Tomorrow we'll let them into the harvested fields to graze the stubble. There isa water hole there too. It is low this year but it should be adequate.

Every year the same familiescome here. We trade cattle and various other goods. There is an informal agreement among families for grazing rights. We make certain fields availableto the nomads' herds. The manure the animals deposit enrichesour fields for the next year. But this year more people and more animals have arrived. They have asked permission to graze other fields. Iam worried that so many animals will damage the pastures. They've stripped the leaves fromthe low bushes all around the farm. In this dry weather, the plants may die.

16'1 155 A government official is also arriving today. Hewants to inspect our irrigation system. Hesays that it can be a model for others. The problem is with the waterpumps. So many farmers want to drill new, deep wells and install pumps. Ofcourse, nearly everyone must borrow money from the pay for it. government to [Move to Square 4] Tails The first nomads and their herds arrived this morning.They are about a week earlier than usual. Looking at the animals, it is easy toguess why. They are in pitiful shape. One of the nomads, ayoung man about my age, said that they found very little grass thisyear. Some of the young animals died before they reached our farm.

We have a problem too. Our wellsare all low. In fact, the water level for this whole area is declining. We suspended irrigation for the rest of theseason. We feared that the pump's motor might burn up if the water level dropped any more. The water hole out inthe unirrigated pasture is also low. The nomads will be disappointed. They'll have otherreasons to complain. We already let our own cattle graze some of the stubble. We have little grain stored for theirsurvival should this drought continue. I fear we are all in trouble. Ourcrops have not failed completely but yield is considerably below normal. There is little to sell to the nomads, althoughthey are willing to pay. We are falling behind on payments for the pump and irrigation equipment. Thegovernm.: fficial who came to look at our farm was critical. He said we should be producingmore after such all.1/est m ent. "How can I continue to use your farm as a model?" he asked. [Move to Square 4] Scene 4 The nomads are like locusts this year. Usually two large "families" visitour farm during this season. But life is becoming desperate for them. Groups have been coming here from great distances. Their herds are dying. Many of the people themselves look weak and emaciated, especially the children. The nomads want to sell a large part of their herds. But the animalsare too thin to be taken to market, if they could survive the trip. And we don't have sufficient fodder forour own animals. The water supply is just as bad. The poor animals walk back and forth in the mud all day, licking the moisture from theit feet.I saw a young calf die, too weak to pull his hind feet from the mud. The dead animals are becoming an awful problem. Their decaying carcassesare a source of disease when left near the water supply. Other animals have died along the roads and block traffic.

My friend came to me with some gold coins. There were very old, he said. He had heard that people in the capital would pay high prices for such coins and also gold and silver jewelry. I promised to speak to someone from the capital to sell them on his behalf. We have plenty of water for our personal needs. But the food supply is rapidly being depleted. Some farmers talk of a black market in grain. I will speak to the government official about this when hecomes again. Scene 5

I am twenty-six, but my thoughts keep returning to theyear when I was sixteen. Life has never again seemed as good as it was that year. Then my familywas prosperous. Now we are miserable. And we are few. All my children have died but two. I do not like to lookat them with their thin arms and swollen bellies.It seems too much to hope for their return to health.

1 5 b 62 All the farm animals have died except one horse and one young cow. They and we cling to life. None of us can walk about very much. We long for the night to cool the air and bring a little moisture toour parched skins.

All the wells are dry. The government sent a crew to dig the best well deeper but therewas no water. Now my farm looks like the desert around it. Except for the people. It has become a refugeecamp. The government relief officials use my barn, my house, and the shed for their offices. From theserooms they direct the rationing of food and water to the nomads and many farm families who have gathered here. There is too little food and water. Many people complain that the government, and the soldiers they send, show favoritism in distributing the rations. The farmers claim that the nomads receive too much. The nomads say the farmers are hoarding grain at home. But most people in thecamp help one another at least to stay alive. [Flip a coin to determine whether you move to Heads or Tails] Scene 6 Heads

Food arrived today. Everyone is rejoicing silently for we have little strength for celebration. I've been waiting in this line :ince I heard the trucks arrive at dawn. Each person will receiveone cup of grain, another of powdered milk, and a container of drinking water. [Go to Square 7] Tails

All night I listened for the sound of engines. There were none, neither trucknor airplane. We have waited like this for many nights and many days. The shipment of food has been promised but it hasnot arrived. When will it come? I have nothing else to think about. My family have almost all died. Evenmy horse died.

[Go to Square 7]

Scene 7 [Read only if you are on Square 7]

Another of my children died. Like the others, it died quietly, exhausted by starvation,too weak even to cry. There is no sadness in its death. It is more awful to live like this than to die.

I wanted to bury my child among its people, near my ancestral home. But the government officialsays this cannot be. My house is now his office. The barn shelters what few relief supplies remain.Food dis- tributionwhen there is food to distributeis centered there. Thusmy child must be buried like all the others who have died. I have one calf remaining. She looks healthy, considering these awful times. The calfs mother continued to allow it to nurse until almost the day she herself died. The calf is all I have left of the wealth I and my family once had. Now I must sell her too so that perhapswe and the baby may survive. [Move to Square 8]

Scene 8 [Read only if you are on Square 8]

We ate meat yesterday. It was the last food we had. This morningnew food supplies arrived. I know I am starving but I don't feel hungry. I don't even feel excitement or hope. But my child needs help. It

16'? 157 seems stronger since drinking the broth from the meat. Now I will wait in lineto get milk. We have nothing to do but wait.

The trucks that brought the milk also broughta doctor and some other people. The doctor is a foreigner. So are the others. Most of them havecameras. They are journalists who say that the- photographs they make and the words they write willcause other foreigners to help us. It seems very strange but what difference does it make to me.

The doctor handled the child gently andeven made it smile once. It was the first smile in many days. Then a medical assistant injected the child with fluid.It entered the body very slowly. He said the child was dehydrated and needed this kind of treatment before it could eat properly. Bynightfall, he said, all of you will be eating.

[If you are hopeful, move to Square 9. Ifyou are not, move to Square 10] Scene 9

A government official is standing nowon the roof of my old house. Everyone who can walk is gathered around to listen. He is speaking througha small machine that makes his voice very loud. Almost as soon as he spoke I recognized his voice from happier days. Hewas the man who advised us on the installation of our irrigation system. And it was he who worriedabout our loan repayment when the drought first began.

The government official has given usa choice. We must decide whether to stay here, and risk starvation should the supply of food fail to arrive,or to migrate to camps closer to the capital. In either case there is risk. Disease and sickness are common in the cities too, but medicaltreatment is more accessible. Also. if I take my child and leave this place,our lives may never be the same again. He says we w ill be resettled on new farmlands or in the city. There will be jobs there in factories. OrI can work in a shop. perhaps selling food.

If I stay here, it is a risk. If I go south, it isa new land, without family, and a new life. We might die there too, if the drought does not end.

[Make your decision, then after considering the following questions,write your own Scene 101

[Decide. Move to Square 10] After making your individual decision, consider the following questions,discussing them with the other players.

Having made your decision. estimate and describeto other players: 1. What you think are the survival advantages ofa farmer compared with a nomad? 2. Why you made the decision to stayor leave?. 3. Events likely to he obstacles working againstyour child's future. 4. What would you as an individual do under suchcircumstances?

[Now write your version of Scene 10]

/6;

158 DROUGHT SIMULATION

GOVERNMENT OFFICIAL SCENARIO

Scene 1

My family has been prosperous for many generations. We have large land- holdings spread about the countryside. Several serve as sites for the govern- ment's model farm demonstrations.

My father and uncles and I--all of us have invested also in new light in- dustry in the capital. We have a long tradition of leadership in the country's political and economic life. And in educational institutions as well. All the males in my family have studied for at least a short time in Europe. I am six- teen now and looking forward to my first trip to Europe--but, of course, I must first pass my examinations here.

Just last night my father spoke anxiously about the weather.We've had un- usually heavy mains. He even spoke of flying to Switzerland to negotiate a bank loan. He says many small farmers will wish to borrow to buy seeds for replanting. He expects trade to be depressed generally. The nomads, for example, adjusted their route to the new conditions. Usually they come further south to trade. This year the farmers have so little, the nomads may not come at all.

(Move to Square 2 and wait)

Scene 2

A few years ago there was too much rain. Now there is too little.

The government's program for installing motor-driven water pumps is behind schedule. So is the drilling operation for opening new, deep wells. More farmers want wells now than could be drilled in ten years. Problems seem to plague our every step. The drilling equipment itself breaks down regularly. One time it is sand in the motor, another time it is lack of oil.Often it is the inexperience of the workers.

Because of these problems the irrigation scheme is delayed too. The farmers have been unable to borrow enough money to finance their portion of the work. And not only are the expenses rising but less water is available. Even the deepest wells have less water. Some say that the water table in the entire region is dropping. Some fear that we may have another severe drought. That would mean disaster for the people and animals. Livestock herds are larger than at any time in the past. And although agricultural production is up, food is still not plentiful. Our country is more prosperous than it was as a colony, but we are far from achieving our devel- opment goals. If a drought really does occur, it will take us years to recover.

(Flip a coin to determine whether to move to Heads or Tails)

1 159 -Scene 3

Heads

I was just assigned to this provincial capital. It's a bit of a comedown in some ways. After all, I've spent most of my life in the nation's capital. This is the administrative center for a rural district, but I'd hardly call ita city. Still it is relaxing. Maybe I can forget some of the political tensions that are beginning to bother people back in the capital. I have a lot of work to do, yet this seems almost like a vacation. I'm staying in a good house, courtesy of a prosperous farmer.

Actually, my h 't's farm is one of the reasons I was sent here. It is one of the few in this region which is doing well. Although there has been less rain this spring than usual, irrigation has made a difference. He even has good pastureland, fertile and green. Beyond the watered areas, however, the earth is parched. It used to be scrub--reasonable grazing especially for goats. Now it looks like desert.

The first of this season's nomads arrived incamp yesterday. Their animals are lean but the herds are large.Most of the animals would fatten quickly on good pasture. This unusually large number of animals, however,may exhaust the grazing too quickly.

Several of the nomads have expressed interest in the waterpumps. There is a good deal of grumbling. One guy complained that the government only wants his tax money. It never provides him with anything. Nor does it provide for his way of life. "Why not install such wells at the oases," he demanded. Indeed, why not?

(Move to Square 4)

Tails

Wow, it's hot and dusty. At least I can escape into an air-conditioned office. Living on a farm must be unbearable, cramped in small, dark, dusty huts.

There are crop failures in all the northern regions thisyear. The minister of .;;-.culture is blaming us. "All this money and effort," he says, "and what can yGe for it?" Without rain, what good are our programs?The lAkiAs are gray but.:den with dust, not rain.

My own family's farm lands are suffering. We created a number of new fields and built irrigation canals to water them. Now there is too little water even for the animals. There is nothing for the fields.

Several groups of nomads have arrived. A few years ago they acted like they owned the world. Look at them now. Thin. Their animals are starving. Those coming in later will be in worse condition.

Government officials say that many of the nomads are mdgrating south to the towns. Aerial surveys indicate less water at the oases. several of them actually have shrunk as the ground water retreated. Yet hundre of people are remaining in camps around the oases. It is as though the desert ,..-:xpanding around them, trap- ping the peo;:-,le in progressively. smaller areas.

160 No one is interested in my demonstrations of agricultural implements. They only want loans--and rain. "Do something to increase the supplyof water," they demand. What can we do? The government itself is shaky these days. What can one say publicly?

(Move to Square 4)

Scene 4

The annual report for my departmentwas submitted today. It seems to contain only bad news. We tried for some time to avoid theobvious. A drought is affecting the whole country and neighboringstates as well. We will not be alone in our suf- fering but is that a comfort? Perhaps it will mean more attention fromthe outside world, from Europe and America. Maybe even the oil-rich Arab states will helpus now.

The President announced on the state radionetwork that he had asked for international aid in this crisis. He reassured the people that the dilemma is prompted by natural calamities, not malice. Nor is it a result of some failureon our part. No, it is only the weather. And maybe the animals too. We have many more people owning more livestock and living inthe same area.

Some officials of the international aidgroup will arrive today. They will inspect the worst drought-strickenareas. Hopefully they will recommend that assistance be granted. We certainly could use food insome places, and more pumps and drilling equipment. Inevitably, the irrigation and crop developmentprogram I worked on will be set aside. It is a pity to lose momentum, just whenthe staff was well-trained. Now the staff will be redirected. We are to work to provide stable living conditions formore people in villages and towns. In other words, we have to figure out what to do with all the peopleflowing into refugee camps.

The fact-finding tour will beginsoon. Goodby air-conditioning. Hello dust. I'll spend two, maybe three weeks ina truck following a faint track across a parched land.

(Move to Square 5)

Scene 5

This has been the worst year I'veever endured. I'm twenty-six and already tired. Everything is going wrong. I planned a happy future. My family was well- to-do. Now everything is changed. Ay fortune, my future, it has evaporated like the moisture from the soil.

Whpn I was a kid I used to visit a farm whichmy father owned in the northwest. The family treated me well--as though Iwere their own son. Now the man is dead and the wife struggles to keep her two childrenalive. When the rains failed, the crops failed too. This is the fourth year with harvests lessthan half the average.

The nomads who came to the farm contributedto the destruction. Sure, they had to try to stay alive. But their herds trampled and packed the scorched earth and

16.7 r 161 ate every leaf in sight.

Now the government has established a refugee camp at the farm. Never have I seen such pathetic children, bellies swollen from malnutrition. And not only the nomads are suffering. The farms have all failed, their and animals exhausted. supplies of water for people

Everyone seems to be ill. Typhoid has been prevalent. And cholera too. Food and medical supplies arrive almost daily in the capital but it takestoo long to reach camps like thisone. Many foreigners have donated reliefsupplies. The prob- lem remains to get them tothe people who need them most. no train. There are few roads and And even if the roadswere better, there are too few trucks. like this forever? Will it be

(Flip a coin to determine whether you move to Headsor Tails) Scene 6

Heads

I have just been placed incharge of relief supply distribution district. in this The order, delivered bya military officer, came directly from ident. the Pres- Normally, the bureaucracy wouldtake weeks to process sucha transfer.

When I arrived here at theairport the situation was disastrous. tons of grain were being held Hundreds of here because a single customs officialrefused them entry until regular dutieswere paid. He was steadfast in his obeisance law. to the All imports, he said, mustbe inspected, approved, and taxed be moved. before they can I immediately ordered suspensionof the regulations for all relief supplies. Now there will be arguments over what is classified as a "reliefsupply" but at least some things can move out quickly.

Within hours we began loadingout trucks. Each 5-ton truck carries rice, de- hydrated milk and sealed tinsof fresh water. This afternoon we'll begin loading medical supplies.

I have also organized maintenance crews to travel with each truck convoy. They carry a minimum number of simple spare parts--fan belts, batteries, sparkplugs . Althoughthe mechanics were given only a few day's training, some were alreadyex- perienced. Their skills should helpreduce the number of delays in transporting supplies to remote areas.

(Flip a coin. If Heads, move to Square 9 If Tails, move to Square 7) Tails

What a night! There was an attempt to overthrowthe government. My apart- ment building is only a stone's throw from the President's residence. Th:re was shooting all around. I feared my own house would becomea battleground. Fortunately, the coup failed and few peopleseem to have been involved. But the tension will remain for a long time.

1(8

1(2 A relief plane also crashed last night. It happened at one of the landing strips about 200 miles to the north. The plane had been delayed by a duststorm and arrived late. The strip had neither lights nor radar. The plane hit in the middle of the strip and rammed into storagesheds nearby. Much of the grain and other supplies both in the sheds andon the plane was destroyed.

By dawn word of the crash had spread to people in thearea. They came like locusts and carried away everything that couldbe salvaged. Most of the people desperately need the food. Others will hoard some to sell on the black market. Actually, the growing black market isone of the reasons for the attempted coup. And the international aid officialsare critical too. If we can't control the underground sales of relief supplies, theysay, then the agencies will cut our supplies.

Political instability isbecoming worrisome. Looting is understandable in such hard times. Yet the military is definitely trigger happy. What troubles! Will it ever end?

(Flip a coin. If Heads, move to Square 9. If Tails, move to Square 7)

Scene 7 (Read only if you are on Square 7)

Even now I don't want to believe it. My youngest child died yesterday. I'd left both children with our maid. She phoned to say it happened so quickly she hardly knew the child was sick. When the little one had returned from school she complained of chills. A few hours later she was delirious with fever, then death came swiftly. Now the government has closed the schools, for many childrenare ill. What should I do? If I leave my work here, distributing supplies, perhapsmany more will die. If I do not go home, perhaps my other child will dietoo. And even if I am with my family, can I stop the disease?

Look, there are 50 trucks waiting to be loaded, mostlywith medical supplies. They will be driven all night and unloaded in darkness. The maintenance crews will grease and oil the trucks during the day for the return trip in the evening. That is if everything goes according to schedule. And how many will die if it does not?

(Move to Square 8)

Scene 8 (Read only if you are on Square 8)

The refugee camp officials are jubilant. The delivery system is working as never before. The mood of the people is far more optimistic. The children are getting milk and other fluids regularly. A health unit consisting of two female nurses and one male assistant supervise food preparation and storageas well as tend the minor ailments. Two doctors arrive by plane once a week to treat serious cases.

The outlook is not as good elsewhere. Two very large camps near the northern border are in desperate condition. No roads reach these distribution points and makeshift landing strips are still under construction. Because the situation is perilous, the major relief agencies are cooperatively organizingan airlift to take place as soon as planes can land.

1 6 9 163 One of the international aid officials is beingassigned to work directly with me. We arts to oesign a, iong-tezm project forthe northern encampment. It involves transporting thousands of nomad.; from thedesert to the southern agricultural lands. We must convince them that they should cnange their entire life style. Hopefully, they will 17e re-educated as participants in a national reconstruction project. Some foreign governments have promisedhelp--money and technicians. The most important thing, however, will be to motivateour own people. They must want the change. Scene 9

Can you imagine, this was once a model farm. I arrived here last night and could scarcely believe what Isaw. It is desolate. I once stood near that group of skeletal trees and watched the firstwater pour from the newly-installed irrigation pump. Someone has destroyed the pump mechanism, probablyto repair another pump which by now is also broken. Besides, there is no water.

Every fence post, every bush has been burnedas fuel. Bar,., hovels shelter per- haps 10,000 people. They know I'm here to speak to them abouta future they can- not envision. They are so tired and hungry. Who among them has the energy to think about the future?

First I must try to make them understandhow this terrible drought came to pass. They all know about the rains. Of course, they don't know how tomeasure the changes in millimetersor inches. But they know about the wells, the bushes, every change that occurs when evena few raindrops fall on the dry land.

What they do not understand is the role of peoplein this drama. People and their animals--and we encouragedthem both. We improved their health and they multiplied. Prosperity here is counted in childrenand livestock, not coins or paper. Areas grazed only once in fouryears came to be grazed annually. More and more people and animals competedfor water and the produce of the soil. The animals destroyed more andmore plant life. The earth, deprived of humus, could not hold the little rain that fell. The desert won.

But I cannot say to these poor people thatthis awful condition is their fault. We failed too. We did not educate people. And many of the educated ones also believed that more is better. Nature had always provided in the past.

The moment has come to speak. What shall I tell these people?

(Decide. Move to Square 10)

After making your individual decision, considerthe following questions, discussing them with the other players.

1. What are the survival advantages for those who remainin the refugee camps?

2. What are the advantages and disadvantages ofthe resettlement program?

3. What are your prospects of survivingas an active government official over the next forty years?

4. What would you do if faced with a decision that wouldchange your entire way of life?

(Now write your version of Scene 10n 164 170 DROUGHT SIMULATION INTERNATIONAL OFFICIALSCENARIO Scene 1

My family is quiteprosperous, you know. They own rental modern farms in northern Europe. properties in several Europeancapitals and I'm sixteen this year and enjoying life enormously. Why, ithardly rained at all in thespring. We played soccer and tennis nearlyevery day. I loved it. But my grandfather arrived to spend the was full of complaints when I summer on his farm. "We won't haveenough grain or hay to feed through the winter," he said.And the tomatoes and .the- animals peas, how he complained about all thevegetables. Production was so small hecancelled several contracts withlocal food processors. And he wasn't the only one who seemed worried. My uncle isa banker in Paris. He says that several West African countries have hadtoo much rain at thesame time that we've had too little. Their have failed and thegovernments have applied for loans crops on. But my uncle is afraid to lend to provide disaster relief, replacebridges, and so them too muchmoney because we might need it here. Let's go to a movie.

[Move to Square 2 and wait] Scene 2

Some people just can't be satisfied. Now all my grandfather anduncle talk about is too much For myself, I'm pretty unhappytoo. I had a hiking trip planned last rain. finally just gave up, bought week and it poured constantly.I an umbrella, and enrolled insummer school. My uncle, the Paris banker, justcame back from a tour of the Sahel. former French colonies in West You know, that's thearea of Africa. Most of them still maintainpretty close ties with France. They seem to be having a drought there, Herecommended me for a job with that is reviewing the needs an international organization of the people in thedrought-stricken area. I begin inSeptember. The job sounds pretty interesting. The pay is really good andI like the chance touse the foreign languages I learned in schor'. Thepeople who interviewed especially the travel. Maybe me for the job liked my background, someday I'll want to become involvedin the family business. Right kind of exciting to be goingto Africa in a useful role. I'm glad I now, it's ment. took those courses on economicdevelop-

[Flip a coin to determine whetheryou move to Heads or Tails] Scene 3 Heads

This may be the capital but itsure isn't Paris! I was here years ago and it has changed quite on a school vacation about eightor nine a bit. There are some highrise officebuildings now and the traffic really congested. The sidewalksare crowded too. I don't think there is then. Maybe that's what makes it were so many people downtown seem so hot. I don't know how I'dsurvive if this office weren't air conditioned. My car and apartmentare air-conditioned too. It really to arrange these nice accommodations. was considerate of the government

171 165 I've been assigned to work withan administrator in the ministry for national development.He left town on an inspection tour of irrigation projects justbefore I arrived. In fact, I should havegone with him. I'll have to see this project myself beforeI can recommend another loan. Ieven tried to join him en route but there are no phones in the district. Besides,he'll be traveling from place to place and he didn't leave a schedule with his office staff.

I guess there will be enough to do untilhe gets back. Restaurantsare expensive but pretty nice and I have a generous expense account. I also needto do a lot of background reading before this inspection tour. It might be a good idea to interviewa few of the local officials. Some of them might haveaccurate information on the nomad populations inthe north. I hear they're really in troublesellingoff their livestock for next to nothing. Maybesomeone at the president's reception tonight has beenup north. Surely it couldn't be as badup there as people say. Tails

Paris may have been the model but thistown has a long way to go. I thought I'dnever even get from the airport to town. One old cow just stood there in the middle of the road while the whole herd tookits time crossing in front ofus.

This hotel is for the birds. The air-conditioningdoesn't work. Flies are buzzing everywhere. Andthe food! There are only two European-stylerestaurants in the whole place. When one closes. opens. the other

No one seems to know what's goingon. I was directed to meet a government administrator fromthe ministry for developmentat 9:00 A.M. sharp. He wasn't there and he didn'teven leave a message. It took me two hours to find out that he'dalready left on his inspection tour. Noone seemed to know when he left, where he'd be staying,or when he would return.

The chauffeur for my carsays that things are bad in the country. The government, hesays, doesn't tell the people the truth. But his relatives inthe north are begging for assistance. Cropfailures have been widespread. The farms are dryingup.

What is worse, many nomads haveinvaded the farmlands. They claim they'restarving and can't continue their annual migration. Andthe government representative who out of town. was to take me to the area is

Blast this heat! Even my suit has gone limp and I have to go to the President's reception tonight.He's out of townParis I've heardbut all theother top officials will be there. Hope Imeet someone who is a bit better organized. Anyway, they'll all be askingfor money. How can I explain that there isa reluctance to lend to countries who showso little potential for profitable development. Scene 4

The reception was evenworse than I expected. Everybody seems to thinkmoney will solve all the problems. Now I'm not denying that it would help.Certainly investment in resource management water, livestock, agricultureis well-spent. And thereare plenty of people looking for work just in the capital city alone. A few factories here andthere could employ lots of cheap, labor. But what kind of factories? And where is the market for the products?Most of the people in the interiorare so poor that they couldn't purchaseone thimble a year. They certainly don't needa factory that would produce 10.000 every day.

I just read an article that predicted thisdrought will get worse before it gets better. Someof the climatological changes may be permanent,at least within our lifetime. And the drought isworldwide, these scientists say. Even the Philippine islandsand the United States are suffering.

I7? 166 I've gotten to know a few localstaxi drivers, maids, shopclerks. They all complain about the demands their relatives outside the capitalare making on them. "Send money, send food, send money, send food," it's the same all over. Still, most people inthe city seem to behave as if nothing were happening.

A telegram just arrived. It's from the administratorwho is supposed to take me on a tour of the agricultural districts. He said he would sendsomeone to pick me up. Meanwhile, "enjoy the city," he said. Scene 5

Today is my twenty-sixth birthday. I sure don't feel likecelebrating. It was all right wh-.n my family was here. They provided some relief from the constant depression of work. AfterI'd been out in the countryside where everything is either deador dying, it was wonderfu! to come home to my healthy, happy family. But when the city becameso crowded with refugees, I began to worry. The refugees have to live in crowded encampments and the sanitary conditionsare awful. The newspapers are afraid to report it but I've heard from reliable sources that cholera andtyphoid are becoming frequent. I just couldn't risk my family's health. So I sent themhome.

I have the job of coordinating the delivery ofemergency relief supplies. The government finally made public what everyone had known fora long time. There is massive starvation everywhere. Somesay that at least one million people face death within the month ifemergency supplies aren't delivered. I have nightmares every time I closemy eyes, either to sleep or only to rest. All the supplies are piled up at the coastal ports. The government has sent trucks and requisitionedspace on the train but few supplies are reaching us. I've asked people inmy own organization to fillet donors who will supply trucks and mechanics as well as food. And if this fuel shortagecontinues, I'll have to ask for donations just to provide fuel for my own car. I know the lives of hundreds ofthousands of people are dependent on my ability to coordinate the relief effort. The first priority is deliveryof intravenous fluids and medicine, then of high protein food and cans of safe drinkingwater.

The government is cooperative but disorganized. The Presidenthas asked the military to set up dis- tribution points for " This will ensure equitable rationing, theysay, and discourage food riots. That's their prob: !;ttess. !osiug enough sleep over my own.

Now I've got to go down to the customs warehouse. Some hard-headed,well-intentioned bureaucrat is holding up an entire shipment of penicillin. Hesays someone must pay customs duty on every item that is imported into the country. How can Icope with a bureaucracy that is trained to deal with ounces when the problems are with tons. [Flip a coin to determine whether youmove to Heads or Tails] Scene 6 Heads I could no longer tolerate such inefficiency withso many lives at stake. I went to the President. knowing that he might order me out of the country. Puttingthe matter as diplomatically as possible. I said that he must either reorganize his governmentto cooperate more efficiently with relief efforts or he would receive the blame for all the deaths resulting from starvation.

The gamble paid off. The President put the wholecustoms department under the temporary command of my friend in the development ministry. I'm confidentthat he can get supplies moving faster out of here and into the worst drought areas. In fact, I've justcabled headquarters in Geneva. Switzerland to increase the number of shipments to threeper week.

173 167 Now I must start work on organizingan airlift to the three northernmost refugeecamps. The rains. such as they were, ran off the parchedland up there and funneled into gullies. Therushing water washed out the only bridge between them andus. It will take the army at least two weeks to get up there to replace it. a crew

Reports are still coming in concerning the unusualmovement of nomads. Many men have taken their surviving livestock to sell in the towns. Theyleave their wives, children, and old people indesert camps as close to an oasis as possible. If theycan sell a camel or a few cows, they try to buy food and help the others. But many die return to on the trip. And the price of a good cow has dropped from $80.00to $2.00. The farmers don't want to buy the animalsbecause they too have nothing to feed them. Tails

I can no longer tolerate this incredible corruption and inefficiency. People all over the world havecon- tributed generously to help these Africansand half the government officialsare just lining their own pockets. I spoke to the President this morning.

The President's responsewas polite but cool. He would "see about it," he said. I latersaw his cable t- my superiors asking that I be replaced. He calledme "rude and petty" in a time of grave crisis. He offered an option, however, and suggestedthat I be sent upcountry to assist in therefugee camos. His message was clear enoughwork but do not criticize.

I packed everything needed for abouttwo weeks and left for the airport. Aswe approached a crowd, my driver stopped suddenly and left thecar. "Exploiter, Hoarder," the people screamed. I suspected that the demonstration was staged forpolitical reasons. No one actually attemptedto harm me and I drove the car away from the crowd andto the airport.

[Flip a coin. If Heads, move to Square 9. If Tails, move to Square 7] Scene 7 [Read this scene only ifyou are on Square 7] No one escapes. A message just arrived reporting the death of the local governmentofficial's youngest chid. I feel almost guilty about thehealth and safety of myown family. My wife is vacationing with friends in the south of France. Thekids are spending the summeron my grandfather's old farm. He's dead now but the family sharesexpenses for a housekeeper and gardener to maintain the holidays. place for

I just sent a message of condolence. Itseemed so flat, so inadequate. Who is sending other thousands who are dying daily? messages for the

At least the transportation bottleneckseems to have eased. My friend is as efficientas I thought. He plans to increase the volume of supplieswe can handle by four times this month. Over two hundred trucks, fully loaded, have left here this week alone.It takes them about five days to makea round trip. If things continue to go so smoothly, perhaps Ican take a weekend off and return tosee my family. [Move to Square 8] Scene 8

I hitched a ride with a relief planeat 3:00 A.M. It was scheduled to leave yesterday butthe plane couldn't obtain sufficient fuel. A trainload ofgasoline arrived at midnight anda special crew was dis- patched to fuel the plane. Itwas the third time this week that fuel shortages caused thing has run pretty smoothly. delays. Still every-

t68 It was such a relief to see my family again. But the visit had to be briefand I returned Sunday on the same plane. The pilot flew in low over the northern part of the region. Through the dust-ladenair we could still see hundreds of festering animalcarcasses. From that altitude, it was easy to see where lakes and rivers had once existed. Theirgray chalk-like outlines were rimmed by the bodies of animals that came there in a vain search for water.

I saw a few small herds grazing on what appearedto be only rock and sand. Windstorms swirled the dust beneath us, obscuring the view. The onlygreen we saw was around the few remaining oases. The reports I've been receiving in the capital say that theseareas are being overused and may fail too. They are already the last hope, the thread of life, for hundreds of thousands of people.I cannot even contem- plate the consequences were theoases to fail too.

We did see one remarkable phenomenona patchof earth seemingly unaffected by the drought. Later I learned that it was an experimental farm. Pasturelands,about 1,000 acres, had been fenced to control grazing. Care was taken to control the size of the herdsand prevent overgrazing. Rainfall is just as scarce in that area as elsewhere, yet there is some vegetation everywhere withinthose enclosures. The two wells on the farm are low but neither has failed. Experts attributethe preservation of the water table to the ability of the vegetation to hold moisture in the soil. Maybe,if this drought ever ends, we can help other farmers here learn from this experiment. Now I'm just trying to proceedone day at a time. Who has time to worry about the future?

[If you are optimistic about improving conditions in the Sahel,move to Square 9. If you are pessimistic, move to Square 10] Scene 9

My trip home now seems unreal. For two days Iwas in another worldeating a five-course meal in a fine restaurant, watching color TV withmy kids, taking my wife out to the ballet. Today I have eaten one meal consisting entirely of dehydrated and reconstituted goods. Imay not eat again for twenty-four hours.

My friend is speaking to a group of farmers outsidea slightly dilapidated house. This used to be his farm. Now it's a refugee camp. He hada good well with a mechanical pump to irrigate about half the tilled fields. The rest was in pasture, fertilized naturally bythe livestock herds the nomads brought south on their annual migration. Now it isas parched as everything else in the region. And someone has stolen parts from his well pump to repair another.

He speaks first in French, then repeats hismessage in two other languages. It is a cumbersome process but necessary. No one looks very attentive. Many recline, their bodiesemaciated and weakened by hunger. He's talking to them about the future. Someof them may not live another day. But whatcan be done that we're not already doing? All themoney in the world could not produce water here now. And even when rainfall returns to normal levels, it willtake many years to bring land back into produc- tion.

Oilmaybe there is oil or some other valuableresource hidden beneath this barren land. It is so hard to think these people may be condemned to this kind ofpoverty forever.

tic's finishing his speech now. "Stay and ifyou survive, you may be here like this for years. Go to the refugee center and at least you havea chance. Decide now." What a choice. But what if the government fails? What if I can't deliver the relief thatmy organization has promised? What if the countries that have pledged donations do not honor-them?

[Decide. Move to Square 10]

1 7') 169 After making your individual decision, considerthe following questions, discussing other players. them with the

Having explained your understanding ofthe relationships between mate and explain to other players: prosperous and poor nations, esti-

I. What are the survival advantages of typicalindividuals in poor compared to when drought strikes? prosperous countries

2. What are your own prospects ofsurvival as an official over the next forty years? 3. What events could increase theprobability of success for international future? emergency relief efforts in the

4. What would you asan individual most likely do in a similaremergency situation in the future?

[Now write your version of Scene 10)

I 7

170 INSTRUCTION SHEET TRADE FAIR A Simulation of An All-Africa Exposition Thirty-seven African countries participated in consisted of exhibit structures built in a large park- the first All-Africa Trade Fair between February 23 like area of flat ground and shade trees. and March 5, 1972. There were at least two official representatives of 37 of the 41 countries of the In simulating the Trade Fair, space should be Organization of African Unity (OAU). Kenya was available for 37 exhibits surrounding an open area host to the 150,000 visitors who came to see the for speed and possibly group activities. (The exhibits. exhibits may be arranged in any order, perhaps alphabetical for convenience.) The Exposition was a unique and positive pre- sentation of African perspectives and products for EXHIBITS consideration by the world. It was also hoped that Each participant should be acquainted with the the Fair would be the beginning of new trading re- location, products, and resources of the country to lationships among Africans. OAU member nations be represented in an exhibit booth. are competing for the opportunity to host the second All-Africa Trade Fair. Presimulation preparation might include the preparation of two maps. The first should show V- PARTICIPANTS representative's country in relation to the rest of tai:. African continent. The second map should show Simulation participants represent the 37 African nations which exhibited products at the Trade Fair the location of prominent physical features, re- in Kenya in 1972. Ideally, at least one participant sources, and product production areas of the will represent each nation and be responsible for individual country. providing a display. On a larger scale, a number of Each exhibitor's presentation may be enriched participants can represent a single nation and by the addition of music, films, photographs, or share in the preparation of exhibits. On a smaller food typical of the country. (It may be useful to scale, several small countries could cooperate in a recall that peanuts are grown in almost every joint presentation. country in Africa, rice is widespread and so also is cotton. Thus displays can be easily assembled using Sonic participants can also roleplay African any of these or their various by-products.) national leaders. (Students can play double roles exhibitor and government official if necessary.) They will deliver the welcoming address and other speeches,--fc, number of students may represent intoiational traders. For example, one student ni(, he a French buyer of palm oil. Another might be another purchaser of cotton and tea.Still others may simply visit and browse. All the participants should make sonic effort to The exhibitor is also an accredited trade official. simulatetheappearance ofthepeoplethey He or she may purchase or sell commodities in ex- represent.Nationalleadersparticularly should changes with other African exhibitory inter- make a special effort to dress and behave as those national traders. they are representing. Of course, visitors to the Exposition will be a diverse groupAfricans and OPENING CEREMONIES otherwise. Most will be concerned with business The All-Africa Trade Fair in Kenya in 1972 was and commerce. officially opened by the President of the host One person can serve as an honorary Financecountry. Jomo Kenyatta. (A Copy of his welcoming Minister distributing gold certificates to players speech is enclosed. It should' be read aloud.) and supervising the tinal accounting and reporting Following the welcoming speech, participants of each nation's economic situation following the may wish to join the speaker in chanting the Trade Fair. For convenience, all transactions will Swahiliwordlot "pullingtogether." It is be made using either gold or other commodities as H R RA MBE! the mediums of exchange. TRANSACTIONS THE SETTING 'Ihree kinds of transactions are possible. Warm springlike weather is typical ofFebruaryl 7 and March in Nairobi, Kenya. The 1972 Trade Fair 1.People from the same nation can purchase and exchange commodities among them- selves. 171 2.People from different African nationscan 1. How much did you buy and of what and why? purchase and exchange commoditiesacross national boundaries. 2. How much did you sell and of what and why? 3. People from outside Africa can purchase and exchange commodities with Africans. 3. With which other nation did you make the most transactions? The Finance Minister should distribute certifi- cates for 100 ounces of gold to the head of each 4. With which other nation did you make the exhibit . These certificates are paper repre: least transactions? seining gold stored in the treasury of each nation. 5. What is your balance of trade? How much (Nosingle currency is used all over Africa, although have you earned or lost in terms of gold cer- most systems in use are closely related to three terficates? major types of currency used internationallythe pound sterling, the United States dollar, and the 6. To the African nation which you represent, French franc. The need for a common Africancur- what is your advice on planning for thenext rency remains an unsettled issue among OAU An-Africa Trade Fair? nations.) EVALUATION The head of each exhibit shouldalso have a copy of the ALLAFRICA COMMODITY Discussion will be taking place at several points LIST. as the simulation progressesin the preparation of exhibit booths, for example, or in commentaryon the appropriateness of the speeches. Participants can make their own forms for COMMODITY SALE and COMMODITY PUR- If different groups prepare auxiliary art displays CHASE. Both buyer and seller should keepa copy or film or dance programs, all the Trade Fair par- of each transaction. The forms might look like this. ticipants should watch and comment. Is the pre- sentation accurate? Is it effective? Is it attractive? SAMPLE Does it add to your information about and under- standing of a place and a people? COMMODITY TRANSACTION .1t the end of the simulation, a general evalua- tion should incorporate all the various participants Soldhv to and activities. The following questions may be use- (nation) (nation) ful to start the discussion of TRADE FAIR. (amount) 1. What did you learn of greatest value during the simulation? (commodity) 2. How could the simulation have been made a more valuable experience? shipping by cheapest route to buyer's capital city in return for (amount) 3. What was most enjoyable during the simula- tion? (commodity) 4. Which were the most effective exhibits and why? Agreed to by Seller's Name 5. What errors of fact have you corrected as a re- sult of participating in this simulation? Buyer's Name 6. How has participation in the simulation famil- iarized you with African resources, production, and stages of agricultural and industrial devel- CONCLUSION opment? At the end of the allotted time period, each par- 7. What mental images of Africa do you now have ticipant should respond briefly to the following that differ from those you held before the simu- questions. lation took place? 178

172 WELCOMING SPEECH - TRADE FAIR -

- A SIMULATION OF AN ALL-AFRICA EXPOSITION- This fair will send out to the world an Since 1963 we have worked together inspiring message of the brotherhood of through OAU. Rememberingour charter Africa. It represents the determination of we must continue to "promote African modern Africa. It symbolizesour goal of brotherhood and solidarity,transcending more rapid development. It demonstrates ethnic and national differencesso as to our self-reliance and the proper ways of achieve a better lifefor the peoples of using our own talents andresources. Africa." Decolonization has been achieved over most of the continent. This Trade Fair Our trade fairisunique.Itnot only will be a new beginning forour economies. assembles African natural and manufac- Together we can continue to achieve great tured goods. Also, these exhibits show the progress for our peoples and for the world. great commercial potential of Africa.

Though we speak many languages,we are With cooperation we could learn to speak all Africans. Forty-onenations are the same language. Highways could be built organized cooperatively into the Organiza- all across Africa. Railways and sea and air tion for African Unity. In 1969we met in routes can be integrated for everyone's Algiers when OAU sponsored the First All- advantage. Already we are linking Addis African Cultural Festival. In Somalia in Ababa to Nairobi with an all-weather road. 1970 OAU sponsored the First Workshop Inthe future we canlinkLagos and on African Folklore. Now we are here. Let . Yet these are just beginnings. 1972 be remembered as a greatone because we are together. At this Trade Fair we can learnrespect for African products. Too oftenwe have Not all could be with us today. Our hurt ourselves by preferring to buy themore brothers and sisters represent most African expensive goods imported from otherareas peoples and nations. Yet some had to stay at of the world. Displayed hereare the proofs home. We understand how important their that Africans can supply African needs. The work is and sent our best wishes. Others economists tell us that less than 6 per cent of have not been liberated. We of the OAU our exports are being bought by other continue to support the ideals of twelve African nations. This All-Africa Trade Fair African Liberation Movements. Someday will teach us what we haveto offer One these African relatives will also be free in another. When we meet again in 1976 I Mozambique. Guinea Bissau. . hope it can be reported that life and trade Angola. South West Africa, . and have improved throughoutAfrica. Now elsewherewhereAfrican peopleare enjoy and learn. Work together. Pullto- oppressed. geth erH rra nz be!

173 E111111111111E111111 MEN 11111111311 t 11111111111111IMO

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What first comes to mind when you hear or read these words? Beside each word, write the first thing which you think of. Later, compare and discuss your responses with those of others. (Use a separate sheet of paper.) snake elephant ape insects animals people black white dark blond hairiness litheness professor mutiny loyalty bravery fear umannes.7 civilization jungle Tarzan Jane Lord Greystoke Lady Greystoke England stereotype

(NOTE:All these words are extracted from the sound-recording, "TARZAN OF THE ," a 1934 radio broadcast series. Each word was written into the script in order to stimulate mental images among listeners. In your culture do these words trigger similar images among most people? Do female and male responses to these words differ significantly? Within your culture, do different age groups respond uniquely? Do you suppose these words produced images in 1934 similar to those today?)

1.81

175 EXPANDING DESERT

Is a desert a static or living thing? What happens when a desert expands?

What causes deserts togrow smaller or larger?

The Sahel is a dry region in Africa southof the Sahara and north of the Sudaniczone. Since 1968, there has been less moisture each rainyseason. After four or five years this drought has created permanent changes. Lives are being lost. Crops have failed.Farmers and nomads have had to change their ancient lifestyles. Nomads, deprived of their herds,are also deprived of their means of livelihood. In order to survive, they have been compelledto migrate southward to already crowded cities and towns. Southern farmers have raisedcrops only to find their lands "invaded" by migrants, and their fewsur- viving animals, from the north. And eachyear the desert creeps closer. In some areas it is advancing at rate of thirty miles per year. Trees andgrasses die, rivers dry up, and wecease to produce v Why?

Why are desert regions distributedover world land areas?

QUESTIONS FOR CONSIDERATION 1. What is a desert? 2. Among deserts, what are the different kinds?

3. In deserts, what is the importance of: altitude, latitude. rai,;:fall.humidity, sunny (i,:ys, clougy ci'ays. clear nights, cloudy nights. character of land surface. soil quality. plant distributiwt,animal listri- bution, human nopulation? 4. What happet :when an agricultural area is overtaken byan ' xpanding desert? 5. What happens to the semidesert agricultura:areas when a desert becomes smaller? 6. Of the world's desert areas, whichare largest? Smallest?

7. Of late, what desert areas seem to be expanding andwhy? What desert areas are decreasing? 8. What can be done by peoples in desert and semidesertregions in preparation for long droughts? 9. What can be done to increase the agricultural productivityof desert areas? 10. Given the tragic human situation of the Sahel, whatought to be and what can be done? 1 2 176 HOW LARGE IS AFRICA?

According to people who keep records of such things, Africa has an area of around 11 millionsquare . miles.

For eompar-nn, make rough estimates of the size diff:zences between the African continent and North Amrt,ol :he United States; South America; Brazil; Europe; China; Australia; Antarctica. How irtiportar.t is size alone? What other questions would you ask about the African continent? Where can cople live? Where do people live? Can all the land he (Aivated? What are the most valuable natural resources? Water? Minerals? Forest products? Agricultural products? How many diflet cut countries exist on the continent? How do their governments differ? How do their people differ? You may be able to answer all or none of these kinds of questions now.i he important thing is to remember to ask them when you explore Africa through these readings. 183 177 TOO MUCH WATER OR TOO LITTLE?

1.NA, nat is the "right" amount of rain? 2. Which is best, an area with water draininginor out? Or is either desirable? 3. How would you describe: a. "A falling water table"? b. "A rising water table"? c. "A stabilized water table"?

4. What factorS are associated with stable, rising,and falling water tables?

5. In AfricL, where are the water conditions stableand how might the Sahel and Amboseli regions be interrelated? How are they changing?*

181

173 WHERE IN THE WORLD IS

Though almost everyone can locate the continent of Africa, where are the following African countries?

Afars & Issas lfny Rio Muni Algeria !Wry Coast Rwanda Angola Kenya Sierra Leone Senegal Burundi Liberia Somalia Libya South Africa Centrztl African Rt:ruNic Malagasy Republic South West Africa Chad Malawi Spanish Sahara Congo Mali Sudan Dahomey Mitrocco Swaziland Egypt N,,turitania Tanzania Ethiopia Mozambique "logo Ni,gcr Uganda Gambia Nigeria Upper Volta Ghana Portuguese Guinea Zaire Guinea Rhodesia Zambia Zanzibar Can you locate these countries on Ow rolltical outline map r.rovided on the next gage ?

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150 I AM AFRAID

"Something bad is going on. Things are not like they used to be. I feel weak. Thereare evil spirits aroc.:d here.I am afraid.

"Why do you look at me that way? You scareme. Is something wrong? Everyone looks at meso strangely. It is evil,I know. Ifeel it in my bones.

"Things are placed in my but while I sleep at night. Strange soundsawaken me. Something reaches inside the but and pulls my hair. My mirror has been broken. Some ofmy clothes are missing. The rest I Lind turned inside out every morning. Too much salt gets intomy food. I think I am going mad. "Bring the witch doctor to me. Let the evil spirits becast out." QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER 1. How would you describe the person who is telling the story?

Assuming the role of the person telling about these events, what mightyou hav,:. done? 3. Assuming the role of a witch doctor, what r-eatment mightyou have recommended? 4. Assuming the role of a medical doctor, what treatment mightyou have recommended?

5. Assuming the role of a scientific observer, what explanations mightyou have given for these events?

b. Assuming the role of a religious leader, what counsel might you have given to the individual? Tothe village elders? (Be specific in the roleyou assume. Select: Christian. Muslin:. or some other specific religions. perspective.)

7. Would you expect more "witches" to be maleor female?

8. Would you expect more "witch doctors" to be maleor female?

9. Would you expect the patterns of occurrence by "witchcraft" and "witchdoctoring"to vary in dif- ferent cultures? How? When? Why?

...... 10.. What are some possible relationships between beliefs in witchcraft and one's: a.nutrition level? h. age level? c. educational level? d. economic status? e.social situation? f..political situation?

187

181 LIBERIANSAFRICANS? AMERICANS?

"Oh we often hear that." the Black man in the well-designed white suitwas laughing. He had just liven told by an American visitor that she felt as if shewere at home. The man sipped his iced drink. tanned himself and chuckled again. He had been President of Liberia since 1943. Itwas 1971. Soon, he knew, he would die. But the afternoon wasa happy one. Everyone was in a good mood and these American visitors always expressed interest in his country. He smiled and moved through the crowd. I he lady. followed.

"You even use the 11.5. dollar as money.- the lady said. Shewas Black and from Los Angeles. This was her first visit to Africa and she had chosen to visit Monrovia, the c2.pital of Liberia. Later she would go on to Lagos, Nigeria. then A:!!.i' Ababa. Ethiopia, and Nairobi, Kenya. In three months she will also 11,1%e been to Calcutta, Bangkok, Singapore. Manila, Tokyo.Honolulu. and then hack to her home in "Pte heard so much about Liberia," she went on. "One ofmy ancestors came here with the first hoatload of freedmen front America. He used to write letters attour family saved them all. But they onit tell about 1822-1832. After that they stopped. Perhapshe died. We never knew. but itis a favorite story I loved to hear my grandmother tell. And I thought, maybe I just might findsonic trace.... How wo)ald I go about linding 'records of the first settler?"

QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER Where isLiberia:'

.2. I low was itsettled and by whom?

1 What are Liberia's future prospects? What are theresources in terms of minerals. plants. and people? How advantageous are the location and climate? Whatare Liberia's historic advantages? Does the United States still have strong influence in Liberia?

-1 What would you expect Liberia .. life to he like in the year 2000? More like North Americaor Africa? Flow can you find out?

How similar is the Liberian Constitution of 1847 to the United States Constitution ()I 1789? Howcan volt find out? o. What Iew, .nd attitudes have you changed during this reading series of questions? How would on now all,wer the question, "Is Liberia African or African-American. o...?".

182 BOUNDARY DISPUTE

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C....4., 4C4.7.4,CS - E; 59u,ce Somal. "I think you are making it very clear, sir." Thespeaker was chief of a Somali herding tribe. He was speaking in his people's language throughan interpreter. Before them was a map, the one shown above. The visiting officials continued their explanation inEnglish. "Your tribe must respect this boundary," saidthe Kenyan official. "South of this line are Her Majesty's lands. You say thatyour father and grandfather grazed their herds in this area. We know this is true. Unfortunately youcan no longer do as they did. You must not cross this line any more. Our patrols will be forced to deal withyour people harshly if you do."

The man from Kenya stops and nods at theperson who is interpreting for the two groups. His eyes glance over the heads of the other tribesmen whoare seated nearby. Their wives and children make a circle at their backs. Beyond are their cattle, sheep, andgoats. The colonial administrator perspires. Not only isit hot today, but he finds this most uncomfortablework.

The interpreter delivers the Somali's reply. "Myname is Mohammed, my people are the children of God. They have grated these hills fir thousands ofyears. The map of their grazing area appears correct. I know the hills there, and the dry stream bed. Yourboundary mark to the West is a broken line. My people will go between the black marks ifyou like."

Another Somali looks at the map. He points out that the line is likea string of beads on the sand. It could be placed anywhere. The two Somalis talk. "Why don'tyou move the line south so that no one will be inconvenienced? If Her Majesty visits, she will be welcome.I am sure she will understand our position. Surely the good mother wantsus to go on living as we always have."

The interpreter turns to the British official from Kenya: "WhatshallI say to them now?" QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER I. What would you say to the tribal chief? b. Do you know of other boundary disputes? Are they similar or different? 2. What would you say toe colonial adminis- trator? 7. What arc the best ways of handling disputes? 3. What would you say to Her Majesty? 8. What are the best ways of deciding boundaries?

4. What would you say to the governments of 9..,How many kinds of boundaries canyou nal,ie Kenya and Somalia? and describe? S. What do you expect happened following the meeting? 1 89 183 MY LAND IS YOUR LAND

blur era td tattier came, my grandfather said, 'You are welcome here. There is plenty for all. im this piece of land. Use it to grow food for your family. We all must eat.' Fie may have gilts. Such is the custom among strangers. Maybe he signed his name. But he only gave theuse ot tin' land. It eannot he taken away from the Kikuyu. We are willing to share. Whatsense does it make !-),.,1(.1.11,, to lea% c? Where should we go? Why do you think that von have owned this and since ,J.oldtatt.,.rs' tune? Land is not ownedit is shared and used."

QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER

I ha.% rt.;1\to this Kikuyu spokesman?

s,-hat would coiltip if loo inherited legal title to the land in question? [lox are land ownarship disputes handled in tribal society? In urban society? In your society? In dittcreni societies?

I As taw tor tfa Kikuyu, what would you have advised in this situation? Vh,:t between "using" and "owning" land?

h,11prco, ;11klitP.111pof land?

AN .1Itt(b4;*;IL.Ltditn..: a land ow nership case, how would you decide? ,ing F.uri ca t,r North Amu-it-art law as the basis? sin.! ihmil or other tribal law as the basis? pr,ductr as the criteria?

\+lu, can".,1111"a r 'use" land? !What other land oroblems liae you heard which are similar to this one? Its \Alio eonstititt...'s ullnership in terms of your Present values?

1 1) 0 PREJUDICE

How does it begin, this prejudice? Are we born with it or isit learned? Just how helpful is prejudice in our lives, and how hurtful?

Listen to these conversations 1...)ni Africa's colonial experience. How do these human actorsexpress prejudice? Towat,' what and whom? And why? "Those dirty savages don't even try to appreciate what we are doing for them," grumbled a Belgian labor officer to me, idly flicking his whip. "We have given them good schools, we have put clothes on their backs, we have given them a chance to earn money and improve their standard of living, we are making their country one of the richest in the wor!d, and they are not even grateful. You have to treat them like dogs." He did. And no doubt he was one of the many who were surprised when the dog turned and bit its master. In fact, the Belgian government did not supply schools. It merely allowed them, exclusively Catholic mission schools to begin with, then Protestant. It created new boundaries, carving the Congo up into denominational areas, as though tribal differences were not enough. The clothes on the backs of the workers were rags cast at them by their masters until such time as they could save enough from paltry wages to buy a new shirt or a pair of cheap shorts. And with the rags came a sense of shame in the human body, carefully inculcated in the mission schools, where men and women and children were taught to be more proud of clothes than of the body God gave them. The new standard of living was largely an opportunity to be swindled by the multitudes of non-African storekeepers, who swept in like vultures to eat up the meager earnings of the new, unwanted, and, from the African point of view, unnecessary cash economy. And if the Belgian Congo was becoming rich, its riches were largely ..-!iverteci to Belgian pockets, not African. "Hang every one in ten!" shouted Colonel Grogan, of the Kenya Legisiative for to the Kenya settler this was the only language the bloody natives would understand. Yet Colonel Grogan was a rather mild man. I had an en':!rtaining luncheon with him before I knew what or who he was. The only discordant note during the meal was when he heard I was going to visit Makerere College, in Uganda, the only college in the whole of East Africa where Africans could get anything more than a poor high school education. "Just teaching a lot of stupid monkeys to dress up like Euro- peans.- he said, "won't do any good. Just cause a lot of discontent. They can never be like us. so better for them not to try."

QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER 1. Toward whom is prejudice directed in these conversations? How many objects of prejudice can you identify and describe? 2. What techniques are used to express prejudice? What words and manners of speaking make prejudice most clear? 3. Had you been Turnbull, what would you have said to the Belgian labor officer? And to Colonel Grogan? And in their places, what might you have said to Turnbull?

4.How might it be argued that none of the three speakers is prejudiced but that their words are mis- understood? Might all of them be prejudiced?

[Excerpt from Colin Turnbull, The Lonely African, New York: Simon Schuster, 1962, pages 56-57. Reprinted by permission. Turnbull also authored Forest People, and Mountain People. Gordor Allport, The Nature of Prejudice, is anotherrook of possible interest.] 19 185 HOW DO PEOPLE BECOME WHITE?

My partner and I were assigned to a Somali village. We were Peace Corps Voluntcers. We wanted to learn about Africa.

Sonie of the more than a hundred villages hadnever before seen a white person. Not even,a British colonial officer, nor an Italian trader had passed through. We were their first. The ehiIdrenwere curious but somewhat frightener; i),y our abnormal appearance. The village elders hada meeting to decide how to present us to the youggster They didn't invite us but occasionally people would leave the meeting and conic to look at again. We waited.

One of !he chif.. tied their decision as heads nodded in agreement. "These are Somalis," he explained. Our training enabled us to understand what he was saying, yet we continued to think in English. on to explain that we had been "chased by a giant rhinoceros in the brush." He pointed out that "hi tear" we had "turned white.''

From then ,,n rrespected and quite well accepted by the people of this village and their neigh- bors. They c:,,"us the "white Somalis.-

QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER

I.flow would you have telt as one of the twoyoung American Peace Corps Volunteers?

2.Never having seen a person of another color, how wouldyou have responded as a child? As an adult? As the village's leader?

What is your evaluation of the explanation given for why these "Somalis turned white?'' 4. What stories have v-ou heard which are similar in someway to this one? 5. What experiences might cause the Somali children to seek another explanation?

6. How might this experience have affected the attitudes. perceptions. and values of thetwo white people invol,.:d? 7. What might they he doing in the United States now? Wh.tr memories of them may still he diseased in the Somali village?

0

186 DEVELOPMENT FOR WHAT?

"Dams? Factories? Skyscrapers? Jet airports? Large foreign loans which must be repaid? Large tracts of land owned by others to provide local agricultural employment? Development? What does that mean? Who benefits from those kinds of development?

"In my boyhood days in Malawi, I remember my mother and grandmother walking five to ten miles just for water. I've wanted to bring a better life to my people. Whatever developments others suggest, I will work . during my life to bring water from mountains to villages. "We should control our own lives and our own economy. Great progress can be made through small-scale projects. We already have the skills and technology to bring water to every village. Why import people at a high salary to build a dam or runway and then leave? Better to do things ourselves and to go slowly. Take the tea project, for example. Many small farmers have improved their situation by planting garden-size plots with tea plants. The entire family works. Carefully tended, hand-picked tea brings the highest prices. Tobacco has been similarly successful.

"Or consider the rice growing project. We used to import the little rice Malawians ate. Then we studied the land and rainfall patterns ourselves. We decided we could grow our own rice right here. It was a small experi- ment at first. Now rice is being grown in many places. We have more to eat than ever before and some rice can even be exported.

"You say this is a tiny country. Nevertheless, we have room to expand. Yes, there are only 23 million acres in Malawi. But 13 million can be farmed. Only modest developments are needed. Roads and irrigation and drainage systems are needed. It is sometimes tempting to invite in the huge companies and giant equipment. They could do the projects quicklyand expensively. By plugging along at our own pace the jobs also get done. As we work, we learn. And more and more Malawians have employment. Still the World Bank calls us the world's poorest country. They count the money and divide by the number of people. By that definition we are indeed poor. "But look around you. Is Malawi so bad? Do you see any human misery or starvation? No, of course not. Is anyone without a house to live in? No. We all have homes. And our families support us in old age. Everyone has a garden to provide food. "This is our position: 'Our land is underutilized. Much has been badly used. We think that human will- power and technology can provide for us now. And when there are more Malawians in the future, they too can be provided for.' We know who we are and where we are headed. What do you think of these views?"

What do you think of these views?

193

187 QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER 1. Where is Malawi? 2. How large is Malawi? a. How much land? b. How many people? c. How much money? How much 2roduction?

3. On these four points, how doesMalawi compare with your own country? 4. What is the meaning of development?

5. What are your viewson how best to develop? a. Laborlocal or imported? b. Capitallocal or imported? c. Deeisionmakinglocal or imported? d. Intensitycapital intensiveor labor intensive? e. Investmentpay as you go or borrow? 1. Speedrapid development or slow development?

6.If Malawi is "like a mouse," whatimagery would you use to represent other African own? nationsand your

7. What do you think of Malawi?

188 WHO IS AN AFRICAN? "Rhodesia's my home, man. Don't you know? Everyone has a home. This is where I was born. My three kids were born here. My wife was born here. This is where we belong. I'm willing to die here if necessary. My father, his home was England. And maybe he shouldn't have come here. But he.did. Now what are you going to do about that?" Ian was a miner. He was arguing with a newspaper reporter sent to cover a Rhodesian miners' strike. "Now let's be clear. Get this right in your paper that's going to tell the world what is going on here. We're striking for better wages, that's all. Better for white and better for black. Nothing else. Don't get it wrong, young lady. We are miners and we work hard and we want a good day's pay for our work. Understand?" QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER 1. Who is an African? What makes them African? 2. How many kinds of Africans can you describe? 3.If human beings originated in Africa, as the research of the Leakeys suggests, then who is not Afri- can? If human beings originated elsewhere, who first went to Africa and when and why? 4. How is the "White African" problem similar to the "White American" problem? "Black Ameri- can," or "Native American?" 5. What positions on wages are implied by the miner? 6. How would you expect the wages.of black and white miners to differ if at all? Where in Africa would you expect most wage differences? Least? On what bases? 7. As a reporter for a European-American News Service, what questions would you ask the miners? 8. What* would newspaper readers learn of Africa from the article you would write? 9. As Ian's oldest offspring, what would you advise your parents to do? Stay in Rhodesia? Move to South Africa? Move to England? Something else? 10. As the oldest offspring of a Black Rhodesian miner, what would you advise your parents to do? 11. As Ian's father, retired in England, what would you advise him and his family to do? 12. As Ian's wife, what would you advise him to do? 13. As the mining company wage settlement officer, what would you ad-e the miners to do? 14. As the head of the Rhodesian governmental labor department, what w' uld be your advice to the mining company? To the miners? 15. What do you suppose is being mined and where isit likely to be sent and sold? 16. Were you on a committee to decide the rights of Black and White Rhodesians, what suggestions would you make? 11. How would you characterize Rhodesia 'and its people in a discussion with classmates? 18. How would you describe the effects of colonialism on Rhodesia in terms of Ian and his Black work- ing partner in the mines? 19. Are Rhodesia's problems unique? 20. What should be the role of international public opinion concerning race relations in Rhodesia? Are trade boycotts an effective weapon? Are they just? What are their effects?

195- 189 ASIAN AFRICANS: CITIZENS OF WHERE?

"Twenty-four hours Twenty-four hours My whole life in this country and now orders to leave."* The man was obviously distressed. He sat surrounded by his family alongthe roadside. His house and business had been confiscated. They hopeda truck would pass by and offer to carry them to the airport. Within a twenty-four hour period they must leave thecouLtry. And go where? To India? To England? To Canada? To the United States? To Brazil?

"Ordered to leave Uganda. I am disgraced." Therewere tears in his eves. His wife and daughters waited. Said the wife, "My father came here from Indiato Africa to help build a railroad. We have lived here for, two generations. Look at us; weare Indians. itis true, but we are also Africans."

The husband spoke. "The officialssay that we are not Ugandan citizens. Though we have lived here and paid taxes they say we are parasites. Our automobile has been stolen. Ourshop has been raided and the doors of our house are boarded upwithus on the outside. Of course, the government officials say that perhaps our profits were too high and. besides, they didn't directanyone tO steal or damage our property. What can one do? At the airport we will probably be robbed again,"

"We are fbrtunate," his wife interrupted. "the Britishofficials have arranged air passage to England. Some of us may be resettled there. Or they will helpus go elsewhere. You can drive. You can find work driving a taxi. We can save and again havea small shop. The girls and I can cook and sew. We are grate- ful to be alive. That is a blessing."

QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER

1. Who has your empathy in thiscase. the Ugandans. the Indians, or both? Why?

2.In the Ugandans' role, how would you behave toward "noncitizenIndian residents?-

3.In the Indians' role, how would you behave toward Ug.inda andUgandans? Would you have applied for citizenship?

4. As an Indian required to leave Ugandaor another African nation, would you prefer to go to India. England, or Canada if all three would accept you? Why?

5. What similar stories of' people being requiredto leave a country have you heard?

6.In your own country, what are the legal requirements for "noncitizens?" Are "aliens" permitted to stay as long as they like? Can they enter business and own property? Can they be requiredto leave?

7. Why didn't the Indians acquire citizenship during theera of British colonialism? Why didn't they acquire citizenship when Uganda became a nation?

8. As a representative to the United Nations, what wouldyou have proposed during the expulsion of Indians from Uganda? Imagine yourself alternately in the role of representativefrom: Uganda, India, England, Canada. and from your own country.

9. What is the meaning of citizenship ina nutinn?

10. How are the African experiences with nationalism and nationhood similarto the experiences in other parts of the world including your own?

*On August 4, 1972. by official decree. President, tivncral Idi Amin orderedall Asians to leave Uganda in 24 hours. Asians have been similarly expelled from Kenya and Malawi. 190 10 ALL MEN ARE MY BROTHERS

We must go create something new, something African. Neither capitalism nor socialism will do. The one seeks to build a happy society by exploitation of man by man. The other seeks to build its happy society on a philosophy of conflict between man and man. No, something new is neededUJAMAA is like an umbrella. It can unify the country and build the nation.

We are so young. We are just beginning. And having few books, we chose to base our work on the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights. It is our only "book." What we seek is the same kind of spirit that guided the creation of Israel to be a country of kibbutz- niks. it all fits together. Our tribal customs, our land use, our egalitarianism. The kibbutz is based on work. So is our tribalism. We have a custom of sharing everything we have with a guest. But after three days the guest must leave or get to work with his host. All men are my brothers. All are members of my extended family.

QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER 1. Of the African leaders in the postcolonial period, whose ideas are being expressed iti the paragraphs above? Can you attribute the ideas to any one person? Who? How could you find out? 2. These ideas were expressed in two books, Ujamaa, the Basis of African Socialism and The Second ScraMble. Both were published in 1962 in Dar es Salaam. Where is that? 3. In the first paragraph above, what is the concept being expressed? 4. In the second paragraph, what justification is given for UJAMAA? 5. Where can you find a copy of the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights? What kinds of re- lationships between people does it suggest? 6. How, in the fourth paragraph, are Israeli and African backgrounds, realities, and hopes viewed as being similar in nature? 7. What kind of society would result from acceptance of the belief expressed in the fifth paragraph above? What success would you expect such a society to have? What do you suppose has happened to the spokesman of these ideas since 1962?

'DATA: The five paragraphs are adapted om aFieldstaff Reportby E.A. Bayne. "Freedom and Unity?"published in March 1963. The author referred to in questions 1 and 2 is Julius K. Nyerere. The Five paragraphs are based upon an interview with his brother, Joseph Nyerere. He is expressing his own. Julius's. and the beliefs of other Tanganyikan leaders as welt. A copy of the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights is available through libraries, encyclopedias, or may be requested from the United Nations Secretariat. New York, New York.]

/ 9 7

191 EXTRACT

"Hestooc! Oil 00 island of paved surtace,braced against the assault on his senses. He jelt the pulsing heat of the .smehingfuruaces. His nostrils recoiled from the blasts of still:1r fumes. He teetered off-balance and sought the sound of hisOwn voice in the roar that enguNd him. Ahead was the black hole of the mine. deep. waiting. He adjusted hisheadlamp, threw a leg over the cart, and waited to he lowered into another world."

The paragraph you have just read isan extract. It is a moment in the life of millions of Africans who come to work ingold, diamond. copper, or other mines.The paragraph also concerns an extractmineral resources. In Zambia and Zairethe mines are the chief sources of income for thenew nations. In South Africa. where the minesdepend on relatively cheap African labor, theyare the chief economic base for the wealthiest, mosttechnologically developed nation on the continent. Mining is an extractive industry. Theresources which it consumes are nonrenewable. Gold, iron, copper, tin, aluminumthese metals can he removed from the earth onlyonce. A continuing supply is dependent thereafter on recycling of the productscontaining the metals. Coal, petroleum, naturalgas when these "fossil fuels"are used, they are truly consumed irreplaceably. Must African countries have assumed responsibility forthe use of their own resources within the past fifteen years. Befdre, policies governing their exploitationwere set by colonial governments. Africans are still dependent in some ways on outsiders- -forcertain technology, spare parts. credit. But, by and large. the new supervisors of resource exploitationare independent policy makers. They are more concerned than their colonial predecessors with planningfor the future as well as the present. Those who nnist design resource policies in Africa share certain common problems. Theywant to control supply and limit production in orderto get the highest price over the longest period. They also want to u..,e as much local labor as possible. Thismeans they must invest in technical training facilities. They must also strike a balance betweena system which uses many workers and few machines, yet has high production skid, and one which uses few workers, and more machines. Their finishedproducts must be competitive on world markets. Some otter problems of extractive resourceplanning apply also to agricultural products. Whereas eral crops of rice. or cotton, or peanuts sev- may he grown in a year. other commodities may takeyears to repro- duce. Palm oil or rubber tree plantations require several growing seasons to mature, Teak andmahogany trees take several generations. Fisheries can be exhausted quicklywithout proper conservation policies. ACTIVITIES Prepare a list of all the resources and products you associate with Africa. Thensupplement your list' with additional information fromencyclopedias or the World Almanac. What are Africa's major resources?What has the most valueon the current market? Which have greatest potential value?

Classify resources and their productsaccording to type (extractive, renewablelongand short term. raw material, manufactured. etc.). Doany patterns emerge? Consider the maketS.- Where are the resources sold? Who buys the manufactured goods? Whereare luxury items produced and consumed? Whereare consumer basics sold? Where are they produced? Inventory your community. Are thereany goods of clear African origin for sale? Arc there goods which contain substances which may or may not he of African origin? Are there goods bearingan American or European label that might havebeen produced in Africa?

Pretend you are the Minister of Economies foran African nation. Choose carefully. then design a resource policy for that country for the next ten years. Extend the simulation. Choose a Minister of' "Foreign"Relations. What role will you allow "foreigners" to play in your nation's economy? Choose a representative to the International DevelopmentBank. How will you finance developm.mt over the next ten years? How far can you extend the simulaficin? 198 192 BLACK AND WHITE WAGES

"Look Mr. Charles, Sir. Maybe you can't pay me more money. You say I work hard. Stillyou pay Joe twice as much. We work the same. It is not right. Maybe I will go over the border. In Zaire thepay is plenty. If I leave you may have a white man to run this machine. It will cost you more. Doyou want me to leave?"

QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER I. How would you answer? 2. What is at issue? 3. What is the fairest way to determine wages? 4. Who should set wages? 5. Should Black and White wages differ? 6. Where is the speaker likely to be at the tir - of this conversation? 7. Where is Zaire? How far away is it likely to be? 8. What are the possible advantages of working in a country other than your own? Disadvantages? 9. What other stories have you heard about people who consider moving because of economic motiva- tion? 10. In the worker's place, would you stay or go? Why?

199 193 EQUAL PAY FOR EQUAL WORK?

You could hear a pin drop. The crowdwas hushed. Even the breathing seemed to stop. Everyone strained to hear what the manager would say. The challengewas clear: "Equal pay for equal work." Would the company be shut down?

They waited as Mr. Plessy mulled the matterover in his mind. He had thestockholdersand company directors to please. They were all in Europeor North America.Buthe would have to face them soon. This was his thirty-fifth year with thecompany. Sweat ran down his flushed face. Every vein seemed to stand out and pulse. One wrong word and the dominoes would fall. Onecompany operation after an- other would have to be shut down. Itwas like being a part of a machine, he thought. The customers all over the world; the banks extending credit from Europe; the government permitting this and that, help- ing keep the company in operation without ever stating directly whatwas being done; the minersblack and whiteand their families; schools; grocery storesit all blurred in his mind. Hemust speak.

Clearing his throat. Mr. Plessy began, slowly. The crowd almost gasped,so tense was the moment. "I think you are saying that unless the company describes each job andpays a flat wage for the task. that von will walk oft.- About half the crowd murmured as if to approve.

"Well. then," his voice louder and higher in pitch. "that is what willbe done."

A cheer broke out.It was pandemonium. Half the crowd andmore were overjoyed. QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER I.As an employee, w hat would your reaction have been?

2. What was at issue? Can youtell from the story? Equalpay for whom? What kinds of people? Who won or who lost?

3. How should pay be determined? By whom? What factors shouldbe considered?

4. What similar wage disputes haveyou heard of?

5. How would you evaluate Mr. Plessy's performance? In his role, what wouldyou have said? h. Who would likely have been in the crowd in Rhodesia? In Zaire? In Ivory Coast? In Zambia?

7. How do you suppose the stockholders, company directors, distributorsand creditors would have felt about the decision?

M. What alternative events could have logically followed the decision made by Mr. Plessy?

200

194 WHAT WILL HAPPEN NEXT?

PHOTOGRAPHS FOR INTERPRETATION

1 iar

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

1. What climate patterns do the photographs suggest? b. How will local animal life be affected? c. How will local people be affected? 2. What changes do the photographs indicate? d. How will other people be affected? 3. What results might these changes have? 4. What different levels of technology are shown? a. How will the land be affected? 5. What will happen next?

, 2ui 195 NEWS OUT OF AFRICA

What do you know about Africa? How have you learned about Africans?

Mostly we depend on the news media to describe what is going on outsideour courtry. Newspapers, magazines, nal io, and television report current events. Books and movies about Africa also contribute to our mental pict,zre of the continent and its people. What is being presented? What is being left out? And of the information we receive, which is correct?How can we know the difference between accurate reporting and that which is inaccurate or misleading?

During the study of Africa keep a record of the incoming news. What, on a daily and weekly basis, is happening in Africa, according to the news media whichserve your community? What is being left out? Why?

Set up a file for newspaper clippings and notes on magazinesor television programs. Are there patterns to the reporting? What do the major emphases seem to be?

Students can rotate the daily jobs of listening to and reportingon radio and television newscasts. At the end of a weekor monththe class as a group should have indication of the pattern of news infor- mation relating to Africa. Perhapssome students have lived in other communities and can report on any differences in the reporting of Africannews in other places. You may also wish to go over the collection of clippings and reports and discuss what responses dif- ferent African individuals or nations might have to this information. How, for example, would the re- ports on Ethiopia be regarded in that country or in Kenya or Algeria? Can you imagine yourself to be an African? If you can, try to explain to your classmates what you most want them to learn about Africa and your life there. How does that differ from what is actually being reported?

Why?

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196 WORLD PRESS REPORTS ON BURUNDI

There is tragedy in Burundi. Thousands of people have been murdered. Since Burundi became independent in 1962, and sometimes before, violence has been frequent. The Hutu and the Tutsi peoples are pitted in what appears to be a life and death struggle. An estimated 100,000 to 200,000 people were killed in this struggle in 1972. The following articles are typical of world press coverage. You may want to update information on the current state of the inter-ethnic conflict in Burundi, a Maryland- sized nation of four million people south of the equator in East-Central Africa.

Burundi "is going through moments of pitiless and fero,:ious madness."Pope Paul VI, May 28, 1972. "Certain elements of the foreign press, having financial difficulties or lacking any sensational news, delight in orchestrating a campaign of lies, defamation, and denigration of our country..."Radio Bujumbura, Burundi, May 29, 1972. "We are concerned with the fantastic interpretation of the Burundian radio of our intentions. Radio Bujumbura accuses us of having launched 'a poisonous campaign.' That is a strange statement, for what we did was make very clear the responsibility of those who by their aggressions and massacres unleashed the tragedy of Burundi...."Le Soir, Brussels, Belgium, June 6. 1972. "Contrary to what Radio Bujumbura has declared, our paper has not ignored the Hutu rev< and the atrocities which the rebels have committed. Several times, repeating the numerous accounts which have reached us almost daily, we have exerted ourselves to report all the events very objectively. Thus, very recently we once again emphasized that Hutu and Tutsi together resisted the attacks of rebels in the regions that these latter invaded. On the basis of testimony by absolutely reliable sources, we must, alas, acid that right after the repression [of the rebellion] the forces of order caused a schism among the defenders by likewise killiar, 1h.. }-11,tu who had resisted the rebels. " Lu Cite. "On the one hand we declare that w cannot doubt the objectivity of our correspondents, for their reports agree with those that have been published in the international press. On the other hand, we must recall that Burundi shut out foreign correspondents for one month: the precise time during which tens of witnesses affirmed to us that they had seen the massacre of Hutu government employees, monitors, simple students whose bodies were, by the truckload, dumped into ditches that were then filled up by bulldozers. Does Burundi today invite the correspondents in for the opening up of those graveyards?"La Cite, Agence France Presse dispatch, June 6.1972.

Whatever may be the precise truth about the massacre in Burundi. it differs in at least one respect from the tragedies of Nazi Germany. Biafra, and Vietnamthe comparative passivity of the outside world.... For awhile, during May and June, when the slaughter was at its worst, Burundi made a brief appearance on the front pages of the world's newspapers. But there was remarkably little follow-up. When some facts became known, few concrete actions were taken to halt the tragic march of events and to call to account befge the international community those who were responsible. Except for a very few persons who denounced the atrocities, there was a gcncral silence. No one wanted to become involved. Foreign diplomats stationed in Burundi said little or nothing for fear of jeopardizing their countries' relations with the Burundian government or the lives of their own nationals residing there...--Victor D. Du Bois, To Die in Burundi. Part II: Foreign Reactions IVDB-7-,721, Fieldstaff Reports. Central & Sold:ern Africa Series, Vol. XVI. No. 4, 1972.

203 197 QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER

1.What world press reports on Burundi have reachedyour community?

What shouldthe Burundi government have clone regarding the killings of1972? 3.What shouldthe world press have done?

4.What shouldthe United Nations have done?

5.What shouldthe Organization for African Unity have done?

6.What shouldeach nation surrounding Burundi have done?

7.What shouldyour own nation have done?

M.What shouldbe done now?

9.What shouldbe done if equivalent tragedies arise in the future?

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198 SNACKING -- ETHIOPIAN STYLE

Ethiopian cuisine is tasty and interesting. The native dish is injera with wat The name wat applies to a whole variety of sauces which are mixed with individually minced portions of beef, chicken, or mutton. The common ingredient in al' the different kinds of wat is berbera,an explosively hot Ethiopian pepper.

injera is a kind of bread. It is made from a cereal grain called tell When it is baked, injera hasa spongy. almost foam rubber-like texture. It is also made in different colorssometimes red, dark or yellow. Ideally. the bread is cooked over a tire of eucalyptus wood. The smoke supposedly adds to the flavor of the injera. Suppose.you could visit Ethiopia for a day. You might begin one morning by wandering down Addis Ababa's, main street. By eleven o'clock you could find yourself on the edge of the market area. Suddenly you're hungry. Then, wedged between a stall selling woolen rugs and one selling religious ornaments, you see a restaurant. Hesitantly, you slip through the doorway.

The first thing you see is a huge wicker-type basket. It occupies the center of the round room and is filled with fresh injera. Around the basket, like spokes of a wheel, are small individual eatingareas. A waitress appears. She guides you to one of the eating areas. The ritual begins. She brings a basin to wash your hands. Ethiopians use this occasion to wash only the fingertips of the right hand, the eating hand. There are serving spoons but no individual eating implements. Watching the other diners, you wonder whether you can eat without making a mess. Ethiopian table manners require patience and skill. As long as you're here, why not give the food and eating style a try? Now a host of waitresses bring almost a dozen covered dishes containing wat. One waitress senses your anxiety. She demonstrates the correct technique. Five different types of the sauce and meat mixture are placed on a single piece of injera. The skill consists in breaking a piece of bread, folding it slightly, scooping a portion of the sauce, and popping it into your mouthall with one hand. You now have a mouthful of liquid fire. Quickly you learn to sample small quantities of each sauce before taking a large bite. Half an hour later you are filled, refreshed, and invigorated by the spicy sensations still lingering on your palate. You are ready to re-enter the street and explore the city again.

You might like to simulate an Ethiopian restaurant as a class or group activity. Flat, Syrian-style bread. fresh and pliable, is a good substitute for injera. Time-Life's cookbook series, Foods of the World, contains a volume on Africa. It has recipes for several Ethiopian dishes. You may also use your imagination.

One very simple war consists of raw hamburger, very lean, mixed witha paste composed of sweet green (bell) peppers, cayenne pepper, garlic and onion. Add salt to taste. It'you are squeamish, cook the meat. Your group might wish to prepare a communal meal with bread andmore familiar foods that have the tex- ture and consistency of wat. You might try egg salad, tuna salad, deviled , mashed chick peas and garlic. and so on. Remember, use only the right hand! And if you wonder why, well, that'syour next area of research.

205 199 WHAT DO AFRICANS PRODUCE?

This scenario might have taken place in a decolonializing newly independent African nation. A leader is speaking.

First we must produce sufficient food for our own people. At the same time, but second in importance. we Must' develop. specialty crops. These must be suitable for our soil and climate. The maximum number of people should be employed in worthwhile productive work. Our exports vyill bring in cash. This can be used to purchase the imported products we need.

To build an industrial baSc we must import machineryat least at first. while getting established. It will be difficult. for we are competing with highly developed nations. They have many years of lead time. Their customers are loyal. Where we fit in. we must offer a better price or better product or better service. Otherwise, purchasers will continue to buy from the established industrial nations.

Mining and lumbering can continue as extractive industries. But we must be cautious. Once a mineral deposit is used up, it cannot be replaced. So a strategy of keeping prices up and production steady is advisable. The days when we had to sell for less than our real costs are too easily remembered.By all means let us avoid such events by caution. This means planning.

We must plan ourown fiitures. Our potential human and natural resources areonly beginning to be realized. Planning a steady progressive development is what we have done. Now these hopeful yet reasonable plans should be carried out.

ACTIVITIES I.List the goods you think of in association with Africa. What patterns does your list reveal?

2.Classify the list according to product type: RAW MATERIALS and FINISHED PRODUCTS. Further sub-classify the listed itemsas:Luxury Product or Basic Product. What patterns does your classification reveal?

3.Inventory the African goods available for purchase in your community. Of what types are these products? What products could have originated in Africa but have been reprocessed and labeled elsewhere before being imported to your country? 4. Wiwi is Africa's greatest potential product in the world trade market?

5.If you were the leader of an African nation, which would you choose? And what economic develop- ments would you discourage? Which would you encourage?

h.Ii you were the leader of a non-African nation, which would you choose? And what African imports would you encourage? What products wouldyou suggest exporting to Africa? 7. What African products would you like to have more of in your community? How could these prod- ucts be made more readily available where you live?

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IN PRAISE OF CHICKEN

Stranger make die-die fowl get respect. West African proverb.

Chicken is the choice dish of any festive occasion in West Africa. Chicken is served to honored guests and to important relatives. The serving of chicken symbolizes concern for the well-being of those who sit at your table. Chickenboiled, stewed, fried, baked; whole, cut, skinned, unskinnedis one of the few constants in a cuisine of great variety and excitement. Because chicken occupies so important a role, it is sometimes the subject of story, song, and proverb. Chickens appear in the many stories about "Cunnie Rabbit," a cunning rabbit who is a West African counterpart to Bre'r Rabbit. It was West African stories which Joel Chandler Harris heard and later wrote about in his series of tales written in Georgia. "Hungry rooster don't cackle w'en he fine a wpm."

A sang from Monrovia, Liberia, concludes that life is simply beautiful if you top off your day with "chicken, palm butter, and rice." And in the proverb cited above, the social significance of chicken is revealed. Tradition dictates that any stranger who appears at your door must be treated with hospitality. Although you may have only one scrawny chicken (die-die fowl), you must serve it as though it were a respectable feast fit for a king. And it is with good reason that African cooks give chicken a starring role. Basking in a spicy sauce or nestled among rice and vegetables, chicken is delicious. Two of the most popular dishes featuring

.fl 7 201 chicken are Jo llof Rice and Groundnut Stew. No meeting of Africanheads of state nor family reunion would gather long before eatingone or the other. They are served everywhere, from the lowliest the most elegant restaurants. cafés to

Jollof Rice

This popular one-dish meal isbelieved to have originatedamong the Jollof, or Wolof, of Gambia and Senegal. In the simple version givenbelow, you may use chicken and/or beef. black pepper, and thyme, the cook In addition to salt, red or may vary the taste with mint, nutmeg, cloves,curry powder, parsley, garlic, and brownsugar. There is one essential: tomato crimson. paste, in sufficient quantity to turn the dish Ingredients

2-3 lb. frying chicken,cut 1 1/2-2 lb. chuck steak, cubed 4 Tbs. flour I tsp. black pepper 4 Tbs. vegetable oil 2 onions, peeled and chopped 2 tomatoes, peeled and chopped chili peppers or ground red pepper, to taste bay leaves, salt, thyme 6 oz. tomato paste 2 C rice C peas (or 1pkg. frozen peas) Preparation

Coat the meat in a mixture of flourand black pepper. Heat the oil in then transfer to a heavy skillet. Brown the meat, a heavy casserole. Add onions, tomatoes,and peppers to oil and cook until soft. Add 2 cups water, stir, and pour the mixture over the meat. Add bay leaves, salt and thyme.Cover and cook until meat is just tender (20-25minutes). Remove pieces of and 1 1/2 C water to the casserole meat to a warm dish. Add the tomatopaste and bring the liquid toa boil. Add the rice, lower the heat, cover and cook about 12 minutes. Check to avoid sticking and add more water ifnecessary. Add the peas and cook 5 minutes. Recombine themeat and rice and serve hot. (6-8 servings) Groundnut Stew This dish is something likean Indian curry. It can be made with chicken dish. It is a favorite for parties. or beef, or as a vegetarian The stew is served over plain boiledrice and garnished with sliced bananas, chopped sweetpeppers and scallions, hard-boiled eggs, fried okra, condiments. or any of a dozen other Ingredients 2-3 lb. frying chicken, cut 3 medium onions, diced 2 T vegetable oil 1 C peanut butter 3 medium tomatoes 2 C hot water or chicken stock salt, thyme hot red peppers to taste 6 oz. tomato paste Preparation

Brown the chicken pieces in the oil.Drain and set aside. Fry the finely diced tomatoes until a soft paste. Return the onions, pepper, and chicken, add water or stock, and beginsimmering. Mix the peanut butter, tomato paste, and enoughliquid from the pot to makea smooth gravy. Stir into the pot. Add salt and thyme. Simmer untilchicken is tender, about 35-40minutes. (6-8 servings) 202 7 it AFRICAN BOOKS

One way to learn about people in another culture is to read their books, see their art, theater, and movies.Of these, books are the most readily available. Fortunately, Africa has a great literature. both traditional and modern. Prose, poetry, and plays are often available in English, semetimes in paperbacks, as well as French, Arabic, Spanish, Portuguese, and African languages. Your school and/or local library probably has a collection of books on Africa illustrating the lifestyles, ways of thinking, poetry, art, and architecture of the many African cultures.

You might research the locally available book resources relating to Africa. Where are the books? How many are there? Who are the authors? What are the titles? Can they be brought to class? Can they be obtained by individual students?

After locating and listing the available books relating to Africa, how would you go about classifying them?

How many are written by Africans? How many are written by Europeans or North Americans or othersaboutAfrica and Africans?

Are the books current? Do they reflect an accurate image of Africa? What subjects predominate? Fiction? Poetry? History? Description and travel? Politics?

Six books are listed below. Each is an internationally acclaimed literary effort. All the books are about Africa and Africans. How would you classify them? What might be their strong points? Weak points? Can you add to the collection?

H. Rider Haggard,She

Haggard (1856-1925) was an English novelist resident for most of his life in South Africa. He was master of the High Court in the Transvaal after the Englisi. defeated the Dutch-speaking Boer Re- publics. The country served as the setting for most of his romantic novels of high adventure.She(1887) andKing Solomon's Mines(1885) were his most famous works.Shedid much to create popular stereo- types of a mysterious Africa where some unusual aspect of human existence lies just beneath the surface.

Alan Paton, Cry,The BelovedCountry (New York, 1948). Also Penguin Books, Ltd. and many subsequent edidions. Subtitled "A story of comfort in desolation," this novel by a white South African follows a Zulu preacher's search for his wayward son in Johannesburg. It is a deeply moving account of the tragedy of race relations in his country. Mr. Paton has been persecuted by his own government for dissenting from official views onapartheid,racial segregation. But Paton received international recognition of this and subsequent novels. The publicity made many people outside South Africa sensitive to the problem there for both Blacks and Whites.

The cinematic work of Ousmane Sembene, a Senegalese film-maker is unique. His movies, espe- cially Mandabi (The Money Order) have reached beyond the select audience of international film festivals to reach a mass audience in Africa.

2u9 203 Chinua Achebe,No Longer at Ease(New York, Fawcett, 1960)

Chinua Achebe is an Ibo from Nigeria. This is the first in a series of tine novels set in contemporary Nigeria. It expresses the dilemmas and frustrations of a young, educated African idealist who has been converted to European manners that conflict with his traditionally based moral code. Achebe was one of the first African authors publishing in English to be read widely both outside and inside Africa.

Mongo Beti,Mission to Ka la(London, Heinemann, African Writers Series, 1964). Translated from French by Peter Green.

Mongo Beti was born in the Cameroon Republic near Yaounde. He was educated in French schools there and in France. InMission to Kula,he tells the story of Medza. a young student who has just failed his examination at college. Returning to his village, Media finds that he nevertheless has prestigeas a scholar. He is entrusted with a delicate mission. Told with great comic flair, author Beti nevertheless portrays through Media's adventures the agonizing dilemmas of adjustment to another culture.

Camara Laye,The African Child(Fontana, 1964) Translated from French and available in numerous paperback editions.

These memories of an African childhood bring the author chronologically through adolescence. Growing up in Senegal, then a part of French West Africa, Camara Laye lived happily in a world of good and evil spirits. But Laye's sensitivity to his African past is conditioned by his later experiences. After he left Senegal. he attended a technical school in Guinea, then university and factory .work in France. In the original French edition and in English translation, the book has won high praise for its. literary artistry.

Peter Abrahams.MineBoy (Macmillan, 1970). Also available as a Collier paperback in the African/ American Library Series.

Peter Abrahams, South Africa's foremost Black writer, first publishedMineBey in 1946. It is as rele- vant to race relations in South Africa today, or to the potential tragedies in any multiracial society, as it was thirty years ago. Abrahams was one of the first South African Blacks to be forced into exile. He lives now in the Caribbean.

Amos Tutuola,The Palm-Win Drinkard(London, Faber/paper editions, 1963)

Tutuola steers a fantastic voyage through a netherworld of West AfricAn -)pirits. The language heuses is colorful and unique. All the words are English but put into the servi::e African creativity. This series of interrelated stories has all the fun ofa ghost story and the of poetry.

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204 AFRICAN IMAGES

Each of us has images of what we expect Africa and Africansto be like. How accurate are these images? How much variance is there withinyour classroom groups? The following statements can lead you toward some answers.

(Record your responses on a separate sheet.)

Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Agree Disagree 1. All Africans are black. ++ 2. Africa is the largest continent. ++

3. Africa is poor in naturalresources. + -F 4. Africans are very intelligent. ++ 5. Africans are very athletic. ++ 6. Africans tend to be tall. ++ 7. Africa is mostly covered by jungle. ++ 8. Africa is mostly covered by desert. ++ 9. Africa has heavy torrential rainfall. ++ + 10. Africa has no snow. ++ + 11. Africans are mostly hunters. ++ + 12. Africa lacks modern cities. ++ + 13. African art is primitive. ++ + 14. African music is modern. ++ + 15. African males have several wives. ++ + 16. African children attend schools. ++ 17. African females tend gardens. ++ 18. Africa has active volcanoes. ++ 19. Africans practice witchcraft. ++ 20. Africans earn less than Europeans. ++ 21. Africans are often scientists.

22. African architecture is unusual.. ++ + , 23. Africans are largely Christian. ++ 24. Africans are largely Muslim. ++; 25. Africanvalu6differfromnon- African values.

205 AFRICAN STEREOTYPES: A POLL

What is a stereotype? Who doesn't have them? How can they be changed?

You, of course, are largely free ofstereotypes. What about other people? They are a different matter. Some of them are even prejudiced, the victimsof stroag negative stereotypes.

Conduct a poll to find out what stereotypesabout Africa are around. Here are severalways of going about it. Use any one or all and thenreport back to class your findings. SUGGESTF,D POLLING TECHNIQUES 1.As.k.,100 people, ..".What first eornes.,to mindwhen you hear the word Africa?"- 2.List 10 positive statements about Africaand Africans. Ask 10 people to "agree" each one. or "disagree" with

3. Present 20 people with an outline map of the world.Ask them to rate each contii:ent interms of how much they would like to live there. Usea scale from 1 to 5. First preference is labeled 1. Number 5 is the least preferred place to live. How does Africafare among your sample population? 4. Ask 20 people to list the 5most important products of Africa.

5. Suggest to 10 people that the. UnitedNations headquarters might be moved fromNew York City to Africa. Record theirresponses.

Through these activities haveyou identified any repeating African stereotypes? Whatare they? Are the same stereotypes held by people of allages? All skin colors? All religions? All incomelevels? All occupational levels? Both sexes? Ho"., ifat all, do African stereotypes differ you have polled? among the people whom

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