DOCSLIB.ORG

Regulating Cannabis Markets. the Construction of an Innovative Drug Policy in Uruguay

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Regulating Cannabis Markets. the Construction of an Innovative Drug Policy in Uruguay Regulating Cannabis Markets. The construction of an innovative drug policy in Uruguay Reguleren van cannabismarkten. De constructie van een innovatief drugsbeleid in Uruguay (met een samenvatting in het Nederlands) Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor aan de Universiteit Utrecht op gezag van de rector magnificus, prof.dr. H.R.B.M. Kummeling, ingevolge het besluit van het college voor promoties in het openbaar te verdedigen op dinsdag 11 september 2018 des middags te 12.45 uur door Clara Musto Dutra geboren op 22 september 1987 te Montevideo, Uruguay 2 Promotor: Prof.dr. D. Siegel Copromotoren: Dr. D. Zaitch Dr. C. Chatwin The degree is awarded as part of a Joint Doctorate with Kent University. This thesis was (partly) accomplished with financial support from Erasmus Mundus Programme – European Union 3 INDEX Abstract ................................................................................................................................................... 5 Chapter 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 7 General aim and research questions .................................................................................................. 9 Chapter 2. A changing international landscape ........................................................................... 13 2.1. The international drug control regime: long-standing foundations of cannabis prohibition ........ 13 2.2. Contemporary illegal drugs geopolitics: the American context..................................................... 16 2.3. Alternatives to the prohibitionist approach .................................................................................. 20 De facto retailing system: the Dutch Coffeeshops ........................................................................... 21 Collective personal production: Spanish Social Cannabis Clubs ....................................................... 23 Market regulations: US inside job ..................................................................................................... 24 Uruguay; a breakthrough in the process? ........................................................................................ 27 Concluding remarks .............................................................................................................................. 28 Chapter 3. Theoretical perspectives to understand cannabis policy making ................................. 30 3.1. Moral politics perspective: debating morally controversial issues ................................................ 31 Religion as a source of resistance and promotion of victimless crimes changes ............................. 35 3.2. Policy analysis perspective: understanding atypical changes ........................................................ 36 3.3. Policy transfer perspective: the role of international actors ......................................................... 40 Concluding remarks .............................................................................................................................. 42 Chapter 4. Methodological framework ....................................................................................... 44 4.1. Research design: within-case causal process tracing .................................................................... 45 4.2. Data and Methods ......................................................................................................................... 47 Participant observation ..................................................................................................................... 48 Semi-structured interviews ............................................................................................................... 49 Analysis of previous interviews ......................................................................................................... 50 Documents analysis .......................................................................................................................... 51 4.3. Sampling ......................................................................................................................................... 51 4.4. Gaining access ................................................................................................................................ 53 4.5. Ethical issues .................................................................................................................................. 54 4.6. Data analysis .................................................................................................................................. 55 Narrative analysis .............................................................................................................................. 55 Network analysis ............................................................................................................................... 56 Concluding remarks .............................................................................................................................. 58 Chapter 5. The filling up of the political debate: a generational pace ........................................... 60 5.1. Uruguayan secularisation and the advent of a ‘rights’ agenda’ .................................................... 61 4 5.2. Cannabis activism as political starts up.......................................................................................... 66 5.3. Installing a conflict in the political system: the reorganisation of political parties ....................... 72 Concluding remarks .............................................................................................................................. 80 Chapter 6. Greenhouse effect: the role of the executive power ................................................... 81 6.1. A suitable enemy and a cultural surprise ....................................................................................... 81 A Strategy for Life and Coexistence .................................................................................................. 86 6.2. The government’s irruption ........................................................................................................... 88 6.3. What is the problem? .................................................................................................................... 90 Executive power position .................................................................................................................. 91 Tensions within the reformers advocacy coalition ........................................................................... 93 Concluding remarks .............................................................................................................................. 97 Chapter 7. Overcoming chaos: international policy transfer dynamics ......................................... 99 7.1. Policy design ................................................................................................................................. 100 7.2. Political campaigning ................................................................................................................... 104 7.3. The international conventions arena ........................................................................................... 110 Concluding remarks ............................................................................................................................ 112 Chapter 8. Linking streams: a network analysis ......................................................................... 114 8.1. First period ................................................................................................................................... 115 8.2. Second period .............................................................................................................................. 118 8.3. Third period .................................................................................................................................. 121 Concluding remarks ............................................................................................................................ 124 Chapter 9. Expectations vs. Reality: a new policy venue? .......................................................... 127 9.1. Law 19172 general framework .................................................................................................... 128 9.2. Recreational cannabis .................................................................................................................. 130 9.3. Medical cannabis ......................................................................................................................... 133 Concluding remarks ............................................................................................................................ 135 Chapter 10. Conclusions ........................................................................................................... 137 10.1. Who was involved in the Uruguayan cannabis regulation debate: actors and networks ......... 138 10.2. Why was cannabis regulated in Uruguay; policy framing .......................................................... 139 10.3. How was regulated; specifying drug policy change theories ..................................................... 140 10.4. Derivations to the implementation
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Special Report on ASX-Listed Cannabis and Hemp Stocks
    Special Report on ASX-listed Cannabis and Hemp stocks An exciting new sector 24 March 2020 From humble beginnings in Canada around ten years ago the cannabis and hemp industries have blossomed into a major force to be reckoned with by investors the world over. Australia is no exception, with many cannabis and hemp companies having gone live on ASX over the last five years. However, many investors are unfamiliar with the dynamics of this exciting new sector. Pitt Street Research now seeks to close that information gap with our Special Report on Cannabis and Hemp, released 24 March 2020. Welcome to the cannabis and hemp revolution Cannabis and hemp have fuelled a major investment boom since 2014 largely because of the known therapeutic benefits of medicinal cannabis. Governments around the world have responded to the scientific evidence and made it easier for patients to access cannabis-based medicine. Concurrently, voters in many countries have become more favourably disposed towards the legalisation of recreational cannabis. These two trends have fuelled a boom in cannabis, while hemp, from a different plant, had also benefited as investors have moved to use this plant for a variety of purposes, most notably in food. It’s fair to say that cannabis and hemp have quickly become respectable industries worthy of investor attention. Many have come to the view that cannabis and hemp are agents of serious economic change, with potential to seriously disrupt Subscribe to our research HERE sectors as diverse as drinks, building materials and, of course, medicine. Analyst: Stuart Roberts Why should the Canadians have all the fun? Tel: +61 (0)447 247 909 Canada was the origin of the current cannabis and hemp boom because the regulatory framework changed in that [email protected] country around 2013 in a way that allowed entrepreneurs to flourish while the public equity markets allowed large amounts of capital to be raised.
    [Show full text]
  • Actors and Incentives in Cannabis Policy Change: an Interdisciplinary Approach to Legalization Processes in the United States and in Uruguay
    1 UNIVERSIDADE DE SÃO PAULO INSTITUTO DE RELAÇÕES INTERNACIONAIS Fernanda Mena Actors and incentives in cannabis policy change: an interdisciplinary approach to legalization processes in the United States and in Uruguay São Paulo 2020 FERNANDA MELLO MENA 2 Actors and incentives in cannabis policy change: an interdisciplinary approach to legalization processes in the United States and in Uruguay Original Version Ph.D. Thesis presented to the Graduate Program in International Relations at the International Relations Institute, Universidade de São Paulo, Brazil, to obtain the degree of Doctor in Science. Advisor: Prof. Dr. Leandro Piquet Carneiro São Paulo 2020 Autorizo a reprodução e divulgação total ou parcial deste trabalho, por qualquer meio convencional ou eletrônico, para fins de estudo e pesquisa, desde que citada a fonte. 3 Catalogação na Publicação* Instituto de Relações Internacionais da Universidade de São Paulo Mena, Fernanda Actors and incentives in cannabis policy change: an interdisciplinary approach to legalization processes in the United States and in Uruguay / Fernanda Mello Mena -- Orientador Leandro Piquet Carneiro. São Paulo: 2020. 195p. Tese (doutorado). Universidade de São Paulo. Instituto de Relações Internacionais. 1. Relações exteriores (História) – Brasil 2. Relações internacionais (História) - Brasil 3. Política externa – Brasil I. Mena, Fernanda II. Actors and incentives in cannabis policy change: an interdisciplinary approach to legalization processes in the United States and in Uruguay CDD 327.81 4 MENA, Fernanda Actors and incentives in cannabis policy change: an interdisciplinary approach to legalization processes in the United States and in Uruguay Ph. D. Thesis presented to the International Relations Institute, at the University of São Paulo, Brazil, to obtain the degree of Doctor in Science.
    [Show full text]
  • Building a 21St Century Approach to Drugs
    Briefing | January 2018 Building a 21st century approach to drugs The ’war on drugs’ is collapsing. Now let’s build the alternative. The ‘war on drugs’ was built on shaky Building a new drug policy foundations. Now, countries around the world from Canada, to Uruguay, Portugal architecture and many US states are beginning to This new approach will ensure that rather than dismantle it piece by piece. Its collapse is penalising or criminalising people involved in the drug good news for people and communities trade, we recognise that it is often injustice, inequality around the world, providing us with the and vulnerability that drives them to engage in that opportunity to build a new approach to trade in the first place, whether that is as consumers, producers or suppliers. Rather than compounding drugs that prioritises, promotes and problems like poverty, powerlessness and stigma with a protects human health and well-being. hard-line prohibitionist approach, which has failed on its This shift, from a criminal justice approach own terms, we must aim to approach drug policy in a to health-based policy making, is essential way that works to address these drivers of engagement if we want to take drug policy into the with the drug trade, and at the same time makes 21st century. It is time for the UK to catch engaging in that trade as harm-free as possible. If we do up, and develop and promote appropriate, this effectively we have the chance to develop and build a whole new paradigm to replace the ‘war on drugs.’ evidence-based, and sustainable alternatives both in the UK and globally.
    [Show full text]
  • Cannabis Mobile Apps: a Content Analysis
    JMIR MHEALTH AND UHEALTH Ramo et al Original Paper Cannabis Mobile Apps: A Content Analysis Danielle E Ramo1, PhD; Lucy Popova2, PhD; Rachel Grana2, MPH, PhD; Shirley Zhao1, BA; Kathryn Chavez1, BA 1Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States 2Center for Tobacco Control Research and Education, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States Corresponding Author: Danielle E Ramo, PhD Department of Psychiatry University of California, San Francisco 401 Parnassus Avenue Box TRC 0984 San Francisco, CA, 94143 United States Phone: 1 415 476 7695 Fax: 1 415 476 7053 Email: [email protected] Abstract Background: Mobile technology is pervasive and widely used to obtain information about drugs such as cannabis, especially in a climate of rapidly changing cannabis policy; yet the content of available cannabis apps is largely unknown. Understanding the resources available to those searching for cannabis apps will clarify how this technology is being used to reflect and influence cannabis use behavior. Objective: We investigated the content of 59 cannabis-related mobile apps for Apple and Android devices as of November 26, 2014. Methods: The Apple and Google Play app stores were searched using the terms ªcannabisº and ªmarijuana.º Three trained coders classified the top 20 apps for each term and each store, using a coding guide. Apps were examined for the presence of 20 content codes derived by the researchers. Results: Total apps available for each search term were 124 for cannabis and 218 for marijuana in the Apple App Store, and 250 each for cannabis and marijuana on Google Play.
    [Show full text]
  • Cannabis Festivals: Social Protest Or a Celebration of Cannabis Culture?
    Cannabis festivals and their attendees in four European cities with different national cannabis policies Kostas Skliamis Bonger Institute of Criminology, University of Amsterdam ESSD 30th Annual Conference, 26 – 28 September 2019, Riga Cannabis Framework • Cannabis is the most widely used illicit drug worldwide and 3.8% of the global population used cannabis at least once in 2017. • In EU, 87.6 million adults have used cannabis at least once in their lifetime. • In EU, 24 million people used cannabis in the last year. • Around 1 % of European adults are daily or almost daily cannabis users. Around three quarters are male. • Despite its broad use, cannabis remains prohibited under the UN drug control conventions. • In the European Union, there is no harmonized law on cannabis use. The criminal or administrative response to drug use offenses is the responsibility of EU Member States, not of the European Union. • Therefore, national cannabis policies differ significantly across the EU, from liberal to restrictive prohibitionist approaches. 4 capital cities in Europe Cannabis Festivals Cannabis festivals can be understood as a representation of the wider social phenomenon of festivals and events Political or cultural events against cannabis prohibition Commercial fairs (Cannabis Expositions) “Cannabis festivals are social gatherings organized by civic societies movements, where people congregate to oppose cannabis prohibition, advocate cannabis law reform and celebrate cannabis culture” (Skliamis & Korf, 2019) AIMS 1. Contextualize the aims / characteristics of cannabis festivals; 2. Assess characteristics of participants; 3. Identify reasons to attend cannabis festivals; 4. Explore to which extent cannabis festivals contribute to the social acceptance of cannabis; Research Methods 1.
    [Show full text]
  • Marijuana Legalization in Uruguay and Beyond
    Marijuana Legalization in Uruguay and Beyond Maria Fernanda Boidi Insights Research Group José Miguel Cruz Latin American and Caribbean Center, FIU Rosario Queirolo Universidad Católica del Uruguay (UCU) Emily Bello-Pardo Latin American and Caribbean Center, FIU FIU College of Arts & Sciences - School of International and Public Affairs n 2013, Uruguay became the first country in the world to regulate Ithe possession, growth, and distribution of cannabis. The initiative of marijuana regulation by President José Mujica, was passed by the Uruguayan Congress and signed into Law as 19172 by the president in December 20, 2013. The regulation of marijuana, however, has been met with important challenges. According to the AmericasBarometer 2014, over sixty percent of Uruguayan citizens have expressed disagreement with the law. Additionally, leaders within the International Narcotics Control Board have expressed opposition to legalization, characterizing the new law as being in direct defiance of the international drug control treaties. As a result, Uruguay faces both domestic and international opposition in pursuing its innovative marijuana regulation model. This report summarizes the preliminary results from the first systematic research project conducted on the process of marijuana regulation in Uruguay. It revolves around two surveys. First, a Respondent-Driven Sample survey conducted with marijuana consumers in the metropolitan area of Montevideo; and second, the 2014 AmericasBarometer survey in Uruguay conducted by the Latin American Public Opinion Project. The research has been conducted by the Latin American Marijuana Research Initiative (LAMRI), formed by the Latin American and Caribbean Center (LACC) at Florida International University and the Universidad Católica del Uruguay (UCU), with funds from the Open Society Foundations.
    [Show full text]
  • Past, Present, and Future of Medical Cannabis
    PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE OF MEDICAL CANNABIS Asare B. Christian, MD, MPH Associate Outpatient Medical Director, Good Shepherd Rehabilitation Network Clinical Faculty, Penn Medicine Outline • Medical History of Cannabis • Pharmacology of Cannabinoids • Endocannabinoid System Physiology • Safety and Adverse Effects of Cannabis • Impairments from Cannabis • Future of Cannabis in Medicine HISTORICAL USE OF CANNABIS IN MEDICINE Historical Use of Cannabis in Medicine • 2700 BC Emperor Shen-Nung • Analgesia, rheumatism, beriberi, malaria, gout and poor memory • 1839 William O’ Shaughnessy • Introduced medical cannabis to England • 1854 Cannabis enters Dispensatory of US • Sir William Osler on migraine…“cannabis Indica is probably the most satisfactory remedy.” • Empirical Medicine of the 19th Century • Combined morphine, cannabis and capsicum • Provided-phyto-opiod, Phytocannabinoids and phytovanilloid in one prep • Better outpatient pain relief than is currently available in st 21 centuryLi HL: An archaeological and historical account of cannabis in China. Econ Bot (1974) 28:437- 448. O'Shaughnessy WB: On the preparations of the Indian hemp, or gunjah (Cannabis indica): Their effects on the animal system in health, and their utility in the treatment of tetanus and other convulsive diseases. Trans Med Phys Soc Bengal (1838-1840) Historical Use of Cannabis in Medicine • 19th and 20th Century • US Pharmacopoeia 1850-1942 • Restrictions of sale and use 1937 • Boggs 1951 and Narcotic Control Act of 1956 – legal penalties • 1996 - California permits cannabis use for medicine • Compassionate Use Act • 2017 - 28 states as well as Washington, DC, Guam and Puerto Rico • 21 states decriminalized • 8 states allow recreational use (AL, CA, CO, MN, MA, NV, OR, WA, DC) Bridgeman, Mary Barna, and Daniel T.
    [Show full text]
  • Cannabis and Its Secondary Metabolites: Their Use As Therapeutic Drugs, Toxicological Aspects, and Analytical Determination
    medicines Review Cannabis and Its Secondary Metabolites: Their Use as Therapeutic Drugs, Toxicological Aspects, and Analytical Determination Joana Gonçalves 1,†, Tiago Rosado 1,†, Sofia Soares 1,†, Ana Y. Simão 1,†,Débora Caramelo 1,†, Ângelo Luís 1,† , Nicolás Fernández 2,†,Mário Barroso 3, Eugenia Gallardo 1 and Ana Paula Duarte 1,* 1 Centro de Investigação em Ciências da Saúde, Faculdade de Ciências da Saúde da Universidade da Beira Interior (CICS-UBI), 6200-506 Covilhã, Portugal; [email protected] (J.G.); [email protected] (T.R.); sofi[email protected] (S.S.); [email protected] (A.Y.S.); [email protected] (D.C.); afl[email protected] (Â.L.); [email protected] (E.G.) 2 Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Cátedra de Toxicología y Química Legal, Laboratorio de Asesoramiento Toxicológico Analítico (CENATOXA). Junín 956 7mo piso. Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires (CABA), Buenos Aires C1113AAD, Argentina; [email protected] 3 Serviço de Química e Toxicologia Forenses, Instituto de Medicina Legal e Ciências Forenses - Delegação do Sul, 1169-201 Lisboa, Portugal; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +35-127-532-9002 † These authors contributed equally to this work. Received: 31 January 2019; Accepted: 18 February 2019; Published: 23 February 2019 Abstract: Although the medicinal properties of Cannabis species have been known for centuries, the interest on its main active secondary metabolites as therapeutic alternatives for several pathologies has grown in recent years. This potential use has been a revolution worldwide concerning public health, production, use and sale of cannabis, and has led inclusively to legislation changes in some countries.
    [Show full text]
  • CANNABIS in LATIN AMERICA: the Regulations and Opportunities
    CANNABIS IN LATIN AMERICA: The Regulations and Opportunities © 2019 Anne Holland Ventures Inc. All Rights Reserved RE S GIS N T IG E S R E E D D C Y O T I M N M U Cannabis in Latin America: The Regulations and Opportunities MJBIZDAILY.COM/INTL CANNABIS IN LATIN AMERICA: THE REGULATIONS AND OPPORTUNITIES The marijuana industry continues to expand internationally, with Latin America and the Caribbean becoming increasingly more difficult to ignore for companies with global aspirations. The geographical region that stretches from the southern border of the United States until the southern tip of South America, including the Caribbean, is home to about 650 million people, of which the vast majority live in a country with some sort of legal medical cannabis. The sheer number of inhabitants, ideal growing conditions in large parts of the region and jurisdictions in favor of production for export signal potentially huge business opportunities. With this report, our goal is to provide a sober analysis, recognizing the prospects that the region as a whole and each country in particular offer. But we also pay close attention to Alfredo Pascual the other side of the coin: weighing the unique challenges of investing or doing business in these jurisdictions. Whenever world maps are colored to show the countries that have some form of legal medical cannabis framework, Latin America is included almost in its entirety. But, as is often the case, the devil is in the details. Restrictive access schemes, lack of health insurance coverage and widespread home growing moderate any initial excitement about the commercial opportunities in these markets.
    [Show full text]
  • A Belated Green Revolution for Cannabis: Virtual Genetic Resources to Fast-Track Cultivar Development
    REVIEW published: 29 July 2016 doi: 10.3389/fpls.2016.01113 A Belated Green Revolution for Cannabis: Virtual Genetic Resources to Fast-Track Cultivar Development Matthew T. Welling 1, Tim Shapter 1, 2, Terry J. Rose 1, Lei Liu 1, Rhia Stanger 1 and Graham J. King 1* 1 Southern Cross Plant Science, Southern Cross University, Lismore, NSW, Australia, 2 Ecofibre Industries Operations Pty Ltd, Maleny, QLD, Australia Cannabis is a predominantly diecious phenotypically diverse domesticated genus with few if any extant natural populations. International narcotics conventions and associated legislation have constrained the establishment, characterization, and use of Cannabis genetic resource collections. This has resulted in the underutilization of genepool variability in cultivar development and has limited the inclusion of secondary genepools associated with genetic improvement strategies of the Green Revolution. The structured screening of ex situ germplasm and the exploitation of locally-adapted intraspecific traits is expected to facilitate the genetic improvement Edited by: Jaime Prohens, of Cannabis. However, limited attempts have been made to establish the full extent of Polytechnic University of Valencia, genetic resources available for pre-breeding. We present a thorough critical review of Spain Cannabis ex situ genetic resources, and discuss recommendations for conservation, Reviewed by: pre-breeding characterization, and genetic analysis that will underpin future cultivar Ryan C. Lynch, University of Colorado Boulder, USA development. We consider East Asian germplasm to be a priority for conservation Giuseppe Mandolino, based on the prolonged historical cultivation of Cannabis in this region over a range Council for Agricultural Research and Economics, Italy of latitudes, along with the apparent high levels of genetic diversity and relatively *Correspondence: low representation in published genetic resource collections.
    [Show full text]
  • Recreational Marijuana Effect in Labour Market Outcomes: Evidence from Uruguay
    Universidad de San Andr´es Departamento de Econom´ıa Licenciatura en Econom´ıa Recreational marijuana effect in labour market outcomes: Evidence from Uruguay Authors: Mat´ıasHern´anMolina Svarre (28072) Pablo Daniel Z´arate(28240) Mentor: Mart´ınRossi Victoria, January 2020 1 Introduction Recreational marijuana usage has been introduced in plenty of countries' debates as a possible progressive reform, now more than ever. On the one hand, people against recreational marijuana usage argue that the legalization would result in an increase in drug addiction, criminal behavior and consumption, and even in a low performance overall. On the other hand, supporters of this policy state that it helps to reduce crime by jeopardizing illegal marijuana producers and dealers. Also, by regulating the marijuana market, government and consumers can profit, respectively, by taxing this new market and by getting a lower price as a result of higher competition, in contrast to the monopoly held in the black market. In 2013, Uruguay became the first Latin American country to allow recreational marijuana consumption, and it is still the only one in the continent. About 6 years after its approval, we want to focus on the impact it had on the labour market, more precisely on the unemployment rate. To do this, we will employ a synthetic control to identify the effect of this policy. In the last few years, marijuana was legalized for recreational use in Uruguay, Canada and in many states of the US. The social and economic implications of such policies have been a major concern for policymakers and researchers. However, there is evidence that suggests positive effects of cannabis on multiple outcomes.
    [Show full text]
  • Life Cycle Assessment of Hemp Biomass Fields for Commercial Cannabidiol Resin Produced in Uruguay
    LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF HEMP BIOMASS FIELDS FOR COMMERCIAL CANNABIDIOL RESIN PRODUCED IN URUGUAY Juan Silva Förnamn EfternamnDegree Thesis Materials Processing Technology 2021 DEGREE THESIS Arcada Degree Programme: Material Processing Technology Identification number: 24098 Author: Juan Silva Title: Life cycle assessment of hemp biomass fields for commercial cannabidiol resin produced in Uruguay Supervisor (Arcada): Stewart Makkonen-Craig Abstract: A life cycle assessment (LCA) for hemp biomass with data supplied by a Uruguayan company “Innovaterra Ltd.” was conducted in this study. The LCA analyses only the agricultural phase and not the industrial production of the resin. Therefore, the system boundary utilized is “cradle-to-gate”. The functional unit is kgs fibre/hectare, with the time constrain from the vegetative to the flowering phase until the harvest of the plant (approximately seven months). The aim of the thesis is to discover how much greenhouse gasses (GHG) will be produced in one hectare of hemp biomass field and to reveal the environmental impacts. GaBi LCA software is utilized for the computation of the LCA. This LCA was conducted through following the ISO standards 14040-140440 The inputs and outputs for creating the scenarios, plan, and processes of the LCA are based on literature review and data provided by Innovaterra Ltd. A negative result from the CO2 total emission was achieved, with a value of – 2.8 tons of CO2 equivalent. This is due to the higher CO2 sequestration that one hectare of hemp produces a year with the sowing density and fields design with grass corridors. Additionally, the irrigation system is powered by hydroelectric power.
    [Show full text]