Regulating Cannabis Markets. The construction of an innovative drug policy in Uruguay Reguleren van cannabismarkten. De constructie van een innovatief drugsbeleid in Uruguay (met een samenvatting in het Nederlands) Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor aan de Universiteit Utrecht op gezag van de rector magnificus, prof.dr. H.R.B.M. Kummeling, ingevolge het besluit van het college voor promoties in het openbaar te verdedigen op dinsdag 11 september 2018 des middags te 12.45 uur door Clara Musto Dutra geboren op 22 september 1987 te Montevideo, Uruguay 2 Promotor: Prof.dr. D. Siegel Copromotoren: Dr. D. Zaitch Dr. C. Chatwin The degree is awarded as part of a Joint Doctorate with Kent University. This thesis was (partly) accomplished with financial support from Erasmus Mundus Programme – European Union 3 INDEX Abstract ................................................................................................................................................... 5 Chapter 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 7 General aim and research questions .................................................................................................. 9 Chapter 2. A changing international landscape ........................................................................... 13 2.1. The international drug control regime: long-standing foundations of cannabis prohibition ........ 13 2.2. Contemporary illegal drugs geopolitics: the American context..................................................... 16 2.3. Alternatives to the prohibitionist approach .................................................................................. 20 De facto retailing system: the Dutch Coffeeshops ........................................................................... 21 Collective personal production: Spanish Social Cannabis Clubs ....................................................... 23 Market regulations: US inside job ..................................................................................................... 24 Uruguay; a breakthrough in the process? ........................................................................................ 27 Concluding remarks .............................................................................................................................. 28 Chapter 3. Theoretical perspectives to understand cannabis policy making ................................. 30 3.1. Moral politics perspective: debating morally controversial issues ................................................ 31 Religion as a source of resistance and promotion of victimless crimes changes ............................. 35 3.2. Policy analysis perspective: understanding atypical changes ........................................................ 36 3.3. Policy transfer perspective: the role of international actors ......................................................... 40 Concluding remarks .............................................................................................................................. 42 Chapter 4. Methodological framework ....................................................................................... 44 4.1. Research design: within-case causal process tracing .................................................................... 45 4.2. Data and Methods ......................................................................................................................... 47 Participant observation ..................................................................................................................... 48 Semi-structured interviews ............................................................................................................... 49 Analysis of previous interviews ......................................................................................................... 50 Documents analysis .......................................................................................................................... 51 4.3. Sampling ......................................................................................................................................... 51 4.4. Gaining access ................................................................................................................................ 53 4.5. Ethical issues .................................................................................................................................. 54 4.6. Data analysis .................................................................................................................................. 55 Narrative analysis .............................................................................................................................. 55 Network analysis ............................................................................................................................... 56 Concluding remarks .............................................................................................................................. 58 Chapter 5. The filling up of the political debate: a generational pace ........................................... 60 5.1. Uruguayan secularisation and the advent of a ‘rights’ agenda’ .................................................... 61 4 5.2. Cannabis activism as political starts up.......................................................................................... 66 5.3. Installing a conflict in the political system: the reorganisation of political parties ....................... 72 Concluding remarks .............................................................................................................................. 80 Chapter 6. Greenhouse effect: the role of the executive power ................................................... 81 6.1. A suitable enemy and a cultural surprise ....................................................................................... 81 A Strategy for Life and Coexistence .................................................................................................. 86 6.2. The government’s irruption ........................................................................................................... 88 6.3. What is the problem? .................................................................................................................... 90 Executive power position .................................................................................................................. 91 Tensions within the reformers advocacy coalition ........................................................................... 93 Concluding remarks .............................................................................................................................. 97 Chapter 7. Overcoming chaos: international policy transfer dynamics ......................................... 99 7.1. Policy design ................................................................................................................................. 100 7.2. Political campaigning ................................................................................................................... 104 7.3. The international conventions arena ........................................................................................... 110 Concluding remarks ............................................................................................................................ 112 Chapter 8. Linking streams: a network analysis ......................................................................... 114 8.1. First period ................................................................................................................................... 115 8.2. Second period .............................................................................................................................. 118 8.3. Third period .................................................................................................................................. 121 Concluding remarks ............................................................................................................................ 124 Chapter 9. Expectations vs. Reality: a new policy venue? .......................................................... 127 9.1. Law 19172 general framework .................................................................................................... 128 9.2. Recreational cannabis .................................................................................................................. 130 9.3. Medical cannabis ......................................................................................................................... 133 Concluding remarks ............................................................................................................................ 135 Chapter 10. Conclusions ........................................................................................................... 137 10.1. Who was involved in the Uruguayan cannabis regulation debate: actors and networks ......... 138 10.2. Why was cannabis regulated in Uruguay; policy framing .......................................................... 139 10.3. How was regulated; specifying drug policy change theories ..................................................... 140 10.4. Derivations to the implementation