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Violence Against Women in Indigenous, Minority and Migrant

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Violence Against Women in Indigenous, Minority and Migrant Violence against women in indigenous, minority and migrant groups Claire Rowland and Michelle Carnegie ender-based violence refers to violence In addition, we recognize that women in that targets individuals or groups on the indigenous, minority and migrant groups experience G basis of their gender. In much policy a whole spectrum of violence, perpetrated by those and programme work, the term is used interchange- within their community groups, as well as by ably with ‘violence against women’, as the majority outsiders. This includes violence either perpetrated of this violence is directed against women, although and/or condoned by the state and/or military; it would be more accurate to class violence against violence arising from wars and conflicts; and women as a form of gender-based violence. The vio- violence in post-conflict settings. lence may involve physical, mental or sexual harm In general, there is a lack of disaggregated data or suffering, or the threat of such acts; coercion; on prevalence rates of violence towards women and other deprivations of liberty. The high per- based on minority and indigenous status, and this sonal, psycho-social and economic cost of violence, remains a barrier to effectively addressing violence however, not only affects women themselves, but against these groups of women. Insufficient data is also their husbands and partners, children, extended in part due to the difficulties of collecting robust families, communities and wider society. As such, it and comparable data on such a sensitive issue, is a major public health issue, with implications for as Denise Hines and Kathleen Malley-Morrison economic and social development. pointed out in a 2007 article in the Journal of Despite actions by international organizations and Interpersonal Violence. Compounding this is the fact governments, violence against women continues to that indigenous and minority women are much less affect women in all parts of the world. At its most likely to report violence voluntarily, due to their basic level, it is both symptomatic of, and active in, marginalized status in society. sustaining gender inequality, but it can also serve to In addition, the low prioritization and resources sustain other forms of inequality, based on minority given to promoting gender equity in many or other social status. Minority and indigenous national budgets inhibits the collection of data status are recognized by the United Nations Entity on gender-based violence disaggregated by gender for Gender Equality and Women’s Empowerment and ethnicity. For example, while most Pacific (UN Women) as compounding factors in cases of Island countries and territories have signed the violence against women, while the 2010 report on Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of the 54th Session of the Commission on the Status Discrimination Against Women, only 6 out of 21 of Women, states that: had a policy in place to promote gender equality in 2010. The Beijing+15 review process (to assess ‘in the design, planning and monitoring of laws, the implementation of the Beijng Platform for policies and programmes to achieve gender equality, Action) found that national women’s machineries it is important to address fully the multiple forms of are typically under-resourced and marginalized in discrimination and marginalization that particular government structures, relying heavily on donor groups of women continue to face, in particular rural, support to implement programmes. With limited Indigenous and older women, women belonging to resources for gender equality programming overall, ethnic minorities and women with disabilities.’ the needs of minority women, including with regard to the violence they experience, are likely to be This chapter focuses on violence perpetrated toward overlooked entirely. As a result, many initiatives indigenous, minority and migrant women. While to combat gender-based violence in minority indigenous peoples reside in many countries, we communities in the global South come from explore indigenous women in a postcolonial ‘settler’ local organizations, many of which are funded via society context (Australia). The chapter addresses bilateral aid and small grants programmes. While violence against women in the context of ethnic, their work contributes significantly to promoting religious and linguistic minority women, but we equality, its scope is inevitably limited by agency acknowledge that, within these groups, there may be size and funding availability. women who constitute minorities within a minority, The level of public awareness of gender- on the basis of their (dis)ability, HIV status, sexual based violence and the commitment shown by identity, occupation or marital status. governments towards combating such violence State of the World’s Minorities Violence against women in indigenous, 33 and Indigenous Peoples 2011 minority and migrant groups influence how much is known and documented communities and elsewhere, over dispossession, about the issue. As Lenore Manderson and Linda marginalization and disempowerment. Rae Bennett pointed out in their 2003 volume In Australia, although accurate and robust data Violence against Women in Asian Societies, research on family violence, including the sexual abuse is more likely to exist in countries that encourage of indigenous children, are difficult to obtain, open discussion on sexual and reproductive health all available studies indicate that the level of and human rights, and where enabling government violence among the indigenous population ‘is frameworks exist to address violence. disproportionately high in comparison to the rates This chapter uses four case studies to illustrate a of the same types of violence in the Australian diverse range of issues relating to violence against population as a whole’ (as stated in a 2001 report by minority and indigenous women, and to provide Paul Memmott, Rachael Stacy, Catherine Chambers insights into both global North and global South and Catherine Keys). In its Concluding Comment perspectives. The case studies are: family violence on Australia (adopted on 30 July 2010), the UN within indigenous communities in Australia; Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination violence against Indonesian women in Malaysia as Against Women (CEDAW committee) noted with a migrant worker minority; violence against Dalit concern that indigenous women were hospitalized women from outside the community in India due as a result of intimate partner violence at 35 times to their position in the caste system; and violence the rate of non-indigenous women. The data against Muslim women in the United Kingdom as a contained in the Australia Productivity Commission religious minority. 2009 Report on Government Services on rates of hospitalization also indicate that alcohol is a key Family violence and indigenous factor in family violence in indigenous communities. women in Australia Attempts made to address family violence in Violence against women is considered to be a indigenous communities in Australia through widespread problem within many indigenous the mainstream social welfare and criminal communities in postcolonial ‘settler’ societies, justice systems have to date had limited impact. including First Nations peoples in Canada, Native In addition, Kyllie Cripps (in a 2010 book on Americans and Alaska Natives in the United States, mental health issues in the indigenous community) Māoris in Aotearoa/New Zealand, and Australians of reported that several indigenous academics and Aboriginal or Torres Strait Island descent. Domestic human rights activists have claimed that ‘women’s or ‘family violence’ – that is, violence from women’s refuges, criminal justice responses, and therapeutic intimate partners and other family members – is programs have mostly been culturally inappropriate arguably the most widespread form of violence that and ineffective’. women from these indigenous groups experience, as Indigenous people in Australia have a complex opposed to violence from outside groups. relationship with the state due to the legacies of The apparent ‘normalization’ of family violence colonialism. This includes a welfare state that has a within these indigenous communities is a product chequered history in ‘protecting’ Aboriginal people of the past and present impacts of colonization. in post-colonial times, most notoriously in regard In these settings, family violence is in part a to systematically removing Aboriginal children from function of the stress, isolation from mainstream their families in a policy that continued until the society, and disempowerment experienced by these 1960s. Today, indigenous women are less likely communities, driven and compounded by loss of than non-indigenous women to apply for protection lives, identity, health, land, family and community from the state, and alongside indigenous men, structures over time. Monique Keel, writing in a are much less likely to attend court to respond to 2004 report for the Australian Centre for the Study protection orders than non-indigenous women of Sexual Assault, argues that violence has become and men, according to Chris Cuneen, writing on a mechanism to compensate for a perceived lack of responses to domestic violence in Queensland’s control over life and future options, and consequent indigenous communities in 2009. low self-esteem. As such, it reflects the wider Criminal justice responses to family violence have ongoing struggle of indigenous peoples in settler tended to emphasize
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