Futurology of English Language Teaching & Literature

Book of Proceedings

The 16th International TELLSI Conference

November 14th – 16th, 2018 (Aban 23rd – 25th, 1397) Wednesday - Friday

Department of Foreign Languages and Linguistics

Faculty of Literature and Humanities

Shiraz University

Table of Contents

Conference Committees ...... I Chair’s Welcome Message ...... VII About the Conference ...... IX List of Full Papers & Extended Abstracts ...... XI Full Papers & Extended Abstracts ...... 1 Author Index ...... 212

Conference Committees

Conference Chair: Alireza Ahmadi. Shiraz University

Executive Chair: Saeed Mehrpour. Shiraz University

Webpage Technical Assistant:

Saeed Khazaie. Isfahan University of Rahele Mavaddat. Shiraz University Medical Sciences Elahe Rafatbakhsh. Shiraz University

Scientific Committee:

Abdi, Reza. University of Mohaghegh Ardabili, Anani Sarab, Mohammad Reza. Shahid Beheshti Ardabil, Iran University, Tehran, Iran Abdollahzadeh, Esmaeil. Iran University of Anushiravani, Alireza. Shiraz University, Shiraz, Science and Technology Iran Abdolrezapour, Parisa. Salman Farsi University Atai, Mahmood Reza. Kharazmi University, of Kazerun, Kazerun, Iran Tehran, Iran Abjadian, Amrollah. Shiraz University, Shiraz, Atashi, Laleh. Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran Iran Azadibougar, Omid. Shiraz University, Shiraz, Abolfazli Khonbi, Zeinab. Kowasr University, Iran Bojnourd, Iran Babaii, Esmat. Kharazmi University, Tehran, Iran Ahmadian, Mohammad Javad. University of Bagheri, Mohammad Sadegh. Islamic Azad Leeds, Leeds, England University, Shiraz Branch, Shiraz, Iran Ahouari-Idri, Nadia. University of Bejaia, Algeria Barati, Hossein. University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Alavi, Sayyed Mohammad. Tehran University, Iran Tehran, Iran Behafarin, Seyyed Reza. Islamic Azad University, Alavai-Shooshtari, Sepideh. Shiraz University, Tehran, North Branch Shiraz, Iran Carver, Mark. University of St Andrews, St Alemi, Minoo. Islamic Azad University, West Andrews, Fife, Scotland Tehran Branch, Tehran, Iran Chachanidze. Nino Founder and president of Aliakbari, Mohammad. Ilam University, Ilam, Iran Cete/ Center for English Teaching Alibakhshi, Goudarz. Allameh Tabataba'i Excellence, affiliate of TESOL, Georgia University, Tehran, Iran Changizi, Pouyan. Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran Alimorad, Zahra. Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran Cumming, Alister. University of Toronto, Toronto, Allami, Hamid Yazd University. Yazd, Iran Canada Almond, Ian. Georgetown University in Qatar Dabaghi, Azizollah. University of Isfahan, Akbarian, Isha'aq. University of Qom, Iran Isfahan, Iran Amirian, Zahra. University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Darabi Bazvand, Ali. Soran University, Kurdistan, Iran Iraq

Dehghan, Farzaneh. Amirkabir University of Kafipour, Reza. Shiraz University of Medical Technology, Tehran, Iran Sciences, Shiraz, Iran Derakhshan, Ali. Golestan University, Iran Kaivanpanah Maralani, Shiva. Tehran University, Ebadi, Saman. Razi University, Kermanshah, Iran Tehran, Iran Eslami, Zohreh. Texas A&M University Kargar, Aliasghar. Shiraz University of Arts, Farahmandi, Amir Yousef. Shiraz University of Shiraz, Iran Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran Karimi, Mohammad. Nabi Kharazmi University, Farhady, Hossein. Yeditepe University, Istanbul, Tehran, Iran Turkey Kazemi, Ali. Yasouj University, Yasouj, Iran Fazilatfar, Ali Mohammad. Yazd University, Yazd, Ketabi, Saeed. University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran Iran Khaghaninejad, Mohammad Saber. Shiraz Ghafar-Samar, Reza. Tarbiat Modares University, Shiraz, Iran University, Tehran, Iran Khajavi, Yaser. Salman Farsi University of Ghasemi, Parvin. Shiraz University. Shiraz, Iran Kazerun, Kazerun, Iran Ghonsooly, Behzad. Ferdowsi University of Khany, Reza. Ilam University, Ilam, Iran Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran Khazaie, Saeed. Isfahan University of Medical Gordani, Yahya. Salman Farsi University of Sciences, Iran Kazerun, Kazerun, Iran Khojasteh, Laleh. Shiraz University of Medical Hadaegh, Bahi. Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran Sciences, Shiraz, Iran Harmer, Jeremy. The New School, New York, Kiany, Gholam Reza. Tarbiat Modares University, USA Tehran, Iran Hashemi, Mohammad Reza. Kharazmi Koslowski, Tracy L. Case. The University of University, Tehran, Iran Mississippi Hashemian, Mahmood. Shahrekord University, Lyster, Roy. McGill University, Montreal, Canada Shahrekord, Iran Mahbudi, Ali. Shiraz University of Medical Hasrati, Mostafa. Razi University, Kermanshah, Sciences, Shiraz, Iran Iran Marandi, Susan. Alzahra University, Tehran, Iran Hassaskhah, Jaleh. University of Guilan, Rasht, Marefat, Fahimeh. Allameh Tabataba'i Iran University, Tehran, Iran Hayati, Abdolmajid. Shahid Chamran University, Marefat, Hamideh. Tehran University, Tehran, Ahvaz, Iran Iran Izadi, Ahmad. Islamic Azad University, Abadan Mashhadi, Amir. Shahid Chamran University of Branch, Iran Ahvaz, Iran Jabbari, Ali Akbar. Yazd University, Yazd, Iran Mazda Yasna, Golnar. Yazd University, Yazd, Iran Jafarpour, Aliakbar. Shahrekord University, Mehrpour, Saeed. Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran Shahrekord, Iran Memari, Mehran. Farhangian University, Ahvaz, Jahangard, Ali. Sharif University of Technology, Iran Tehran, Iran Mirzaei, Azizullah. Shahrekord University, Jalilifar, Alireza. Shahid Chamran University, Shahrekord, Iran Ahvaz, Iran Mahmoodi, Mohammad. Hadi, Bu-Ali Sina Jordan, Eoin. University of St Andrews, St University, Hamedan, Iran Andrews, Fife, Scotland

Mobaraki, Mahmoud. Jahrom University, Ravand, Hamdollah. Vali-e-Asr University of Jahrom, Iran Rafsanjan, Rafsanjan, Iran Mohammadi, Mojtaba. Islamic Azad University, Razavipour, Kioumars. Shahid Chamran Roudehen Branch, Roudehen, Iran University, Ahvaz, Iran Moinzadeh, Ahmad. University of Isfahan, Razmjoo, Seyyed Ayatollah. Shiraz University, Isfahan, Iran Shiraz, Iran Moradian, Mahmoodreza. Lorestan University, Rezaei, Abbasali. Tehran University, Tehran, Iran Khoramabad, Iran Rezaei, Saeed. Sharif University of Technology, Mosaffa Jahromi. Abolfazl Jahrom University, Tehran, Iran Jahrom, Iran Rezvani, Reza. Yasouj University, Yasouj, Iran Moya, Mario R. University of East London, Riasati, Mohammad Javad. Islamic Azad England University, Shiraz Branch, Shiraz, Iran Nafissi, Zohreh. Alzahra University, Tehran, Iran Riazi, Mehdi. Macquarie University, Sydney, Nassaji, Hossein. University of Victoria, British Australia Columbia, Canada Roohani, Ali. Shahrekord University, Nazemi, Nasrin. University of Washington Shahrekord, Iran Continuum College Saadat, Mahboube. Shiraz University, Shiraz, Nemati, Majid. Tehran University, Tehran, Iran Iran Nemouchi, Abdelhak. Larbi Ben M'hidi Sadeghi, Bahador. Islamic Azad University, University, Algeria Takestan Branch, Qazvin Nouhi Jadesi, Nasimeh. Salman Farsi University Sadeghi, Karim. Urmia University, Urmia, Iran of Kazerun, Kazerun, Iran Sadighi, Firouz. Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran Parvaresh, Vahid. Anglia Ruskin University, East Salimi, Esmaeil Ali. Allameh Tabatabai' Anglia, United Kingdom University, Tehran, Iran Pakzadian, Maryam. Allameh tabataba’i Sarani, Abdollah. University of Sistan and University of Tehran, Iran Baluchestan, Iran Pirnajmuddin, Hossein. University of Isfahan, Saeedi, Zari. Allameh Tabataba'i University, Isfahan, Iran Tehran, Iran Ponton, Douglas. Mark University of Catania Sahragard, Rahman. Shiraz University, Shiraz, Pourgiv, Farideh. Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran Iran Rahimi, Ali. Bangkok University, Bangkok, Saif, Shahrzad. Laval University, Québec, Thailand Canada Rahimi, Mohammad. Shiraz University, Shiraz, Sajjadi, Samad. Shahid Beheshti University of Iran Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran Rahimpour, Masoud. The University of Salehi, Mohammad. Sharif University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia Technology, Tehran, Iran Rashidi, Naser. Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran Sapp, Dinorah. The University of Mississippi Rassaei, Ehsan. Islamic Azad University, Shiraz Sarver, Whitney. Tudor The University of Branch, Shiraz, Iran Mississippi Rasti, Alireza. Salman Farsi University of Sasani, Samira. Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran Kazerun, Kazerun, Iran Shahini, Gholamhossein. Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran

III

Shokrpour, Nasrin. Shiraz University of Medical Talebinezhad, Mohammad Reza. Islamic Azad Sciences, Shiraz, Iran University, Shahreza Branch, Shahreza, Iran Shomoossi, Nematullah. Sabzevar University of Tavakoli, Kerry. University of St Andrews, St Medical Sciences, Sabzevar, Iran Andrews, Fife, Scotland Shooshtari, Zohreh. Shahid Chamran University, Torabi, Reza. Isfahan University of Medical Ahvaz, Iran Sciences, Iran Soleimani, Hassan. Payame Noor University, Vafa, Amirhossein. Shiraz University, Shiraz, Qom, Iran Iran Soodmand Afshar, Hassan. Buali Sina Yamini, Morteza. Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran Univeristy, Hamedan, Iran Yarmohammadi, Lotfollah. Shiraz University, Soozandehfar, Marzieh. Jahrom University, Shiraz, Iran Jahrom, Iran Yousefi, Nooredin. Razi University, Kermanshah, Soozandehfar, Mohammad Ali. Hormozgan Iran University, Bandar Abbas, Iran Youhanaee, Manijeh. University of Isfahan, Tahririan, Mohammad. Hassan Sheikh Bahaei Isfahan, Iran University, Isfahan, Iran Zand-Moghaddam, Amir. Allameh Tabataba'i Tajeddin, Zia. Allameh Tabataba'i University, University, Tehran, Iran Tehran, Iran Zohrabi, Mohammad. University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran

Executive Committee:

Book of Abstracts Editing Team:

Arjmand, Elham. Shiraz University Moazzam Jazi, Mina. Shiraz University Azarparand, Farnaz. Shiraz University Rahimi, Ebrahim. Shiraz University Banisharif, Ali. Shiraz University Rasti, Alireza. Salman Farsi University of Haji Bagheri Fard, Hamed. Shiraz University Kazerun Khazaie, Saeed. Isfahan University of Medical Safavian, Mahshid. Shiraz University Sciences Siar, Rasul. Shiraz University Mavaddat, Rahele. Shiraz University Zarezade, Samira. Shiraz University

Accommodation Team:

Javanmardi, Niloofar. Shiraz University Tavakkoli, Zahra. Shiraz University Rahimi, Ebrahim. Shiraz University

Public Affairs Team:

Afifi, Sara. Shiraz University Pirouz, Hasan. Shiraz University Arasteh, Payam. Shiraz University Qaraei Torbati, Amir. Shiraz University Farahmandi, Amir Yousef. Shiraz University of Khazaie, Saeed. Isfahan University of Medical Medical Sciences Sciences Mavaddat, Rahele. Shiraz University Rafatbakhsh, Elahe. Shiraz University

Rahimian, Fatemeh, Shiraz University Safari, Faeze. Shiraz University Roghanian, Mohammad Amin. Shiraz University Soleimani, Neda. Shiraz University Saeid, Samaneh. Shiraz University Zarezade, Samira. Shiraz University

Documentation Team:

Alimorad, Zahra. Shiraz University Khalilian, Mohammad. Shiraz University Azarparand, Farnaz. Shiraz University Rafatbakhsh, Elahe. Shiraz University Eslami, Mehrnoosh. Shiraz University Siar, Rasul. Shiraz University Jafari, Mohammad. Shiraz University Yaddollahi, Samaneh. Shiraz University

Publishing Team:

Afifi, Sara. Shiraz University Nazem Zadeh, Zahra. Shiraz University Arjmand, Elham. Shiraz University Rafatbakhsh, Elahe. Shiraz University Haji Bagheri Fard, Hamed. Shiraz University Rahimian, Fatemeh. Shiraz University Mavaddat, Rahele. Shiraz University Siar, Rasul. Shiraz University Moazzam Jazi, Mina. Shiraz University

Sightseeing Team:

Arasteh, Payam. Shiraz University Soleimani, Neda. Shiraz University Safari, Faeze. Shiraz University

Workshop & Presentation Affairs Management Team:

Afifi, Sara. Shiraz University Mousavi, Mahsa. Shiraz University Arjmand, Elham. Shiraz University Nazem Zadeh, Zahra. Shiraz University Azarparand, Farnaz. Shiraz University Noroozian, Fatemeh. Shiraz University Dayani, Roxana. Shiraz University Parviz, Maryam. Shiraz University Eslami, Mehrnoosh. Shiraz University Pirouz, Hasan. Shiraz University Falahati, Fahimeh. Shiraz University Pishahang, Mahsa. Shiraz University Fatemeh Esmaeeli, Shiraz University Qaraei Torbati, Amir. Shiraz University Ghasemi, Elham. Shiraz University Raddadi, Mohamad Hossein. Shiraz University Haji Bagheri Fard, Hamed. Shiraz University Rahimi, Ebrahim. Shiraz University Homayounzadeh, Maryam. Shiraz University Riahi, Shamsoddin. Shiraz University Jafari, Mohammad. Shiraz University Roghanian, Mohammad Amin, Shiraz University Jafarian, Zeinab. Shiraz University Sadeghi, Mehdi. Shiraz University Javanmardi, Niloofar. Shiraz University Saeid, Samaneh. Shiraz University Khalilian, Mohammad. Shiraz University Safari, Faeze. Shiraz University Karimi, Zeinab. Shiraz University Saleki, Arezoo. Shiraz University Mavaddat, Rahele. Shiraz University Siar, Rasul. Shiraz University Montasseri, Zahra. Shiraz University Soleimani, Neda. Shiraz University Mordadi, Mohammad Hossein. Shiraz University Tabashir, Mahboobeh. Shiraz University

Tavakoli, Zahra, Shiraz University Yadollahi, Samaneh. Shiraz University

Reception Team:

Abdollah Zade, Akbar. Shiraz University Mohseni, Shabnam. Shiraz University Alimorad, Zahra. Shiraz University Mosalla Nezhad, Mahtab. Shiraz University Alizadeh, Parande. Shiraz University Mousavi, Reza. Shiraz University Amiri Far, Yalda. Shiraz University Mousavi Fard, Siyavash. Shiraz University Babaali, Ali. Shiraz University Namazi, Yasaman. Shiraz University Bahrani, Mohammad Ehsan Shiraz University. Namdar, Mahshid. Shiraz University Bahmaee, Mehrnoosh. Shiraz University Nasrollah Poor, Mahshad. Shiraz University Dabiri, Zahra. Shiraz University Nazari, Mohammad. Shiraz University Ejraee, Amir Hosein. Shiraz University Nematollahi, Zahra. Shiraz University Falah Zadeh, Narjes. Shiraz University Novroozian, Fatemeh. Shiraz University Ghadamgahi, Parnian. Shiraz University Rafatbakhsh, Elahe. Shiraz University Ghasemi, Mina. Shiraz University Rahimian, Fatemeh. Shiraz University Hadadi Nezhad, Shamim. Shiraz University Rahmati, Sara. Shiraz University Hagh Negahdar, Zahra. Shiraz University Rasti, Leila. Shiraz University Haji Bagheri, Hamed. Shiraz University Rezaee, Elnaz. Shiraz University Hedayat, Fatemeh. Shiraz University Rezaee, Mostafa. Shiraz University Hemati, Akram. Shiraz University Sadeghi Poor, Mehran. Shiraz University Hendijan Zade, Mahdi. Shiraz University Safavian, Mahshid. Shiraz University Kaviyani, Iman. Shiraz University Saeid, Samaneh. Shiraz University Khoshnoo, Kianoosh. Shiraz University Shabani, Mohsen. Shiraz University Mahmoodi, Zeinab. Shiraz University Shamsi, Maryam. Shiraz University Mavaddat, Rahele. Shiraz University Soleimani, Neda. Shiraz University Moazzam Jazi, Mina. Shiraz University Zarezadeh, Samira. Shiraz University Mohammadi, Maryam. Shiraz University Supervisory Team of Presentations:

Eslami, Mehrnoosh. Shiraz University Yadollahi, Samaneh. Shiraz University Jafari, Mohammad. Shiraz University

Secretariat:

Arjmand, Elham. Shiraz University Parviz, Maryam. Shiraz University Esmaeeli, Fatemeh. Shiraz University Pishahang, Mahsa. Shiraz University Falahati, Fahimeh. Shiraz University Saleki, Arezoo. Shiraz University Montasseri, Zahra. Shiraz University

Chair’s Welcome Message

Alireza Ahmadi

Dear Contributors/Readers,

Welcome to the 16th International TELLSI Conference. I hope that the time you have devoted to the event so far has been worth it and that you leave with a takeaway idea you might want to work on along the road of your academic career and professional development. I also hope you have enjoyed your stay in the beautiful city of Shiraz.

Though I would not like to sound pompous and self-promotional, I should say that organizing an international event such as the annual conference commissioned by the TELLSI (the Teaching English Language and Literature Society of Iran) is currently quite demanding. For one thing, our nation's higher education system has greatly expanded leading to, inter alia, a (happy) rise in the number of graduate studies students and degrees holders seeking (more) academic recognition in the ELT and English Literature research communities by attempting to share and publicize the output of their academic work. Furthermore, the changes made and the courses taken in the annual TELSI Conference are rightly expected to be for the better. This involves devoting extra commitment and creativity to the planning, implementation, and management phases of the conference. Regardless of the (amount of) success of the said event, I can assure you that those involved in it have conscientiously done their best to guarantee its proper implementation.

It has been roughly a year since Shiraz University started organizing the conference and hundreds of precious hours have been allocated by my dear colleagues and students – present and past – to getting this huge task done. I hope the job undertaken thus far has lived up to your expectations.

Looking back at the magnitude of the enterprise and all the tasks done and remembering how painstaking it has been, I would like to take this opportunity to express and extend my heartfelt appreciation of all the parties involved, one way and another, in making the half-baked initial idea of holding the remarkable event hatch, develop, and mature – be it dear members of the academic/executive committees, the respected (local) secretariat, etc. Needless to say, it has

VII been a great honor, as well as a source of inspiration to me, to host such a great get-together of national and international figures in the fields of ELT and English Literature presenting speeches and running specialized workshops.

My thanks also go to dear (non-)presenters without whom holding this particular conference would not have been possible. You have been the soul and heart of the event. I would really appreciate your valuable time spent on conducting outstanding research and contributing to the present academic event.

I am also grateful to the respected keynote speakers who were kind to us and supportive of the conference to take the trouble to travel to our country/city. I hope attending the event has been worth their precious time and energy spent. Also a big 'Thank you' to my colleagues at Shiraz University who cooperated with us at all managerial and academic levels. Special thanks go to the chancellor of Shiraz University, Dr. Nadgaran, the vice-chancellor of research of Shiraz University, Dr. Zebarjad, Dean of the Faculty of Literature and Humanities, Dr. Hajiani, TELLSI board of directors, and the executive committees for their generous and unending supports.

Last but not least, I would like to express my heart-felt gratitude to the Executive Chair of the conference, Dr. Mehrpour, who served as a great source of fun, energy, precision, inspiration, and motivation from the very beginning steps of organizing the conference to its final stages. I greatly appreciate his enormous efforts and invaluable contribution. The leading role he played in all the organizing sessions was undoubtedly instrumental in enabling the conference to achieve the positive outcomes that were hoped for.

No one can have claims of having done an immaculate task. For all the attempts of the organizers, the event would have suffered some limitations. I would like hereby to use this opportunity to apologize for any inconsistencies in performing the huge task and any inconveniences befalling our dear guests.

Thank you all, once again, and we hope you leave the event with an unforgettable memory of our city and university. Let's hope that we meet hopefully again in the upcoming event.

Alireza Ahmadi

TELLSI 16th Conference Chair

VIII

About the Conference

The 16th International TELLSI Conference, due on Aban 23-25, as is currently underway, is the product of numerous hours of hard work and sleepless days and nights by many people involved at the various stages of its development. Ever since Shiraz University's request to organize the event was granted by the respected TELLSI executive members last Azar, many committees have been formed working hard to get the conference affairs done and to tackle the many problems arising along the way. I strongly believe that if the respected reader of these lines is put in the picture about how things went in the event, especially the many problems arising from the sanctions imposed on internationally, they will be able to see through the shortcomings the conference might have suffered. To do justice to those who have cooperated one way or another throughout a wide variety of stages, here I will report briefly on their contribution. Upon receiving the permission from the TELLSI to organize the 16th conference, a call went around asking the experts about the overarching theme of the conference meeting such criteria as being cutting-the-edge, original, and inclusive to cater for the needs and interests of as many potential contributors from the fields of Teaching English and English Literature as possible. A number of themes suggested were put to vote and finally the one with the highest votes was given thumbs- up. The theme chosen was “Futurology of English Language Teaching and Literature”. The theme was then broken down into subthemes in an attempt to invite as wide a variety of vested interests as possible. At the next stage, following a call for the abstract drafts by the conference, the Secretariat received about 700 abstracts. The abstracts underwent rigorous reviewing by seasoned reviewers and the accepted ones also went through close scrutiny of content for possible instances of plagiarism. Along this phase, about a dozen drafts were disqualified. From among those abstracts meeting the reviewing criteria, 158 abstracts were accepted for oral presentation and 51 for poster presentation. Additionally, arrangements were made by the accommodation/catering committee to find suitable locations for the participants. Among the other sub-committees of the Shiraz- University-based secretariat, I can point to public affairs committee, documentation committee, workshop affairs management committee, publishing committee, sight-seeing committee, and reception committee. We also went to great lengths to make arrangements for the invitation of the internationally renowned and locally famous leading figures in the disciplines of Applied Linguistics and English Literature. To this end, a special committee was commissioned for making a list of potential (keynote) speakers associated with a variety of specialties in the two afore-mentioned fields. In the course of this procedure, some issues came up presenting challenges in our way to perform the task. Halfway through the administration procedure, more restrictions were imposed on our country with the result that it made it hard for the guests from the Anglo-Saxon world to attend the conference as keynote speakers. On several occasions, such leading figures could not keep

IX their promises and made apologies for not being able to attend the event. Moreover, fluctuations in the foreign exchange rate presented great financial issues. This made us reconsider our list of potential speakers creating more difficulties for us. Another consideration was the simultaneous organization of the conference with the end of the office terms of the TELLSI present board of directors and elections for the new board. This demanded more putting in extra energy and more managerial work for the committee members. Though the conference encountered different challenges throughout the organizing processes and still suffers some shortcomings, it enjoys four remarkable advantages. One major feature of the present conference, compared to all the other TELLSI conference held so far, is that it has paid special attention to the field of English Literature. To support this claim, two keynote speeches and two workshops have been planned to be presented and 30 abstracts have been included for paper and poster presentation. Another characteristic of the present event is digitalizing the reception and catering services as well as election procedures of the conference using QR coding system. A third key feature of the conference is gathering relevant information and documents about the previously held TELLSI conferences, to the extent possible, and providing an archive for the whole series of the conference held up to now. It was a really demanding task considering lack of access to the respective sources of information but rewarding at the same time due to filling a strongly felt gap as far as the history of TELLSI conferences is concerned. Finally, to boost the quality of the accepted papers, and to provide opportunities for more researchers to present in the conference, a limit was placed on the number of presentations each candidate could have. Each researcher was allowed to present a maximum of two papers, and only one as the main author. Once more, at this stage, I would like to use this opportunity to wish you a happy stay in our city, Shiraz, and an insightful academic experience providing you with food for thought. My hope is that, in line with the theme of the conference i.e., Futurology of English Language Teaching and Literature, all of us leave the happy event with a strong sense of where the fields are heading and orient our academic and research work towards those trends.

List of Full Papers & Extended Abstracts

Metaphoric Mapping Instruction and Figurative Language Ability: The Role of Brain Dominance . 2 Parastoo Alizadeh Oghyanous & Mohammad Nabi Karimi Ferdinand the Anthophile, the Fighting Bull, and the Messiah: An Examination of the Story of Ferdinand and its Adaptations ...... 16 Laleh Atashi & Mohammad Hossein Bakhshandeh Theatre without Actors: Brecht’s Dilemma...... 25 Alireza Bahremand Physical Corruption Turning to Ecological Purification in William Wordsworth’s “Michael” ...... 33 Elmira Bazregarzadeh Are our High School Classes Taught and Tested Based on CLT? ...... 43 Abolfazl Ghanbari, Majid Fatahipour & Mahnaz Azad Postcolonial Reading of Sadegh Hedayat’s “Abe Zendegi”, and the Active Role of Hybrid in Unsettling the Colonial Imperialism ...... 51 Mohsen Habibinasab Effect of Discourse-Based Approach on Teaching Present Continuous Tense to Elementary L2 Learners ...... 58 Mahmood Hashemian & Mahnaz Zamani The Dialogic Mind: Bridging the Gap between Mind and Body ...... 65 Maryam Heidari Vincheh Azizullah Mirzaei “A Shadow that is following Yusof”: Analyzing the Male Protagonist's Tension in Days and Nights of Yusof through Carl Jung's Psychoanalytic Theories ...... 68 Ronak Karami Epistemological Turns in Science: Anti-Cartesian Manifestations in Woman on the Edge of Time and “The Yellow Wallpaper” ...... 75 Vafa Keshavarzi Patriarchy and Freedom in Sylvia Plath and Ghada Al-Samman’s Selected Poems ...... 81 Elham Khamoushi & Batul Musavi A Baurdillardian Study of Joyce Carol Oates’s “The Interview” ...... 85 Nasrin Malekpour & Nasser Dashtpeyma

Pragmatic Eliciting Tasks vs. Traditional Speaking Activities to Foster Oral Proficiency: A Comparative Study ...... 89 Rasool Mirshekaran An Exploration into Adapting Shakespeare for Very Young Audience ...... 94 Batul Musavi & Laleh Atashi Rozencrantz and Guildernstern Are Dead and the Question of Dasein ...... 97 Nazanin Nayyeri Redefining Gender through Adaptations: A Study of A Streetcar Named Desire and Elia Kazan’s Adaptation ...... 105 Zahra Nazemi, Hossein Aliakbari Harehdasht & Abdolmohammad Movahhed Reflection of Ideological Orientations in Translation of Feminist Discourse: A Case Study of Virginia Woolf’s A Room of One’s Own ...... 114 Mehrnoosh Pirhayati & Farzaneh Haratyan Self and Culture in Struggle: Footprints of Kristeva’s Abjection in The Innocent Wife ...... 131 Samaneh Saeid English Language Teachers’ Perception of the Concept of Culture and its Significance in Learning English as a Foreign Language ...... 133 Gholamhossein Shahini & Mahshid Safavian Effect of Practice Type (Drill-based, Task-variation, and Task Repetition) on Learning English Subjunctives and Modals by Persian Intermediate EFL Learners ...... 137 Narges Shirvanian & Manijeh Youhanaee An Investigation into Iranian EFL Teachers’ Perceptions of the Use of Mobile-Assisted Language Learning in the Iranian Context ...... 140 Amir Qaraei Torbati Intertextuality and Jean Rhys’ Wide Sargasso Sea ...... 144 Samira Sasani & Zahra Sadeghi The Narrativization of Existential Consciousness in the (Post) Modern Era in John Barth’s Night- Sea Journey ...... 153 Hadi Shahi Portraying Feminism for Children in Animated Popular Culture: The Case of Chicken Run ...... 162 Rasul Siar Manifestation of Iranian EFL Learners’ Critical Thinking Orchestrated through Feedback Types in Writing ...... 168 Seyyed Mohammad Ali Soozandehfar XII

Multiculturalism in Discourse of Oxford English Language Teaching Materials: A Reading Course Case ...... 174 Sara Mansouri Anita Brookner's Hotel du Lac and the Question of Female Identity ...... 186 Roshanak Vatani Incidental Learning of English Orthography through Flashcards by Young Iranian EFL Learners ...... 194 Manijeh Youhanaee & Sepideh Ghandehari A Child and A Branch of Light: A Comparative Study of “Child Imagery” in Blake and Sepehri ..... 203 Ameneh Zare & Mahsa Hashemi

XIII

Full Papers & Extended Abstracts

1 The 16th International TELLSI Conference Futurology of English Language Teaching & Literature November 14th 16th, 2018 (Aban 23rd 25th, 1397) Shiraz, Iran

Metaphoric Mapping Instruction and Figurative Language Ability: The Role of Brain Dominance

Parastoo Alizadeh Oghyanous Department of Foreign Languages, Kharazmi University, Tehran, Iran Mohammad Nabi Karimi Department of Foreign Languages, Kharazmi University, Tehran, Iran email: [email protected] The present study aimed to investigate the effect of metaphoric mapping instruction (MMI) on learning figurative language (FL) across left and right-brain dominant learners. Initially, a Preliminary English formance on the PET, 90 learners whose scores fell within the range of +/- 1 standard deviation from the mean were selected. Thirty of the learners served as the control group and, thus, did not receive any MMI and just followed the conventional syllabus of the language center. The remaining 60 learners were given the Brain Dominance Questionnaire (Davis, 1994). Based on their performance profile, 39 learners were identified as left-brain dominant and 21 learners as right-brain dominant who served as the two experimental groups of the study. Prior to the treatment a test consisting of 30 figurative language items developed by one of the researchers was administered to the participants in the three groups as pretest. Afterwards, the treatment unfolded for the experimental groups following Kövecses (2001, cited in Chen, 2016) to provide learners with MMI. The treatment lasted for ten sessions; at the end of the treatment the learners in the three groups were post-tested on figurative language ability. The results of the Analysis of Covariance indicated that MMI was significantly effective in promoting FL ability. Moreover, there was a statistically significant difference between the effects of MMI on left-brain vs. right-brain dominant learners with the right-brain dominant learners outperforming the left-brain dominant ones. Implications for language instruction are also provided.

Keywords: figurative language, brain-dominance, left-brain dominance, right-brain dominance

1. Introduction the current position regarding figurative language is that figurative expressions serve as a re- From a historical perspective, figurative ex- flection of the conceptual system with respect to pressions were viewed on a par with fixed idio- the way in which L2 users think and act (Lakoff matic expressions (Chen, & Lai, 2012). Yet, based & Johnson, 1980, cited in Chen, 2016). To facili- on the current theories of cognitive linguistics, tate the learning of L2 figurative language and make it more effective, cognitive linguists insist on improving the awareness of the semantic motivation for figurative expressions on the part of Brown (2000) stated that while there may be L2 learners (Boers & Lindstromberg, 2006) ra- differences between left and right brain charac- ther than memorizing the fixed forms. Such a teristics, it is important to remember that the recommendation implies learning the etymology left and right hemispheres operate together as a of metaphoric linguistic expressions (Boers, - Eyckmans & Stengers 2007), being able to infer brain dominant; while, others are right-brain metaphoric meanings based on the context dominant. Feldman (1996) defines right brain (Dong, 2004), developing the ability to guess the dominance as the participation of the right hem- meanings of imageable metaphoric expressions isphere in dealing with a given task and left brain (Boers & Stengers 2008), being able to learn dominance as the involvement of the left hemi- metaphoric themes and messages (Kalyuga & sphere in coping with a particular task. According Kalyuga 2008) and having the tendency to take to Soyoof, et al (2014), some scholars claim that part in explicit discussions regarding cross-lin- left-brained learners differ from right-brain ones guistic comparisons of figurative expressions in with respect to the way in which they function in first language and second language (Low, 1988). different educational contexts. Furthermore, It is believed that MMI is basically theorized they say that the left side of the brain controls based on a contemporary theory of metaphor memory, language, logic, mathematic and writ- (Lakoff 1993) and also developed based on ing, while emotions, music, intuition and attitudes are controlled by the right side of the brain. tive linguists (Lakoff 1993; Lakoff & Johnson 1980), metaphor is defined as a conceptual 3. Figurative Language Learning mechanism that takes advantage of one domain of experience, with the aim of explaining and Chen (2010) believes that for EFL students, structuring another domain of a different type. figurative expressions used to be regarded iden- Elaborating on the features of metaphor and me- tical to fixed expressions (e.g., proverbs or idi- tonymy, Kövecses (2001) considers utilizing oms) that are learned primarily through memo- metaphoric mapping as explicit instruction (EI), rization and rote learning. Chen (2016) exam- whose aim is to make easier the process of struc- ined the effects of cognitive-based MMI on EFL turing domain-linking processes between L1 and ra- L2 figurative concepts. Regarding the application tive language. The findings of Chen (2016) re- of different metaphoric mappings to the L2 instruction, Kövecses (2001) speculates that these tion and mindfulness of figurative language. Ad- mappings can facilitate the meaning making pro- ditionally, Chen (2016) reported that MMI sup- cess, drawing on his own informal experiment ported students at lower levels of proficiency to with Hungarian English learners. Regardless of attain more advanced language capability. the complexities related to learning figurative Several research studies (e.g., Chen, 2016; language, an attempt should be made to take ac- Chena & Lai, 2012; Niknam, & Saberi, 2017; Wei, count of variables which are likely to have a role Sulaiman, Baki, & Roslan, 2017) have been con- in learning figurative expressions. According to ducted on MMI and brain dominance separately, Ellis (2003), as a process, second language acqui- and to date, no study, to the best knowledge of sition has to do with multiple interrelated fac- the researchers, has attempted to explore the ef- tors. fect of metaphoric mapping instruction (MMI) on learning figurative language (FL) by left and 2. Brain Dominance right-brain dominant learners. Moreover, the

3 possible role of brain dominance in learning fig- assesses the ability to communicate using Eng- urative language in the context of Iran has not lish for everyday purposes. To confirm the relia- yet been investigated. The issue is considered sig- bility of the test for the purpose of the present nificant due to the fact that exclusive reliance on study, the reading and listening sections were piloted on 30 participants having similar charac- efficient (Cherry, 2017). Therefore, the present teristics to the main participants of the study study, in an attempt to fill the gap, addressed the following research questions: which is a satisfactory level of reliability. As for the writing and speaking sections, inter-rater re- 1. Does metaphoric mapping instruction af- liability was calculated. The inter-rater reliabili- fect learning of figurative language by ties for the speaking and writing sections were EFL learners? .0.75 and 0.82, respectively, which are consid- 2. Does metaphoric mapping instruction ered acceptable differentially affect learning of figurative language by right and left brain dominant 4.2.2. Brain Dominance Inventory learners? The instrument used to determine the brain 4. Method dominance in this study was a left /right brain dominance inventory designed by Davis (1994) 4.1. Participants including 39 items with three options (a, b, c) for each. The participants were given 20 minutes to The initial participants of the study included complete the questionnaire. The following for- 120 female Iranian EFL learners who were stud- mula was used to obtain the final score for each ying at the intermediate level of proficiency in a learner and the number of selected a, b, and c al- language center in Tehran. These learners were selected based on convenience sampling due to - 13}.This was consistent with Deng availability and manageability reasons. The age Dafei, (2007, as cited in Heidari, 2010). The range of the participants was from 18 to 31 and learners who scored lower than 13 were regarded they all spoke Persian as their mother tongue. as left brain dominant while those who obtained These 120 learners were given a Preliminary Eng- a score above 13 were classified as right brain lish Test (PET) and based on the scores on PET, learners. Though, .87 has been given as the 90 learners whose scores fell within one standard the brain domi- deviation above and below the mean were se- nance inventory by Kök (2005, cited in Kök, 2010 lected to take part in the study. & 2014), the questionnaire was piloted on 30 learners with similar characteristics to the main 4.2. Instruments and materials the measure was calculated to be 0.72, indicating 4.2.1. Preliminary English Test (PET) an acceptable reliability index.

PET was used to check the homogeneity of 4.2.3. Figurative Language Pre-Test and Post-Test the participants in terms of language proficiency. PET is an English Language examination pro- The figurative language test consisted of 30 vided by University of Cambridge ESOL examina- English sentences collected from dictionaries, tions. PET is an intermediate level exam which the Corpus of Contemporary American English COCA, and the Internet. The instructions for the

4 test were written in Persian and asked the learn- one standard deviation above and below the ers to read each sentence and determine whether mean were selected as the homogenized partici- the sentence contained a figurative expression, pants in terms of language proficiency to take or whether the sentence was to be understood by part in the present study. Thirty of the learners thinking figuratively. served as the control group and did not receive To ascertain the content validity of the test, any MMI and just followed the conventional syl- the researchers appealed to expert judgment and labus of the institute. The Brain Dominance thus the items were reviewed by two PhD holders Questionnaire was administered to the remain- in TEFL and due revisions were made on the ing 60 learners to identify the left and right brain items. To assure the construct validity of the test, dominant learners. Based on the results, 39 learners were identified as left-brain dominant dures was employed. Based on this procedure, in and 21 learners as right brain dominant who order to show the construct validity of a meas- served as the two experimental groups of the urement instrument, the instrument could be study. Prior to the treatment, a test consisting of employed to assess the ability it claims on two 30 figurative items developed by one of the re- different groups whose ability sounds obviously searchers was administered to the participants in different in this regard. If the difference in the the control and experimental groups as pretest. performances of the two groups proves to be sta- Afterwards, the treatment unfolded for the tistically different, it could be concluded that the two experimental groups following the steps be- measurement instrument is assessing what it is low in line with Kövecses (2001, cited in Chen, supposed to measure and hence it enjoys con- 2016): struct validity. Based on the aforesaid procedure, a) For two sessions the instructor took a the figurative language test was administered to text which contained figurative language two different groups of learners, pre-intermedi- to the class and discussed every instance ate students and upper-intermediate students. of figurative language found in the text The scores obtained by the groups were analyzed with the learners using an independent samples t-test and the re- b) The participants received a handout with sults indicated that the upper-intermediate a list of 10 figurative expressions and di- learners outperformed the pre-intermediate stu- rected to figure out their corresponding dents. Next, the reliability of the test was esti- traits and meanings between the English and Persian. test on a group of learners with similar character- c) The learners were instructed to surf the istics to the main participants of the study. The net and bring a text containing at least reliability index turned out to be 0.76 which is five figurative expressions to the class considered acceptable. Afterwards, the test was d) given to the three groups of participants in the instances of figurative language were dis- study i.e. left brain and right brain dominant cussed in the class learners and the control group. e) The students were also asked to think of

any figurative counterparts in Persian for 4.3. Procedure the English figurative language instances

Initially, the Preliminary English Test (PET) The treatment lasted for ten sessions and at was piloted on 30 participants. The test was, the end of the treatment the learners in the three then, given to 120 female EFL learners and 90 intermediate students whose scores fell between

5 groups were given the figurative language post- In order to answer the research questions, test, the scores of which were used to investigate the normal distribution of the data sets were the research questions. checked. To this end, Skewness and Kurtosis were computed and afterwards Kolmogorov- 5. Results Smirnov test was run to further check the normality of the scores. Table 1 displays the Skew- ness and Kurtosis indices for all the data sets.

Table 1. The Skewness and Kurtosis Indices for all the Data Sets N Skewness Kurtosis Std. Std. Statistic Statistic Error Statistic Error Pretest Control 30 .225 .427 -.556 .833 Pretest Left-Brain 39 -.018 .427 1.25 .833 Pretest Right-Brain 21 .304 .427 -.070 .833 Posttest Control 30 .329 .427 -.852 .833 Posttest Left-Brain 39 .535 .427 -.781 .833 Posttest Right-Brain 21 -.300 .427 -.151 .833 Valid N (listwise) 39

As shown in Table 1, the skewness and Kur- Smirnov test was run. Table 2 demonstrates the tosis indices for all the data sets in the study fell results of One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov test within the range of +/-1.96 pointing to the nor- of normality for the data sets. mal distribution of the data. To further investigate the normality of the data sets, Kolmogorov-

Table 2. The Results of One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test of Normality for the Data Sets Pretest Posttest Pretest Pretest Posttest Posttest Right- Right- Control Left-Brain Control Left-Brain Brain Brain N 30 39 21 30 39 21 Normal Pa- Mean 13.4333 13.3000 13.0667 13.6667 22.4333 16.0000 rametersa,b Std. De- 1.95965 2.03673 2.79079 2.02286 4.05721 2.53255 viation Absolute .168 .199 .149 .162 .205 .113 Positive .168 .199 .149 .162 .205 .087

6 Most Ex- Negative -.147 -.134 -.103 -.145 -.099 -.113 treme Dif- ferences Test Statistic .168 .199 .149 .162 .205 .113 Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) .331 .128 .198 .244 .122 .200

As it can be observed in Table 2, the sig val- one-way ANOVA to address the research ques- ues (i.e., p=0.331, p=0.128, p=0.198, p=0.244, tions. p=0.122 and p=0.200) are all higher than the con- To make sure that the three groups of the fidence level of .05 which indicates that the data study were homogeneous concerning FL, their sets are normally distributed. Therefore, the re- scores on pretest were compared using ANOVA. searchers decided to use the parametric test of Table 3 demonstrates the descriptive statistics for the pretest.

Table 3. Descriptive Statistics for the Pretest Std. De- N Minimum Maximum Mean viation Variance Std. Er- Statistic Statistic Statistic Statistic ror Statistic Statistic Pretest 30 5.00 12.00 8.4333 .35778 1.95965 3.840 Control Pretest 21 3.00 13.00 8.3000 .37185 2.03673 4.148 Right- brain Pretest 39 3.00 14.00 8.0667 .50953 2.79079 7.789 Left- brain Valid N 39 (listwise)

As it can be noticed in the table, the means To see whether the differences among the for the control, right-brain and left-brain groups means of the three groups are statistically signif- are 8.4, 8.3 and 8.0, respectively. As it can be icant or not, One-way ANOVA was run. Before seen, the mean differences among the three running the test, the assumption of homogeneity groups are minor. of variances for ANOVA was checked. Table 4 displays the results for the Test of Homogeneity of

7 Variances run on the pretest scores for the three groups. Table 4. The Results for the Test of Homogeneity of Variances Run on the Pretest Scores for the Three Groups

tistic df1 df2 Sig. Pretest Three Based on Mean 2.297 2 87 .107 Groups Based on Median 2.033 2 87 .137 Based on Median 2.033 2 80.019 .138 and with adjusted df Based on trimmed 2.262 2 87 .110 mean

the results of ANOVA run on the pretest scores test was not significant (p=0.107 > 0.05), there- for the three groups. fore the variances were almost equal, and consequently, ANOVA could be run. Table 5 illustrates

Table 5. The Results of ANOVA Run on the Pretest Scores for the Three Groups Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Between Groups 2.067 2 1.033 .196 .822 Within Groups 457.533 87 5.259 Total 459.600 89

According to Table 5, (F (2, 87) =0.196, To answer the research questions of the study, a one-way ANOVA was run on the posttest not differed significantly from each other. scores of the three groups. Table 6 demonstrates the results for descriptive statistics on posttest.

Table 6. The Results for Descriptive Statistics on Posttest Std. Devi- N Minimum Maximum Mean ation Variance Std. Er- Statistic Statistic Statistic Statistic ror Statistic Statistic

8 Posttest 30 6.00 14.00 9.67 .362 2.02 4.092 Control Posttest 21 10.00 14.00 14.43 .744 4.05 16.461 Right- brain Posttest 39 7.00 13.00 12.00 .468 2.53 6.414 Left-brain Valid N 39

(listwise)

As it can be seen in the table, the means for on the posttest scores, the assumption of homo- the control, right-brain and left-brain groups on geneity of variances was checked. Table 7 dis- the posttest are 9.67, 14.43 and 12.00, respec- plays the results for the Test of Homogeneity of tively. To see whether the differences are statis- Variances run on the posttest scores for the three tically significant, one-way ANOVA was run on groups. the posttests. Before running One-way ANOVA

Table 7. The Results for the Test of Homogeneity of Variances on the Posttest Scores for the Three Groups Levene Statistic df1 df2 Sig. Posttest Three Based on Mean 11.355 2 87 .231 Groups Based on Median 5.960 2 87 .287 Based on Median and with 5.960 2 54.586 .293 adjusted df Based on trimmed mean 10.938 2 87 .235

the results of ANOVA run on the posttest scores test was not significant (p=0.231 > 0.05), there- for the three groups. fore the variances were almost equal, and consequently, ANOVA could be run. Table 8 displays

Table 8. The Results of ANOVA Run on the Posttest Scores for the Three Groups

Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Between Groups 1236.867 2 618.433 68.800 .000

Within Groups 782.033 87 8.989

9 Total 2018.900 89

As shown in Table 8, (F (2, 87) =68.800, 0.05, does not exactly state where the difference lies, a Scheffe post hoc test was run. The results differed significantly from each other. Since P < are presented in Table 9 below.

Table 9. The Results of the Post-hoc Scheffe Test for the Posttest Scores 95% Confidence Interval (I) Groups (J) Groups Std. Error Sig. Lower Bound Upper Bound Right-brain .77412 .000** -10.6946 -6.8387 Control Left-brain .77412 .013** -4.2613 -.4054 Control .77412 .000** 6.8387 10.6946 Right-brain Left-brain .77412 .000** 4.5054 8.3613 Control .77412 .013** .4054 4.2613 Left-brain Right-brain .77412 .000** -8.3613 -4.5054

As it is seen in Table 9, there is a significant of FL, it can be concluded the right-brain domi- difference between the means of the scores for nant learners outperformed the left-brain domi- the control and the right-brain group on posttest nant ones as the result of receiving MMI. since sig value is .00 which is lower than the confidence level of 0.05. Moreover, there is a signifi- 6. Discussion cant difference between the means of the scores for the control and left-brain group since the sig The results of the Analysis of Variance indi- value is .013 which is lower than the confidence cated that MMI was significantly effective in pro- level of 0.05. Thus, it can be concluded that both moting FL ability. Moreover, there was a statisti- groups outperformed the control group on the cally significant difference between the effect of posttest and thus metaphoric mapping instruc- MMI on left-brain and right-brain dominant tion affected learning of figurative language by learners with the right-brain dominant learners the learners in both experimental groups. outperforming the left-brain dominant ones. Moreover, as it is noticed in Table 9, there is The findings of the present study regarding a significant difference between the means of the the positive effect of MMI on learning FL are in scores for the right-brain and left-brain groups since sig value is .00 which is lower than the con- the potential positive effects of employing meta- fidence level of 0.05. Moreover, since the mean phoric mappings in foreign language leaning con- of the scores for the right-brain group is higher texts. The findings are also in line with the previ- than that of the left-brain group on the posttest ous studies (e. g., Chen, 2016; Chen, & Lai, 2012; Xu, Malt, & Srinivasan, 2017) regarding the pos-

10 itive effects of MMI on learning figurative lan- impacts of EI in terms of: (1) learning L2 gram- guage. One explanation for the positive impact of mar (Andringa, Glopper & Hacquebord, 2011), MMI on FL is that traditional EFL teaching (2) vocabulary (Sonbul & Schmit, 2010), (3) col- methods consider figurative expressions as fixed locations (Sonbul & Schmit, 2013), (4) writing idioms or collocations. Accordingly, they require (Abbuhl, 2012) and (5) developing pragmatic L2 learners to zero in on or to memorize expres- awareness (Fordyce, 2014). sions. Another possible explanation for the find- The MMI in the current study serves as an- ings of the present study concerning the positive other example of the positive effect of EI on L2 effect of MMI on learning FL could be the explicit learning: EI leads to better awareness of expres- nature of the treatment. In fact, the MMI in the sions which has to do with more complex and ab- present study was carried out in an explicit way. stract mapping relationships, resulting in longer As pointed out by Chen (2016), metaphoric retention. As pointed out by Schmidt (2001), the mapping instruction creates epistemic and onto- triggering of schemata results in overt noticing logical mappings to show related features of the that initiates explicit memory, consequently, it is two concepts in an organized and comprehensive logical to assume that learning based on meta- manner. Additionally, metaphoric mapping in- phoric mapping instruction may bring about the struction highlights not merely structural corre- mindful noticing of different language cues, the spondence through ontological mappings but figurative aim of expressions. According to Chen also awareness linkage by the use of epistemic (2016), metaphoric mapping instruction makes mappings (Chen, 2016). Moreover, it is believed processes of mapping become perceptible and that comparing with approaches that apply tangible. As Ellis (2002) maintains, learning merely conceptual metaphors comprising of ab- through metaphoric mapping instruction can in- stract mapping associations, metaphoric map- itiate an intense level of cognitive memory pro- ping instruction provides rational, disciplined, cessing, and this would be able to nurture longer and structural mapping processes, and it may retaining of noticing skill. support second language students to create map- The results of the current study indicating ping relations, though such mapping associa- the outperformance of right-brain dominant learners in learning FL in the current study are guage (Chen, 2016). not in line with previous studies displaying the According to Chen (2016), elaboration of the better performance of left-brain individuals processes of mapping and correspondences be- when it comes to language learning (e.g., Gabriel, tween theoretical domains functions as natural 2007; Khaksar & Weisi, 2015; Lavach, 1991; guidance to simplify the process of L2 acquisi- Saleh, 2001). In fact, left-brain dominant learn- tion. A group of studies (e.g. DeKeyser, 1998; ers are believed to be good at learning different Schmidt, 1990) conclude that L2 learning in- language skills (Katz, 1983). Stevick (1982, as volves a process of developing knowledge of lin- cited in Khaksar & Weisi, 2015) in a study came guistic structures. In particular, for L2 learners, to the conclusion that left brain dominant learn- explicit teaching may guide them to notice both ers are good at producing words and learning the form-meaning relations of L2 language grammar via analyzing language. The findings of (Spada, 1997) as well as gaps in their interlan- the current study concerning the better perfor- guage (Ellis, 2005). In addition, though only few mance of right-brain dominant learners can be studies have been done in this regard, the learn- justified by the main characteristics of right- ing impact of EI is claimed to last relatively more brain dominant learners. As Gabriel (2007) than that of implicit instruction (Norris & Otega, maintains learners with right brain dominance 2000). The research findings show the positive learn intuitively and are much better than left-

11 brain dominant learners at passing subjective struction on L2 writers at two levels of pro- judgments. The treatment in the present study ficiency. Language Teaching Research, 16(4), mostly entailed passing subjective judgments as 501 18. the learners were required to identify and figure Andringa, S., K. Glopper & H. Hacquebord. out the meaning of figurative expressions. (2011). Effect of explicit and implicit in- The findings of the current study have impli- struction on free written response task cations for teacher educators and teachers as well performance. Language Learning 61(3) as materials developers. The results of the pre- 868 903. sent study can provide teacher educators with Boers, F. & Lindstromberg, S. (2006). Cognitive awareness regarding the positive implications of linguistic applications in second or foreign MMI for teaching FL. Teachers may also decide language instruction: rationale, proposals, to use MMI to teach figurative language in their and evaluation. In Cognitive linguistics: Cur- classes. Materials developers are also encouraged rent applications and future perspective, ed. G. to incorporate MMI materials in the course Kristiansen, M. Achard, R. Dirven and F.J. books to improve learning and teaching FL. Ruiz de Mendoza Ibáñez, (pp. 305 55.) Moreover, teachers are encouraged to Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. acknowledge the differences between learners Boers, F. & M. Demecheleer. (2001). Measuring when it comes to language teaching and learning the impact of cross-cultural differences on in general and teaching and learning FL in partic- hension of imageable idi- ular. oms. ELT Journal, 55(3) 255 62. Like almost all studies, the present study Boers, F., & Stengers, H. (2008). Adding sound to had a number of limitations which can be ad- the picture: Motivating the lexical compo- dressed in future studies. First of all, the partici- sition of metaphorical idioms in English, pants of the present study were selected based on Dutch and Spanish. In Confronting meta- convenience sampling which may have put con- phor in use: An applied linguistic approach straints on the generalizability of the findings. (pp.63 78). Amsterdam, Philadelphia: Other researchers may select participants John Benjamins. through random sampling to improve the gener- Boers, F., J. Eyckmans & H. Stengers. (2007). alizability of the results of the study. Moreover, Presenting figurative idioms with a touch the participants of the current study were female of etymology: More than mere mnemonics? learners selected from the intermediate level and Language Teaching Research, 11(1), 43 62. were within the age range of 18 to 31. Future re- Boers, F., M. Demecheleer & J. Eyckmans. (2004). searchers may replicate the present study with Etymological elaboration as a strategy for male participants from other proficiency levels learning figurative idioms. In Vocabulary in within different age ranges. In the current study a Second Language: Selection, Acquisition and MMI was applied to FL. In the future, research on Testing, ed. P. Bogaards and B. Laufer, 53 other language components e.g., vocabulary, idi- 78. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia: John Benja- oms, collocations using MMI is recommended. mins. Brown, H. D. (2000). Principles of Language Learn- References ing and Teaching (4th Edition). New York, White Plains: Longman. Abbuhl, R. (2012). Using self-referential pro- Brown, H. D. (2001). Teaching by principles: An in- nouns in writing: the effect of explicit interactive approach to language pedagogy. (2nd edition). New York: Longman, Inc.

12 Brown, H. D. (2007). Teaching by principles. New Ellis, N. (2005). At the interface: Dynamic inter- York: Addison Wesley Longman Inc. actions of explicit and implicit language Chater, N., Reali, F., & Christiansen, M. H. knowledge. Studies in Second Language Ac- (1999). Restrictions on biological adapta- quisition, 27(2), 305 52. tion in language evaluation. Proceedings of Ellis, N. (2006). Cognitive perspectives on SLA. the national Academy of Sciences, 106(4), 10- AILA Review, 19, 100-121. 15. Ellis, R. (1985). Understanding second language ac- Chen, Y. Ch. (2016). Teaching figurative lan- quisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. guage to EFL learners: An evaluation of Ellis, R. (2003). Task-based language learning and metaphoric mapping instruction. The Lan- teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. guage Learning Journal, 1-16. Feldman, R. S. (1996). Elements of psychology. New York: McGraw- Hill International Edi- awareness of metonymy metaphor contin- tions. uum in figurative expressions. Language Fordyce, K. (2014). The differential effects of ex- Awareness, 21(3), 235-248. plicit and implicit instruction on EFL learn- Chen, Y.C. (2010). Teaching idioms in an EFL Applied Linguis- context: The past, the present, and a prom- tics, 35(1), 6 28. ising teaching method. In Proceedings of the Gabriel, G. (2007). Left brain - right brain: The min 27th International Conference on English two. Scientific Learning. Teaching and Learning in R.O.C. (pp. 182 Heidari, M. (2010). The relationship among EFL 193). Kaohsiung: Crane Publishing. learner's left/right brain dominance, auton- Cherry, K. (2017). Left brain vs. right brain domi- omy, and reading comprehension of the aca- nance: The surprising truth. Retrieved from demic and general reading modules of IELTS. www.verywell.com. Coulson, L. T., & Strickland, A. (1986). The University, Central-Tehran Branch, Tehran, minds at the top. Journal of Creative Behav- Iran. ior, 17(3), 163-174. Herrmann, N. (1982). The creative brain. Nassp Dafei, D. (2007). An exploration of the relation- Bulletin, 66(1), 31-45. ship between learner autonomy and Eng- Kalyuga, M., & Kalyuga, S. (2008). Metaphor lish proficiency. Asian EFL Journal, 24(4), awareness in teaching vocabulary. Lan- 24-34. guage Learning Journal, 36(2), 249-257. Davis M. (1994). Empathy: A social psychological Katz, A. N. (1983) Creativity and individual dif- approach. Colorado: West view Press. ferences in a symmetric cerebral hemi- DeKeyser, R. (1998). Beyond focus on form: cog- spheric functioning. Empirical Studies of the nitive perspectives on learning and practic- Art, 1(1), 3-15. ing in L2 grammar. In Focus on Form in Khaksar, Z., & Weisi, H. (2015). The effect of Classroom Second Language Acquisition, ed. hemispheric dominance on Iranian EFL C. Doughty and J. Williams, 42 63. Cam- . International bridge: Cambridge University Press. journal of English and Education, 4(2), 383- 397. Teaching metaphors to English language learners. English Journal, 93(4), 29 35. Dülger, O. (2012). Brain dominance and lan- ment and their attitudes towards learning guage learning strategy usage of Turkish English and their abilities to use reading EFL learners. Cognitive Philology, 5(1), 1-23. strategies with regard to hemispheric

13 Dominance. Social and Behavioral Sciences Palmer, B. C., Bilgiliy, E. M., Gungor, A., Taylor, 3(2), 144-151. S. H., & Leclere, J. T. (2008). Reading comprehension, figurative language instruc- ment and brain dominance. Social and Be- tion, and the Turkish English language havioral Sciences 122(4), 329-334. learner. Reading Horizons, 48(4), 261-282. Kövecses, Z. & Szabó, P. (1996). Idioms: a view Pintrich, P. R., Rooser, R, W., & De Groot, E. A. from cognitive semantics. Applied Linguis- M. (1994). Classroom and individual dif- tics, 17(3), 326 55. Kövecses, Z. (2001). A cognitive linguistic view of and self-regulated learning. Journal of Early learning idioms in an FLT context. In Ap- Adolescence, 14(2), 139-161. plied cognitive linguistics II: Language peda- Saleh, A. (2001). Brain hemisphericity and aca- gogy, ed. M. Pütz, S. Niemeier and R. Dirven, demic majors: A Correlation Study. College 87 115. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Student Journal, 7(9), 193-200. Krashen, Seliger & Hartnett (1974). Two Studies Schmidt, R. (1990). The role of consciousness in in Adult Second Language Learning. Kriti- second language learning. Applied Linguis- con Literarum 3, 220-228. tics, 11(2), 129 58. Lakoff, G. & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors we Schmidt, R. (2001). Attention. In Cognition and live by. Chicago: Chicago University Press. Second Language Instruction, ed. P. Robin- Lakoff, G. (1987). Women, fire, and dangerous son, 3 32. Cambridge: Cambridge Univer- things: What categories reveal about the mind. sity Press. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Sonbul, S. & Schmit, N. (2010). Direct teaching Lakoff, G. (1993). The contemporary theory of of vocabulary after reading: is it worth the metaphor. In Metaphor and thought, ed. A. effort? ELT Journal, 64(3), 253 260. Ortony, (p. 51 202). Cambridge: Cam- Sonbul, S. & Schmit, N. (2013). Explicit and im- bridge University Press. plicit lexical knowledge: Acquisition of col- Lavach, J. (1991). Cerebral hemisphericity, collocations under different input conditions. lege major and occupational choices. Jour- Language Learning, 63(1), 121 59. nal of Creative Behavior, 25(3), 218-222. Soyoof, A., Jokar, M., Razavizadegan, M., & Mo- Low, G. (1988). On teaching metaphor. Applied Linguistics, 9(2) 125 47. brain hemisphericity on their degree of vo- Munzert, A. W. (1980). The constitution of the cabulary retention: A case study of Iranian Philippines (1stEd). Caloocan: Philipinne high school students. Social and Behavioral Graphic, Inc. Sciences 98(19), 1844-1849. Niknam, T., & Saberi, L. (2017). The impact of Spada, N. (1997). Form-focused instruction and second language acquisition: A review of cabulary achievement. International Aca- classroom and laboratory research. Lan- demic Journal of Social Sciences, 4(1), 46-62. guage Teaching, 30(2), 73 87. Norris, J. & Otega, L. (2000). Effectiveness of L2 Stevick, E. (1982). Teaching and learning languages. instruction a research synthesis and New York: Cambridge University Press. quantitative meta-analysis. Language Stevick, Earl. (1982). Teaching and Learning Lan- Learning, 50(3), 417 528. guages. New York: Cambridge University Oflaz, M. (2011). The effect of right and left Press. brain dominance in language learning. Pro- Ventrone, A. L. (2017). Using figurative language cedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 15(15), in American English: Challenges and successes 1507-1513.

14 of adult English learners. Masters Theses. Xu, Y., Malt, B. C., & Srinivasan, M. (2017). Evo- 852: Grand Valley State University. lution of word meanings through meta- Wei, H. S., Sulaiman, T., Baki, R., & Roslan, S. phorical mapping: Systematicity over the (2017). The relationship between brain past millennium. Cognitive Psychology, 96, dominance and Japanese language aca- 41-53. demic achievement. International Research Zaferanieh, E., & Behrooznia, S. (2011). On the Journal of Education and Sciences (IRJES), impacts of four collocation instructional meth- 1(2), 48-52. ods: Web-based concordancing vs. tradi- Wigzell, R., & Al-Ansari, S. (1993). The pedagog- tional method, explicit vs. implicit instruc- ical needs of low achievers. The Canadian tion. Journal of International Scientific Pub- Modern Language Review, 49(2), 302-315. lications, 36 (5), 621-631.

15 The 16th International TELLSI Conference Futurology of English Language Teaching & Literature November 14th 16th, 2018 (Aban 23rd 25th, 1397) Shiraz, Iran

Ferdinand the Anthophile, the Fighting Bull, and the Messiah: An Examination of the Story of Ferdinand and its Adaptations

Laleh Atashi Department of Foreign Languages and Linguistics, Shiraz University, Iran email: [email protected] Mohammad Hossein Bakhshandeh Department of Foreign Languages and Linguistics, Shiraz University, Iran This paper is an examination of The Story of Ferdinand, the Spanish bull who loves flowers and never fights, and two of its retellings. This research, due to the change of genre and medium of the retellings, should be located in the domain of adaptation studies. The Story of Ferdinand was a picturebook written for the child audience by Munro Leaf and illustrated by Robert Lawson in 1936. Ernest Hemingway wrote a short story titled The Faithfull Bull in 1951 and parod peaceful bull was adapted into an animation in 2017, directed by Carlos Saldanha. In this research, the writers are going to compare and contrast the three works through textual analysis. Then the differences between them would be analysed to find the HOW and WHY of the changes. Apart from textual expli- cation, contextual analysis would also be used to indicate that the Spanish civil war was the historical bulls. While Leaf endorses idyllic innocence in the face of violence, Hemingway ennobles the fighting spirit. The animation tends to criticize allegorically a homogenizing system, and celebrate otherness which is of sociological significance in the world today.

1. Introduction them alive, but the new life is often rife with ideological preconceptions competing with the ones When a story is retold, very often it trans- that bred the source text. The new form into mogrifies into a new fictional world peopled by which the source text is transmogrified, might new characters and propelled with a new set of draw upon different media and can appeal to dif- credo values. This essay investigates how The ferent audiences. The change of media would Story of Ferdinand (1936) bring into the work new conventions and codes literature, features the theme of peace, how it is that can play a significant role in the process of parodied by Ernest Hemingway in 1951 and later meaning making. The change of audience would animated by Carlos Saldanha in 2017. Adapta- include the consideration of new horizons of ex- tions can bring classics into life in order to keep pectation and thus alter the values of the source text. The time and place in which a classic is re- (108). Linda Hucheon, whose approach to adap- told, would significantly mediate the ideology of tation studies is drawn upon in this study, calls the tale. The ideology of the old work, however, Hucheon de- would not readily leave the reworkings of the tale fines adaptation as "deliberate, announced, and but maintain a palimpsestuous relationship with extended revisitations of prior works" (Hutcheon it. The question might arise: why The Story of Fer- 2006, xiv). But this revisitation goes far beyond dinad is revisited in different historical periods? mere repetition and includes variation of differ- One answer would be the theme of war and peace ent degrees. To analyze the picture book, SUC- embedded in the story, which has been relevant to thinkers, writers and artists since the begin- picture book to be a whole going beyond its con- ning of the twentieth century to date. Of course, the theme of war and peace in literature is as old story, the formalist approach would be em- as history, but since this is a context-oriented re- ployed, but at the end of the textual analysis, the search, the conflicts in the American cultural landscape, since the book was released, would would be discussed. To analyze the animation, matter to us most. Regarding the significance of the changes in the characters and plotline would the world peace in our age, it is highly important be listed to see how such alterations contribute to observe and analyze the mechanisms through to The Story of Ferdinand and how they help the which the theme of peace has been dealt with in survival of the tale narrated in the picture book different decades of the contemporary age in in the contemporary world. At the end, we will debate the purpose of each adaptation with re- In this essay, first we read and interpret The gard to the new form it has taken. Story of Ferdinand which is a picturebook, and try In order to comment on the significance of to work out the context in which it was produced the character of Ferdinand in our world today, it through the close reading of its verbal and picto- is important to talk about otherness and its im- rial texts. The same procedure would be taken in ure. From amongst The Faithful Bull the recurring themes very often found in chil- which was originally written in the form of a short story but was later illustrated by Michael alterity viewed from different vantage points. Foreman. We are going to work on the short story rather than its illustrated version, since the concerned with how a child can come to terms impact of remediation on the adaptation process with his/her own otherness in the adult world, is significant to us. The third medium into which how he/she can embrace his/her individuality af- the story has been adapted is the 3D computer- ter entering the homogenizing system of sociali- animated movie zation, and how he/ she should learn to coexist comedy-drama film. Since it would target at both with people that do not look like himself/herself. child and adult audience, we assume that the un- In each of the works we are going to analyze in masking of its ideology would reveal themes not this paper, the concept of otherness is treated necessarily probed into in The Story of Ferdinand from a different point of view. In The Story of Fer- which was primarily addressed to children. dinand, a fighting bull who refuses to fight, be- Adaptation as an umbrella term encompass- comes the other of the ever fighting stereotypical ing a spectrum of change has been defined as in love with a cow and refuses to copulate with of the source text (Hucheon 62). Abbot has de- other cows, and is thus, othered. In the anima- scribed cinematic adaptation tion, Ferdinand is a nonconformist, but shows a

17 more developed and civil reaction against what he dislikes compared to the two previous works, with other calves. The tree, and the solitude that and manages to get acceptance from the society it offers, seem to index a forbidden pleasure rem- of bulls and humans alike. iniscent of the one offered by the forbidden tree of knowledge in the story of Fall. By climbing the 2. hill and sitting in the shade of the tree, Ferdi- nand is literally and symbolically above the world of farm life and bullfighting. He finds a superior In this picture book, Ferdinand is a calf and pleasure, which is the smelling of the flowers, but unlike other calves, does not play but prefers to pays the price of this pleasure by being alienated sit somewhere and smell flowers. He grows up from the world of his peers. However, there is without a change in spirit until he is chosen one not enough verbal or pictorial clue to support the day for bullfighting championship all by chance. idea that character development occurs in this In the field, he does not fight the matador. The story. bullfighter feels frustrated. They finally return In the verbal text of the story, we seldom him to his place of birth where he continues to have access to the thoughts and feelings of Fer- smell flowers like before. dinand except a couple of instances where the The book cover would from the outset, cre- narrator says that Ferdinand does not care about ate the tension between peace and violence by others; but no intellectual or emotional justifica- the red background patterned with white flowers tion is offered for this detachment. In the picto- throughout; and Ferdinand standing almost at rial text, we seldom have the close up of Ferdi- the center, is smelling a flower. The deep red of nand so as to read his emotions from his face, the background is associated with the muleta and if we do have a medium close up, his eyes are used in a bullfight and white flowers are associ- either closed(figure 1), averted away from the ated with purity, innocence and peace, highly reader(figure 2), or feature a trance-like empti- reminiscent of the white flag, offering ceasefire, ness of expression(figure 3). In other instances, and the demand for negotiation. The story is there is the long shot of Ferdinand, sitting in a written by an American author, and illustrated shadow (figure 4). The calf, neither in the verbal, by an American artist; but Spain is its setting. nor in the pictorial text, intends to get involved The book begins with Ferdinand as a calf who with the reader. The only close up in this book, does not play with other calves and prefers to belongs to the face of the bullfighters who meet smell flowers. He grows up in the course of the the eyes of the reader with indifferent eyes (fig- book. Thus, the structure of the plot is not unlike ure 5). Their faces however, bespeak tough mas- bildungsroman. However, the kind of intellectual culine features. All of them are wearing different and emotional growth that we normally expect hats, probably coming from different social clas- from the protagonist of a bildungsroman is miss- ses or cities, but the only thing they have in coming here. We know that Ferdinand does not care mon is their intention to find the toughest bull about fighting but the reason and the mental en- that could metaphor the Spanish masculinity. deavors involved in the choice that he makes, re- There are some interesting pictorial clues in the main a mystery. Ferdinand is as mysterious as book that create suspense by underscoring the concept of death. There is a tree however, under which Ferdi- There is the image of the The Puente Nuevo, or nand likes to sit. This is the point when Ferdi- the new bridge in the illustration of the book (figure nst the conse- 6) exactly at the point where Ferdinand is being pas- quences of his solitude, but Ferdinand refuses his

18 sively carried away within a cart. The bridge that di- owner finds him useless and sends him to bull- vides the city of Ronda, has served as a prison for fighting championship where he is killed. Hem- criminals in the 19th century and for political prisoners in the 20th century. The bridge is not mentioned tion between faith and fate. The bull in this story in the verbal text but is added to this scene by the il- is faithful to himself but suffers a brutal fate, lustrator to highlight the otherness of the bull who while Ferdinand was in love with flowers and re- refuses to fight and prefers peace. Impending punish- fused to fight, but survived at the end because ment and death would come to the mind when the those in power chose to spare him. Hemingway hapless bull is being carried away against the conno- One time there was a tative bridge at the background, and with the vulture bull and his name was not Ferdinand and he nesting on the address signpost pointing to Madrid. cared nothing for flowers1 er The point worthy of attention is the circular parodying the original story, but is mocking the pattern of the book. Ferdinand ends the book the same way he started it. He sits in the shade of a ture by presenting a deromanticized image of the tree, far from the reader, turning his back against bull. Hemingway wrote this story for the child of us, smelling flowers. Even his return to the farm one of his friends, but it can be more readily categorized is much the same as his departure from it. He is ature due to the cynicism with which he presents being carried away in a cart to the farm, with a social reality. face devoid of any sense of understanding (figure This story can be better understood if we lo- 7 ). With regard to this point, we cannot consider Ferdinand as an agent character who actively changes his fate, but a passive naïve child who and works were heavily influenced by war. He does not pass through the processes of growth. participated in World War I, was a war correspondent in World War II, and travelled to Spain His fate is decided by chance when the bee stings to report on the civil war. No wonder that his him, resulting in his being chosen by the humans novels, short stories and even this short fable are as a champion due to a misunderstanding. At the haunted by war. Not only war, but also death and end of the book, his life is once more determined violence appear as motifs in his fictional world. by those who decide to bring him back to the enera- farm from the bullfighting tournament. Thus, Ferdinand the anthophile, is lucky enough to get much better to die in all the happy period of un- away with his otherness in this picture book. disillusioned youth, to go out in a blaze of light, than to have your body worn out and old and il- 3. The Faithfull Bull Fights to the Death lusions s

the beautiful illusions pertaining to the innocent period of his life, in his literary career, he takes a Spanish bull, loves fighting and is always the truth telling as his mission. Thus, we believe, winner of the fight. The owner decides to use him for breeding but the bull loves only one cow, and does not copulate with the rest of the cows. The

1 Complete Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway: The Finca Vigia Edition; the book lacks pagination.

19 himself to disillusion the youth and shatter the blaze of light. The man who owned the bull ranch But how does the story define and treat other- hoped that the bull would change, or learn, or be different than he was. But the bull was the same and he loved whom he loved and no one else. He without knowing why, and cannot think. In that only wanted to be with her, and the sense he is not against his own kind: he is one others meant nothing to him at all. amongst many Spanish bulls. Unlike Ferdinand, bull is an unmistakable paragon of masculinity meanings than mere monogamy. This fable is re- when his physical characteristics are described: own self rather than towards others. The bull is His horns were as solid as wood and not a compromiser: he fights madly, loves madly they were as sharply pointed as the and is killed off. He is othered because, he is true quill of a porcupine. They hurt him, at to himself and suffers a brutal death at the end: the base, when he fought and he did not care at all. His neck muscles lifted He handed it with the hilt up and the in a great lump that is called in Span- blade dripping with the blood from ish the morillo and this morillo lifted the heart of the brave bull who no like a great hill when he was ready to longer had any problems of any kind fight. He was always ready to fight and was being dragged out of the ring and his coat was black and shining by four horses. and his eyes were clear. The death of the hypermasculine bull at the Phallic imagery, verticality and stiffness in hands of the matador with a sword the blade of which is dripping with blood metaphors the rit- from Ferdinand who was illustrated as sitting ual of castration which echoes the theme of inse- amongst flowers, ravished and entranced (figure cure masculinity in the war-ridden literature of 3). The ferocity of the life of a Spanish bull, in Hemingway. Emasculation in The Sun Also Rises indicates post war sterility; and in this story in Hemingway never tries to ameliorate. The indi- which masculine types the bull and the matador-- fight for power, the aridity of the cultural landscape after the civil war could be anticipated. igate the anonymity of the otherwise generic So, can we say that this fable embodies Heming- bull. At first reading, it might strike the reader that the faithfulness of the bull has to do with his decade? When considered in the context of the monogamous love for one single cow. He falls in Spanish civil war, we can see the vantage point love with a cow and refuses to copulate with oth- from which Hemingway speaks. Fedinand was ers. By refusing to be put in with other cows on written when Spanish civil war was about to the ranch, he violates the expectations of the start. The book encourages non-violent action rancher. The rancher who had decided to use him with the hope that the powerful violator would for breeding rather than sending him to the bull- spare the Gandhi-esque peaceful resister. Hem- fighting championship to be killed, now changes his mind:

20 the leftist republicans had already been subordi- an allegorical society. Not only Ferdinand, but nated to the fascist rule of the Francoist Spain. Bones, and Angus (other bulls) do not qualify as The pacifist credo, celebrated in Ferdinand would fighting bulls. Angus is a Scottish highland bull ring a tragic bell in the mind of intellectuals who with long hair over his eyes, which impairs his vi- had supported the republican cause, Hemingway sion (his hair is later licked up by Ferdinand and being purportedly one of them. Thus if Heming- his vision is metaphorically enlightened by him), way is making a statement about Spanish civil Guapo seems to be suffering from epilepsy and war, the statement would be the denouncement collapses when he faces too much excitement. of the naïve belief in peace and an endorsement Bones is too thin to be chosen as a champion, and of the 'fight to the death' slogan. he is emotionally stirred and driven to tears when his friend, Guapo, is taken to the slaughter- 4. Ferdinand Comes Back Animated house. Except for Valiente, who dogmatically embraces the machoist doctrine--and is metaphori- In Ferdinand, the 3D computer-animated cally castrated when his horn is broken off-- comedy drama, the little calf runs away from the other bulls feature individuals who haplessly try ranch in which he was bred after he finds out that to conform to the norms of a homogenizing sys- his father has been killed in the bullring by the tem that makes them feel not good enough. Fer- matador. He is adopted by a girl and leads an idyl- dinand is the character who manages to create a lic life in the flower farm run by the girl and her social bond and a sense of community amongst father. One day he is arrested due to a misun- the bulls and tries to enlighten and emancipate derstanding-- and taken back to the ranch from the bulls. He even manages to attract the sympa- which he escaped. Other bulls compete with each thies of the inhibited machine like bull who has other to be chosen for the ring, but Ferdinand been made in the lab. One of the most important manages to change their vision by being true to differences between Ferdinand in this movie himself and by being caring for his peers. The with the previous versions of the fighting bull is non-dynamic bull characterized by Munro Leaf that he acts upon the world rather than allowing and Ernest Hemingway is replaced with the ani- the world to act upon him. An interesting issue which was implicitly mentioned in the picturebook, boldly under- Since films have a wider audience compared lighted in this movie is the question of gender. In bedded in them would reflect a wider range of concerns relevant to the contemporary world, so anthophilia is consonant with innocence, that it would be more marketable. The questions naivity, and natural purity. If we take fighting as that should be addressed in the analysis of the a masculine virtue, anthophilia and pacifism movie are rela would connote femininity. The movie, however, is a rejection of the binarized logic of gender and and to the why and wherefores of the changes. an endorsement of a wider spectrum of gendered The animated Ferdinand, compared to the positionalities. Ferdinand is very often labled as other two bull tales, presents a more mature way of coming to terms with otherness. In the animation, we deal with Ferdinand who is conscious of esis of masculine physical features would sound his difference from other bulls. An interesting like a feminizing label. However, the feminized change in the animation is the multinationality Ferdinand, if you will, is the one who metaphori- of the farm animals which would make the farm cally castrates Valiente in a fight. It is interesting

21 after he is castrated when his horn is broken off. its medium, there is no picture to alleviate the dark pessimism of the verbal text. Reconciliation sists and stops the wagon of the rancher and his between the bull and nature, in The Story of Fer- men, who are following the runaway bulls, with dinand leads to peace. Not much ecocritical in- his huge physical prowess. And it is Ferdinand sight can be re who has the power to save the bulls from the small world in which they are captured, and he is fight leads to the glorious death of the bull, tragic the one who attracts the loud cheering of the spectators who ask the intimidated matador not dition of the tale. In The Story of Ferdinand, the to kill the bull. Ferdinand has masculine prowess, bull is naively innocent at the beginning of the but prefers not to use his power in the bull book, and remains so up to the end. Heming- fighting ring which is a space where stereotypical Spanish masculinity is exhibited and reinforced for fighting at the beginning, and remains so up through the killing of a mighty bull. The sweating to the end, and is ruthlessly wiped away. Munro matador is humiliated and agonized at the end of aracters the animation. Even the rancher, who was chasing Ferdinand and other runaway bulls, seems to be pleased when he sees the matador is humili- spared by the powerful. The animated Ferdinand nd the cheering has developed into an agent character who is ca- crowd. pable of negotiation. He is the one who can nego- As the movie suggests, characters such as tiate outdated gender norms by living up to his Ferdinand who can blur the clear-cut definitions difference rather than repressing it; only in that of masculinity are the ones who have the fitting case can the violence ridden world approach the rhetoric to negotiate the boundaries of gendered state of peace and harmony. As the definitions of identities in the contemporary world. The other war and peace develops in the course of history, two bull tales could be more easily interpreted in different versions of the Spanish fighting bull are the context of political strife, but the film, in or- launched to perform non-conformity in a coer- der to meet the demands of its wider audience is cive universe. more concerned with cultural disputes over norms of gender. The last but not the least is Fer- References dinan ing of the crowd. The society of bulls was for- Abbott, H. Porter. (2002). The Cambridge Intro- merly concerned with its bullheaded pursuit of duction to Narrative. Cambridge: Cam- physical fitness. Ferdinand helps them to under- bridge University Press. stand how their lives have been reduced to fighting; Ferdinand comes as a messiah and helps Complete Short Stories of Ernest Heming- them to feel themselves and others genuinely way: The Finca Vigia Edition. New York: Si- and whole-heartedly. mon and Schuster Hemingway, Ernest.(1926). The Sun Also Rises. 5. Conclusion Hucheon, Linda. (2006). A Theory of Adaptation. In The Story of Ferdinand illustrated by Robert New York: Routledge. Lawson, exaggerated facial expressions add a tinge of humor to the story of the flower loving

22 Leaf, Munro. (1936). The Story of Ferdinand. Il- Saldanha, Carlos. (2017). Ferdinand (film). 20th lustrated by Robert Lawson.New York: Vi- century Fox Animation and Davis Enter- king Press. tainment.

Appendix

Illustrations

Figure 1 Figure 2

Figure 3 Figure 4

Figure 5 Figure 6

Figure 7

24 The 16th International TELLSI Conference Futurology of English Language Teaching & Literature November 14th 16th, 2018 (Aban 23rd 25th, 1397) Shiraz, Iran

Alireza Bahremand College of Literature and Humanities, Velayat University, Iranshahr, Iran email: [email protected] was to contrast with the realistic drama that he fervently opposed. Believing that the spectator should not identify emotionally with the action, Brecht intended to create a different effect on the audience by developing a series of anti-illusive techniques to jar the audience out of the story. Such techniques included flooding the stage with harsh white light, reducing the stage property to the minimum, using episodic montage, interrupting the action at key moments, and employing placards and songs. His actors merely demonstrated the actions of the characters without identifying with their roles, thus em- boldening the fine line between illusion and reality. Brecht expected the audience to realize that the action was only a construction but not reality. However, based on library findings, the present research demonstrates that his theory was contradictory in practice, for the very dramatic tradition which makes use of narrative diegesis is basically anti-theatrical inasmuch as it emphasizes contemplation and analysis on the part of the audience while distancing his actors from their roles in an effort to prevent them from relating to the audience. Brecht wanted his audience to interrogate, intervene, and change things, while adversely, he limited both the function of the actor and the interaction between the audience and the actor. The present study argues that Brecht's theatre did not achieve its aim and was in fact not really different from the realistic drama he so ardently criticized.

Keywords: alienation effect, anti-theatricality, dramatic theatre, epic theatre, gestus, narrative diegesis

1. Introduction that the spectator should not identify emotionally with the action, but should rather develop a A playwright, director and producer, Bertolt critical view of the action on the stage. Rejecting Brecht is also known for creating an influential Aristotelian theater, Brecht argued that the ex- theory of theater known as Epic Theater. The perience of climatic catharsis of emotion would term formerly coined by Erwin Piscator, a distin- leave the audience with mere complacence. In- guished director having won the title of Father of stead, he believed in realizing the action on the Political Theater, involved the creation of new stage as a representation of reality (but not the theatrical forms which were to represent a thea- reality itself) in order to move the audience to- ter that would welcome calm contemplation ward expanding their experience in theater, thus along with a detached judgment. Brecht believed making changes in real world. familiar to the audience such as a well-known fa- frequently also creates a distancing effect. ble or a historical event. The point in using In order to further distance the audience known material was to make the play as unsen- from the action, Brecht also emphasized the use sational as possible. The story in dramatic thea- of the gestus which refers to everything the actor ter was of an originality which grabbed audi- did in terms of gesture, stance, body language, facial expressions in order to show the significance wished to avoid. It was also based on the unity of of a scene. The idea would be such that the story- action, suspense and naturalistic illusion. To line is broken down into chunks, so that each achieve these ends, the story must be well-made scene can appear as one single action which can and lead to a catharsis of climax. But in the epic be translated into one simple sentence. In this theater, suspense is not needed and the whole case, the gestus which is the most important play can be loosely knit with episodes each mak- message of the scene would be made clear. Brecht ing sense on their own. Unlike naturalistic plays also wished to show gestus in dialogs to compel in which each constructed scene relates to the the right stance, movement and intonation. Through the subtle use of rhythm, pause, paral- standing, loosely connected scenes ending with lelism and counter pointing, a gestic language musical interludes, captions or gestures. These would be created. The use of gestus in Brechtian interludes would allow the audience to reflect theater enables the actor to express social atti- critically on what they have just witnessed and tudes in clear and stylized ways which is quite also prevent any feelings of empathy or illusion of reality. actor identifies with the character she or he is portraying. The songs can be gestic more than 2. Distancing Technics any other element in Brechtian theater. The sing- ers can, with overt, grand but simple gestures, To disrupt the illusion of reality, Brecht em- clearly express a basic attitude such as anger, des- ployed technics which were at the service of re- pair, defiance or submission. But a gestus could minding the spectator that the play is only a rep- as well be a silent scream like the one Mother resentation of reality. He called these technics Courage utters when she looks out to the audi- verfremdungseffekt, translated as distancing ef- ence. An example of how a caption can create a fect, estrangement effect or alienation effect. gestic effect could be also from Mother Courage Such technics included addressing the spectators and her Children. In the play, each scene is pref- directly, applying third person and past tense to aced by a caption summarizing the most im- the text, intense lighting of the stage, loud read- portant action and suggesting the proper atti- ing out of the stage directions, using explanatory tude that the audience is expected to acquire. placards, and above all singing songs. In Life of Galileo, after a long and profound speech, the tize the self-evident, signaling a dialectical move- thetic effect reveals the weakness of the protag- ment from the ordinary and every day to the onist in spite of his being a great discoverer. An- original and innovatory. other example is provided from The Caucasian Another technic that Brecht applied to Chalk Circle when Grusche is doubtful whether achieve a distancing effect was the technic of his- or not to take the baby: the chorus voices her di- torification. Many of his plays dealt with fic- lemma while she enacts a dumb show. In The tional narrations of historical figures or events.

26 Brecht believed that stories told from a time con- In order for these technics to take effect, not temporary to an audience will not give them the only the stage and its properties have to be care- chance to maintain a critical distance. Instead, he fully treated, but epic actors must also enjoy cer- focused on historical stories that had parallel tain characteristics to be distinguished from the themes to the social ills he meant to illuminate. actors of dramatic theater in as far as the former He hoped that in viewing historical stories from should also serve as narrators and demonstra- a critical perspective, the audience would create tors. They restate the events so as to demon- the proper link between that event and contem- strate the actions to help the audience under- porary social issues. The implication is that alt- stand the situation. Brecht wanted his actors to hough historical circumstances change, man re- bear in mind that they are actors portraying oth- mains essentially one and the same through ages. According to Brecht (2005), history is valid for believed that the actor should not impersonate the milieu, but not for man. The milieu is so es- but narrate actions of another character as if sentially unimportant that it is understood just quoting facial gestures and movements. His ac- as the occasion for things. A variable quantity tors stepped out of the character they were play- and essentially inhuman, milieu really exists ing in order to comment on their role or to sum- without man. It confronts him as a closed unity, marize the action or to sing a song. and he is forever unchanged as a fixed quantity. As the Epic Theater is basically political, it con- 3. Realistic and non-realistic Acting Meth- siders man capable of transcending history and ods changing things. For these technics to be most effective, Brecht agreed with Stanislavski that if the actor believes that he is Lear, the audience will desire to hide any of the elements of theatrical production, Brecht insisted that the stage be want the same to happen. Brecht wanted his ac- brightly lit and the sources of light plainly visible. tors to be relaxed, with no tense muscles. Even if Music, scenery, costume changes, acting style, the actor is playing someone who is possessed, projections and any other elements he called she or he must not appear possessed. Brecht op- upon were in full view of the audience. The cur- posed frenetic and convulsive intensity on the tain was used for the display of titles, captions or stage. Instead, he advised his actors to develop a comments. Placards were placed in the audito- habit of controlling emotions and thought for he believed that an actor who does not merge into the character performs a greater task. He announced or indicated by projection of a title. thought that the actor should not impersonate, All this reminded the audience that they are in a but narrate actions of another person. Accord- theater and what they are watching is not real. ingly, he made the actors turn their lines into Brecht also wished to change the scale of the third person narratives and to comment on the stage properties before using them in another action rather than merge into it. Brecht had context. For example, he used a skyscraper that made this observation on the actors in Aristote- made up part of the set and then turned it over to b more or less motionless bodies in a curious state challenged the audience and also reminded them - they seem to be contracting their muscles in a that they were watching something manufac- strong physical effort, or else to have relaxed tured, and not real life.

27 those who see dramatic theater. Brecht himself makes this distinction between the spectators of This theory is probably less complicated the dramatic theater and those of the epic thea- than what it seems to be as in the Victorian mel- ter: odrama the actor played the villain in just such a critical way. The audience saw that the actor dis- approved of the character, and that there was no Yes, I have felt like that too-just like identification of the one with the other. In this me- - method of acting there is awareness and enjoy- change-The sufferings of this man ap- ment of the skill in showing of villainy. The actor pall me because they areInescapable - shows that the villain could choose an alternative course of action, and that if she or he does not obvious thing in the world -I weep make the same choice, she or he will come to a when they weep, I laugh when they bad end. This is achieved by the implied com- s spectator ows - how wisely or foolishly the action expresses pity not the way- or disdain and implies that she or he foresees hardly believable - -The sufferings of this man appall me be- the theater of illusion the actor explores the cause they are unnecessary - character and tries to merge with him, in Brecht- the great art: nothing obvious in it-I ian theate laugh when they weep, I weep when portant save in its effect on outward action, and instead of the characters, the story is the point of interest. The story is a sequence of social experi- Dramatic theater presents events from the ments and events with interplays of social forces point of view of the hero as if they were happen- which make ing at the moment. This distorts judgment and prevents calm detachment on part of the audi- 4. The Role of Audience ence. To break this illusion and encourage the reflection of the audience, Brecht sought to provide In such theater the function of the audience his audience with the awareness that the events which are represented as narratives with com- mentary are related to the past and not the pre- type of audience he wished the epic theater to call sent. Contrary to the theater of illusion which upon. Brech creates a spurious present and puts the audience where audience members would puff on cigars, into a trance, the epic theater gives a historical much like they would do at a boxing match, version of events by turning the action into a re- whilst watching a performance. The relaxed au- port thereof. dience is there to be entertained and think. Through the use of familiar stories, es- Brecht thought that a theatrical experience trangement effects, gestus, special staging and should entertain, educate and provoke thoughts. lighting effects and acting technics which dis- In his plays, Brecht used humor, dance, music, tanced the audience from the action, Brecht clowning and color to tell stories with high polit- sought to show the utter rottenness of bour- ical and social content. Brecht used a series of geois, capitalist society. By showing the action on anti-illusive technics to jar the audience from the the stage as the product of artifice and subject to action and to make his audience more active than change, Brecht wanted the audience to see that

28 the social reality could also go through a change German without resorting to dialect like the constructed reality on the stage. With the that is unintelligible outside its own rejection of the bourgeois theater, Brecht re- region. jected anything which precludes thought, excites emotion or reinforces capitalist values. The the- Many sources have been considered as of in- ater he had in mind was a theater that roused masses to revolutionary fervor. But the unfavor- with naturalism is in fact a return to former the- able circumstance of the decline of Germany into atrical conventions and traditions. The aliena- Nazism led the would-be man of the people to tion effect is also to be found in Greek tragedies, the West where he became the favorite of West- Medieval Mystery plays, Japanese Noh plays and ern intellectual liberals. In spite of the fact that Jacobean drama where characters address the his theater was received warmly, he was usually audience and introduce themselves. Schechner approached with a certain degree of mistrust and ( cynicism because of the Marxist theories he tried modeled on the Russian formalist notion of de- to advocate. However, his influence on the twen- familiarization was reinforced when Brecht saw tieth century drama is undeniable. In a review of the performance of the great Chinese actor Mei

actor from the role, rejecting the convention of the fourth wall and a quotation of the character rather than a merging into the role convinced matic characters not as unchanging Brecht of the superiority of non-illusionistic the- and circumscribed entities but as contradictory, alterable beings, their mance was the self-possessed quality of acting social which was quite opposite to those trends in situation; secondly, the resulting pri- which the actor becomes one with her or his role. macy of interest in that social situation rather than in the emotions or ers are taken over by human and non-human psychology of the individual; thirdly, a willingness to forgo suspense about p. 163) Unlike the trancer that is taken over will- the outcome of the plot to focus at- ingly or unwillingly, the Brechtian actor main- tention on the way the plot devel- tains a critical distance from her or his role. ops,inviting a consideration of other

fourthly an encouragement to write plays that are vigorously theatrical, English and American playwrights. In England tion, employing songs, using the stage many playwrights including Robert Bolt, Peter to represent exotic locations that are Nicholas and Christopher Hampton openly used distant in geographical or historical -illusive technics. Innes (1992) ob- terms, above all, rediscovering the ism, the use of Brechtian technics such as uncon- nally, for German playwrights, the cealed lighting, direct address of the audience, discovery of a stage language, some- the way the characters are represented (a row of times called Brechtsch, which avoided hats suspended above the jury stools in A Man the high-flown artificiality of High

29 for All Seasons, for instance) change the particu- drama from all life. Brecht's adherence to a dem- lar into general and make the individuals second- ocratic theater, is visible in his attempt to reacti- ary to the situation or the ideology. However, vate the audience, that is, to stir the passive au- Innes also believes that the use of these technics dience out of their comfortable chairs where the only reaction they are expected to show is either clapping or a standing ovation. Nevertheless, the anti-illusive technics such as flooding the stage with harsh white light, leaving the stage lamps in classical four- full view of the audience, reducing the stage his staging technics were identifiable property to the minimum, making use of sym- enough to serve as instant clichés. bolic scenery and half-curtains, using episodic Just as Shaw could use nineteenth- montage where self-contained scenes were juxta- century melodrama to make an anti- posed, interrupting the action at key moments to romantic statement, so Brechtian ep- drive home an important message, employing isodic play- construction and framing placards and songs and having the costumes devices can be borrowed for drama worn by actors, rather than characters which that is apolitical or conservative in were used by Brecht in his effort to jar the audi- supporting the status quo. The histor- ence out of the story and embody the fine line between illusion and reality failed to contribute to lent itself to portraying ethical issues the activation of the audience effectively, and in universal terms, so it is not surpris- neither did his instructions to the actors to merely demonstrate the actions of the characters hailed as the British Brecht. (ibid) and avoid identifying with their roles proved effective to meet the standards of the theater If Brechtian influence were not restricted to the theater ideologically similar to his, and could be extended to serve other ideologies as well, the 6. Conclusion impact of Brecht on modern drama would go far beyond a few figures. In America, according to the matic tradition which makes use of narrative el- Bread and Puppet Theater of Peter Schumann, a ements, in particular narrative diegesis, a tradi- sculptor and choreographer to whom the role of tion which is basically anti-theatrical and this is theater was as basic as bread. Schumann believed that alienation could be immediately achieved arises, for on the one hand Brecht employs tech- through the use of puppets. (Bigsby, 1985) nics that would draw a more active response Although Brech from the audience enabling them to interrogate, the twentieth century drama, such effect should intervene, and change things, but on the other not prevent noticing the contradiction inherent hand, limits the function of actors and their in- in his theater amounting to the dilemma that trend can be considered in line with the tradition tion and analysis on part of the audience, he in- - sists that they must keep calling to mind that Puchner (2002) maintains that the most im- what they are watching is not at all reality. On port the other hand, however, Brecht reduces the role against the actors and the audience. He finds of actors to the minimum, and thus draining Brecht anti-theatrical especially when he attacks

30 -consum- vent the actor from becoming what he all other arts. To Brecht, the theater which enjoys a theatricalizing capacity melts not only the (Puchner, ibid) other arts, but also the audience into itself. His Interestingly, some critics such as Barish (1985) argue that in spite of all efforts on nipulated. According to P mistrust is apparently one similar to that of Wag- those in which the theatrical illusion is domi- effect a mistrust of theater is represented. How- acknowledge the dead body of her son on the -theatricality is in fact most stage, or Dumb Kattrin banging on the drum to obvious in the figure of the actor that he depicts. awaken the villagers or when Shen-T allows her Brecht undermines the whole notion of theater lover to victimize her. This adds to the fact that when he blunts the role of the actor to the lowest possible degree. Puchner observes that once the- not really materialized. ater becomes anti-mimetic, it will indeed turn Rather than having his actors imitate the against itself: characters they are playing, Brecht asks them to turn into witnesses, as if they were re-creating a This dependence of the theater on the scene for the court inasmuch as the actors re- actor turns an anti-mimetic critique main themselves even when they are recreating a into an anti-theatrical one. While the scene. Using their own voice, B mimetic arts, such as painting or pho- allowed to narrate the story rather than imitat- tography, can become anti-mimetic without questioning their own mate- lemma starts becoming more apparent. By reduc- rial condition_ paint, canvas, cellu- ing the function of the actors, Brecht is basically loid_ the theater, if it feels the need to asking if there could be a theater without actors, abandon mimesis, must turn against and in so doing, he is depriving theater of its life its own material, namely, the human and essence. Without real actors impersonating -theatrical- their roles, the possibility of interaction between ism follows the same scheme. The au- the audience and the actor is reduced to its min- dience Brecht liked to imagine, resem- imum. Hence, the kind of political and demo- bling the expert audience of the sport cratic theater that Brecht had in mind is at the events, would be fed up once and for same time refuted by the very notions of acting all with the mimetic mimicking of ac- then, can be classified along with trends that dare to present to such people those started with Platonistic philosophies which considered acting as play and frivolous and opposed In his numerous treatises on acting to serious and important things. Like Plato, and in his work with actors he does Brecht denies actors the stance they should be everything to make such illusionist awarded and symbolically drives them out of the mimicking and deceptive theatrical realm of theater, thus turning the very medium mimesis impossible. Again Brecht against itself and putting an obstacle in his own uses a terminology inherited from way towards achieving a more active and demo- anti-theatrical polemicists and their cratic theater.

Acknowledgements Companion to Brecht. 2nd ed. Eds. Peter, Special gratitude is due to Dr. Nahid Thomson and Glendyr, Sacks.Cambridge: Fakhreshafaie, Assistant Professor of English Cambridge University Press, p. 226. Literature at Shahid Bahonar University of Ker- Drain, R., 1995. Twentieth Century Theatre: A man, for her invaluable support and liberality Sourcebook. London: Routledge, p. 113. with commenting on the first draft of the pre- Esslin, M., 1965. Brecht: A Choice of Evils. Lon- sent work. don, p. 109. Innes, C., 1992. Modern British Drama 1890- References 1990. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 122-125. Barish, J., 1985. The Anti Theatrical Prejudice. Berkeley: University of California Press, p. Cambridge Companion to Brecht. Eds. Pe- 456. ter Thomson and Glendyr Sacks. Cam- Bial, H., Martin C., 2005. "On Chinese Acting" bridge: Cambridge University Press, p. Brecht Sourcebook. Trans. Eric Bentley. 277. 2nd ed. London: Routledge, p. 18. Deal, B., Puchner, M., 2002. Stage Fright: Modernism, Grove, A., 1965. General Relationship for Anti-Theatricality, and Drama. Baltimore: the Thermal Oxidation of Silicon, Journal The John Hopkins University Press, pp. of Applied Physics 36, p. 3770. 139-143. Bigsby, C., 1985. A Critical Introduction to Schechner, R., 2002. Performance Studies: An In- Twentieth Century American Drama. Vol. troduction. London: Routledge, pp. 153- 3: Beyond Broadway. Cambridge: Cam- 163. bridge University Press, p. 344.

32 The 16th International TELLSI Conference Futurology of English Language Teaching & Literature November 14th 16th, 2018 (Aban 23rd 25th, 1397) Shiraz, Iran

Physical Corruption Turning to Ecological Purification in William

Elmira Bazregarzadeh Islamic Azad University, Tabriz Branch, Iran email: [email protected] long been considered as the core issue weaved into the fabric of different works of literature through its

a lot to do with the majesty of Nature, drawing the attention of ecocritics to the new reading of it [the poem] in the lens of Ecocriticism. Taking these issues into consideration, the current paper is devoted to delve into a major point: that is, examining bucolic elements, as the signifying factors of an ecological study of Michael so as to shed light on the pastoral significance of the poem that leads to the ecological rebirth of the Shepherd Michael at the end. Accordingly, the ecological background of the poem can be seen as a work of social criticism protesting against what happens to the innocent people, who have a deep interconnection with Nature, in the city. Thus, the main conclusion that can be drawn from this short research paper is that Wordsworth, as a poet of Nature, tells the readers how living a pastoral life can enlighten us about the knowledge of the power of love, whose beams of hope can lighten the hearts of pastoral shepherds and rural men even in their graves.

Keywords: symmetry, parental love, Luke, covenant, pastoral

1. Introduction l ubiq- uity mean that the pastoral trope must and will Wordsworth (1770-1850) has often been credited for having a vital influence on the Eng- 2004, 33). Many ecocritics tend to concentrate

(Bate 1991, 9). While his poems are open to dis- to the examination of the poem more than oth- cussion from various critical perspectives, Eco- ers. In fact, all the human beings enjoy rural sim- criticism provides the reader with a more comprehensive understanding about the nature of toralism represents an attempt to compensate for future shock by resort to an ethos of economic and spiritual simplicity that reincarnates 33). The im- 330). portance of pastoral elements here is owing to authorities still violate the civil rights and lives of most people, especially those poor and illiterate rning the main focus of this paper, the writer intends tend to analyze the poem in terms of Words- oss and ecological rebirth in Grasmere. C. H. Tsai asserts Grasmere pictures wounded heart and emotion after all the blights that befall him, as the result of his enormous parental love of his only son, Luke. joy, overflowing love, and safety provided by the 2. Discussion vale to displace and to compensate for the senses

self-renewal and self-protection within the natu- (Halpern 1972, 22), who lost half of his ancestral ral elements has been a concern for literary stud- land as a surety for a nephew met with financial ies since the publication of Lyrical Ballads. misfortune. In order to save the land, Michael sends his son, Luke, to his friend who is a mer- Lyrical Ballads -like chant, so that he will learn a trade and earn enough money to regain their inherited property. He takes Luke to the heaped stones and asks - such a model, Nature is not viewed merely as an object; rather it is a living object that plays such 415- fate / Befall thee, I shall love thee to the last, /

415- (Ibid). Such a shift in view created misunderstanding about Wordsworth and his ideas about Nature on the grounds that Wordsworth himself chael washes his hands of his son, gets back to Nature, and takes to leech gathering as a means of maintenance after so many years of toiling and - toiling on his inherited land. Wordsworth wrote to Thomas Poole, on Apr. fully present to itself but is always only to be understood as an encounter with the living agency -77).Thanks to the nourishing of the human heart; the parental affection, and and comforting Nature, Wordsworth can find the love of property, landed property, including peace in his mind and do away with the disquie- the feelings of inheritance, home, and personal tudes of the French and Industrial Revolutions. His encounter with Nature is an effort to remove the light of the Industrial and Enlightenment ideals, the poem is, in effect, a critique of the un- Nature. just system of the government, in which Michael - long; from first to last, he viewed himself as a fol- fer the injustice in the unfair society . . . [whose]

34 promised fraternity, equality, and liberty among the nations (J. Svoboda 6). As a result, he viewed the poems in Lyrical Ballads Witnessing such and such issues at the time of high social and political turmoil planted the Nature and man in his seeds of admiring Nature and finding consola- relation to Nature became the most admirable tion in her within Wordsworth. To Wordsworth, poetic themes, since poetry should deal with Nature served as a unifying element that granted pleasures and sorrows and show man in his natural ecosystem. Though all poems of Words- the dawn of French Revolution. He supported worth, in one way or another, yield themselves to Nature a the pre man community resting on equality is held to be more than other poems of him, showcases the symmetry of parental love and the love of Nature Despite the charges attributed to him, Words- that proceed in the same direction. It, in fact, is a ordsworthian or ego- tributions with regard to the application of the Since the emergence of the Yale School criti- good justification for the belief that Words- cism in 1970s and the New Historicism in the Preface 1980s, many critics have questioned Words- deavor in correcting the artificiality of Neoclassic tion and maintained that Nature for Words- worth has been a key to elevate his imaginary osophical views are the keys to understanding his powers. In, The Visionary Company (1971), Bloom Nature poetry. As a matter of fact, Wordsworth has cast doubt on the notion that the Romantics originated a revolution in poetic taste and poetic were basically Nature poets. In his article, enti- Lyrical Ballads (1798) and more espe Wordsworth wrote to the 1800 edition, brought ysis of The Prelude, Hartman agrees with the crit-

ings with Nature and suggested that what he calls ason, Imagination may be intrinsically opposed to im-

214). As a New Historicist critic, McGann sets the major advocates of this movement (Habib himself against this conviction and gives priority 2005, 430). However, as time passed on, Words- to history and society. The clash between the worth and his contemporaries reached a thor- New Historicists and Yale School critics gave rise ough understanding that opened their eyes to to the new critical standpoints. As a matter of the real consequences of the Revolution. His fact, imagination is a pivotal requisite, in addi- poem, tion to Nature, in the Romantic poetry; the Ro- tice, dominant in the Enlightenment Age, which created a gap between rural families and Nature. the primary principles of the Revolution that had

35 which is a major function of poetry (Kuo 2005, attention to the heaped-up stones once more and 188). -fold / Beside the boisterous brook of Green-head -482). Considering the opening Romantic lyric follows the structure of descrip- and closing references to the stones and the tion-meditation- stream, leads one to think of the importance of meditation is of more significance than the de- the stream and stones within the poem and scription of the landscape (123-125). It seems shows us how the narrator thinks we should re- that the Romantic tradition was grounded upon imagination, rather than Nature. However, the (Ibid, 34-35).The tragic story of Michael and his Romantics, without doubt, occasioned a new an- family cast light on what is permanent in human gle of vision wherein Nature was regarded as a nature: conducts and misdeeds. In such a new vision, Na- There is a comfort in the strength of ture was the promising element that had granted love; end and had inspired and strengthened his ex- else Would overset the brain, or break the wrongdoings in the city. In his effort to present a heart. (Ibid, 448-450) poems, Wordsworth gives voice to a speaker who has a thorough understanding of Nature and as his sheep and his pastoral ecosystem shows that the supreme conciliatory factor reaches mental the laborer practices what Levinson has termed and physical comfort in Nature. Through the interaction between his mind and Nature Words- mestic and pastoral transformations, many 215), which is found in the external Nature. His products of which they conserve for their own giving voice to natural elements in his poems is use, they contemplate themselves in a world con- an effort to escape the sorrows and agonies of the 2002, 71).The shepherd, Michael, is a man of Na- ture who is in tune with his ecosystem: the land, merges with, or is expressed in a way that sug- sheep, and his family. Pondering about the context of the poem poses the same question in the 2005, 215). Nature and natural surroundings are the nourishing prerequisites that provide Words- worth with food for careful speculation and con- Garrard answers the question as follows: etry gives us pleasure derived from Nature, so it The answer to the rhetorical question Turning to the main subject of this chapter, is: a harmonious vision of rural independence and fortitude that hides a -head harsh world in which people are bought and sold at hiring fairs, and g where customary tenure keeps Cum-

36 state of feudal vassalage to local aris- with Nature and their harmonious relation with tocrats who are nevertheless equally their ecosystem (Roberts 2009, 40). adept at capitalist, wage-based forms In pastoral communities people relied on of exploitation. (Ibid.) two sources of income which Wordsworth in his Guide to the Lakes (2004) describe as follows: for- sic] or love, / The pleasure which there i (Wordsworth 2006, 76- stinctive harmony that the shepherd has achieved with non- and if one wheel had rest / It was because the (Gifford 1999, 8). Thus, the emotional burden -84). for Michael is too much to bear should the land The decline of the cottage industry led the peasants and those who had lived on the land for generations to live their cottages to rot. Harrison, in worth 2006, 231-232). He has an enduring affec- rant Muse (1994), asserts the

s interaction with cited in Roberts 2009, 49).The case is evident in the poem, where the shepherd is interconnected, Wordsworth believed that the traditional both physically and emotionally, with his land farmers understood the language of the land and treated it as an element of culture that was passed from one generation of the peasants to the other. This issue is expressed in the poem as send his only son in search of work with the aim of saving their patrimonial land can be regarded

216-217). The word substance is significant here; it can be deemed as both economic and bodily. tween patriarchal values and social and economic mind is the economic one in that losing half of Changes in the lifestyle of the people during the land is an economic loss. Read differently, the the Industrial Age were the main factors for the bodily connotation of the word comes to the fading away of strong family ties and human-Na- ture relations. Gifford believes that in the reading of the poem, the reader can reach the point with the soil and Nature. The process of decay converts their bodies into the mould, which then [Michael] life, that experiences of hardship qual- compromises the fertile layer of the soil. The sub- ify the advantages of the beauty of his environ- stance of the body and the substance of the soil ment . . . that connects him with the life- (1999, 7). In fact, Gifford goes on to remark that Wordsworth has taken one step beyond the tra-

37 ditional pastoral assumptions about the shep- of the poem, Kroeber takes into account Mi-

As a matter of fact, though Gifford asserts that Wordsworth has tried to give birth to a new the reader can see the notion of symmetry in the angle of vision for observer who resorts from his retreat in the correct him, one does so only by adopting the mountains that all is better than well for country In his explanation of plot and symmetry Gifford, in his emphasis on the phra within the poem, Jones describes the plot as the

Michael has achieved with his natural surround- elements in the poem that guide the readers to sued by contemporary green poets who seek an consider the poem as image that counters human alienation from the fully avoids distinguishing the shepherd as an ex-

1100).The emphasis on family labour makes re as With regard to the changing views about the application of the term pastoral today, Gifford family, Michael was in a dilemma which is de- maintains that the pastoral has become a cultural issue nowadays which determines our position in 1107). He is, in a sense, caught between two val- man interrelatedness with nature

2006, 71-73). In response to many critics who from pastoral and toward realism, or at least to- hold that Luke is a sacrifice in the poem, Jones nelli value in himself, for he is also the end for which (as cited in Jones 1993, 1098); likewise, Squires - 1108). herds remote from actuality but about real con- focuses on temporary shepherds . . . [B]y interlacing work and sorrow with past man from the earth as effectively as a debased su- Though many critics share the notion that ventional ones, since the publication of Raymond self and his main character. Both Michael and The Country and the City (1978), New Wordsworth wish to save the land, the one for H

38 Ware 1994, 361). That is to say, the death of the natural scenes as a source of ecological con- land will result in the death of the poet who can- science. Bate argues that such critics as McGann not exist without Nature. Finally, he concludes, is done to the land is as important as who owns

ditional farmers understood the language of the two covenants in the poem: a failed one between land and treated it as an element of culture that Michael and Luke and a successful one created by was passed from one generation of the peasants Wordsworth in the act of writing the po speech to his son at the sheep-fold let the reader sense part of a cov-

370): cussed below, New Historicists have questioned such standpoints. Even to the utmost I have been to One of the keynote critics is McGann whose thee A kind and a good Father: and herein criticism of Romanticism and its works are dom- I but repay a gift which I myself inated by a Romantic Ideology, by an uncritical -represen- now old d). Levinson also follows Hartman in Beyond the common life of man, I still Remember them who loved me in my youth. Both of them sleep together; here line disseminate the story and finish the sheep- they lived, fold in finer tone, with language instead of As all their Forefathers had done; and when At length their time was come, they for the poet, no second self, as for Michael there were not loth To give their bodies to the family critics, Michael has as many flaws as his son, mould. I wished that thou shouldst live the peasant life Wordsworth has best recreated in life they lived. . . . (Wordsworth 2006, 361-371) property, with the less worthy feeling controlling Many critics of Wordsworth hold that the fi property are not expressed explicitly in the tion does not save, it offers, . . . , a tragic under- worth minimizes that conflict, and finally, in Mi- e blurs the two motifs Though such readings uncover the hidden points inherited in the poem, it is with the help of Ecocriticism that the reader can thoroughly grasp the real aim of Wordsworth in applying means of preservation, the boy and the land,

39 were in harmony, one could deepen the other: human atmosphere. To live in the the crisis of Michael comes when nature and the mortal world is by definition to be fickle. (as cited in Halpern 1972, 23)

As Halpern concludes Luke for Michael is a 1994, 372). The pact between Michael and Luke gle life-

man except insofar as man is a part of divine Na-

as a ends and returns the read

and the unbuilt sheepfold

2006, 465- re-

But to the humanized imagination of the poet, the garden and sheepfold are beautiful because they bear the self- trace of human work and love. They ze the pastoral world at the mo- testify that the grandeur of the moun- ment of its suppression, for only the dispos- tain and the vastness of the sea are no more worthy of awe than the common showcases the failure of the younger generations human heart which suffers and en- dures the disasters brought down (Ibid, 207). However, the failure of Luke stems upon man by a harsh world and his own weakness. (ibid) join father and son and to dispatch Luke from the

problem of ideolog set his corruption in motion. David Ferry believes, cited in Pepper 1989, 367-368), Halpern writes, The farm in Michael is a place that seems almost out of time, secluded heal the rift in the ideological circle made by his- from the world and its affairs. While tory by enabling the advance of consciousness he lives there, the boy Luke is like a through poetry. His ideology is not one of escape child of nature. But when he leaves the farm and goes far from his rela- Furthermore, Bate in his Song of the Earth (2000), tion to eternal nature, he plays the ting family false. He does so inevitably because when he goes to the city he enters a corrupt, corrupting, and wholly

40 Review 19(1),113-130. dom of sailors and peasants 1. Bate, J. (1991). Romantic ecology: Wordsworth and the environmental tradition. London: Routledge. 3. Conclusion 2. Bate, J. (2000). The song of the earth. London: Picador. Buell, L. (1986). New England literary culture: tests against what happens to the innocent peo- From revolution through renaissance. (Ed.), ple who have a deep interconnection with Na- Albert Gelpi. New York: Cambridge Univer- ture, in the city. It shows the corrupting effects sity Press. of the Industrial Revolution on the lives of the Garrard, G. (2004). Ecocriticism: The new critical small landowners. Through the poem, Words- idiom. London: Routledge. worth lets the reader reach the recognition that Gifford, T. (1999). Pastoral: The new critical idiom. London: Routledge. Habib, M. A. R. (2005). A history of literary criti- Hence at the age of modernity we, much more cism: From Plato to the present. Malden: than before, need to get back to the poets as Blackwell. such Nature-writing poets as Wordsworth, to toral of Common Man. Notre Dame English teach us how to renew our broken bond with Journal, 8(1), 22-33. mother Earth and appease our emotional, men- Harrison, G. (1994). Poetry, poverty, and power. Detroit: Wayne 920, 433) that casts light State University Press. on the ecological downfalls of a shepherd, whose chief concern and source of dynamism has been Nature and natural surroundings. Part of its Modern Philology, 59(3), 214- 224. Havens, R. D. (1941). The mind of a poet vol.1: A ral quite like it in method and in aim had been . Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. Jones, M. (1993). Double Economics: Ambiva- Michael was at once true to life and an PMLA, idealization above it; true in the sense 108(5), 1098-1113. that a shepherd might feel as Michael Knowlton, E. C. (1920).The novelty of Words- did toward man and Nature, idealized Michael as a pastoral. PMLA, 35(4), in that such a shepherd would need a 432-446. der to express ade- Kuo, G. H. (2005). A dialectical love between na- quately what he felt. Thus it fulfilled ture and mind: An ecofeminist reading of the program of a great poet. The Dong Hwa Journal world has just judged its value. (Ibid., of Humanities 7,187- 222. 446) Manning, P. J. (1977). Michael, Luke, and Wordsworth. Criticism 19(3), 195-211. References McKusick, J. C. (2000). Green writing: Romanti- cism and ecology Abrams, M. H. (1957).The correspondent Press. breeze: A romantic metaphor. The Kenyon McWhir, A. (1991). The canonized forefathers

41 reflec- Tilak, R. (2004). History and principles of literary tions on the revolution in France and criticism. India: Rama Brothers India Pvt. Man and Na- Ltd. ture, 10, 121-131. Retreived from Tsai, C-H. Home, family, livelihood, and their dis- http://id.eru- dit.org/iderudit/1012629ar. Grasmere (MA thesis). Retrieved from Natarajan, U. (2007). (Ed.) The Romantic Poets: A http://etds.lib.ncku.edu.tw/etdser- Guide to Criticism. Malden: Blackwell. vice/view_metadata?etdun=U0026- Palmer, J.A. (2001). (Ed.) Fifty key thinkers on the 0812200910370813. environment. London: Routledge. Ware,T. (1994). Historicism along and against Parker, I.J. Concepts of nature in the poetry of Thompson, Wordsworth, and Shelley (MA Nineteenth-Century Literature thesis). Retrieved from https://ttu- 49(3), 360-374. ir.tdl.org/ ttuir/bitstream/han- Wordsworth, W. (2006). Michael. In M. H. dle/2346/16296/31295001042364.pdf?se Abrams, E. T. Donaldson, A. David, H. quence=1 3. Pepper, T.W. (1989). The ideology of Words- Stallworthy (Eds.), The Norton anthology of Criti- English literature, the major authors. (7th cism, 31(4), 367-382. Retrieved from ed., pp. 1368-1378). New York, NY: W. https://www.jstor.org/stable/23112300. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 4. Roberts, H. M. (2009). Seeing green: nature Yang, H-C, P. C. C., and M.T. H. (2008). Heroic and human relationships with the environ- Michael ment in Wordsworth. life & times of Michael K. WHAMPOA An In- Svoboda, J. The French revolution in William terdisciplinary Journal 55, 21-34. Retrieved (BA major thesis). from Retrieved from kalarka1.doc.

42 The 16th International TELLSI Conference Futurology of English Language Teaching & Literature November 14th 16th, 2018 (Aban 23rd 25th, 1397) Shiraz, Iran

Are our High School Classes Taught and Tested Based on CLT?

Abolfazl Ghanbari Islamic Azad University, Shahr-e-Qods Branch, Iran Majid Fatahipour Islamic Azad University, Parand Branch, Iran email: [email protected] Mahnaz Azad Islamic Azad University, East Tehran Branch, Iran The communicative approach to EFL teaching has been viewed favorably in Iranian public schools in recent years. In a late but clear paradigm shift from traditional grammar-based coursebooks, the Iranian Ministry of Education (ME) has recently developed coursebook materials based on Communicative Lan- guage Teaching (CLT) and a great deal of time and energy has been spent by teachers on integrating and adapting the high-school co nicative competence. However, few studies have probed how this high-stake integration is faring so far from the perspective of main implementers. In the present study, 120 teachers randomly chosen from a wide range of perspectives were asked to state their ideas about coursebooks named Prospect and Vi- sion, via a purpose-built questionnaire. To triangulate the results, 3 expert teachers who are the heads of English departments in 3 different townships were further interviewed to investigate the coursebook at schools. The final-year tests of English Reading and Writing administered in 20 provinces in grade 9 were also analyzed and a checklist was used by two raters and inter-rater reliability was estimated. These tests had been developed based on the coursebook, by the ME and all the students were evaluated based on them. The findings show that the high school coursebooks approach is far from clear to the teachers involved, and more acutely for the teachers of the coursebook series named Vision. The coursebook developers have not provided sufficiently appropriate resources and training for the teachers and thus the also indicate that each individual teacher has his/her own method of evaluating their own students, independent of the coursebook approach and thus considerable number of the tests are not in line with CLT at all, which is a content validity threat. It was also found that there was little consistency between the test content and formats which are provided by the ME in different provinces.

Keywords: communicative language teaching, CLT testing, prospect coursebook, vision coursebook

The 16th International TELLSI Conference Futurology of English Language Teaching & Literature November 14th 16th, 2018 (Aban 23rd 25th, 1397) Shiraz, Iran

1. Introduction teachers and test developers in ME about the tests structure and features. After a long period of time, Iranian EFL educational programs, based on the needs of the con- 2. Literature Review text, experienced a fundamental alteration in 2012 2013 by developing a new coursebook. As mentioned earlier, in order to conduct Therefore, EFL stakeholders in Iran have been this study, first of all reviewing the communica- experiencing a paradigm shift from traditional tive language teaching and testing and knowing approaches (GTM and ALM) to CLT and TBLT. spirit of this approach is essential. According to Kheirabadi and Alavi Moghaddam (2014), the new coursebooks are designed based 2.1 Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) on CLT and TBL and the claim of the authors of these series is that all the language skills i.e. listening, speaking, reading, and writing are integrated and developed simultaneously and a new tive horizon in English language teaching and learn- that the ability to use language communicatively, ing has been started via these changes. The Min- which is the main goal of language learning, in- istry of Education in Iran (ME) has been run a lot volves both, knowledge of language, and the ca- of in-service courses for teachers to enable them pacity for implementing and using this for teaching and assessing the learners based on knowledge. According to Hymes, acquiring com- communicative language teaching (CLT). The ef- municative competence is acquiring both. Build- fectiveness and non-effectiveness of these courses is out of the scope of this study, alt- petence, researchers such as Candline (1976) and hough, it is very vital in preparing the teachers to Widdowson (1978) addressed that language follow this approach. In these years, reviewing the literature shows that there is not any study guage rather than t related to the testing and assessment after the coursebook alteration. The teachers are really makes evident the extent to which user demon- puzzled about testing and assessing their learners formatively and summative and each individual teacher has developed and adopt his/her own which the language user demonstrates his ability to use his knowledge of linguistic rules for effec- achievement and to some extent, this also shows their attitude and approach in teaching the new coursebook. Furthermore, this inconsistency in 2.2. Communicative Language Testing testing and teaching causes a numerous difficulty for learners in a way that they are really With CLT courses designed to engage stu- confused about what and how the testing and as- dents in real-life communication activates, and sessment are. Although, the whole criteria and aiming to actually enable students to use the lan- marking is clear and is stated by the ME, there is guage in real-life situations, it is reasonable to not any consistency and consensus between support that with testing design be based on that competence is a unified set of interacting evaluating the communicative skills. abilities that cannot be tested separately and Communicative language testing developed tested adequately. He argued that communica- during the psycholinguistic-sociolinguistic tive competence is so global that it needs the in- movement that opposed tests conducted during tegration of all linguistic abilities. Such global na- the psychometric-structuralist period. The com- ture cannot be captured in additive tests of gram- municative approach to second language teach- mar, reading, vocabulary, and other discrete ing gained a lot of influence during this period. points of language. This approach was promoted by social linguists The challenge, therefore, was for linguists to who argued that language is better learnt when develop tests capable of measuring a wide range learners are exposed to real-life communicative of abilities generally associated with communica- situations. Socialinguists such as Hymes (1972) tive competence or communicative language spearheaded this view from the early 70s into the ability. Tests had to include tasks that them- 80s. selves embody the essential characteristics of This perspective to second language teach- communicative language use (Bachman, 1995). ing led to a new perspective to language testing. As a result, the general understanding was that Most socialinguists argued that discrete ap- tests should allow learners to manipulate lan- proach to language testing used during the psy- guage within a context of extended texts rather chometric structuralist period could not ade- than in a collection of discrete points to deter- quately determine what a leaner could do with mi the language (Carter, 2010). A discrete approach tests provided evidence of what a learner can do with the language. Additionally, such tests al- is the breaking down of the complexities of lan- lowed learners to generate language rather than guage into isolated segments. These tests were choose a response (Herman, 1992). This led to mainly in fixed response format; that is, multiple test items such as cloze, dictation and letter writ- choice, matching items and true or false (Lado, ing being favoured. 1961). The assumption was that knowledge of el- The purpose of this study is to shed a light in ements of a language is equal to knowledge of testing trend after alteration the coursebooks that language (Carter, 2010). This perception and the teaching approach based on CLT and to was mainly supported by the behaviorists who investigate the unity current tests with CLT- equated learning to habit formation. The tests based testing. The findings of this study is signif- therefore, sort to realize whether the right habits icant for EFL coursebook developer in ME, test had been shaped. If they had, they were re- developers, and teachers. Therefore, this study has addressed the following research questions: However, with attention of most linguists inclining toward generativism and psychologists 1- How the coursebook and the materials are toward cognition, most language teachers developed by ME for teaching EFL provide adopted a cognitive approach to teaching second an appropriate guidance for the teachers for languages. Most language experts started to be- evaluating and assessing their students? lieve that language is more than just the sum of 2- To what extent the EFL teachers are familiar the discrete elements that were being tested dur- with different features of CLT test? ing the psychometric-structuralist movement 3- What are the difficulties in applying CLT test (Brown, 1996; Heaton, 1991). The criticism at schools? against psychometric-structuralist movement mentioned largely by Oller (1979) who reasoned

45 4- Are the current tests which are proposed by Semnan, Qazvin, Ilam, Qom, Khorazane-razavi, the teachers and test developers in ME based Khorasane-jonobi, Khorasane-shomali, Kerman- on CLT test? shah, Isfahan, Shiraz, Markazi, Hamedan, Sis- 5- tano-balouchetan, Hormozgan, Yazd, Kerman, line with CLT spirit? Boshehr). These tests were analyzed to examine their characteristics and features based on CLT 3. Method test.

In order to address the research questions of 4. Results this study, a 5-point Likert scale questionnaire was In order to answer first research questions, about the existence of a clear path about testing the data obtained in the main study as well as the interview were analyzed. The questionnaire reli- tionnaire proposed by the researcher was piloted ability was estimated and it enjoys high reliabil- by 30 teachers and its reliability was estimated ity (α=.96) based on Cronbach's alpha. To under- through Cronbach alpha and it is validated by stand whether these differences from the me- three experts as well. 127 teachers from different dium were statistically significant or not, One- cities were participated in stating their ideas via Sample t-test was conducted. Table 1 indicates this questionnaire. Three expert teachers who are the head of that there were significant differences between English department in 3 different cities were in- the obtained mean scores and the medium mean terviewed, too. In this semi-structure interview score (M=3) in all questions. Based on the mean (each one about 10 minutes), the interviewees difference, it could be concluded that the partici- talked about the current condition of testing at book (Prospect & Vision) do not meet the mean. test in CLT as well as the features and characteristics of tests which are developed by the EFL not provide a clear guidance for teachers for eval- teachers and ME. uation and assessing the learners. The course- The final reading and writing test of 20 prov- book cannot not prepare the learners for the fi- inces in grade nine which are developed by the nal test in four language skills i.e. listening, ME and all the students were evaluated based on speaking, reading, and writing. And the tests them were chosen randomly out of all the prov- which are developed by ME are not in line with inces (Tehran, Shahrestanhay Tehran, Karaj, the CLT objectives.

Table 1. One-Sample Test Test Value = 3 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference t df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean Difference Lower Upper Q1 -31.715 126 .000 -1.622 -1.72 -1.52 Q2 -30.366 126 .000 -1.575 -1.68 -1.47

46 Q3 -37.551 126 .000 -1.622 -1.71 -1.54 Q4 -29.247 126 .000 -1.528 -1.63 -1.42 Q5 -30.366 126 .000 -1.575 -1.68 -1.47 Q6 -29.247 126 .000 -1.528 -1.63 -1.42

language can be collected, and that however real- new coursebook is ambiguous and it does not provide any sources for teachers. The teachers performance will inevitably reflect the fact that make their own version test for the coursebook s/he was performing under test conditions. and they do not agree on a similar or comparable The coursebook in this study, i.e. Prospect model. This lowers accountability and leads to an and Vision, does not provide an appropriate inconsistency between tests and causes difficul- guidance for the teachers for evaluating and as- ties and distress for the students. They stated sessing their students. The teachers are puzzled that most of the teachers, because of the limited about testing in the new published coursebook. time in their classes, do not assess the learners The results showed that most of the teachers are speaking and listening and they add the mark of not familiar with different features of CLT test. these two skills to reading and writing test. They The results of this study also showed that lack of also mentioned that most of the teachers claim audio player at school and lack of adequate time that there is not any audio player for listening ac- do not lead the teachers to assess listening and tivities and testing, therefore, they cannot prac- speaking and they inevitably add the mark to tice listening and consequently they cannot as- reading and writing skills. The findings also show that the tests which are proposed by ME are not Reviewing and analysing the final reading based on CLT test. Consequently, the washback and writing test of 20 provinces showed that more than 80% items in each set of questions method and unfortunately, the teachers do not were on in line with CLT approach. The items did apply the CLT approach in their classes. As a re- not include a meaningful communication. They sult, the coursebook is not successful in changing did not unpredictable language input and crea- the traditional approaches such GTM and ALM tive language output. They were also more dis- to CLT as the authors claimed about it (Kheirabadi & Alavi Moghaddam, 2014). crete items rather than integrative and there was The study conducted by Safari and not any direct assessment. Sahragard (2015) reported that the lack of adequate attention to some factors in the course- 5. Discussion and Conclusion books, make them unsuccessful in achieving the curriculum goals. Among these factors is the Miyata-Boddy and Langham (2000) stated assessment which has the washback effect which that the communicative language testing intends lead the teachers to alter their attitudes and to provide the tester with information about the teaching methods. The results of their findings supported the finding of the current study in in certain context-specific tasks. It has to be rec- which the coursebooks do not have a clear and ognized that given the constraints of time and CLT based assessment; therefore, it could be a practicality, only very negetive washback efefect of teaching.

47 Riasati and Zare (2010) listed some short- Herman, J. L. (1992). A Practical Guide to comings for Iranian EFL coursebooks. Among Alternative Assessment. Washington: the shortcomings they listed in their study, un- Alexandria, VA. clear exercises for testing is mentioned. The test- Hymes, D. (1972). On communicative ing and assessment are not clear for the learners competence. In J. B. Pride, & J. Holmes and they do not how they will be assessed. Not (Eds.), Sociolinguistics (pp. 53-73). only the learners but also their teacher do not Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin. know about the correct way of assessment and Hymes, D. (2001). On communicative testing and their findings are in line with the competence. In A. Duranti (Ed.), Linguistic findings if the current study. anthro anthropology (pp. 53 73). Malden, Lashgari, Jamali, and Yousofi (2014) MA: Blackwell. investigated the Iranian EFL teachers towrds Kheirabadi, R., & Alavi Moghaddam, S. B. (2014). CLT and the practice of CLT in classrooms. The New horizons in teaching English in Iran: a results of their study indicated that in general, transition from reading-based methods to the EFL teachers held positive attitudes toward principles of CLT and displayed characteristics of International Journal of CLT in their beliefs and practices. Their findings Language Learning and Applied Linguistics also support the results of this study and re- World, 5(4), 225-232. ported that the EFL teachers, to some extent, Lado, R. (1961). Language Testing: The were ready for changing their approaches in Construction and Use of Foreign Language teaching English but the some of the coursebook Tests. New York: McGraw-Hill Book shortcomings as well as the lack of clear path for Company. assessment and testing might be a strong reason Lashgari, M., Jamali, F., & Yousofi, N. (2014). for successful alteration in EFL teaching. ttitudes toward CLT. International Journal of Basic References Sciences & Applied Research, 3(3), 160-164. Miyata-Boddy, N., & Langham, C. S. (2000). Bachman, L. F. (1995). Fundamental Communicative Language Testing-an Consideration in language testing. Oxford: attainable goal. Tokyo: The British Council Oxford University Press. Tokyo. Retrieved from Brown, J. (1996). Testing in Language Programs. https://www.tsukuba- New Jersey: Prentice Hall Regents. g.ac.jp/library/kiyou/2000/5.LANGHAM.p Brown, J. D. (2005). Testing in Language df Programs: A Comprehensive Guide to English Oller, J. (1979). Language tests at school: A Language Assessment. New York: Mcgraw- pragmatic approach. London, UK: Longman. Hill. Riasati, M. J., & Zare, P. (2010). Textbook Candlin, C. (1978). Teaching of English: Principles Evaluation: EFL Teachers' Perspectives on" and an exercise typology. London: New Interchange". Studies in Literature and Langenscheidt-Longman. Language, 1(8), 54-60. Retrieved 4 24, Carter, R. (2010). Issues in pedagogical stylistics: 2018, from A coda. Language and Literature, 19(1), 115- http://www.cscanada.net/index.php/sll/ar 122. ticle/download/1455/1474 Heaton, J. B. (1991). Language Testing. Hayes, Safari, P., & Sahragard, R. (2015). Iranian EFL Middx: Modern English publications. teachers' challenges with the new ELT program after the reform: From dream to

48 reality. Khazar Journal of Humanities & Widdowson, H. G. (1978). Teaching language as Social Sciences, 18(4), 65-88. Retrieved communication. Oxford, UK: Oxford from University Press. http://www.academia.edu/download/408 09865/6.newParvin_Safari_1.pdf

Appendix A: Questionnaire

State your own idea about each statement about testing in the new coursebooks developed by ME (Pro- spect and Vision Series). 1= Totally lacking 2= Poor 3= Adequate 4= Good 5= Excellent 1 2 3 4 5 1. The assessing their students. 2. The coursebooks prepare the learners for final listening test based on CLT completely. 3. The coursebooks prepare the learners for final speaking test based on CLT completely. 4. The coursebooks prepare the learners for final reading test based on CLT completely. 5. The coursebooks prepare the learners for final writing test based on CLT completely. 6. The tests are developed by ME are in-line with CLT test.

Appendix B: Checklist This checklist is adapted from Brown (2005). In this checklist, each item of the test should be evaluated separately. Write Yes or No in each coulmn. Province: Total number of Items: Criteria The item in- The item is The item The item The item is a The The item cludes a a type of au- has an un- has a crea- type of per- item is is a type meaningful thentic predictable tive lan- formance as- an inte- of direct communica- communica- language in- guage out- sessment. grative assess- tion. tion. put. put. test. ment .

Item 1

49 2 3 4

50 The 16th International TELLSI Conference Futurology of English Language Teaching & Literature November 14th 16th, 2018 (Aban 23rd 25th, 1397) Shiraz, Iran

Postcolonial Reading of of Hybrid in Unsettling the Colonial Imperialism

Mohsen Habibinasab Department of Foreign Languages and Linguistics, Shiraz University, Iran email: [email protected] The ambivalent position of the colonized subject and his anti-colonial discourse are metaphorically and

Zendegi). By drawing an abstract geography of the colonial world and its crucial need to justify its colonial exploration in the land of aborigines, who are underrepresented in the story, the author puts more emphasis on the hidden colonial discourse of the missionaries whose major interest is making more profit from the explored lands. According to Homi Bhabha (post-colonial studies, key concepts 10) the key to break away from the chains of imperialism and its repressive ideologies is embedded in colonial discourse itself. The abstract geography of the story accounts for the theoretical way, suggested by Homi Bhabha, that provides the colonized with the key to freedom which comes from the formation of hybrid identity (post-colonial studies, key concepts 108) and comprador (post-colonial studies 47) agency (Ah- madak and his two brothers are the character who represent the mentioned agency) whose main focus is gaining profit. Ahmadak and his brothers undergone significant changes when they encounter with the native people of their colonized lands (the third space of enunciation), according to Homi Bhabha, and thus their attitude towards the colonial mission is altered in effect, when they are on their journey sical aborigines of the savage west and the east are entrapped and exploited by the three. The ignorance of the people who are in need of the colonial education system is symbolically referred to as their deaf and dumb status. The allusive content of the story implies the presence of the missionary patrons who organize the colonial strategy that makes the colonized subject a mere imitator of the ideologies of the colonizer.

Keywords: anti-colonial discourse, ambivalency in post colonialism, abstract geography, aborigines, colonial discourse, hybrid identity, comprador, the third space of enunciation

1. Introduction jected the voice of the subultern of the world, especially the iranian whose consciousness have As an anti-imperialist thinker, Hedayat been colonized by the ideologies of either capital- broke the silence of the inferior status with a se- ist or religious institutions of the colonizer .The ries of symbolic and allegorical stories. He pro- object of the paper is to decode the allegorical sign system of the story to reveal the hidden agenda of the colonizer and the anti colonial dis- is to unveil the ambivalent discourse of imperial- course which is embedded in the whole system of ism that does not intend to make a similar copy colonial mission. like himself, based on the concept of hybridity The narrative centers around the journey of formulated by homi Bhabha. This ambivalent three brothers who are forced to leave their fa- discourse unsettles the established position of the colonial dominance by a war that is instigated longs to the primitive and uneducated people at the final symbolic scene of the story which is who are underrepresented in the story, between the ignorant people of the two colonized The language of the story is childlike but it ad- lands and the enlightened people of the land of dresses the adult audience as well. While its lan- truth. The ideologies oppose each other allegori- guage has such a dualistic dimension, the layers cally at the battlefield while the native people of its meaning are to be discovered in the deeper come to know the exploitive desire of the oppres- layers whose meaning are coded in the allusive sive forces that had been surrounding them all content of the story. The story begins with a fa- their lives. ther who wants his sons to go on a journey in order to find a better opportunity for their money 2. Argument making business because the father can not af- ford to support them financially anymore. One of The omniscient narrator recount the story of , the other goes to the the three sons who are dispatched by their father and the third son , who is the apple of his on a mission with a purpose of earning money and finding a new territory to settle down. The its water and has the mysterious power to free father who is the representative of the chief of the people from ignorance and injustice of their the colonizing authority is living at the center of oppressors . The two older sons find two rich the globe since he dispatches his sons to the west lands that are full and the east with the message that they should like gold and agricultural products. The people of look for any opportunity to make profit and these two lands are deaf and dumb because they come back home in time of need . The interpretation of the allegorical dimension of the story healing power and can cure them. The people are would be that the father represents the white threatened and taught to stay away from the man whose mission is colonizing the west and healing water. people are waiting the east in search of the raw material which is to for some authorities who will free them one day be found in the form of gold and agricultural .The third son goes to the land of truth whose products in the Westland. westland is the coun- water is the origin of the enlightenment. The ac- (literally translat count of his story is told in a way that associates which historically alludes to the with the legendary story of Joseph the prophet. precolonial lands of America), and the eastland His major interest is making profit from the ex- (literally plored lands but this hidden interest is covered which histori- with a religious shell to protect him from being cally alludes to the exotic land of east; moon is accused of colonial desire. This allegorical sub- the feminine symbol that that shares its feminin- plot of the story refers to the historical attempts ity with the feminine land of the east , penetrated of the colonizers who s by the sexual and colonial desire of the colonizer to disseminate the Eurocentric ideolo- (Robert Young, I, 2, 3, 5, 8, etc.). The father or- gies through religion. The other objective of the ders his sons to leave their home town: paper that is related to the other two objectives

52 The father says to his sons to leave their stranger here. I have come from a dis- hometown: tant land and I am lost. Give me some food God bless you my sons. Go and earn food to you for free here. Give me a your living and learn how to do a busi- fistful of sand and ness. I keep myself busy here. If you made it one day and earned your for- tune, that would be a relief though; Regardless of the stereotypical image of the otherwise come back home and we native man (Edward said, orientalism) who is will keep the wolf from the door. represented as a lazy individual and is not even willing to bend down and grab a fistful of gold The dispatched sons, like the dispatched sand from the fertile bed of the river; the above troops of the colonial powers, go on a journey mentioned conversation evinces that the two that leads them to three lands which are full of sides of the dialogue are of equal position and raw materials like gold, agricultural products and social power before the native land of the aborig- water. The exploration of the blank spaces on the ines is occupied as a colony and the colonial dis- map had been the purpose of the classical coloni- course categorizes native people as the inferior alism. Two of the three brothers start their impe- beings and under-represents them as the rialist mission by the time they set foot on the Comparing the independent and digni- new explored land. The third brother, who is de- fied status of the character who represents the scribed as a more refined character, opens his native man in the precolonial era with the oth- way through the unexplored land through more ered and under-represented native man who has advanced colonial mission, which is supposed to been denigrated by orientalists , it can be per- be humanistic concern. He takes the control of ceived that the pre-colonial condition of the ex- the military power of his conquered land through otic land is too far from the image that Oriental- philanthropist mottos, that is the new form of ists engineered (Edward said , orientalism 1). imperialism whose purpose is globalization of The resisting effort of the native man has to the world. be dealt with in one way or another by the in- The first conversation that is between truder force. To overcome the resisting power of the native, Hasani introduces himself as a mes- gressive and the two sides are of equal im- senger whose orders comes from heaven and the portance and status, there is no hierarchical native people consider him as the savior, there- structure between the colonizer and colonized fore he takes of the role of a missionary who pen- yet. Thus, Hasani addresses the man and asks for etrates the native land through religious some food, but his request is declined with a term agenda. The role of the missionaries is high- and condition that Hasani is supposed to work in lighted in the story when Hasani gives a speech return for food that he receives: to the underrepresented native people of the country, and reinforcing his colo- Drinking some water from the river, nial-religious discourse by taking their inferiority Hasani addressed a man who was for granted. He says: standing near him and asked: hey you pal, where is here? The man said: you You poor people! you should know ! Here is the country of that I am the promised messenger .Hasani said: sent by God to you to give you hope .It is the will of God to examine you by

53 taking away your earthly eyes, thus giving you the heavenly eyes, so you ward Said. orientalism 196). This captivity is may see the truth. Everyone knows symbolically alluded to in the story in a form of that whatever eye sees will become the desire of human being, etc. marcate their roaming around their surrounding.The people follow (imitate) their king, who is The rest of the speech is resumed by a mis- embodying an imperialist colonizer, and resist sionary discourse that threatens the people with his oppressive rules at the same time. This bipo- the transitory nature of life .He establishes a pre- lar attitude of the native people is ascribed to the ordained position for himself that is buttressed ambivalent hybrid subject (Homi Bhabha, the lo- Colonial powers instituted cation of culture 44) who imitate and resist the these privileges through patronage systems In colonial force at the same time. People in chain the hands of the early missionary patrons (post of the imperialist ideologies were being disci- colonial studies key concepts, colonial patronage, plined by the educational system which prepares p39). Hasani takes advantage of his monarchical them for a willing subjugation to exploitation. power to establish some privileges for his com- The native people are described as the prisoners fort and welfare and the people are being ignored who are assigned to do forced labor: altogether. Holding and managing the patronage people to gather and pick system in his hand, Hasani gave a speech to make up gold. Everyone was chained around their the people believe that their proletariat status is waist in order not to exceed from the area ex- preordained too and they have to work for their master .He ordered that his teachings have to be The bipolarity ascribed to the ambivalent hy- transcribed on the paper and distributed among brid subject is to be found in the process of char- people to give them hope and therefore showing acterization in the story .The author introduces them a bright future in exchange for their labour. His order to tarancribe a written text refers to colonizer and the colonized. According to Homi the cultural hierarchy which is reinforced by Co- Bhabha, the identity of the hybrid is formed in lonial Education System and Colonial Literature the third space of enunciation which is neither Bureau , whose task was to develop certain forms oriental nor occidental. It is of communication, such as written texts in the indigenous and colonial languages newspapers, 108-9) that the two opposite cultural identities journals and various kinds of fiction to encourage the development of a class of colonials willing to participate in colonial modes of social and ar- sembles neither one of the cultural identities. tistic production, Hegemony (colonial studies The influence of the colonizer on the colonized is key concepts, page 39). exerted through educational system and other similar media , but the influence of the colonized

Braille alphabets. The blind people of the city , woul be Zendegi, page3) (The ter tamination by absorption into native life and The above mentioned concept of educational customs: Therefore the colonizer is affected by system in the preceding paragraph and the the colonized).Other than the prescribed texts spread of information through the prescribed ordered by Hasani to be written on the thick pa- and predetermined texts of the colonizer lead to pers to educate the savage people of the country

54 voice and make them accept their inferior status as . His strategy is to forbid any artic- other side of exerting influence that affects the ulati construction of the third space .His eyes are tion with a translator coming from the country blinded because the soil of the occupied land has tor and orders them to get out of his court that was occupied by Hoseini by an act of fraud : says: your majesty, thanks appearance is changed by the new context and for your good will . ideologies of the aborigines: Hoseini interrupts the translator and says them and gradually blinded because of the side speech who is the new king of their land) the way effects of the golden soli, out! Stop these talkative people .tell them to pre- cumulating wealth. Eventually he had to wear a pare my pair of very beautiful artificial Not even his appearance but his attitude un- companies with the resistance of the people. dergoes some significant changes. He starts to take opium and uses Aftabe (a water container) to wash himself which are the features of the ste- der. They even consider His trespassing their reotypical image of the Middle Eastern man. border as an act of crime and put him in prison. These stereotypical features make him the con- Even the pre-colonial society of the native had taminated colonizer who has absorbed the nega- been witnessing the same anti- colonial re- tive features of the aborigines and has gone na- sistance which would be punished by the govern- tive. Enumerating his changed habits the author ing forces. There are some people hanged from a mentions among other things his drug taking tree for the crime of drinking the enlightening habit, using Aftabe to wash himself and above all getting married to a woman every night, which is an act of blasphemy in Christianity, in a Middle origin of truth and happiness . This water has the Eastern Islamic fashion: capacity to enlighten the ignorant people and pipe (Bafoor) show them the way to freedom. made from gold, wash his body with a pitcher Hoseini takes on the role of the imperial op- (Aftabe) and get married to a new woman every night The same pattern of strategic plan is to be seen in the colonial discourse of Hoseini, the second son of the father who dispatched them to the ny exotic land around the world. one of the oppressive rules . The author has a his- is to overcome the resisting force of the native torical review of the genealogy of government people by deceiving them and make them believe from the middle ages to the present time of the that they deserve to lead an unhappy life. He author (Michel Faucault. discipline and punish- took his superior position as a natural blessing ment). The variety of discourses, which are pre- that the native people were deprived of such a vailing in various societies, are being analyzed thing. In his patronizing conversations with the through the description and representation of people, coming forth to pay their due services, he the three nations in the story, Zar Afshun, Mahe

55 Tabun, and Hamishe Bahar. Different form of The final scene of the story , which is the bat- imperialism are being applied to the different so- tlefield scene , represents the context of the col- cieties with the same desire of the colonizer, onized world in which each subject has to review which is making profit. the construction of his identity to assert their in- The influence of the native ideologies on the dependent identity while aswserting the inde- colonizer (going native), which is considered as pendence of their whole nation . This is because, consciousness, the construction of the identity of the colonized is to be observed occasionally in the story. In the is administrated by a colonial authority, and case of Hoseini, the second son of the father, this therefore the colonized has no agency to assert contamination happens when his ears become himself and his voice. The colonizer internalizes deaf. His deaf ears are to be compared with the the ideologies in the identity of the colonized, blind eyes of his big brother. The common ground between the two is that they get these dysfunctions from the soil of the country that ness is depicted in in the final scene of battlefield they have occupied-i.e going native - either by in the form of a water container that the soldiers trickery or by the rubrics of humanity, like the are forced to wear in case that they get thirsty , case of Ahmadak who is the youngest of the three brothers. The influence of the native on the col- of their colonized consciousness . Hasani and onizer agencies contributes to the formation of Hoseini do not let the soldiers drink from the Bhabha, sources of water that are not in line with their the location of the culture) , thus giving birth to oppressive ideologies. The souldiers will face the hybrid consciousness whose ambivalent po- death punishment is they do such thing. No mat- sition unsettles the unstable position of the colonizer . The unsettling scene is the final scene of works are strict, the story in which the subaltern people of the op- life find out their true identities and become pressed countries rise up to articulate their voice independent. by waging a war on the colonial powers. Breaking away from the chains of educa- Ahmadak is the hidden and disguised side of tional system (constructing the consciousnecc of imperialism. Using non military forces to mount the colonized) the oppressed people find their the dominant position without using aggression. way to freedom and rise against injustice and in- He takes the control of the military force of the equalities: occupied country by adopting their lifestyle and The people broke the chains and burnt asserting his purpose as a philanthropic one which is saving the humanity from ignorance and bold oppression exerted by colonial thirst for knowledge and the cross cultural rela- 3. Conclusion tionship between the colonizer and the colonized, triggers the regeneration of the hybrid consciousness in the world of colonized people. the stage on which the formation of colonial Their search for finding the truth leads them to identity is being scrutinized. The educational the land Hamishe Ba- system , missionaries whose job is to propagate Christianity or any religion , Othering the native them the opportunity to assert themselves and people as less than human , internalization of the articulate their voice. colonial ideologies are some of the tools that the

56 colonial discourse opens its way through the col- creating such a bipolar consciousness , which is onized lands .By the time the consciousness of the hybrid consciousness , it is unsettled by the the native people are molded by the colonial very produced consciousness which is the hybrid agendas like the ones mentioned above , the co- agency . This unsettlement happens in the story lonial desire is to be fulfilled in the society whose when the native men refuse to follow the colonial people are prepared to give up their identity . While the native had been free before the colo- ". nial penetration in to their land, like the firs en- The cross-cultural relationship between the counterment of the colonized countries in the colonized and colonizer occurs in the third space story by the three brothers, they would have had of enunciation which is unlike the two polarities no choice after the entrance of the colonial power of the colonizer and colonized; therefore the colin to their lands; therefore the native people are onizer himself is not immune of the bipolar in- not free anymore The key to free the colonized fluence which is pernicious for a colonial dis- mind of the native people is embedded in the co- course. The influence of the native on the con- lonial discourse itself. The colonized consciousness of the dominated subjects tends to be ambivalent since the colonial discourse both nur- space of enunciation and the colonial power has to deal with at the end of the day. The colonial discourse itself is responsible for

References Young, Robert. Colonial desire .Lon- don.routledge.2005 Aschcroft, Bill, et al. Post colonial studies key Said, Edward. Orientalism .New York, Roman concepts .New York: Routledge 2007 House. 1978 Bhabha, Homi. The location of culture. London. Routledge .1994

57 The 16th International TELLSI Conference Futurology of English Language Teaching & Literature November 14th 16th, 2018 (Aban 23rd 25th, 1397) Shiraz, Iran

Effect of Discourse-Based Approach on Teaching Present Continuous Tense to Elementary L2 Learners

Mahmood Hashemian Shahrekord University, Iran email: [email protected] Mahnaz Zamani Shahrekord University, Iran Grammar has continuously held a central position in L2 teaching. Almost all traditional precommunica- tive approaches to L2 teaching highly emphasize L2 forms, whereas discourse-based approach to grammar strongly emphasizes context beyond the sentence level. This study examined the (possible) effect of discourse-based approach on teaching present continuous tense to elementary L2 learners. We selected 60 elementary L2 learners from a language center in Mobarakeh, Iran, based on availability. Two course-books were used: Family and Friends 2 and American English File Starter. A pretest was given to each group and then the experiment was carried out, applying the discourse-based approach for the experimental group and the sentence-based approach for the control group. Finally, we administered a posttest to all the participants. An independent samples t test was run to compare the mean scores between the experimental and control groups on the posttest. Results indicated that there was a signif-

sent continuous tense because of the convenience of this approach. Findings provide implications for introducing, prioritizing, and implementing discourse-based approach in teaching grammar from the early stages of L2 learning to avoid probable errors.

Keywords: discourse-based approach, elementary L2 learners, present continuous tense, sentence-based approach

1. Introduction meaningful nor authentic; thus, they do not model typical communication (Celce-Murcia, The discourse-based approach is a new in- 2007). All L2 learners do not need to be taught sight in the realm of teaching grammar. It has grammar. Children, for instance, do not take ad- been investigated and welcomed in several stud- vantages of formal grammar instruction (Larsen- ies by eminent professors (e.g., Celce-Murcia, Freeman, 2003). When the conventional, sen- 2007; Hughes & McCarthy, 1998). Teaching tence-based rules are not helpful enough for L2 grammar to ESL learners by applying a decontex- learners to make appropriate choices in order to tualized sentence-level system of drills is neither get their messages across in the way native speakers do and when choice is only explicable in it is necessary for L2 learners to work at dis- the context (e.g., a conversation or a story), L2 course level from the start point because they teachers of grammar move from sentence to dis- need it for creating meaningful communicative course (Hughes & McCarthy, 1998). discourse. One of the key tenets of a discourse-based approach is that any single set of linguistic fea- 2. Statement of the problem tures will not be appropriate for all L2 learners (Celce-Murcia & Larsen-Freeman, 1999). Accord- Hughes and McCarthy (1998) believed that ing to Harmer (1991), teaching English grammar the rules and paradigms that are sustained by in context will provide an opportunity for L2 traditional grammar do not always match reality. learners to understand how language works and Therefore, L2 learners who have carefully assim- this understanding will improve their communi- ilated them may be confused by authentic language use, so a need is called for using another ing English grammar is to clarify the meaning approach, named the discourse-based approach. and application of language for L2 learners. Considering the issue of teaching English tenses, In teaching grammar, context and discourse in general, and teaching present continuous should be included. A sentence can be perceived tense, in particular, one can argue that the most in two distinct ways if it is understood in isola- frequent challenge with teaching present contin- tion or concerned with contextual and pragmatic uous tense is that L2 learner use this tense with factors. Thus, discoursal knowledge, alongside all verbs including stative verbs. Another issue with grammatical and lexical knowledge, is no- regarding this tense is that L2 learners uninten- ticeably important (Askeland, 2013). tionally omit the to be verb from this structure in According to Askeland (2013), discourse- their uses; therefore, the present study was set based approaches to language teaching would fo- out to investigate the (possible) effect of the dis- cus on grammatical forms, the meaning, and use course-based approach, rather than the sen- of the forms in context. Accordingly, these ap- tence-based approach in teaching the present proaches to grammar teaching are linked to prag- continuous tense to elementary L2 learners. To matics. A wide variety of grammatical items and achieve this, two research questions were rules are unexplainable without reference to con- formed: text because they are context-dependent. Conse-  Does the discourse-based approach have a context-embedded discourse rather than significant effect on learning present con- through abstract, context- - tinuous tense by Iranian elementary L2 Murcia, 2002, p. 122). learners? Tense, as a grammatical category, is a combi-  Is there a significant difference between the nation of grammatical form and meaning (De- discourse-based and sentence based ap- clerck, 2006), and present continuous tense re- proaches in learning present continuous fers to the present time and is used to describe tense by Iranian elementary L2 learners? the actions that are happening in the present time. The incorporation of discourse infor- Based on the above research questions two mation to teaching tenses can be helpful in un- null hypothesis were formulated: derstanding the meaning of tenses and their use in making cohesive texts (Celce-Murcia, 2007).  H01: The discourse-based approach does not According to Haccius (2007), in teaching tenses, have a significant effect on learning present continuous tense by Iranian elementary L2

59 learners. a story at the beginning of the unit by using a  H02: There is no significant difference be- software named Oxford iTools (a multimedia). In tween the discourse-based and sentence- the second session, the song, and in the third ses- based approaches in learning present con- sion, the reading were taught. There was a work- tinuous tense by Iranian elementary L2 book alongside with the book, so every session learners. the related exercises were done as the homework and were checked in the class. The same parts 3. Method were taught to the control group using the traditional approach. After finishing the teaching pro- 3.1. Participants cess, the teacher-made posttest was administered to both groups and the results were as- For the present study, 30 elementary teen- sessed. agers, aged 9-13, and 30 elementary adults, aged The adults were treated three sessions every 19-23, from Sobhan Language Center (Mo- two days. A conversation and a reading text were barakeh, Iran) were selected because of the avail- taught to them in two sessions. The third session ability. All the participants were in the same ele- was devoted to more pair-and-group works, prac- mentary level, so the groups were homogenous. ticing the target tense through making parallel dialogues and describing some pictures (pre- 3.2. Instruments pared by the teacher in a power point). The participants did some exercises in their workbook To achieve the target aims of the study, the and also composed a writing, using the new grammar point. Afterwards, the posttest was ad- Family and Friends 2 (Simmons, 2010) and an ministered to both groups in order to check the American English File results. Starter (Boyle, Latham-Koenig, & Clive Oxenden, 3.4. Data Analysis knowledge on the supposed issue, a teacher- made pretest was administered using Sobhan In order to answer the research questions, a number of descriptive and inferential statistics teacher-made test from the same question bank were used. To investigate the first research ques- was organized as the posttest to assess the re- tion, after collecting the data for both groups, an sults of teaching through the discourse-based ap- independent samples t test was run to compare proach in teaching the present continuous tense the mean scores between the experimental and to the experimental groups and the traditional control groups on the posttest using the Statisti- sentence-based approach to the control groups. cal Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS, version 23). It was run to examine the (possible) signifi- 3.3. Procedure cant effect of discourse-based approach on learning present continuous tense by elementary EFL After choosing the participants from Sobhan learners. To answer the second research question Language Center in Mobarakeh and assigning one way ANCOVA was run to examine whether them to two groups of 30, a pretest was adminis- there is a significant difference between the dis- tered for both teenagers and adults and then the course-and-sentence based approaches in learn- teaching process started. For the teenagers, three ing present continuous tense by elementary L2 sessions were considered every two days: For the learners. first session, one of the researchers started with

60 3.5. Addressing the First Research Question an independent samples t test was conducted to assess the The first research question was intended to achievement on the posttest. As Table 1 shows, find out the effect of discourse-based approach on learning present continuous tense by Iranian 15.06, and this value for the experimental group elementary L2 learners. To answer this question, was 12.53:

Table 1. Group N Mean Std. De- viation Con T 15 15.06 3.21

EXP T 15 12.53 3.26

These values imply that young teenagers, Table 2 depicts the Sig. value of these two groups who were treated through discourse-based ap- which is less than .05 (Sig. = .041), so the mean proach, did poorly on their posttest in experimental group but better results were acquired in significantly different: control group applying sentence-based approach.

Table 2. t Test for equality of Means Test of Equality of Variances Posttest F Sig. t df Sig. (2- Mean Std. Error 95% Confidence In- tailed) Differ- Difference terval of the Differ- ence ence Lower Upper Equal .017 .897 2.14 28 .041 2.53 1.183 .108 4.957 Variances Assumed

Equal 2.14 27.9 .041 2.53 1.183 .108 4.957 Variances Not As- sumed

control and experimental groups equals 16.33 presented in Table 3. It shows that this value for and 14.86, respectively:

Table 3. Adults Group N Mean Std. Deviation

Con A 15 16.33 3.28 EXP A 15 14.86 4.05

Regarding the results presented in Table 3 it posttest while the control group showed better is concluded that adults, the same as young teen- results. agers, in experimental group did poorly on their

Table 4. t test for equality of means t Test for equality of Means of Equality of Variances Posttest F Sig. t df Sig. (2- Mean Dif- Std. Error 95% Confidence tailed) ference Difference Interval of the Dif- ference Lower Upper Equal 1.2 .275 1.087 28 .286 1.466 1.348 -1.29 4.22 Variances Assumed

Equal 1.087 26.8 .287 1.466 1.348 -1.30 4.23 Variances Not As- sumed

Table 4 indicates that the Sig. value of the have a significant effect on learning present con- which tinuous tense by Iranian elementary L2 learners. is greater than .05 (Sig. > .05). Consequently, it is Thus the first null hypothesis is accepted. perceived that discourse based approach did not

3.6. Addressing the second research questions represented in Table 5 displays the Sig. value for both approaches which is less than .05 (Sig. = The second research question claims that .015). Thus, regarding the results, it is concluded both discourse-and sentence-based approaches that discourse- and sentence-based approaches are the same in learning present continuous are different in learning present continuous tense by Iranian elementary L2 learners. How- tense by Iranian elementary L2 learners. Conse- ever, the ANCOVA results obtained from the quently, based on the results, the second null hy- analysis of data contradict this claim. The results pothesis is rejected:

Table 5. Tests of between-subjects effects for both discourse-and sentence-based approaches Type III Sum of Mean Partial Eta Source Squares df Square F Sig. Squared

62 Corrected 508.765a 4 127.191 24.954 .000 .645 Model Intercept 1355.041 1 1355.041 265.851 .000 .829 pretest 395.898 1 395.898 77.673 .000 .585 groups 58.309 3 19.436 3.813 .015 .172 Error 280.335 55 5.097 Total 13754.500 60 Corrected To- 789.100 59 tal

4. Discussion The present study was concerned with the teaching and learning of present continuous The current study sought to investigate the tense with respect to two different approaches. possible effects of discourse-based approach in The researcher noticed some challenges related learning present continuous tense by Iranian el- to this tense among elementary L2 learners in ementary L2 learners. To recap, the findings im- two age groups. The most prevalent challenge plied that the participants in both age groups, with this tense was the matter of statives. One of who were treated through sentence-based ap- the errors they commonly made was using the proach, revealed better results. state verbs with continuous form (e.g., I am loving The effectiveness of the traditional approach my mom). Another challenge was the omission of was partly due to its convenience. As the teenage to be verb (e.g., she watching TV). Last but not participants themselves stated, they were used to least challenge was the use of present continuous the traditional context-free approach and found to talk about daily habits. As these errors are re- it easier to understand the English grammar lated to the use and meaning of this structure, rules. Their course book also offered a separate thus the application of discourse-based approach part to the traditional instruction of grammar and more discourse-oriented practices are rec- rules which made the participants expect the ommended. teacher to follow the rules of the book. However, the rules were first included in the contexts ap- 5. Conclusion peared before the grammar part, but the L2 learners were not aware of that and expected Grammar points can be taught through two each part to be taught separately. distinctive approaches: sentence-based (tradi- Although the assessment of the obtained tional) and discourse-based, each of which has its data revealed the failure of the discourse-based own benefits and drawbacks. The sentence-based approach in both age groups, it does not mean approach is the most prevalent approach in that the L2 teachers should stick to the context- teaching grammar to Iranian L2 learners. It is a free traditional approaches in teaching grammar. useful approach for analytic L2 learners and also By contrast, they should manage their teaching adult L2 learners who benefit from explicit lan- process in a way that pay more attention to guage teaching. teaching in context. Providing L2 learners with By emerging a new trend, the discourse- grammatical structures in context will help them based approach, in teaching grammar and re- to master L2 better and consequently they can garding some failure of traditional approaches in apply grammatical conventions more efficiently term of ignoring the correct application of learnt in their communications (Mart, 2013).

63 grammar points by L2 learners, the present researcher set to investigate the probable effect of course. Boston: Heinle & Heinle. the discourse-based approach in teaching pre- Celce-Murcia, M. (2002). Why it makes sense to sent continuous tense to the Iranian elementary teach grammar in context and through dis- L2 learners. The results indicated the ineffective- course. In E. Hinkel & S. Fotos (Eds.), New ness of this approach in teaching present contin- perspectives on grammar teaching in second uous tense to both teenager and adults L2 learn- language classrooms (p. 119-133). New ers of the present study. This approach can be ef- York: Routledge. fective provided that it is applied from early Celce-Murcia, M. (2007). Towards more context stages of learning an L2 before L2 learners are ac- and discourse in grammar instruction. customed to the traditional sentence-based ap- TESL-EJ, 11(2), 1-6. proaches. Declerck, R. (2006). The grammar of English tense Applying both approaches in teaching the system: A comprehensive analysis. Berlin: present continuous tense to the Iranian elemen- University of Leuven. tary L2 learners revealed that the teenagers could Haccius, M. (2007). The use of frameworks in better understand and apply this tense both in teaching tenses. MA TESOL collection. Re- their written and spoken communications trieved September 19, 2017, from the through sentence-based approach, but for the el- World Wide Web: http://digitalcollec- ementary adults both approaches were the same, tions.sit.edu/ipp_collection/7 thus applying the discourse-based approach is Harmer, J. (2007). The practice of English language suggested for adult L2 learners because it focuses teacher (4th ed.). Harlow: Longman. not only on form but also on meaning and use of Hughes, R., & McCarthy, M. (1998). From sen- an L2. tence to discourse: Discourse grammar and English language teaching. TESOL Quar- References terly, 32(2), 263-287. Larsen-Freeman, D. (2003). Teaching language: Askeland, E. (2013). Grammar teaching in the EFL From grammar to grammaring. Boston: classroom: An analysis of grammar tasks in Thomson/Heinle ELT. three textbooks. Mart, C. T. (2013). Teaching grammar in context: sis, University of Bergen, Norway. Why and how? Theory and Practice in Lan- Boyle, M., Latham-Koenig, C., & Oxenden, C. guage Studies, 3(1), 124-129. (2013). American English file starter (2nd Simmons, N. (2010). Family and friends 2. Oxford ed.). Oxford University Press. University Press. Celce-Murcia, M. & Larsen-freeman, D. (1999).

64 The 16th International TELLSI Conference Futurology of English Language Teaching & Literature November 14th 16th, 2018 (Aban 23rd 25th, 1397) Shiraz, Iran

The Dialogic Mind: Bridging the Gap between Mind and Body

Maryam Heidari Vincheh Shahrekord University, Iran email: [email protected] Azizullah Mirzaei Shahrekord University, Iran

Perhaps the most popular and controversial issue in the philosophy of mind is the mind-body problem that dates back at least to Plato and Aristotle. This philosophical paper aims to explore the various standard positions on the mind-body problem and discern the philosophical assumptions of the framework of the debate within which monist and dualist doctrines made an attempt to answer this problem. How- referred to as the use of language to mediate complex cognitive acts of thinking in learning processes, and in an attempt to argue why none of these doctrines are able to put an end to such a debated issue, the dialogic mind is propounded as an alternative theoretical and explanatory solution to the problem. The dialogical mind, having its roots in the works of scholars such as Wittgenstein, Bakhtin, Vygotsky, and Swain seeks to put some flesh on the idea that the process of thinking involves a conversation with oneself. Specifically, balancing the relationship between the mind and the body, the dialogic mind provides a bridge between the body and the mind, believing in the unity of these two realms by the mediating power of language. In fact, it is argued that the dialogical mind is a powerful theoretical basis to comprehend and understand complex issues.

Keywords: mind-body problem, dialogue, languaging, dialogic mind

1. Introduction substance or state in the universe, physical or mental. The mind-body problem is the philosophical Conversely, in dualism, one believes that problem concerning the relationship between mind and body are equally essential aspects of the mental realm and the physical realm. The reality. Dualism holds that both mental and mind-body problem is difficult to be approached physical substances are possible. The mind body- problem is the problem of understanding what school. A variety of approaches have been the relationship is between mind and body. proposed most of which are either monist or There are many philosophical positions dualist. Monism refers to any doctrine which associated with this problem. However, none of believes in the existence of only one kind of these positions have been able to resolve the problem. To address this gap and how it can be Swain and Lapkin (1995). Investigating the role closed, this paper aims to approach the mind- of output from a Vygotskian perspective, Swain body problem through the theoretical lens of the (2000), called for the replacement of the term dialogic mind. output with a different term that perfectly

2. Literature review the term languaging was introduced to shift the concentration from the final output to processes The traditional doctrines of language, involved in the production of output. The monist monism and dualism, were found to be built on a and dualist doctrines of language failed to false basis. The notion of language games succeed in solving the mind-body mainly because (Wittgenstein, 1958) contributed to the mind- they did not seek to address how language body problem by maintaining that language is operates in thinking activities. To overcome such jointly connected with the nonlinguistic an issue, the dialogic mind is introduced here as behavior that embraces it. Moreover, based on a theoretical and an explanatory framework to this problem. The dialogic mind, as the language represents a vital tool for human cognitive growth because it emerges from engagement in social activities and later becomes internalized. These activities are mediated by mind. semiotic tools. On the b Additionally, dialogue, originally referred to theories, the dialogic mind allows the interaction as the exchange of messages between two, or between interpersonal and intrapersonal planes, more, sense‐making organisms, emerged, first, leading to the union of language performance in Plato s dialogues. After a long period of time, and competence. Within this framework, the the concept of dialogue was reborn in the 20th functions of the brain come under the control of century in the writing of Bakhtin (1981) where the person through the culturally rooted he believed that dialogue was used in a more mediation of artefacts, both physical and comprehensive and semiotically manifested symbolic. In fact, the dialogic mind balances the perspective on reality called dialogism. relationship between mind and body by putting emphasis on dialectic interactions that converts 3. Methodology social processes into internal processes.

This paper is a philosophical inquiry within 5. Conclusion which a dialogic framework is provided as an explanatory framework to the mind-body It was first argued that the mind-body prob- problem. In fact, the mind-body problem is lem has historically been trapped in a web of approached from a philosophical perspective, many philosophical doctrines. According to Witt- specifically, through the theoretical lens of the genstein, none of these doctrines can do justice dialogic mind. to the relationship between mental entities as ontological complexes and the physical. It was 4. Argument and discussion then maintained that the complex mind should be studied in a dialogic framework. It was in such The desire to focus more on processes that a paradigm that the dialogic mind was intro- are involved in negotiating meaningful output in duced and elucidated. The dialogic mind, having language learning was initially proposed by

66 its roots in the works of scholars, such as Witt- Wittgenstein, Ludwig. (1958). Philosophical in- genstein, Bakhtin, and Vygotsky, balances the re- vestigations. Oxford: Blackwell. lationship between mind and body by providing Swain, M. (2000). The output hypothesis and be- a bridge between them, believing in the unity of yond: Mediating acquisition through col- these two by the mediating power of language. laborative dialogue. In J. P. Lantolf (Ed.), Sociocultural theory and second language References learning (pp. 97-114). Oxford: Oxford Uni- versity Press. Bakhtin, M. (1981). The dialogic imagination. Aus- Swain, M., & Lapkin, S. (1995) Problems in out- tin: University of Texas Press. put and the cognitive processes they gener- Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society: The develop- ate: A step towards second language learn- ment of higher psychological processes. Cam- ing. Applied Linguistics, 16, 371-391. bridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

67 The 16th International TELLSI Conference Futurology of English Language Teaching & Literature November 14th 16th, 2018 (Aban 23rd 25th, 1397) Shiraz, Iran

in Days and Nights of Yusof through Carl Jung's Psychoanalytic Theories

Ronak Karami Islamic Azad University of Science and Research, Tehran, Iran email: [email protected] This essay analyzes a modern Persian fiction, Days and Nights of Yusof, as an example of a youngster who is entering his adulthood in a male-centered society, Iran. It illustrates how the writer of the fiction, Mahmoud Dowlatabadi, displays a boy's tensions due to the society's expectations as he is passing through his pubescence. To do so, the essay introduces Mahmoud Dowlatabadi and his style of writing in Days and Nights of Yusof; then it describes Carl Jung's psychoanalytic theories that have been used as a method to analyze the fiction. Afterward, it goes through the novel and displays the story's relevance to the method in order to answer the central question that is posed in the paper. With a summary of the fiction, the essay analyzes the protagonist's name and its relation to the main argument of the article. Thereupon it displays his relationship with his family which happens to be patriarchal, and it portrays the way he deals with the masculinity that tries to overcome him. While numerous critics have discussed Mahmoud Dowlatabadi's style of writing in this fiction, few have discussed the protagonist's central conflict: escaping from the masculine characteristics that the male-centered society expects a man to possess. Thus, this essay displays a different kind of domination in a male-centered society and the destructive consequences of it that affect both women and men's lives.

Keywords: Mahmoud Dowlatabadi, Days and Nights of Yusof, shadow, anima, and animus, masculinity

1. Introduction individual shapes her/his gender due to the soci-

1.1 Mahmoud Dowlatabadi and his short story, Whereof, both the culture and civilization are Days and Nights of Yusof male-dominated, people are being valued based on masculine provisions. However, there is a Carl Gustav Jung was a well-known psychia- feminine part in a male psyche and a masculine trist-mostly for his theories about the archetypes part in a female's psyche, which requires the in- and the collective unconscious- during the 20th 2017, 12-15). Individuals better to keep a balance between termined, one builds her/his gender the way the their gender that they fix out of their biological society expects (Banisadr, 2017, 12). That is, an sex and the other feminine or masculine part of the psyche (Banisadr, 2017, 12-15). As far as one suppresses the other masculine or feminine part The story of Days and Nights of Yusof begins of the psyche, her/ his future behaviors would be with describing a shadow that seems familiar to under the influence of those desires that have been repressed in these parts of the mind (Ban- 2(Dowlatabadi, 2004, 11) who follows isadr, 2017, 12-15). Additionally, Jung claims Yusof all the time. Apparently, most of the story that the world is coming to its annihilation since the patriarchal society is ignoring the feminine Habibi, 2016, 16) and even the other characters part (Banisadr, 2017, 12-15). In a sense that, in the fiction are depicted to the reader through once an adolescent is passing through the pubes- his view. Additionally, the reader deals with two cence, he is crossing over his feminine part as different kinds of narrative style: the third per- well because of the male- son omniscient point of view and the stream of mands (Banisadr, 2017, 15). This essay analyzes consciousness (Hashemian & Habibi, 2016, 16). a modern Persian fiction, Days and Nights of Yusof The story goes around a circular narrative to rep- (Rouz va Shab-e Yusof) by Dowlatabadi, as an example of a youngster who is entering his adult- the shadow (Hashemian & Habibi, 2016, 19). He hood in a male-centered society, Iran. The paper tries to get refuge to a place where he can feel safe illustrates how the writer of the fiction, which at first, seems to be his father Mahmou wishes to talk to (Hashemian & Habibi, 2016, through his pubescence. To do so, the essay in- 19). troduces Mahmoud Dowlatabadi and his style of writing in Days and Nights of Yusof; then it de- 1.2. Carl Gustav Jung and his psychoanalytic theo- scribes Carl Jung's theories that have been used ries (Collective unconscious, Archetypes, Persona, as a method to analyze the fiction. Afterward, it Shadow, Anima, Animus) goes through the novel and displays the story's relevance to the method to answer the central Carl Gustav Jung, the founder of analytic question that has been posed in the paper. psychology, was a psychoanalyst and psychiatric Mahmoud Dowlatabadi is one of the most who was born in a Protestant family in Swiss. He celebrated modern Iranian writers alive, known cooperated with Sigmund Freud for five years; for his 10-book saga, Kleidar (Hashemian & however, their cooperation ended because of Habibi, 2016, 7). He was from an impoverished Freud's prejudice in his profession (Sharon, 2010, 144). Jung developed his theories from shaped the ideas for his later works as they are mostly about the working class society (Hashe- can be considered the most important ones. He mian & Habibi, 2016, 7). Dowlatabadi proved to believed that the human unconscious consists of be a promising writer, after publishing two of his two parts: the personal unconscious and the col- masterpieces: Kleidar and Missing Soluch (1979). lective unconscious (Banisadr, 2017, 16). Jung His other notable works are The Colonel (2009), introduced the personal unconscious as a part, Passed Days of Aged People (1990), and Day and which concerns the experiences of an individual Night of Yusof (Banisadr, 2017, 16). It contains memories that lution of Persian novel is undeniable for his lan- have been forgotten, painful incidents that have guage, high moral values and deep meanings been suppressed, and those aspects of one's char- (Hassanpur, 2007, 140).

2 Translated by the author

69 acteristics that have been considered as unac- As it was mentioned earlier, this paper aims ceptable. On the other hand, the collective un- at answering how the writer represents a male conscious is defined as the deeper part of an in- nsions while he is passing through his adolescence in a male-centered society, man beings (Banisadr, 2017, 17). In addition, the archetypes are those common patterns among do so, first, the essay gives a summary of the fic- human beings that exist in the collective unconscious. In other words, the archetypes happen to and its relation to the central argument of the pa- be those patterns that human beings have lived per. Afterward, it goes through the story, dis- based on them thousands of years, which have been inherited from generation to generation ship with his family which seems to be male- through the collective unconscious (Banisadr, dominated, his Anima and the way he deals with 2017, 9). Two other concepts in Carl Jung's psy- the masculinity that tries to overcome him. choanalytic theories that Days and Nights of Yusof While numerous critics have discussed are going to be discussed through them in this shadow includes those desires and memories, conflict: escaping from the masculine characteristics that the male-centered society requires. reach. That is, it consists of all characteristics fea- Henceforth, analyzing Days and Nights of Yusof tures that are regarded as unacceptable in the so- through Jung's psychoanalytic theories is some- ciety (Banisadr, 2017, 10). On the other hand, thing more than just an effort to illustrate the de- the persona is defined as a mask that an individ- structive consequences of the patriarchal society, ual uses to conform to the society's values and to which affect not only the subordinate women but make a distance from the unacceptable desires in the shadow. It represents the identity that human beings create in order to have a pleasant 2. Getting through the story: the shadow, personality (Banisadr, 2017, 11). persona, and Anima of Yusof

Days and Nights of Yusof is the story of an ad- mind. Anima is the archetypal feminine picture olescent, Yusof, who is from the lower class soci- Animus is the archetypal ety and feels threatened most of the times by a Ban- shadow. The story begins with describing the isadr, 2017, 12). Accordingly, Jung believed that shadow: "A shadow was following him. The same humans are essentially androgyny (Banisadr, old shadow. He lost his own shadow on the wall, 2017, but it showed up again." (Dowlatabadi, 2004, 11). sex is being determined, the gender is being Apparently, the protagonist is struggling to flee s from the shadow whom he disgusts. Meanwhile, the other part of the psyche that is related to An- Yusof starts to understand the male-centered so- ima for men or Animus for women stays in the shadow. Furthermore, the suppressed Anima or ity. He lives with his parents and his sister who is one year older than him. During the days, the ture desires and develops a significant emotional protagonist attends literature classes and during load, which leaves a powerful impression on the the nights, he prefers to sleep on the rooftop while thinking about his neighbors whom he can trol (Banisadr, 2017, 12-13). watch up on the roof. The reader gets to know

70 an agreement. Except for those times that she only through his descriptions. Near the end, the shadow overcomes Yusof and turns him into a are about Yusof typical young man in the society. Further, the more than anybody else in the family; however, Yusof does not feel intimate with her, just as he der to refuge to the unknown man's house whom does not feel intimate with any member of his he never met personally but wishes to be inti- family. He does not seem to like her sister since mate with since he thinks they have so much in she does not take his orders (Dowlatabadi, 2004, common. 39). Additionally, he wishes to dominate her the According to the holy book of Muslims, way other men dominate women so that he can Quran, Yusof was the youngest son of Jakob, who was left in a well far away from the village by his brothers since they were jealous of him. The name represents both being lost or being sad. In (Dowlatabadi, 2004, 39). Days and Nights of Yusof, the reader gets to know The protagonist claims that there is a a male protagonist who does not feel safe and shadow following him everywhere. According to seems to be lost in his life. He does not seem Carl Jung's theories, a shadow includes an indi- happy while dealing with a shadow whom he dis- Whatever tion, the shadow can represent the masculinity that wants to dominate Yusof and separate him t. Like a from his Anima. bouffant cow, his belly must be swollen, like the he must have been working a all those long, thick same shadow, he seemed huge. What- hair that is coming out of his nostrils. abadi, 2004, 11-12). Seemingly, the protagonist mind. Something like a night hag. His cannot realize what is right and what is wrong. figure was as enormous as two natural He wants to be a part of the society by suppress- human body. Yusof felt that he must ing his Anima or feminine half (Banisadr, 2017, be tremendous boned and plump. 23). swollen. Like the belly of a cow. Cer- intr tainly, His shirt, the part of his shirt gaze. The father-the head of the family- seems to that covers the slope of his belly, must work during the nights and sleep during the days. Moreover, his relationship with other members Ragged. The thin ragged belt must be of the family, including Yusof, does not seem on his bellybutton and split his swol- very intimate (Dowlatabadi, 2004, 23-24). len belly in half. He must be wearing a loose top. A top which its sleeves are longer than the hand. Fat hands with nights, either while he was resting or while he

They must have been used for a long protagonis time and the handkerchief wrapped around his hand and wrist, how filthy as an agreement. She always shakes her head as would it be? Nose water and spit, filth

71 of sweat and fat. Yusof did not under- if she must be filthy and greasy. Why did he feel that his shoulder must be like -42). In addition, the leather because of sweat and filth? In protagonist assumes that Fakhri might be a whore who has numerous lovers (Dowlatabadi, these clothes for a long time. Loose 2004, 42). Fakhri can resemble the Anima whom and worn out clothes. Shabby and the young protagonist is not ready to confront yet. As a result, he names his feminine part a long, thick hair that is coming out of whore (Banisadr, 2017, 110). As far as Yusof is his nostrils. Old hair, black and white. running away from the shadow or the masculin- His upper lip must be wide. His mus- ity, his soul is mourning for his Anima or the feminine part, which he has to suppress in order yellow because of his breathing and (Banisadr, 2017, 22). According to Robert John- head. As if it has never been son, whereof a man is destroying his feminine washed...his teeth must be yellow and side, he is eradicating his emotions (Banisadr, , 11-13). 2017, 38). Thus, this can be a reason why Yusof is not interested in literature classes anymore Tracing this down, the reader finds out that one of his neighbors, the way he portrays the shadow (Dowlatabadi, 2004, 43). Accordingly, abadi, 2004, 74). Near the end, Yusof decides to buy a knife so characteristics so that he can be a part of the pa- that he can kill the shadow. However, the shadow triarchal society. As other modern pieces of liter- happens to be stronger than Yusof and beheads ature, Days and Nights of Yusof circles around the him with the same knife (Dowlatabadi, 2004, 67- alienation of men (Banisadr, 2017, 35). The shadow is the awkward masculinity that intends to overcome the protagonist and not to be united with him. His appearance is the exaggerated parently, the shadow or the masculinity over- form of a man, which seems indisposing to comes Yusof by metaphorically beheading him Yusof. On the other hand, he wishes to wear a ment. After the incident, Yusof gets home while ideal picture of a man. He is not mature enough acting differently with his family. He starts to to unite both his masculine and feminine sides. stand against his father and his sister. Then he Hence, instead of understanding what masculinity means, he starts to act like a man in order to that he would be relieved from the thoughts of prove himself to those people around him. Fakhri at nights. At this point, the unknown man As the protagonist is getting ready to sleep might resemble all those men who are the victim on the rooftop, he thinks about his neighbors of the male- whom he can observe up there. Evidently, there is a woman on the next roof, Fakhri, who makes wished to get rid of his thoughts of Fakhri and love to her husband the way Yusof can watch. the gloomy space in his house. He wanted to Yusof claims that Fakhri is performing sex this

72 knock on the door of the unknown man and say sona, and shadow, his relationship with his fam- hi." (Dowlatabadi, 2004, 77). ily which seems to be under male supremacy, his Anima and the way he deals with the masculinity 3. Conclusion that is chasing him all the time. Seemingly, horically This essay aims at breaking down the short in the end, represents the masculinity that wants story Days and Nights of Yusof through Carl to dominate Yusof and separate him from his An- written by Mahmoud Dowlatabadi; one of the fears. Henceforth, the protagonist wishes to most celebrated modern Iranian writers alive. wear a mask (a persona) and pretend to be the Days and Nights of Yusof circles around the male deal picture of a man. While he is running away from the shadow or the masculinity, an invidious shadow that seems to be chasing his soul is mourning for his Anima or his femi- him. Apparently, the shadow is familiar to the nine part. Moreover, the unknown man, whom male protagonist, Yusof, and follows him every- the protagonist assumes that has so much in where he goes. Whereof Dowlatabadi uses the common with, might resemble all those men that stream of consciousness, most of the story are the victim of the male-centered society. To sum up, analyzing Days and Nights of Yusof characters in the fiction are represented to the through Jung's psychoanalytic theories is some- reader through his view. Additionally, the pro- thing more than just an effort to illustrate the de- tagonist's name, which according to the Quran, structive consequences of the patriarchal society, represents the name of the youngest son of which affect not only the subordinate women but

Dealing with the shadow whom he disgusts so much, Yusof seems lost and insecure. He tries to References get refuge in a place where he can feel safe which Banisadr, Touraj, trans. He: understanding masculine psychology. By Robert A Johnson. Although numerous critics have discussed Tehran: Liusa, 2017. Days Dowlatabadi, Mahmoud. Days and Nights of and Nights of Yusof, few discussed the protago- Yusof. Tehran: Negah, 2004.

Since Days and Nights of Yusof has been ana- Narrative Language in Three Works of lyzed through Carl Gustav Jung's psychoanalytic theories, this paper prepares a brief introduction search in Persian Language and Literature to some essential notions such as the collective 8.14 (2007): 140-160. unconscious, archetypes, shadow, persona, An- Hashemian, Leila, and Farhad Habibi. Stream of Consciousness in Soluok and Days and tensions while he is turning his adulthood in a Nights of Yusof by Mahmoud Dowlata- male-centered society. To do so, first, the essay badi. Contemporary Persian Literature Con- prepares a summary of the fiction, then, it ana- ference, Iranshahr, February 2017. Pub- lished Conference Paper. CIVILICA, 2018. the central argument in the paper. Afterward, it Binary goes through t

73 Research in Persian Language & Literature. 22 (2011): 199-221. Moshtagh Mehr, Rahman, and Saied Karimi. Research in Persian Language & Litera- ture. 24 (2012): 125-141.

2.8 (2009): 73-110. against women in Mahmoud Dowlata- Sharon, Heller. Freud A to Z. Trans. Mojtaba Pordel. Mashhad: Taraneh, 2010. and Politics 7.1 (2009): 67-86.

74 The 16th International TELLSI Conference Futurology of English Language Teaching & Literature November 14th 16th, 2018 (Aban 23rd 25th, 1397) Shiraz, Iran

Epistemological Turns in Science: Anti-Cartesian Manifestations in Woman on the Edge of Time

Vafa Keshavarzi Safir Language Academy email: [email protected] Susan Bordo observes that in the seventeenth century, under the influence of the French philosopher and scientist Rene Descartes, science undergoes a process of masculinization. The process finds its ulti- mate manifestation in modernism and its globalization claims. Sandra Harding, an American philosopher of science, calls for an anti-Cartesian standpoint in science so as to overcome the shortcomings of objectivity in the received view of science. She contends that claims of neutrality in science have made an obstacle in the way of conception of objectivity and the phenomenon has reversely obstructed the science way forward. In her book The Science Question in Feminism (1986), Harding appreciates Marge tu jectivity in science. Their literary works depict the biases of the gendered science and consequently de- flate the concept of neutrality. In this paper, I trace the biased notions of science in the mentioned two literary works, applying Bordo and Harding's ideas regarding epistemological standpoint.

Keywords: gendered science, female epistemology, objectivity, standpoint in science

1. Introduction The "strong objectivity" program" Harding defines, "Draws on feminist standpoint In her book Sciences From Below Harding epistemology to provide a kind of logic of calls for a research that begins from the discovery for maximizing our ability to block perspective of the marginalized. Since the "might makes right" in the sciences" ("Strong marginalized due to their social position have Objectivity" 321). This science entails "methods developed an outlook that is more aware of the to locate the practices of power that appear only situatedness. Standpoint Theory in science that in the apparently abstract, value-neutral is a concern of feminists is based on three conceptual frameworks favored by dominant precepts 1. Science is situated in the society. 2. social institutions and the disciplines that service Social relations are hierarchical and it is only the them"(Sciences From Below 121). matter of degree that distinguishes societies from one another. 3. Every research should begin 2. Stand Point Theory and the Literary from the perspective of the marginalized (121). Works Good science is the product of strong objectivity. According to the mentioned principles, the scientist whose loyalty is to an abstract con- Woman on the Edge of Time and Yellow Wallpaper cept and is unaware of his preconceptions and are crammed with examples of weak objectivity yet claims neutrality, is highlighted. Harding ob- as the result of biased or bad science. serves that when women as knowers were ex- In Woman on the Edge of Time, Connie, a 37 posed to the scientific framework, it was soon year old Mexican American who lives in New discovered "how partial and distorted" the sci- York City in 1970s, is hospitalized in Bellevue ence is (Whose Science? Whose Knowledge? 22). mental hospital and to cope with the mental This partial science necessitates a call for an epis- pressure of her present condition, her mind cre- temological change to adopt the marginalized ates an alternative utopian society called Matta- state and see things from below. poisett in the year 2137. The custody of her To highlight the issues in her present soci- daughter is taken away from Connie and she is ety, Piercy makes a parallel between the two sterilized against her will. From the very begin- worlds. In a conversation between Bee and Con- ning of the novel, the biased science manifests it- nie, Bee who belongs to the future emphasizes self in the way that the other's needs and feelings the importance of committed science, saying: are simply ignored. Scientists in this novel, treat the patients with indifference. Their cold blasé brought up through a course of study entered on attitude towards women which disguises itself early never to ask consequences, never to con- under the mask of neutrality is in fact very gen- sider a broad range of effects, never to ask on der-oriented. Connie and her fellow female patients have no way out. In the above part, Bee is asking exactly the She was lying in bed with the doctor going fundamental question that is the main concern rounds and cracking jokes for the amusement of of Harding in her book Whose Science? Whose his residents over the bodies of the women pa- Knowledge? Harding emphasizes that tients, mostly black and Puerto Rican, whom unconscious "biases enter the research process some female troubles had cast up on this hard particularly at the stage when scientific problems white beach, this glaring sterile reef. They were are being identified and defined"(111). handed releases to sign, carefully vague so that In contrast to the scientists in Connie's soci- the residents could get practice in the operations they needed (157). pline, a sense of wholeness. Something ancient. Black women are brought to this "hard white They are often part-time hunters or gatherers, beach" of sterile life and they are given some part time shamans, part-time sci vague releases to sign, vague so that the residents 274). The holistic view that they share towards of the hospital can use them as guinea pigs and the world is the same epistemology that Harding "practice in the operations they needed" (ibid). and other feminists advocate. Feminist stand- Inez, Connie's younger sister is also mal- point in science can "empower an oppressed treated by the doctors. When she goes to the doc- group" and to reach such an ideal, there is a need tor to take pills so as to avoid the birth of her sev- for the politics to work hand in hand with science enth child, the doctor gives her sugar pills in- since "it takes both science and politics to see the stead and consequently she becomes "heavy with world "behind," "beneath," or "from outside" the her seventh child". Connie concludes: "All be- oppressors' institutionalized vision" (Sciences cause Inez thought she had a doctor, but she got From Below 120-121). The tragic ending of The a scientist" (Piercy 267). The distinction that Yellow Wallpaper, Gilman implies, is the result of Connie makes between a doctor, whose responsi- ignoring this fact. bility is to attend the needs of his patients, and

76 The female narrator of The Yellow Wallpaper linization of science was that women whose emo- is in exact opposition to her husband and thus tions were stronger ended up being manipulated reflecting the general conception of gender rela- and controlled by men who according to that tions of the time. "John is practical in the ex- worldview were the symbol of reason. The Carte- treme. He has no patience with faith, an intense sian epistemology of detachment that John ap- horror of superstition, and he scoffs openly at plies to treat her wife makes him simply blind to any talk of things not to be felt and seen and put his standpoint. Descartes contends that: "The down in figures"(3). John is also the physician of scientific mind must be cleansed of all its "sym- her intuitive wife and has diagnosed her unhap- pathies" toward the objects it tries to under- piness to be neurotic depression following the birth of their first child. His prescription pre- stand. It must cultivate absolute detach- vents her from doing any activities. She should ment"(Bordo 104). The issue starts when the doc- simply lie down in bed in a house outside the city, tor puts himself in the position of the subject and have no connection with the others and stay day thus objectifies his wife, following the precepts and night in a room with yellow wallpaper. She of Descartes showing no sympathy. The men- thinks that "congenial work, with excitement and tioned detachment 4 that leads to the claims of change, would do me good"(ibid) but it is only her neutrality, results in the supremacy of one physician husband who is scientifically and framework which belongs to those in the posi- hence socially certified to treat her patient and tion of power over the other one. thus "what is one to do?" (ibid) The root of such a masculine science, as Susan Bordo traces it, is 3. An Alternative to Cartesian in the time of enlightenment when men started Epistemology to gradually take birthing away from the hands of women and set their own ways. "It was male Following Freud's conception of the charac- practitioners who established the lying-down po- ter formation in boys and girls, Harding explains sition for women in labor, rendering women pas- that Cartesian worldview is constructed in the sive and dependent in the process of birth (Ca- very childhood. Boys form their characters on the hoone 128). John does not know how much his basis of separation while girls built up their iden- wife "really suffers", but it suffices him to know tity through association. Little boys and girls find "there is no REASON to suffer" (ibid). The pre- their emotions carefully attended and satisfied scription only instigates the narrator's imagina- by their mothers or nurses who are traditionally tion and she starts fantasizing and seeing the im- women. As boys grow up and see their father and age of herself as another woman trapped in the other men do not approach the realm of caring yellow wallpaper. She ends up tearing and biting and rearing and women who appear less than the wallpaper off the wall. When her husband men in the society, they unconsciously conclude opens the door and sees the situation, he faints. that childhood is a phase that is associated with John, the physician acted according to the females and if they want to grow and reach adult- rationalistic precept that dichotomized the world hood, they need to extricate themselves from the into binary oppositions and favored the suprem- females. Girls do not undergo such a separation acy of one side over the other. In that epistemol- because their identity is formed through associa- ogy, reason should have controlled and mastered tion with their mothers and nurses. The way that emotions and imagination should have been sub- boys concept their character manifests itself in ordinated to intellect. The result of such mascu- the boys' adulthood and consequently leads to the way in which the society treats women and expects them to play their ascribed roles of caring

77 for the others, sacrificing self and being depend- utopian world of Mattapoisett. "Luciente spoke, ent on men and in the meantime having strong she moved with that air of brisk unself-conscious emotions. The ascribed characteristics which are authority Connie associated with men. Luciente viewed as natural, on the one hand value and sat down, taking up more space than women ever judge women accordingly and on the other hand did. She squatted, she sprawled, she strolled, reproof them when it compares these character- never thinking about how her body was dis- istics with those of men's i.e. rationality and rea- played" (Piercy 64). son. The solution to extricate from such a vicious circle that reproduces itself is suggested as fol- 4. The Necessity of Resistance to the Biased lows: Science

This small gap between the genders In both The Yellow Wallpaper and Woman on prefigures a larger gap between the de- the Edge of Time, women's privacy is invaded. In fensive gendered selves produced in The Yellow Wallpaper, the narrator is under con- patriarchal modes of child rearing and stant surveillance of her doctor husband. She has the reciprocal, degendered selves that to lie on bed and stop all kinds of activities. As a could exist were men as well as women financially, socially and traditionally dependent primary caretakers of infants, and woman living in the nineteenth century, the nar- women as well as men responsible for rator does not have any choice except to act obe- public life (Cahoone 627). diently. Yet it is worth mentioning that the narrator's story is loosely based on the writer's expe- The ideal of male contribution in child-rear- rience. When Gilman tells her problem to her ing as a solution to the character development of neurologist, the eminent S. Weir Mitchell, her bi- men is what Piercy puts in to action in her utopia. ographer writes: "Mitchell submitted Gilman to In Mattapoisett, mothering is shared between his celebrated rest cure that, in calling for isola- men and women. Regardless of the gender, each tion, physical inaction, massage, mild electrical child has three mothers who collectively take stimulation, and fattening, centered on the body care of him or her and men are engineered in a as the site of health and disease" (Thrailkill 525). way that they can breastfeed children. The mentioned kind of treatment in 1970s was He had breasts. Not large ones. Small read as "paradigmatic of the patriarchal silencing breasts, like a flat-chested woman temporarily of women" (ibid). In fact "medicalization of un- swollen with milk. Then with his red beard, his happiness as depression was one of the great dis- face of a sunburnt forty-five-year-old man, stern- asters of the twentieth century" (Oakley 32). Gil- visaged, long-nosed, thin lipped, he began to man escaped the prescribed situation with the nurse. The baby stopped wailing and begun to help of a female friend and after leaving her hus- am band, she began a writing career in California. (102). When she finished The Yellow Wallpaper, she sent When men contribute in raising children, a copy to her physician and although at that mo- the probability of forming boys' character on the ment the reverent doctor did not acknowledge basis of Cartesian detachment gets lower and the receiving the letter, he later publically an- binary opposition of childhood/ adulthood, de- nounced that he changed his treatment of pendence/ independence and finally man/ women after reading the story (Oakley 32). So woman gets deemphasized. Connie's society, while the narrator of the short story makes her where women are submissive and self-conscious husband see the consequences of his prescription of all their movements, is in dire contrast to the and thus shows unconscious resistance, the

78 writer depicts active resistance not only on the the guise of neutrality and called for a female personal scale but also on the social one, since epistemology of inclusion. By alternating be- the short story became a source of reformation tween the dystopia of the present and the utopia in the psychological treatment of women. of the future, Woman on the Edge of Time too ren- Resistance in Woman on the Edge of Time ders an alternative feminist epistemology in shows itself through different ways. Vara which the Cartesian division between subject and Neverow interprets Connie's last act in poisoning object, self and other, man and woman is re- the doctors, a liberating one for paving the way placed by a comprehensive worldview that is not to the arrival of the utopian future that encour- bounded by borders and oppositions. This epis- ages resistance (32). In contrast to this interpre- temology, although has its roots in the female tation, Maciunas contends that since after poi- worldview, is not limited to women and if there soning, Connie is unable to relate to the utopian is a hope for a better future and change in the future, Piercy wanted to say that " the possibility present situation, Piercy and other feminists be- of the world that she imagines is closed off by vi- lieve that the new epistemology should be olence". Following the Anti-Cartesian Feminist adopted by both men and women. Epistemology, violence has no place in their future utopia. Piercy shows exerting violence to be Acknowledgements an extension of the hierarchical view of the previous epistemology and by depriving Connie of I would like to express my gratitude to my dear the utopian visions, she resists accepting such an professor Dr. Shahriyar Mansouri because of his epistemology (257). I read the ending of the support and encouragement. I am also grateful to novel both as a warning to the continuation of Safir Academy which sponsored my article. the old epistemology and a call for help and unification of both men and women to adopt the References new epistemology. Connie resists the masculine framework but she is alone and if she remains Bordo, Susan. The Flight to Objectivity: Essays On alone there are two possibilities; she can either Cartesianism and Culture SUNY Series in partially damage her present social structure and Philosophy, State University of New York thus consequently pay for it by spending the rest Press, 1987. of her life in the mental hospital that is what ac- Harding, Sandra. "From Feminist Empiricism to tually happened in the novel or otherwise her Feminist Standpoint Epistemologies". utopian dream be shared by the other men and From Modernism to Postmodernism: An women and thus a future utopia is created out of Anthology. Ed. Lawrence Cahoone. the present dystopia. Blackwell Publishers: Malden, Massachusetts, 2000. 5. Conclusion Gilman, Charlotte Perkins. The Yellow Wallpaper. Project Gutenberg's. 1999. Both Woman on the Edge of Time and "The www.gutenberg.org Yellow Wallpaper" pull the loose brick of neutral- Harding, Sandra. Sciences From Below: Feminisms, ity from under the claims of objectivity in the old Postcolonialities, and Modernities. Duke science which has disguised itself in the form of University Press: Durham and London, neutral science. By pushing the old science to its 2008. edges, "The Yellow Wallpaper" both warned the Harding, Sandra. The Science Question in readers against the consequences of ignoring the Feminism. Cornell University Press: Ithaca biased nature of science that had hid itself under and London, 1986.

79 Harding, Sandra. "Strong Objectivity": A 5, No. 10, The International Women's Response To The New Objectivity Movement (Nov., 1997), pp. 29-39. Question" Synthese Journal ,Vol. 104, Piercy, Marge. Woman on the Edge of Time. A Issue. 3. (Autumn, 1995) Pp 331-349. Fawcett Books, The Random House Harding, Sandra. Whose Science? Whose Publishing Group: New York, 1976. Knowledge?: Thinking from Women's Lives. Thrailkill, Jane. "Doctoring "The Yellow Cornell University Press: Ithaca, New York, Wallpaper"". The Johns Hopkins 1995. University Press, ELH, Volume 69, Number Maciunas. Billie. "Feminist Epistemology in 2, Summer 2002, pp. 525-566 (Article). Piercy's Woman on the Edge of Time". Vara, Neverow. "The Politics of Incorporation Women's Studies: An inter-disciplinary and Embodiment: Woman on the Edge of journal, 2010. Time and He, She and It as Feminist Oakley, Ann. "Beyond The Yellow Wallpaper". Epistemologies of Resistance". Utopian Reproductive Health Matters Journal, Vol. Studies, Vol. 5, No. 2 (1994), pp. 16-35

80 The 16th International TELLSI Conference Futurology of English Language Teaching & Literature November 14th 16th, 2018 (Aban 23rd 25th, 1397) Shiraz, Iran

Patriarchy and Freedom in Sylvia Plath and Ghada Al-Samm Poems

Elham Khamoushi Department of Foreign Languages and Linguistics, Shiraz University, Iran Batul Musavi Department of Foreign Languages and Linguistics, Shiraz University, Iran email: [email protected] This essay examines Sylvia Daddy and Lady Lazarus, and Ghada Al- A Rebellious Memory and The Chess of the Hypothetical Freedom. It is an attempt to explain the different treatments of patriarchy by the two women who are considered pioneers of feminist poets of their generations, but live(d) in very different cultural regions one in the West, the other in the Middle East. I suggest that Plath and is proud of bein - -Eastern type of feminism, however, places her within a liminal, hesitant position. By relying on poststructuralist feminist theories, this study emphasizes the role of patriarchal societies in molding the subconscious of their subjects; the cultural products created by women are based on discourses of femininity that the patriarchal cultures offer them. article, in a broader perspective, would give the Iranian reader a sense of how contemporary Iranian poets are caught within the feminine discourses of their own societies: celebrating it, or breaking off with it, that which ultimately leads to an increased awareness over the discourses that shape our ideologies.

Keywords: Sylvia Plath, Ghada Al-Samman, patriarchy, freedom, poststructuralism

1. Introduction and is aware of her extremely inferior position in the patriarchal society she is living in. Upon read- Ghada Al-Samman (born in 1942), the prom- ing her works, however, and comparing them inent and influential Syrian writer, is considered among the modern Arab women precursors to incorporate feminist themes in her poetry. The overall themes and aura of Al- ferent meanings. This emphasizes the roles of especially her later ones, bear striking similari- ethnicity and culture on the formation of the subconscious. Thus, Al- treatment of ems Al- patriarchy and freedom would be remarkably dif- in which women had to fight for their minimum rights as human beings, Plath, like her many an- Daddy and tecedents of dedicated authors with feminist Lady Lazarus, and Ghada Al- A Rebel- thought, raged against the injustice of the male- lious Memory and The Chess of the Hypothetical dominated society toward women. Freedom. It is an attempt to explain the different Thus, the rebellion of women against men of treatments of patriarchy by two women who are authority 1 which occurred regularly in the both pioneers of feminist poets, but live(d) in era very different cultural regions one in the West, Subaygo in the other in the Middle East. It is significant to Poems know why Plath in Lady Lazarus ing patriarchy in her poems (104). Daddy and Lady Lazarus are two significant moments of this Al- confrontation in which the narrator creates a space over which she has complete authority. In these poems, the speaker boldly confesses her This study is an emphasis on the role of patriar- most intimate thoughts and feelings. To return chal societies in molding the subconscious of to the main discussion which is on the concepts their subjects; the cultural products created by women will be based on the social definitions the ems by Plath and Al- patriarchal culture itself provides for them. This Daddy and Lady Lazarus. to her condition

of her interrogators and torturers by confessing 2. Sylvia Plath and the American feminism(s) in 1930s-1960s In fact, she has suffered to the extent that she

Plath was born in 1932, right in the midst of You do not do, The Great Depression of the United States. As you do not do /any more, black shoe/ in which I Dorothy Cobble recounts the history of Ameri- have lived like a foot/ for thirty years, poor and can feminist movements in Feminism Unfinished (2014), during that era in the U.S., the overarch- dition to expressing her utter dissatisfaction ing issue that concerned women activists was social justice (ch.1). As most women laborers were years, she is actually breaking off with it. The ab- extremely dissatisfied with their working condi- rupt opening of the poem and the pungent cold- tions including low wages, disrespect, and inse- ness of the tone which runs in the poem through- curity at their workplaces, social justice seemed to be a priority (ibid.). Another issue which was of utmost concern for some feminists was the condition of African American women, and the hard way, and values in her poems, it is argued, is what Al-Samman achieves, but gives a movement did not emerge until late 1960s way. (ibid.), when Plath was no more alive. In a society

1 1937 is an example

82 The independence Plath gains, however, is when asked if she was an Eastern woman, she not achieved without cost. As all cultures create a system of signification for their subjects, so does the patriarchal culture. The man whom she This liminality in attitude is reflected throughout says she is scared of in Daddy, the man who bit Lady ern and is unique to her social and political con- Lazarus, killed the love inside of her. The speaker, ditions, Al-Samman picks up a little of both East- thus, kills him inside of herself, i.e. the system of ern and Western ideologies and fuses them together. her in the inferior position, like a Jew. Therefore, Plath uses culture-oriented images such as in these poems, the only way to freedom is sug- the harsh aspects of patriarchy. Similarly, Al- herself. Out of her ashes, she rises and eats men herself, a captive: Shahrazad.

3. Ghada Al-Samman and the Middle East- ern Patriarchy drunkenness And there, I forget you to the state of e man in my country is inflicted drunkenness. with identity disorder. He wants his Shahryar The night he ordered the execu- to be dumb; to obey, and not to ar- tioner to behead her, gue. And it is better for her to be And went to sleep himself.

be all that a female should be in bed, I talked to you with the language of under the condition of being infer- birds, tile, or remember taking her contra- ceptives. And the Lebanese man language (Ghada Al- Samman, A Re- needs both women, each has a criti- bellious Memory) cal role in his life. But he is unable to merge them into one woman, be- At the end of this poem, Al- Samman because he ca lieves that she is narrating her story not to enter- man 2 The Sea Interrogates a Fish tain Shahryar, but to heal her wounds. In a later 66) poem, she is still Shahrazad, narrating the story of her multiple deaths in her violent society to The above quote by Ghada Al-Samman the addressee, who is revealed to be Shahryar. clearly exhibits what it means to be a woman in This time however, she wants him to love her de- her society. Al-Samman majored in English liter- spite his past. ature from the American University of Beirut and afterwards went to London to pursue a Ph.D., It is enough for you to know, that but eventually dropped out. The Western culture I love you with all my deaths, influence is evident in Al-

2 Translations from Al-Samman are my own.

83 And all my lives, my secrets, and my cut off her root from it, and is proud of being sorrows. - - type of feminism, however, seems to be some- Does not want to chase you with her thing that is in early stages of its development. special sword To avenge herself. References Simply, I want to love you on the chess of the hypothetical freedom, Al- Samman, Ghada. Al-Bahr Yohakem Samaka Do you accept my love? (Ghada Al- [the sea interrogates a fish]. Beirut: Mans- Samman, The Chess of the Hypothet- huraat Ghada Al-Samman, 1986. ical Freedom) ---.A Rebellious Memory, in Al-abadiyya Lahzat Hob [eternity is a moment of love]. Beirut: Interestingly, though, while Plath sets her- Manshuraat Ghada Al-Samman, 1990. self free from her imprisoner, Al- Samman goes ---. The Chess of the Hypothetical Freedom, in Al- back to him. No matter how free and wounded Habib Al-efterathi [the hypothetical lover]. she is, the need for a man is all the time present Beirut: Manshuraat Ghada Al-Samman, in her poetry. Thus, Al- Samman is wavering be- 2005. tween patriarchy and breaking off from it. Or ra- -Fox: Syl- ther, it might be that it is her culture that is thus Jour- keeping her in her liminal position. nal of Modern Literature 28.2 (2005): 100- Both poets enter into a dialogue with patri- 112 archy. Plath is outrageously invective and de- nouncing of the tough masculine tradition in Feminism Unfinished: A Short, Surpris- - ments. London and Ney York: Liveright ture. Her criticism of the patriarchal society Publishing Corporation, 2014. takes on a hue of dissatisfaction rather than an acrid deprecation of it. Plath throws her furious chy in Sylvia Pl TEFLIN Jour- statements upon the nal 20.1 (2009): 83-103

84 The 16th International TELLSI Conference Futurology of English Language Teaching & Literature November 14th 16th, 2018 (Aban 23rd 25th, 1397) Shiraz, Iran

Nasrin Malekpour Department of English Language and Literature, Islamic Azad University, Tabriz Branch, Iran email: [email protected] Nasser Dashtpeyma Department of English Language and Literature, Islamic Azad University, Tabriz Branch, Iran -act play in which an interviewer interviews with a mistaken interviewee! Some issues such as identity, modern mass media, simulation, hyper reality and hypocrisy can be explored in this play. We live in postmodern era filled up with information and technologies, and have entered into a world of stimulation preferring to see the representation of things instead of their mere beings. This matter leads us to the phase of hyper reality in which the ability of distinguishing reality and its representation is dismantled. Jean Baurdillard discusses the impact of mass media and how it imposes i

Keywords: hyper reality, simulation, hypocrisy, mass media

1. Main text interval, and most of the time the reader are opposed to an open end conclusion. These plays can There have always been positive and nega- be considered as a miniature of a long story being tive views concerning media among critics. Jean told in a very compact form. Living in era of tech- Baudrilard is one of those to be opposed the me- nologies, an increasing number of modern one- act plays appeared in the 21st century with special sponse, what renders impossible any response of characteristics. the me- Therefore, human beings in the 21st century, dia is kind of social control and power which have entered up to the domain of technologies cause the fade of pure reality. Step by step, diag- and information in which mass media has a cen- nosing the separation between reality and copy tral function. Effects of mass media in terms of becomes impossible because of simulative fig- attitude and behavior cannot be denied, for in ures imposed by society especially the media. most of cases they get the power of facing reality s a play by Joyce Carol Oates, and thinking from human beings. Little by little the American writer, which deals with mass me- media and its subdivisions penetrate through dia issues, simulation and hyperreality. -act play. presenting already made images and facts, so One-act plays are mostly performed without any that their power of thinking independently will be taken away. Thus, the theories about simulation, hyperreality and hypocrisy are strengthen in the field of mass media in this play. Jean Baudrillard (1929-2007) was a French Joyce Carol Oates is a prolific American cultural theorist and philosopher who was best writer in the fields of fiction, poetry and drama. known of his theories in the realm of media analysis, technological communication and impact of a self-centered interviewer and a mistaken inter- media in contemporary life. His name was mostly viewee whom he will be interviewed because he is associated with terms like simulation and hyper- supposed to be an immortal literary person in the reality which are opposed with ideas that were current century. He is considered to be the old taken as granted before. famous writer living, but the interviewer is sup- In the postmodern culture, we do live in a posed to interview the wrong person, Rudolf Nu- simulated world in which representation of reyev, the Russian dancer. There is not any cer- things have replaced things themselves, and tainty about the case of the interviewee because leading us in a way that we think representations this play is filled with false realities and nothing is totally true. The main character in this play is can no longer be discerned, so the map has be- the interviewer who considers himself an all- come, in a sense, as real a known person but facing the reality he is a hollow Exploring the term of simulation, Richard J. one with shallow information. The interviewer has gotten no name, and in fact he is the repre- simulation in his book named Jean Baudrillard: sentation of modern man sunk in fake and shallow information. A first-order simulation would be In a modern era, each person tries to prove where the representation of the real is s(h)e is an informative one in the society. Also obviously just that: an artificial repre- this problem is depicted in the play in the inter- sentation. A second-order simulation, however, blurs the boundries between his actions, and he constantly tries to foreground the idea that he is an important person. In most third- order simulation goes beyond parts, when he talks about himself, there are some pauses which are shown by a dash sign in the play. Here are some examples from the play: Therefore, within the first and second-order simulation we can see the symptoms of real, but 1045) the problematic part is the third-order simula- INTERVIEWER: Your publisher ex- tion, hyperreality, which there is no real at all. plained who I am, sir, I hope? (Oates p. 1046) der of simulacrum is based on the natural law of INTERVIWER: __ here I am: lead col- value, that of the second order on the commer- umnist for America Today, circula- cial law of value, that of the third order on the tion Fifty-seven million daily. (Oates p. everything seems to be 1046) fake and unreal. To begin with the setting, it is INTERVIEWER: You sir___ I rever- explained short but detailed concerning the place ence you. First time I read your work I was in sixth grade. Yeah I was preco- even his way of sitting in which is told with a pas- cious. (Oates p.1047) sive sentence-

86 sentence is to hide the subject, and the emphasis changes to begging for life, and then again is on the person or object that experiences an ac- changes to begging for death. It seems that the tion, so in the mentioned passive sentence we Immortal is not sure about the situation he is in have no idea about who has seated the Immortal it. The exact word for the Immort - on a sofa, whether it is by force or not. Every pos- having no response and staying as a stone- is be- sible thing, explained in the setting, seems to be ing petrified. Being petrified means turning to unreal and in false order as lights, order of furni- stone; the same thing the media do with its audiences in order to be fixed in front of TV with no all show that there are some preplanned ideas to motion, no reaction and no thinking. Poor com- be imposed. Imposing ideas to the audiences be- munication is a part of this play. In the beginning comes possible via media. Baudrillard believes of the play we do not see any response to the in- that the media impose lots of information which mortal starts to speak but in French and Italian, completely new species of uncertainty, which re- and in the rest he speaks nonsense answering the sults not from the lack of information but from questions with unrelated responses that some- information itself and even from an excess of in- times frustrates the interviewer. He is supposed to be the man of literature because he consist- masses and make its audiences as an object. ently talks about great men of literature and says Objectification happens when there is no choice and liberty to choose in every level of your Dante__ Goethe__ Balzac__ setting myself the life, and you are treated as an object or a thing. task of creating a great epic commensurate with In case of media, it makes us to be as an object like stone in front TV, internet or other media facts fade away the possibility that he is mistaken as the famous dancer who is mentioned before, can observe the same case, being like a stone in but there is no certainty he is the right man to be front of media. The Immortal is the exact case of interviewed because this play is full of fake reali- being like a stone against media- the Immortal as ties. the victim of media and the interviewer as part People have lost the connection to the real of media. The below sentences from the play and prefer to live in the world of copies rather than the real one. Beadrillard believes that by

longer a question of imitation, nor duplication, (Oates p.1046). In other words, we are in a seduc- nor even parody. It is a question of substituting tive way in which there is no liberty of choice but surrendering against media. Baudrillard calls this (Baudrillard p.4), meaning that little by little we are forgetting that there is a matter named real I said: stupor. To be more objective one would at all, and lose the ability to distinct between real have to say: a radical uncertainty as to our own and artifice. desire, our own choice, our own opinion, our own All of these matters considering diminish of real, happen because of a consumer society and Lack of communication and silence during media culture. These two factors, directly effects the play, especially in the first part of the play is realm of reality. Hermano Roberto Thiry- another issue. Whatever the interviewer asks, Cherques dicusses about consumer society that the Immortal stays silent and motionless like a in the signs of objects. Value is in the meaning

87 that an object gives to existence, which is sup- plied from outside, culturally conditioned, codi- Acknowledgements 5). Media culture also is becoming stronger in the society, I would like to express my sincere gratitude and attracts more people by different kinds of to my honorable professor, Dr. Nasser means as TV, internet and other medias. Dashtpeyma for his great comments and his end- The media play an important role in phase of less support to write the current paper. simulation and its subdivision by imposing some definite ideas and false pictures to the audiences. References We are dominated by TV, films, new media and the Internet which are destroying the term of re- Baudrillard, Jean and Marie Maclean. (1985). ality, and replacing replicas instead. In another The Masses: The Implosion of the Social in words, the connection between the reality and its the Media. New Literary History, 16 (3), image is totally cut. Media establish a new way of 577-589. culture and takes the power of thinking from its Baudrillard, Jean. (1983). Simulations, trans. victims. Media forces its victims to see the world Paul Foss, Paul Patton and Philip Beitch- through the only lens which it presents. In fact man. USA: Semiotext[e]. Knopp, Guido. (2016). . USA: choose them at all. Konecky & Konecky. To conclude, this play is a play of misunder- Lane, J. Richard. (2000). Jean Baudrillard. New standings and nothing is in its right place. In York NY: Routledge. Per- the reality, and we cannot get to reality even by codifying the copy in a mediated world. The me- Drama. USA: Thomson Wadsworth. dia have huge impact on diminish of reality by Thirty-Cherque, Hermano Roberto. (2010). presenting false and fake codes. Manipulation of Baudrillard: Work and Hyperreality. RAE- minds is one of the matters that happens because eletronica, 9(1), 1-12. of presence of media in life, and change the way Walford, Rex, and Colin Dolley. (1998) The One- of thinking step by step. act Play Companion. New York NY: A & C Black.

88 The 16th International TELLSI Conference Futurology of English Language Teaching & Literature November 14th 16th, 2018 (Aban 23rd 25th, 1397) Shiraz, Iran

Pragmatic Eliciting Tasks vs. Traditional Speaking Activities to Foster Oral Proficiency: A Comparative Study

Rasool Mirshekaran English Department, Chabahar Maritime University, Chabahar, Sistan va Baluchestan, Iran email: [email protected] The purpose of the current study was to compare the impact of pragmatic eliciting tasks with traditional ral proficiency. In the first step, 60 pre-intermediate students were chosen based on the results of an Oxford Quick Placement Test (OQPT) and then were randomly divided into two equal groups, namely an experimental group and a control group. After that, they were pretested through a researcher-made speaking test extracted from New Interchange Book 1. Finally, the participants of experimental groups received the treatment which was pragmatic eliciting tasks comprising explicit usage of pragmatic functions of speech (i.e., greetings, requests, complaining, thanking, etc.). They figure out how to utilize pragmatic functions of language in the proper contexts and how to comprehend these language functions explicitly. On the other hand, the control group received these pragmatic tasks implicitly mainly through listening and question and answer activities in the classroom. The control group additionally used oral performances through the textbook activities and exercises in the classroom. The whole treatment lasted 12 sessions of 60 minutes. After the treatment, the control and experimental groups took the post-test of speaking which was a modified version of pretest. When the data was collected, Independent and Paired Samples T-tests were run to analyze them. The findings showed that experimental group outperformed the control group. The results revealed that the students who were taught pragmatic eliciting tasks explicitly were better than those who taught implicitly.

Keywords: pragmatics, eliciting tasks, traditional speaking activities, oral proficiency

1. Introduction marvelous by connecting new and old data. Eliciting is not restricted to language and Eliciting task is a term which portrays a worldwide learning. The educator can elicit scope of procedures like understanding the thoughts, sentiments, meanings, circumstances, language structures, implications and capacities affiliations and recollections. For the educator, which empower educators to furnish the eliciting tasks is a vigorous indicative device, students with eliciting information for proper furnishing the students with key data about what discussion (Rose & Ono, 1995). Eliciting tasks the students know or do not know which a help to build up a student-focused classroom and beginning stage is for lesson planning (Rose & a mimicking situation while making learning Kasper, 2001). 1.1. Objectives and significance of the Study 60 Iranian male pre-intermediate EFL learn- This study intends to check the impact of ers with the age range of 14 to17 were selected in utilizing the pragmatic eliciting tasks on English a private language institute in Zarrindasht, Fars, language oral proficiency. This study may help Iran. EFL students to perform discourse fluidly. For the educators, it would empower them to com- 3.2. Instruments prehend the sentence meaning effortlessly. 3.2.1 Oxford Quick Placement Test (OQPT) 1.2. Research Questions: 3.2.2 Speaking Pre-test The study attempted to address the following main questions: 3.2.3 Speaking Post-test

RQ1. Do pragmatic eliciting tasks have any sig- 3.2.4 Speaking Checklist nificant effect on pre- oral proficiency? 3.3 Data Collection Procedures:

RQ2. Is there any significant difference between Participants were divided randomly into two pre- equal groups; one experimental group (pragmatic through using pragmatic eliciting tasks and tra- eliciting tasks) and one control group (traditional ditional speaking activities? speaking activities). Then they were pretested. After that, the participants of experimental 2. Review of the Related Literature group received the treatment which was pragmatic eliciting tasks comprising explicit usage of Cole and Anderson (2001) stated that the pragmatic functions of speech (i.e., greetings, re- ESL students who utilize downsizes in request quests, complaining, thanking, etc.). In which stayed the same over a ten-month contemplate they figure out how to utilize pragmatic func- in New Zealand and Canada. They recommended tions of language in the proper contexts and how that complexity quality of phonetic structures is to comprehend these language functions explic- required for the objective target language speak- itly. On the other hand, the control group re- ing proficiency influences rates of the pragmatic ceived these pragmatic tasks implicitly mainly over time. through listening and question and answer activ- Taguchi's (2008) two examinations uncov- ities in the classroom. The group additionally ered that ESL students had a bigger gain in speed used oral performances through the textbook ac- (estimated accordingly time) than in accuracy of tivities and exercises in the classroom. The treat- pragmatic appreciation amid an investigation of ment took 12 sessions of 60 minutes, and in the pragmatic in speaking capability. last session the two groups took the speaking post-test. 3. Methodology 4. Results 3.1. Participants

90 Table 1. Group Statistics (Post-test of Both Groups) Groups N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean Posttest Experimental Group 30 17.7500 1.41878 .25903 Control Group 30 13.0500 1.75848 .32105

Table 1 reveals the descriptive statistics of mean score is 17.7500. This means that the ex- both groups on the post-test. The means of the perimental group outperformed the control groups are different. The control group's mean group. score is 13.0500 and the experimental group's

Table 2. Independent Samples T-test (the Post-test of Both Groups) Levene's t-test for Equality of Means Test for Equality of Variances

F Sig t df Sig. (2- Mean Std. Er- 95% Confidence . tailed) Differ- ror Dif- Interval of the ence ference Difference Lowe Up- r per Post Equal vari- .670 .416 11.3 58 .000 4.70 .41 3.87 5.52 test ances assumed Equal vari- 11.3 55.51 .000 4.70 .41 3.87 5.52 ances not 9 assumed

Table 2 indicates that the difference be- In fact, the experimental group outperformed tween the both groups is significant at (p<0.05). the control group on the post-test.

Table 3. Paired Samples Statistics (Pre and Post-tests of Both Groups) Mean N Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean Pair 1 Exp. Post- 17.7500 30 1.41878 .25903 test Exp. Pretest 12.0333 30 2.07170 .37824 Pair 2 Cont. Post- 13.0500 30 1.75848 .32105 test Cont. Pre- 12.8500 30 1.97025 .35972 test

Based on the descriptive statistics in the ta- 13.0500 respectively. The experimental groups' ble above, the mean scores of the control group mean scores on the pre and post-tests are on the pre and post-tests are 12.8500 and 12.0333 and 17.7500 respectively.

91 The 16th International TELLSI Conference Futurology of English Language Teaching & Literature November 14th 16th, 2018 (Aban 23rd 25th, 1397) Shiraz, Iran

Table 4. Paired Samples T-test (Pre and Post-tests of Both Groups) Paired Differences t df Sig. Mean Std. Devi- Std. Er- 95% Confidence Inter- (2- ation ror Mean val of the Difference tailed) Lower Upper Pair Exp. post 5.71667 2.28821 .41777 4.86 6.57 13.684 29 .000 1 exp. pre Pair Cont. .20000 1.11880 .20426 -.21777 .61777 .979 29 .336 2 post cont. pre

In the above table, paired samples t-test is used Since Sig (.336) is greater than 0.05, the differ- to compare the pre and post-tests of each group. ence between the post-test and pre-test of the Since Sig (.000) is less than 0.05, the difference control group is not significant (p<0.05) in pair between the post-test and pre-test of the experi- 2. mental group is significant (p<0.05) in pair1.

5. Discussion The findings showed that the students who received pragmatic eliciting tasks instruction had The researcher arrives at the discussion sec- better performance compared to those who were tion to answer the questions of the research. So, trained through traditional speaking activities. the questions of the present research are answered below. 5. Conclusion

RQ1. Do pragmatic eliciting tasks have any sig- Based on the findings of the present study, nificant effect on pre- it can be concluded that the use of pragmatic elic- oral proficiency? iting tasks in teaching and learning can produce positive results because they could improve stu- The results showed that there was a signifi- dents' speaking skill and it can be claimed that cant difference between the performances of the receiving instruction through pragmatic eliciting two groups on the post-tests. So teaching tasks can facilitate English learning. through using pragmatic eliciting tasks is supposed to improve the oral proficiency of Iranian References EFL learners. Bahrani, T. (2011). Speaking fluency: Technology RQ2. Is there any significant difference bein EFL context or social interaction in ESL tween pre-intermediat context. Studies in Literature and Language, ciency through using pragmatic eliciting tasks and 2(2), 162-168. traditional speaking activities? Bashir, M., Azeem, M. & Dogar, A.H. (2011). Fac- -speaking skills. British journal of arts and social sci- school 1 Cisalak KAB. Subang, retrieved Sep- ences, 2(1), 34-50. tember 5, 2018, from: Bouton, L. (1992) The interpretation of implica- http://www.qm2.org/mbriefs/10.html ture in English by NNS: Does it come Glover, P. (2011). Using CEFR level descriptors automatically without being explicitly to raise university students' awareness of taught? Pragmatics and Language Learning, speaking skills. Language Awareness, 2(1), 3, 53-65. 33-52. Burns, A., Joyce, H. (1997). Focus on speaking. Gorjian, B., & Pourkaram, M. (2018). Interactive Sydney: National center for English effect of pragmatic eliciting tasks on EFL Language Teaching and Research. pre- Bygate, M. (1996). Effects of task repetition: ap- ciency. International Journal of Foreign Lan- praising the developing language of guage learners. In J. Williams and D. Willis (Eds.), Teaching & Research, 6(21), 121-132. Challenge and change in language teaching Graves, K. (2008). The language curriculum: A so- (pp.134-146). London: Heinemann. cial contextual perspective. Language Cole, S., & Anderson, A. (2001) Requests by Teaching, 41(2), 147-181. young Japanese: A longitudinal study. The Taguchi, N. (2008). The role of learning environ- Language Teacher, 25(8), 7-11. ment in the development of pragmatic Faridatusolihah, N.F. (2012). Teaching English comprehension: A comparison of gains be- speaking using audio-lingual method at tween EFL and ESL learners. Studies in sec- the second-grade students of junior high ond language acquisition, 30, 423-452.

93 The 16th International TELLSI Conference Futurology of English Language Teaching & Literature November 14th 16th, 2018 (Aban 23rd 25th, 1397) Shiraz, Iran

An Exploration into Adapting Shakespeare for Very Young Audience

Batul Musavi Department of Foreign Languages and Linguistics, Shiraz University, Iran email: [email protected] Laleh Atashi Department of Foreign Languages and Linguistics, Shiraz University, Iran Adapting Shakespeare for kids has always been a much-debated and controversial issue. This article examines the discussions over Shakespeare adaptations that involve change both in the audience group and in medium. Many critics oppose the practice of adapting for kids on several grounds that mainly he pro- suggest that adaptations are a necessary means for Shakespeare to survive over the course of history, and that such judgments about adaptations are essentially misunderstandings of the practice of adap- a case-in-point by which our argument can be best illuminated. By implication, for Shakespeare, survival different age groups will contribute to a continuation of his reputation as the great Bard. This will contribute to the democratization of Shakespeare as part of an otherwise inaccessible and intimidating literary Canon. Adaptation, after all, is a survival strategy in an environment where the popularization of culture runs hostile to the elitist ethos embedded in the process of canon formation.

Keywords: Shakespeare, adaptation, children, Marcia Williams, Hamlet

1. Introduction in terms of the values moral ones in particular they projected in each era, and the shifts in those values if any through time. vides an outline of different narrative versions of sion, that the reason of the adapting enterprise Shakespeare adaptations for children published of Shakespeare for kids being as controversial as Tales in it is, is twofold: first and most obvious is the in- 1807 to the present. She classifies them along -war narrative ver- The high status and prestige associated with this - character as a canonical icon is enough to intimi- date many authors as to take any action with his works children with a solitary reading ex- the Bard that might be considered disparaging perience, rather than with a collabo- to his reputation. Second, it is exactly because of rative and active viewing or perform- this idolized image, together with its stature as a ing one an experience for which, af- source of universal and cultural pride that makes ter all, the plays were originally writ- the adaptation difficult for a group that would es- ten ( Rokison 79). pecially require a great deal of excision and alter- cations affirm, through the ages, Shakespeare find hidden the interplay of traditional ap- has been the subject of massive amounts of alter- proaches to two things: adaptation, and chil- ations, abbreviations, deletions, cuts, and cen- sorships to get adjusted for the readership of the Fischlin and Fortier note that As long as young. Therefore, many critics such as Rokison there have been plays by Shakespeare, there have argue for preserving the Shakespearean heritage as it is: the dramatic medium (Prindle 144), the form of play, cartoon, animation, comics, film, language, and the stories without editing or advertisement, music or, painting, whether cen- censoring (Rokison 74). According to these crit- sored or not, many people from all cultures and ics, Shakespeare loses much of its original mean- classes of society are fascinated with the Bard ing and appeal (Rokison 7) when transplanted in and will continue to reimagine him from their a narrativizing medium. Rokison suggests that own outlook on life and world. Living in an ex- with this extensive alterations due to the young tremely digitized societies has made our younger age of the audience, for a better appreciation, it generations yearn for visual media more than might be better to introduce them to the Bard in ever. And since our popular cultures have partly an older age (74), and concludes her argument re- profit oriented garding adaptation of Shakespeare for children the media, entertainment mar- by writing, ket, and even the educational programs for children would necessarily reflect this demand. Ac- However, as has been explored, cordingly, it is the same for adaptations of Shake- there are several elements of these speare for children and young people who make storybook Shakespeares, from their up a great potential audience for Shakespeare earliest incarnations to their present (Miller 2). Anja Müller (2013) notes that in the forms, which are problematic in 21st century, visual adaptations for children have serving as introductions to the plays become more important than ever. the censorship and editing of ap- Hamlet is an apt example of a Shakespearean adaptation for texts, which may prove misleading; Bravo, Mr. the narrative form of the books, the which deprives young people of an necessity of adaptations being visual in contemporary multimedia societies and of her wish of guage and leaves them with what making Shakespeare more interesting for children through illustration. Hamlet illus- the stories (2002, p. 182); and their non- tain its target audience.

95 References and Adaptations of Shakespeare for Chil- During, S. 2005. Cultural Studies: A Critical Intro- Reimagining Shakespeare for Chil- duction. New York and London: Routledge. dren and Young Adults, Ed. Naomi J Miller, Fischlin, Daniel, and Fortier, M. Eds. 2000. Adap- pp.138-146. New York and London: tations of Shakespeare: A Critical Anthology Routledge. of Plays from Seventeenth Century to the Pre- Rokison, A. 2013. Shakespeare for young people: sent. London and New York: Routledge. productions, versions and adaptations. New York: The Arden Shakespeare. ing with Shakespeare at the Reimagining Shakespeare spe Reimagining Shakespeare for for Children and Young Adults, Ed. Naomi J Children and Young Adults, Ed. Naomi J Mil- Miller, pp.1-9. New York and London: ler, pp.29-38. New York and London: Routledge. Routledge. Müller, A. 2013. Adapting Canonical Texts in Chil- . London and New York: Bloomsbury Publishing.

96 The 16th International TELLSI Conference Futurology of English Language Teaching & Literature November 14th 16th, 2018 (Aban 23rd 25th, 1397) Shiraz, Iran

Rozencrantz and Guildernstern Are Dead and the Question of Dasein

Nazanin Nayyeri Shiraz University, International Division, Iran email: [email protected] Rozencrantz and Guildernstern Are Dead what comes to mind is a series of radi- cally fundamental questions such as the status of human being in the world, the problem of existence, the concept of subjectivity and etc. These are the very issues directly addressed by many philosophers and among them phenomenologists. Heidegger as one of the most prominent phenomenologists made an attempt to answer the ontological questions of being through the introduction of some terms to philosophy such as Dasein. The concept of Dasein came to prominence so as to signify a certain idea of being called the being-in-the-world and a certain process known as being-toward-death. This paper aims at the phenom This so called Dasein as based on historicity and facticity is rather helpful in giving an account of the - e as objectified beings. Making use of the specifically Shakespearean context of the play, this study represents a certain philosophical subtlety in-

Keywords: Stoppard, Heidegger, Dasein, being

1. Introduction In his magnum opus, Sein and Zeit Heidegger

With phenomenology the grounds of philosophy had to be probed through quite different means in that Husserl as the founder of such system of thought wanted in the first place to take through the manner of its identity with itself and away the roots of psychologism from the West- the particular perception by the observing indi- ern philosophy in order to make it rather scien- Regress as oper- the most prominent protégé, the focus on the base of philosophy still rouses excitement, with one essential difference; Heidegger attempts to answer - the ontological questions of being without there or Being-in-the-world) is both ontically and changing the grounds of philosophy (Holub, ontologically significant as it provides a unity be- 1995, p. 266). tween the referential and the non-referential status of being. question woul 2. Phenomenological Approach to Rosen- cal crantz and Guildenstern Are Dead technical words as mentioned in this paragraph need to be defined as far as possible in the follow- The play starts with the two Shakespearean ing lines. courtiers playing with coins in the middle of no- Phenomenological approach, as Heidegger where. The very early perspective of the play in- believes, is rooted in the Greek phainesthai which vites the attention of the readers to the world deprived of frivolous possibilities to the extent that word sheds light on its ownmost stem, pha-phos, they would grow philosophical questions in their

to cer- Heideggerian sense, is the act of description of tain differences regarding the Shakespearean - and Stoppardian theatre. Jenkins marks out the close attention to the fine line Heidegger sets be- distinction between these two in order to pro- - nounce the opposition in Anglosaxon culture be- actment of that self- -

on in his works in different ways is the ontologi- The mentioned distinction tends to divulge of self- stance of self- , the ontic rio characterizes the way a thing shows itself in its reality (thingness) while the ontological is the dis- draw-back in history of two courtiers not for the sake of presenting the readers with pastiche or closiveness of the phenomena (Scott, 2006). he Shakespearean context in Having these definitions in mind, along with which Ros and Guil do not really know what they what Jenkins regarded as the combination of the are doing. The loose end in the beginning re- general and the specific, the reader can conceive mains intact in the end in that neither of the the ontological and the ontic possibilities of courtiers nor even the reader ever find out the r Stop- context. As Keyssar-Franke notes, Stoppard changes kins, 1989, p. 38). - In the phenomenological sense the differ- She adds that Ros and Guil, while awaiting for can echo certain differences between being and their supposed roles in Hamlet, perceive that beings. Borrowing the phenomenological terms, we can understand the purpose behind the usage roles. The reading of the letter in the final act and of the Shakespearean courtiers in a modern play; - - occurrence of self- changes the way modern readers or the audience

98 respond to them. Such response on the part of other hand would lead to even more frustration. the readers shows that like them the radical change of probabilities is also true in our com- thentic mode of being. This guilt which is preg- nant with inaction on his part, in other words, gives meaning to his existence and sanctions the ument is concerned, therefore, the ontic purpose behind the produc- In Ros and Guil there is no tangible feeling at tion of the play results in the ontological under- all, let alone the feeling of guilt. The source of in- standing of the play on the part of the audience. action is brought about by their absolute una- The analysis of the play with regard to its wareness of the time and space in which they are Shakespearean context, furthermore, proves to put. The starting point of the play bears the fore- be even more illuminating when we come to Gel- most degree of significance for our phenomeno- nomenology of being. In Heidegger and Tragedy, he explores Guil while Ros is obviously ignorant to such fishy repetitiousness. Guil tries to find a reason for in tragedy (p. 560). Gel- this frustrating reiteration. ven believes that the reader or the audience His act of reasoning comprises of making assertions (or judgment) about the situation. In order to analyze the assertions, one needs a certain knowledge of regional ontology which presup- prioritize beauty over morality. The attention to poses two groups of entities, "ready-to- morality presupposes action or in other words -at- the attention to good vs. evil. It follows that our embedded in structured context of appreciatory regard for the nobleness of the hero, despite our frustration for his blindness to which reside in nature (Schear, 2007, p.128). root in our valorization of the beauty of his/her Many scholars associate this distinction with

Heideg - at-hand entities. Schear, through what he calls interest in the moral derive and their consequent a wider scope for judgment. The first step in his analysis of judgment is differentiating between

the field of regional ontology. By entity gues that the authentic mode of being is achieved through the feeling words everything that engages our comportment guilt in such an absolutely Heideggerian point of in certain ways. Being on the other hand, is unravels the meaning of being (p. 561). they already are (Schear, 2007, pp. 132-134). The world as a non-homogeneous place can of the be divided into three scales of being in regard to tragic hero. His indifference to Ophelia on the

99 the being of substance and the being of in terms of the ontic and the ontological. The (p. 132). The substantial being is defined with means and act of betting are not telling us about the joints of probability as operating in the open tribute which is put in contrast to the functional world of possibilities. In addition the very expe- orientation of the equipmental being (p.133). rience they share is not ontologically revealing. The coin is an equipmental - What we have as readers to rely on are the assertions made by the characters in the wasteland of -order- impossibilities. betting then as Guil also mentions it should pre- Through the considerati sent equal chances of landing both on head and Time and Being we get tail. As far as the coin is embedded in the complex nexus of laws of possibility, it should be able to According to such passage, it happens that the multi- act of making judgment about an entity involves of which it assumes its being. sent-at-hand (p.139). One of the ways of orient- which should norm ing and engaging oneself to the affinity for the [ibid] of the world order, the coin is not suited to present-at-hand in the act of judgment is scien- an atemporal setting. It should be noted that Dasein is not an atemporal being either and his judgment of the situation at hand represents being is partly determined by the historical fac- such comportment (intentionality). He discusses tors as well. What makes Heideg the laws of probability and syllogism and when Dasein special is the way he tries to maintain a he is unable to understand the reason behind the balance between the factual or the ontic (the his- irritable run of heads he ascribes the problem to ppard, 1967, p. ence of being). As such the non-specificity of the 16).Through his scientific examination Guil airs setting in the play, the lack of historical function the following assertion: and significance of the equipmental being calls GUIL: A scientific approach to the ex- Guil as detached from their historical and social amination of phenomena is a defence against the pure emotion of fear. Keep of probability which make betting irrelevant in a tight hold and continue while there's time (p. 17). entities their special significance and without entity makes sense has been lost or, one might the defense against fear. The fear as contrasted - to dread is one of the key determiners in defining -being ibid] of the coin do the concept of Dasein. Thus along with the un- not signify the historical role and the quality of promising world of zero possibilities, another the coin it does refer to the ontological status of ontologically unfavo the characters involved in the act of betting. Ac- tempt to make sense of his status in the world brings about his questioning of the situation in , p. 3) he refers more than terms of taking refuge to the purely ontic data. In anything else to the zero possibilities of the ab- other words, he presents the image of his being as surd situation at hand. The absurdity is defined apart from the experience of being and as such he

100 is blind to the ontological possibilities of being. It is believed that dread is part of our ontological reality which cannot be distinctively felt and the outside world. As such his understanding of the individual does not need to be conscious of it. mode of existence is basically factual, purely de- as he thinks that being pendent upon the fea conscious of the ontic possibilities is all that matters in defining the situation. This very situation as having a social and historical significance is Guil is always in the search of the external object only one of the determining factors of the being for what he thinks of as fear. Moreover, he is al- of Dasein. The concepts of fear and dread prove ways in search for names and references. Ros, on to be helpful in understanding the being of the other hand tries to copy him in that regard. Dasein. Guil is the one who wants the answers to whats? Magda King in her book, A Guide to And whys? Even more than his friend. Here is an explicates the distinc- example from the text: ROS (cutting his fingernails): Another curi- cussion of dread starts, as she notices, with the ous scientific phenomenon is the fact that the analys fingernails grow after death, as does the beard.

GUIL: What? ROS (loud): Beard! GUIL: But you're not dead. since it is in a kind of fitting relationship with ROS (irritated): I didn't say they started to grow after death! (Pause, calmer.) The fingernails also grow before birth, though not the beard. ceived and experienced tangibly, on the part of GUIL: What? the human beings. The revelation of its threat is ROS (shouts): Beard! What's the matter with you? (Reflectively.) The toe- 92). nails, on the other hand, never grow Fear, on the other hand, is always associated at all (p. 18). with an object in that it presupposes a definite- What is implied in this dialogue and put it more clearly, we always have fear of or throughout the play is not fear.There seems to be about something. The direction of the dread is unknown feeling of anxiety which is avoided by never definite for the Dasein the directedness (intentionality) towards the outside world. The absurdity of their dialogue lies in the fact that they try to avoid what they are going through which is the nothingness of to the ver dread through the intentional act of directedness toward worldly references. This so called nothingness is the very ambiguous feeling from which ignated as being nowhere and nothing. This and against which the wholeness of being come nothingness however is not a common one since to fore. of place itself, of world it-

101 (ibid). The world as experienced by Ros and Guil does not let any new possibilities happen. Guil tery which existed in Hamlet remains intact in re- between the two plays, as Gruber adds, lies in the member the past becomes the reason behind his charac failure in building up the future: I'm the essence of a man spinning double- headed coins, and betting against himself in pri- slipping into the state of utter despair. Ros and vate atonement for an unremembered past (p. 16) makes them (esp. Guil) regret the acceptance of They move forward with the absence of the knowledge of the historical moment which can as implied in the play is one of the features of the be appropriated and lack of self-projection to- authentic Dasein. Authenticity of Dasein involves both ontic self-projection one can take into account his idea and ontological aspects. As we mentioned before of death. His idea of death proves to be rather the historical elements are important in the mak- metaphysical in that it cannot be reappropriated. ing of the Dasein and more significantly the au- His conversation with the players shows such thentic Dasein. At certain points in the play the conviction: characters try to find out their historical status but their search does not end up in any concrete GUIL (fear, derision): Actors! The me- results. One example of such attempts is the chanics of cheap melodrama! That is- event of remembrance through which they try to n't death! (More quietly.) You scream remember the first thing that has happened to and choke and sink to your knees, but them. Authenticity has, in the Heideggerian con- it doesn't bring death home to anyone-it doesn't catch them unawares and start the whisper in their skulls reappropriation, and renewal of the heritage that says-"One day you are going to die." (He straightens up.) You die so self possibilities that have come down to one, many times; how can you expect them to believe in your death? (p. 83) (p. 234). With regard to what Carman says the historical can only be ontologically valuable In the phenomenological sense death is the when it is defined in terms of the possibilities which is bestowed upon the Dasein. Dasein as a ing-toward- being-toward-death makes use of the opportunities that the movement towards death gives him (Scott). Guil is more perseverant in the act of re- Phenomenological membrance but his partial directedness to the Ontology, 385). In the general perspective, the external world does not let him project himself knowledge of the being in time for Ros and Guil can only happen when they are put into their

the Stoppardian and Shakespearean play in other ed as deeply words would give these two characters their historical place. There are many examples in the

102 play when Ros and Guil assume their role in the but the more they move forward, the more they Hamlet. One of the occasions is specifically illu- are afflicted with forgetfulness. minating for our study, that is, when they are Although they try to move forward, the faced with the arranged play by the tragedians. reader get the impression that their situation never changes, as if they are frozen in time. Dasein is said to be structured in the passing of ure in remembering and appropriating the past. -own- Such recognition never happens in the play since they never understand the due reason of their toricity and facticity. In the end, Ros and Guil fail immanent death, neither is the reader encoun- in the building of Dasein through succumbing to tered with the time of their execution. fear of death in the end. In the phenomenological The remembrance as mentioned in the paper sense they commit regress through taking death is one of the prominent attempts in the making as the subject (Rudnick). Accordingly, instead of self-made disclosure of Dasein, they achieve ob- ture of referential tot jectified dis-ownness. It is true that the ontic features such as the 25). There are several instances in the play of historical, social and the factual elements are the such rupture when Guil and Ros are addressed only detectable factors of Dasein. The ontological mistakenly. The most important one is when Ros aspect of the Dasein however is what he experi- plays Guil and interrogates his friend as Hamlet. ences as a being-towards-death who is afflicted This is the time when the characters try to en- is quite helpful in giving the readers a fresh un- - derstanding of the absurd which can be defined thenticity is however followed by their taking re- in terms of the world in which the beings attempt sort to logic in order to visualize their fate in Eng- to define their being in terms of what is non-ex- land. The problem however is that they cannot istents in the outside world. This authentic noth- find a link between the past and the future. ingness which is the ontological aspect of our being is what we experience as social and historical 3. Conclusion beings.

Ros and Guil oscillate between the authentic References and the inauthentic states of existence in the course of the play. Their attempt to build a stand- Carman, T. (2006). The concept of authentic- in in the world does not reach any desired con- ity. A companion to phenomenology and exis- clusion on their part as they try to find reason for tentialism, 228-239. their authenti George, V. A. (2000). The experience of Being as over-intellectualization [Schear] which eventuates goal of human existence: the Heideggerian ap- in making of the assertion about his luck in the proach (Vol. 2). CRVP. act of betting can be counted on as the act of in- Gelven, M. (1976). Heidegger and Trag- tentionality. They both lack knowledge as prece- edy. Boundary 2, 555-568. dence and they are only aware of some vague im- Gruber, W. E. (1981). Wheels within wheels, et- age regarding the royal summon. They try to re- cetera: Artistic Design in Rosencrantz and member what is inherited to them through the Guildenstern Are Dead. Comparative authentic act of remembrance and reiteration of Drama, 291-310. the thing that happened to them in the first act

103 Holub, Robert. (1995). Hermeneutics. In R. Sel- Schear, J. K. (2007). Judgment and Ontology in den (Ed.). The Cambridge History of Literary New Year- Criticism: From Formalism to Post-Structur- book for Phenomenology and Phenomenologi- alism (pp. 255-288). Cambridge University cal Philosophy, 7, 127-158. Press. Scott, C. E. (2006). Martin Heidegger. In Encyclo- Jenkins, A. (1989). The Theatre of Tom Stoppard. pedia of Philosophy: Gadamer- Just War The- Cambridge University Press. ory. Thomson-Gale. Keyssar-Franke, H. (1975). The Strategy of" Ros- Spanos, W. V. (1993). Heidegger and Cristicism: encrantz andGuildenstern Are Dead". Edu- Retrieving the Cultural Politics of Destruc- cational Theatre Journal, 27(1), 85-97. tion. U of Minnesota Press King, M. (2001). Guide to Heidegger's Being and Stoppard, T. (1967). Rosencrantz and Guilden- Time, A. SUNY Press. stern Are Dead. Grove Press.

ary Theory. In Ingardeniana (pp. 105-119). Springer, Dordrecht.

104 The 16th International TELLSI Conference Futurology of English Language Teaching & Literature November 14th 16th, 2018 (Aban 23rd 25th, 1397) Shiraz, Iran

Redefining Gender through Adaptations: A Study of A Streetcar Named Desire

Zahra Nazemi Razi University, Kermanshah, Iran email: [email protected] Hossein Aliakbari Harehdasht Persian Gulf University, Bushehr, Iran Abdolmohammad Movahhed Persian Gulf University, Bushehr, Iran into movies. Elia Kazan is among the first directors who adapted A Streetcar Named Desire in 1951 for the n has almost been faithful to the original manuscript by stick- rate stories are different. Therefore, even if one ignores the cultural and historical contexts, he cannot disregard the alterations that happen in the process of trans-mediation where the telling mode in the text changes to the showing mode in the media. That is why there was an attempt here in this study to detect the possible alterations in the adaptation of the play to examine gender roles in both texts. Using the ideas of Linda Hutcheon in her famous book, A Theory of Adaptation (2006), we studied the verbal signs in the play together with the verbal and visual codes in the movie so as to see how the film adaptation of A Streetcar Named Desire has incorporated the ideas of masculinity and femininity which are the main concerns of the play. The results of the study suggested that the alterations from the written text to media have had proportionate effects on the formation of the male or female identity. To know about these alterations in the adaptation film and their effects on the identity formation of the characters will help better understanding and appreciation of the two works.

Keywords: gender, adaptation studies, A Streetcar Named Desire, Elia Kazan, masculinity and femininity

1. Introduction

In 1951, Elia Kazan worked hand-in-hand a result of which, this version is very similar to with Tennessee Williams to adapt the play, A Streetcar Named Desire, into a movie. Kazan was determined to be as faithful as possible to the lywood producers doubtful to adapt it (Davison, play. Although Oliver Saul was intended to write 2009, p.61) and a few changes had to be applied to the movie due to the demands for censorship to ema (1979, p.106). (2009, p.51). As a result, Kazan was asked to cen- Linda Costanzo Cahir declares that the in Blaschke, 1999, p.9). Eventually, twelve structive constraints work constructively in the changes were made to ther to claim that both the play and its 1951 movie adaptation are open to interpretations uscript, there are moments in the film in which (2009, p.73). As she explains,

(Hurst, 2009, p.3). In this study, however, the Where expressionism offered Wil- similarities between the original text and screen liams a means to communicate script will not be the focus of the study because, multiple views or positions within a as already noted, critics have verified the fidelity framework of apparent reality, and thus explore the inability of lan-

Instead, because the two works are products of almost the same historical periods in America, behaviors in terms of social and we will try to investigate the differences regard- psychological causes, though he ing the gender roles and gender identity of also sought to objectify their behav- women in both works by examining the verbal ior and their conflicts via mo- and visual signs. The aim is to see how this par- tion, action, and other visual ele- ticular adaptation has re-constructed the gender ments. (2009, p.60) identity of women, even though both the play and the adaptation belong to the same place and She, then, comments on the role of Stella time, namely, mid-20th century America. and Stanley. As she asserts, Stella has a central

2. Literature Review

ley as the sole focus of tation of Streetcar. Annette Davison, for example, believes that the play has been more suc- - cessful than its movie adaptation (2009, p.72). 1991, p.73). He argues that in this movie, women are identified in terms of men and ac-

Elise Ann Earthman believes that the play, along He also states that although most of the scenes struggle between ultramasculine and ultrafemi- nine forces" (2003, p.274). Eithne O'Neill sug- nous shadows, prominent spotlights, tight gests that at the heart of both the play and Ka- close-ups and sharp camera angles, the film has a rich, brooding texture, [and] a compelling vis- woman as the lynch-pin of the relationship be- -104). He, thus, tween the individual and society" (2004, p.169). In view of the critical attention paid to the play

106 and its adaptation, this article is going to pre- ipt, he has inevi- sent a detailed comparative study of gender in tably been engaged in the act of re-creation of both works to further clarify this aspect of the the play by employing visual and aural signs. In relationship between the play and its movie ad- other words, he has used a variety of techniques aptation. - 3. Representations of Gender in Williams h - A Streetcar Named Desire (2016, p.102). Also, the application of walls and the design of the furniture helps him portray faithful to the original manuscript, sticking to (Blaschke, 1999, p.8). However, as Linda Hutcheon notes, the way text Hutc and media narrate stories are quite different. ers purge an earlier text of elements that their Thus, even if we ignore the cultural and histori- particular cultures in time or place might find cal contexts of adaptations, the alterations from difficult or controversial; at other times, the ad- - The spirit of patriarchy (see Hutcheon, 2013, p.23). Hutcheon argues makes the study of the traditional gender roles of women significant. However, in the movie ad- (2013, p.13) which is missing in the narratology aptation, one finds more emphasis on the tradi- of written texts. In fact, through the showing tional gender roles of Stella and Blanche, and specifically, on the cult of domesticity and fidelity. Both in the play and its adaptation, Stella she further explains, tries to show her allegiance to and obedience of her husband on different occasions. For in- The performance mode teaches us stance, when Stanley begs her to come back that language is not the only way to home after the quarrel in the third scene of the express meaning or to relate stories. Visual and gestural represen- her fidelity to him (Bloom, 2005, p.71; this also tations are rich in complex associa- happens in the movie: see 00:32:45). Also, when Stanley stands in protest and asks for the din- ner, she assures him that she has already pre- in turn, provokes affective re- pared supper for him, which is indicative of her sponses in the audience; sound, in obedience (00:15:52; Williams, 1947, p.32). general, can enhance, reinforce, or However, examining the scenes of the adap- even contradict the visual and ver- tation, one notices that this obedience and alle- bal aspects. (2013, p.23) giance is more highlighted. Stella never appears half-naked in front of strangers and hides her body to every man except to her husband (00:15:23; 00:33:11). By this, in fact, she tries to show her allegiance to him. In the movie, Stella two modes can convey different meanings. Ac- respects her husband and cares for him much cordingly, although Kazan has been apparently more than she does in the play. She hugs and

107 kisses him frequently (for instance, 00:16:19; the scene in the play in which Blanche robs the 00:51:03), talks to him using kind and gentle whisky bottle out of the closet without permis- words (00:15:28) and obeys him. These indicate sion and drinks it (1947, p.15) is omitted in the her adherence to her gender roles as a wife. Be- film so as to give a good impression of her to the sides, we find Stella and Blanche clean the house audience from the beginning of the movie. How- (00:5 ever, examining the later scenes, we realize that (00:51:41) which are missing in the play. Conse- she is as hysteric as Blanche is in the play. Her quently, in his adaptation of Tennessee Wil- hysteria is even more intense as she screams and Streetcar, Kazan has intensified the tra- runs into the street (00:10:34). By this, as well ditional roles of women as wives by the por- as demonstrating her trayal of the domestic roles that are either not mentioned in the play or are not as highlighted as they are in the movie. -Sa-

iety reduces the distance between her and the eets Blanche with audience. Consequently, the audience will un- great eagerness and joy and it is she who runs derstand her more. Furthermore, as this introduction to her hysteria is a bit delayed, the pre- to finally hug her tightly (00:04:14). This signals judgments about her will also be delayed. Her the difference between the sisters in the play anxiety is revealed to us when she starts to talk and the movie. Unlike in the play, Stella is not about her past in the bar while smoking a cigarette and shaking (00:05:42), not when she is talking about ordinary issues. Thus, the director and health, which is represented in her worried makes it clear to the audience that there is a face expression when she finds Blanche hysteric strong reason behind her anxiety, and without in the bar (00:05:50). She loves Blanche very much. She prepares the bathtub for her to take derstand her well (Alamrani, 2016). Eventually, a shower (00:07:23), hugs her assuring her that Kazan mediates the picture of women as being

(00:08:35), and tries in every way to calm her When Blanche gets off the train, she imme- down (see for instance 00:05:22; 00:06:53; 00:16:23; 00:05:13). By adding these features to ment for Eunice) from whom she asks for the address (00:02:03). With her smile and flirting a closer and more intimate relationship between gestures, she tries to attract the boy even the two sisters as a result of which they find it though she does not know him. The young boy crucial to take care of each other. then helps her, taking her hand and luggage, to Besides, Tennessee Williams starts his play get on the streetcar (00:02:30). The selection of with the picture of Stanley throwing meat over a young gentle boy instead of an old woman and Stella and disdaining her in front of Mitch (Wil- liams, 1947, p.10) whereas Elia Kazan priori- shadow her later coquetries with Mitch and Stanley to signal her strong inclinations toward men and sexuality. . Every- thing seems fine and nice with Blanche. Even

108 Besides, by highlighting this characteristic tempts to win Stanley and attract him. Eventu- from the very beginning of the movie, Kazan at- ntity is associated with tempts to emphasize this aspect in her charac- desire and sexuality. ter. Although in the play, her coquettish behav- The sexual inclination of Blanche to Stanley ior is frequently implied, it is more visible in the goes further to her treatment of Mitch as well. movie because the audience can see her gestures For example, in their first encounter, Blanche and looks. Even though Blanche asserts that she smiles and talks to him very gently and coquettishly (00:31:39), or, when Mitch wants to show 00:48:05), in many instances, she talks to him her the inscription on the case of the cigarette, seductively, attracting his attention to her she does not ask him to take the light closer so beauty and physique, and eventually, contrib- as to see the inscription better, but moves uting to her own rape. Stanley, too, even 00:35:17), trying to provoke his sexual desire. charming All the instances mentioned indicate that in the down-to- inclined towards sexuality. Kazan also intensi- fies this picture by the use of close-ups that help the director to reduce the distance between the audience and the characters, showing the audi- and, at the same time, alarming (Hirsch, 1979, p.11) and tries to attract and win him over subtle way in which Blanche encourages Stan- Stella. In the movie adaptation, to attract the at- - tention of Stanley, Blanche frequently uses ges- eminin- tures that signal her flirtations. For example,

(00:23:40) signifying her consent to his demand. It is when she makes sure that Stella is out that she asks Stanley to button up her dress Moreover, both in the play and the movie, (00:21:40). Besides, while Stanley is busy but- Blanche possesses unique feminine characteris- toning up the dress, she looks playfully at him tics all in the service of her gender identity. In and appears willing to him (00:22:12). During fact, by her excessive attention to her appear- the discussion over the loss of Belle Reve, ance, she does not rise above her gender roles, Blanche pours perfume on herself coquettishly in front of him (00:24:34) and seductively takes cocktail dresses and white gloves, soaks for the fur in front of herself and asks Stanley hours in a hot bath, lies about her age, refuses to whether she is attractive or not (00:22:44). be seen in strong light, and attempts to enchant tries to change his T-shirt (00:13:18). She also - touches him in several instances. For example, when she hears the scream of a cat, she jumps in special attention in the film is given to the choice of costumes also 00:23:53). All the instances indicate her at- (Blanche's selected, sophisticated,

109 feminine garments made up of chif- (2009, p.4). This might be a result of the cult of fon, rayon, silk and lace) and props masculinity and the dominant male stereotypes (fans, creams, perfumes, pins, roll- in the cinma in the 1950s because, as Gauntlett ers, depilatories, suitcase with care-

Blanche's identity. (2016, p.101) which led the story, and were assertive, confi- d Kazan makes it more intense by demon- Women, on the other hand, as in the case of strating Blanche as the person who does not agree to meet Stanley before she takes a shower and looks fresh (00:05:18). This indicates that she uses her appearance as a tool to attract men. words (2008, p.50). Besides, t We always find her fresh and pretty in the play, much younger than her age. However, Kazan play are usually associated with domestic vio- also refers to the reality of her life by demon- lence (Kolin, 1993, p.1), and that is the way strating her wrinkles on her forehead and the Stanley, as the main male protagonist, violates glasses that she has to wear when reading papers Stella and Blanche, considering them the in the movie (00:26:39). Thus, in nce, there is a relationship between sion, reality works hand-in- creation of imagination in the play to finally identity: as men become more aggressive construct her gender identity. This concern with sexuality exists to some associated with inferiority and Otherness. The very manifestation of the bowling ot moral and behav- scene i ioral characteristics (00:05:06). She touches him frequently (00:16:20) is duped to come back that he has made (01:25:04) and forgives him -identi- for his violent attitude at the poker night after the two make love (00:43:14). She, like Blanche, is in need of somebody to support her (Blaschke, 2003, p.274). He is the one whose loud mascu- 1999, p.10) although she is aware of his brutal line cries frighten the audience, too. His violence attitude. Her identity, like that of Blanche, is ob- is so intense that he can beat all his friends at sessed with sexuality. However, because she has the poker party and push them out of the house, a man in her life, she does not need to cling to as a result of which all escape (00:39:54). How- strangers. The source of all these portrayals of ever, attacks on women in the movie are much more intense than the ones in the play, and it phasis on love scenes. To attract more groups of audience, Hollywood movies are replete with tween Old South gentility and a brutal new or- similar love scenes in which the sire would be inevitably stimulated. Furthermore, Hurst argues that the most significant difference between Tennessee Wil- 2009, p.4), which is to finally rape Blanche. In rect

110 from the play (2009, p.5). By this, the movie like the others, follows the codes of patriarchy, gives more power and dominance to the men and this is represented in the movie more than it is in the play. For example, when Blanche asks identity as the Other. him to bow in front of her and then present the While Tennessee Williams describes Stan- flowers, he hesitates a little bit, looks around to make sure that nobody is looking at him and dis- the way he considers them as sexual objects daining his respect for her, and then acts as (Williams, 1947, p.28), Kazan visualizes this, Blanche had asked for (01:03:14). Another instance is when Blanche laughs loudly; he asks when she talks to him (00:13:18). He also repre- anxiously whether she laughs at him and checks sents his rape of Blanche in the final scene after the surrounding to make sure that nobody is beating her, pushing her forcefully on the bed (01:48:11) and breaking the mirror in which the the others (01:05:14). He is afraid that others picture of Blanche is reflected while struggling would notice his respect for Blanche a woman with Stanley and finally, being defeated by his and deride him. This reveals that Blanche, and violence and desire (01:52:34). In many in- gener stances, Stanley beats and pushes Stella harshly society and Mitch, who belongs to patriarchy, although he is aware of her pregnancy (see nonetheless, submits to this dichotomy of man 00:18:36; 00:18:44; 00:19:22; 00:39:05; vs. woman. Furthermore, Mitch is the person 01:28:25; 01:28:42; these cases are not men- who breaks the door to enter the house angrily tioned or highlighted in the play). He not only when he understands about Blan has no respect for women to the point that he abuses his wife in front of the others frequently Street- Blanche so harshly that she is pushed away on to car), but also does not allow the other men to the chair as a result of which she cries have respect for them, either (00:31:03). As a re- (01:34:33); this is also missing in the play. Thus, sult, t Kazan attempts to represent men as more vio- wards women more than the play does and in- lent and disdaining towards women in the movie than in the play, portraying women as the attitude using the visual representations of oppressed, inferior, weak type against the pow- these brutalities. Eventually, as Kleb argues, erful, violent, and ruling men. feminine The violence that is so explicitly emphasized in the movie adaptation is in contrast with what the censors had asked for: that the director

similar issues (Davison, 2009, p.9). In this way, ruling ferocity of men who are considered the ending in which Stella and Stanley find their reunion marked by love after This patriarchal empowerment against women can also be studied in the image of Mitch. Although in both the play and the movie, rejecting him and deciding not to live with him he is described as a kind and polite man who acts anymore (02:03:27). Blaschke argues that this is gently towards Blanche and Stella and who

111 how society punishes Stanley for his brutal ac- After examining the gender roles of women as tions (1999, p.10) so as to represent the nega- well as their identity as associated with Other- tive consequences of his cruelty and to mediate ie ad- all the violence directed towards Blanche and Stella. This is because the cinema, which ad- ing housework, obeying and respecting hus- dresses a wider and more diverse audience than bands and sticking to the codes of fidelity were literature, should display less representations of more highlighted. Besides, a more intimate relationship between the sisters in the movie can be ment is, in fact, a very difficult one for Stanley noticed from that of the play. In the adaptation,

; see also Kolin, sexuality, probably as the influence of the spirit 1993, p.10). of Hollywood. Finally, while there was more violence directed against women in the movie, this friends and pushes them out of the house in the violence and animosity was mediated by the movie (00:39:02) gives her a more powerful gen- punishment that the director has decided for der identity, suggesting her attempts to act Stanley at the end of the movie. against her suppressed position imposed by patriarchy. In the same manner, Blanche rises References against Stanley violating her privacy by pushing him away when he tries to find the papers in shout at Stanley and Mitch in several instances the First University, 2016. Retrieved from (00:18:34; 00:23:56; 00:38:56; 01:35:04). In the https://www.aca- play, Blanche admits that she has told Allan that demia.edu/27401326/Abjection_and_De- she knows that he hates her (Williams 109), sire_in_A_Streetcar_Named_Desire while in the movie, she declares that it is she A Streetcar Named Desire. Directed by Eliza Ka- who has told Allan that she hates her (01:14:09). zan, Starring Vivien Leigh, Marlon Therefore, although women are abused more Brando, Kim Hunter, Karl Malden, Warner Bros., 1951. struggle more to escape their prescribed gender

sity of Marburg, 1999. Retrieved from (2009, p.74). http://johnwatsonsite.com/MyClass- Notes/Texts/Streetcar/SNDplay_film.pdf 4. Conclusion Bloom, Harold. . Chelsea In this article, Tennessee Williams House Publishers, 2005. Byars, Jackie. All That Hollywood Allows: Re-read- adaptation. Although the scripts of the two ing Gender in 1950s Melodrama. Routledge, works were almost similar and the two were 1991. products of almost the same historical periods Davison, Annette. Alex North's A Streetcar in America, the transition from the written text Named Desire: A Film Score Guide. Scare- to the cinema not only imposed changes on the crow Press Inc, 2009. overall structure of the play, it had also an im- Earthman, Elise Ann. "Riding Tennessee Wil- pact on the gender identity of women as well. liams' A Streetcar Named Desire." Women

112 in Literature: Reading Through the Lens of ---. Williams: A Streetcar Named Desire. Cam- Gender, edited by Jerilyn Fisher and Ellen bridge University Press, 2000. S. Silber, Greenwood Press, 2003, pp. 274- 276. Gauntlett, David. Media, Gender and Identity: An Critical Interpretations: Tennessee Wil- introduction. 2nd ed., Routledge, 2008. , edited by Hirsch, Foster. A Portrait of the Artist: The Plays of Tennessee Williams. Kennikat Press 2009, pp. 49-60. Corp, 1979. Streetcar: Film Noir, Hurst, Valerie. Tennessee Williams' A Streetcar Named Desire: Contrasting the Play with the Cercles, no.10, 2004, pp. 169-176. Movie from 1951 Directed by Elia Kazan. - GRIN Verlag, 2009. Named Desire (1951): Adaptation that Hutcheon, Linda. A Theory of Adaptation. 2nd ed., Komunikacija i kultura, Routledge, 2013. vol. 7, no. 7, 2016, pp. 94-108. ctions on/of A Streetcar Tüttelmann, Eva. From Stage to Screen - The In- Confronting Tennessee Wil- liams's A Streetcar Named Desire: Essays in Streetcar Named Desire. GRIN Verlag, Critical Pluralism, edited by Philip C. Kolin, 2006. Greenwood Press, 1993, pp. 1-17. Williams, Tennessee. A Streetcar Named Desire. New Directions Books, 1947.

113 The 16th International TELLSI Conference Futurology of English Language Teaching & Literature November 14th 16th, 2018 (Aban 23rd 25th, 1397) Shiraz, Iran

Reflection of Ideological Orientations in Translation of Feminist Discourse: A

Mehrnoosh Pirhayati Department of Foreign Languages, Islamic Azad University, Science & Research Branch, Tehran, Iran email: [email protected] Farzaneh Haratyan Department of Foreign Languages, Islamic Azad University, Science & Research Branch, Tehran, Iran have significantly been considered in translation studies. In this regard, this study applied Critical Dis- course Analysis (CDA) to analyze Virginia Wo and its three Persian translations, which were translated after the Islamic Revolution in 1979 in Iran. This research was conducted -dimensional CDA model (2009) in translation studies. According to Farahzad (2009), Comparative Translation Criticism was carried out at two levels: textual and paratextual. To do this, an English feminist book by Woolf (1995) entitled along with its three Persian translated versions (Mehrshadi, 2016; Sajedi, 2005; and Noorbakhsh, 2004) were critically analyzed at textual and paratextual levels in a qualitative approach in order to reveal the effect of ideological orientations on the Persian translations of this feminist book. The results of the study indicated that although and paratextual levels, since social and political background knowledge, religious beliefs, and cultural attitudes influenced the translations.

Keywords: course, ideology, Virginia Woolf

1. Introduction human life and plays a crucial role in conveying ideologies among different nations (Shahbazi & Language is an inseparable part of our every- Rezaee, 2017). In other words, existence of dif- day lives. It is the main tool used to transmit ferent languages along with the importance of messages, to communicate ideas, thoughts, and communication in human life caused translation opinions. Language is production and transla- to be a very effective factor in communicating, tion is reproduction. Translation is not an easy exchanging culture, knowledge, and ideology. task. From the very beginning, translation has Translation was already regarded as a tool of learning new languages or as an item in comparative literature, translation workshops and con- lation like language, deals with the all aspects of trastive linguistics (Munday, 2008), but the study of translation as a scientific research began logical and their translations into other lan- in the second half of the twenty century, which guages can be good sources for CDA approaches was called Translation Studies by James S. Holmes in translation studies. (Holmes, 1994). Holmes offered the name of Translation Studies and allocated three subcate- 2. Literature review gories to it: Descriptive, Theoretical and Applied (Holmes, 1994, pp. 71, 73, 77). Since then, many The subject of Fidelity plays a significant role aspects of Translation Studies such as political, in Translation Studies (TS), which is defined and hermeneutic, social, and cultural continually perceived in different ways by different scholars scrutinized. It is clear that cultural and ideologi- of translation. In fact, primer scholars of transla- cal differences can make mistranslations and tion believed that, translation is considered as an likely breakdowns. In this regard, Sertkan (2007) operation of linguistic, in which Fidelity or Faith- stated that fulness forms the main core and hub of this field cent one since the translator is influenced by (Pei, 2010). Guralnik (1979), in his/her own cultural values and his/her ideology, Dictionary, explained Faithfulness/Fidelity text by making some additions, omissions, adap- Two different ways were proposed by Nida iscourse analysis (CDA) (1964) as Formal equivalent/Gloss Translation and Dynamic Equivalent/Equivalent Effect/Equivalent read the traces and effects of power in language Response. Formal equivalent is a reproduction of the form and content of the source language Kress, 1993, p. 153) has been applied in transla- massage into target language, in such a way that, tion studies in recent years to discover the roots they are presented as literary and meaningfully of bias translations and ideological manipula- as original. (Nida, 1964), while dynamic is not tions of the proto-text (traditionally was called very concerned on matching the language massage of the translated text to the language mas- cess of translation. sage of the source text, although it is a way that In this regard, this study attempted to inves- the connection between the receptor and target tigate the role of ideology in Persian translations language massage must be the same as the rela- of the British book, written tionship between the receptor and the source by Virginia Woolf. This work dealt with the proc- language massage (Nida, 1964). lamation of women as writers. In this book, Vir- However, the concepts of equivalent and ginia Woolf promoted economic independence equivalent effect were heavily criticized by the for women and the right of them to take part of scholars of Translation Studies, like Lefevere, the intellectual world as equal as men. She Broek, and Larose (Munday, 2012). Lefevere (as showed in a very direct manner, her personal be- cited in Munday, 2012) believed that the equiva- liefs about the rights of women. She used the rhe- lent excessively was in the word level, while torical device of The Stream of Consciousness, Broek and Larose stressed on the impossibility of showing a continuous mental process, until equivalent response. Based on what New Mark reaching some conclusions about the topic (1999) argued, equivalent response in transla- (Woolf, 1995). This book is one of the most im- tion can be influenced by the unequal conditions portant works of Virginia Woolf, in which the including, cultural differences, the gap of lan- feminist ideology of the writer is undoubtedly guage functions, and differences in purposes and aims of the source and target language texts. Similarly, according to Bedhun (2003), Formal

115 equivalent was unable to transfer the implicit in- and foreign language. A translated formation of the source text. On the other hand, text, whether prose or poetry, fiction other scholars of translation field like Amparo or nonfiction, is judged acceptable by Hurtado-Albir (1990, as cited in Grigorenko, most publishers, reviewers, and read- Mambrino, & Preiss, 2012) defined fidelity in a ers when it reads fluently, when the completely different way, which was constructed absence of any linguistic or stylistic based on three aspects: 1-The meaning of the au- peculiarities makes it seem transpar- -The reader, and 3-The target ent, giving the appearance that it re- personality only one of these parameters and betrays the re- or intention or the essential meaning of the foreign text the appearance, (Hurtado-Albir, p. 118 as cited and translated by in other words, that the translation is Kolawole & Adewuni, 2012). Contrarily, from the perspective of other scholars of TS, Fidelity to the source text did not play a key role in the process of translation. In According to Nord (2001, as cited in Pei, 2010), linguistic structures, cannot alone help the translator to convert the meaning from the concrete, definite situations that involves mem- source language to the target language. In fact, -Hornby, 2001, Nord (2001) believed that translation is a pro- p. 40). Itmar Even-Zohar (1970, as cited in Pei, cess, which is affected and constrained by the cul- 2010) with proposing his poly-system theory, tural values. Similarly, Vermeer (1970 as cited in which was adopted from the Russian Formalism Du, 2012) defined translation as an action deter- of the 1920s, changed the focus of translation mined by the purpose or Skopos of communica- from the concept of fidelity to the study of the tion; focusing on the point that, source text is role of translator in the process of translation. It not the only involved factor in translation stud- is a dynamic, functional, descriptive, and target- ies, and decision making relates to the Skopos for oriented approach in TS (Pei, 2010). Moreover, which the translation is meant (Jabir, 2006). Likewise, according to Toury (1995), translation defined translation as a process of manipulation is constructed based on a set of norms; an envi- and target-oriented action. Venuti (2004, p. 1) ronmental functions of the target culture. Toury expressed that: (1995

the culture of target language and declared that, the process of translation must be imposed on activity in contemporary Anglo- the target culture, since translator must take de- American culture. It refers to two mu- cisions based on the significance and acceptabil- tually determining phenomena: one is ity of the target culture. Undoubtedly, the role of an illusionistic effect of discourse, of culture and ideology are very prominent in trans- tion of lation studies. Fawcett (1998, pp. 106-107) English; the other is the practice of reading and evaluating translations tion can be found in some of the earliest exam- that has long prevailed in the United Kingdom and the United States, (2003) argued that translation deals with the ide- among other cultures, both English ology, in such a way that the choice of the source

116 text and its use are determined by the aims, in- descriptive and poly-systemic scholars, sociolin- terests, and objectives of the social agents. Fur- guistic researchers, postcolonial exegetes, corpus thermore, she stated that CDA and TS have a studies propounders, critical linguistic theorists, common ground in which both of them are con- gay and lesbian academics, semioticians, contras- cerned with discourse and as a communicative interaction, it can be constructed in a particular socio-cultural context. It means that, the main (1978) asserted that, ideology is a significant fac- intention of combining CDA with TS lies behind tor, which influenced the Lexico-Grammatical the fact that socio-cultural context provides a set choices of speech. In fact, it is driven from the lo- of rules and laws for discourse makers and also cation of power and/or socio-cultural context. translators in which, their choices and decision Therefore, the translator does not only responsi- makings are affected by the norms and values of ble to render the words and grammatical struc- a particular target society (Schäffner, 2004). tures of the source language into the target lan- Likewise, Robinson (1997 as cited in Pérez, 2003, guage, as equivalent formats, but he/she is responsible to the target audiences in such a way that, he/she as a mediator and producer works in a particular socio-political and cultural context, which may be completely different with the con- lar vein, Fairclough (2008) stated that, the signif- text of the audiences of the source language. In icant similarity between CDA and TS is the fact this regard, translator must consider language as that, both of them are engaged with discourse as discourse, rather than grammatical signs. a social practice, in which this social interaction is connected to the social and ideological situa- distinguishing tions of the producer and also receiver of the dis- between grammar and discourse defined discourse. Thus, in translation and critic of a discourse as the result of the grammatical language, course both contexts, which are belonged to the which is formed in a particular and natural con- producer and receiver, are very important, and text for a specific goal and purpose. She further also their common context, since they may have explained that, grammar is constructed based on different ideological background. the grammatical codes or signs, and it is re- Moreover, Venuti (1995) defined Domestica- stricted to the sentence-level, but discourse re- tion and Foreignization as two relative terms basi- flects specific grammatical units which are ap- cally loaded with ideological stances, as when propriate for a specific discursive aim. On the making the text recognizable and familiar to the other hand, critical discourse analysis sees dis- reader in target culture by the Domestication course as a social interaction (Fairclough, 1989). method, or when through the Foreignization Fairclough and Wodak (1997, pp. 80-271) briefly method, under the ideology and pressure of the mentioned the main essentials of CDA as follows: source text (ST), translator disturbs the cultural codes prevailing in target text (TT) in the way to 1. CDA addresses social problems, take the target reader over to the unknown world 2. Power relations are discursive, of the author. Similarly, Mason (1997, p. 120) 3. Discourse constitutes society and culture, 4. Discourse does ideological work, 5. Discourse is historical, 6. The link between text and society is mediated,

117 7. Discourse analysis is interpretative and production and challenge of Dominance. Domi- explanatory, nance was defined by Van Dijk (1993, pp. 249- 8. Discourse is a form of social action. stitutions or groups that results in social inequal- Based on CDA, new concepts and fields of re- ity including, political, cultural, class, ethnic, ra- search, such as marketization, globalization, gender, media discourses, racism, organizational and political discourses are considered prominently process of (re)production of discourse shows it- (Wodak, 2001). Fairclough (1989) proposed a self as a (re)production of discourse-power rela- model which covers three inter related pro- tion, which can be presented in different modes, cesses of analysis, including text analysis (de- such as denial, mitigation, enactment, etc. He scription), processing analysis (interpretation) emphasized that, the role of critical discourse and social analysis (explanation). Fairclough analysis in study of discourse is to reveal that, (1993) in his paper noted that, critical discourse what formal properties of text or verbal interac- analysis focuses on the political aspect of dis- tions, such as grammatical structures, and discourse in order to uncover and explicit the rela- cursive strategies were employed in the (re)pro- tionship between power and domination in the duction of Dominance. He noted that, condition process of the production of discourse and also of legitimacy or acceptability is very significant in in its reproduction. In fact, Fairclough (1993) analyzing a discourse. Moreover, Social Power or tried to combine the theory of constructed Dominance has prerogative and power in order to power, which was based on the hegemony of reach the social values, such as wealth, incomes, Gramsci, and the theory of discourse, which was forces, and education or knowledge. In other constructed based on the Intertextuality of Kris- words, it can pertain and control any action and teva. In critical discourse analysis, both form and meaning are analyzed, since both of them are in- proach is constructed based on three prominent terdependent to each other. Moreover, in critical dimensions, as a form of triangle: 1-Dominance, discourse analysis, different levels of social or- 2-Discourse, and 3-Social Cognition. On the other ganizations, including situational context, insti- hand, Farahzad (2009) proposed a three dimen- tutional context, and cultural context are consid- sional critical discourse analysis model in trans- ered significantly (Fairclough, 1998). Another lation studies. This model was derived from Fair- model was referred to Teun Van Dijk (1993). Teun Van Dijk in his article, which was published sis, and Krist in 1993, elaborated critical discourse analysis constructed at two different Levels: textual, and with designing vital questions including, what is paratextual levels. At the textual level, lexical and critical discourse analysis? What are its aims? grammatical choices used by the translator are what are its special methods? and what are its critically scrutinized in order to find the ideolog- theoretical foundations? He stated that, in order ical implications, and paratextual level consists to answer these questions, the researcher must of studying prefaces, endnotes, footnotes, and firstly study the social relations among Discourse, the like, since they can be ideologically signifi- Dominance, and Inequalities. The position of dis- cant (Farahzad, 2009). course analyst must also be considered significantly. The special way of critique and investiga- 2.1. Recent Studies tion of the social inequalities proposed by Van Dijk is to focus on the role of discourse in (re) Rahbar, Ranjbar Najaf Abad and Bateni (2013) examined the Persian translations of

118 content of this book is politically controversial. It translated before and after the Islamic revolution has been acclaimed in the western community, of Iran. Their research was conducted based on but it has been banned in mainland china. The bar, Ranjbar result of the study showed that orientalist ideol- Najaf Abad & Bateni, 2013). The research re- ogy was conducted by the Chinese translator for vealed that, Islamic revolution had a serious im- the selection of the cover page design in order to pact on translation of the novels written for chil- increase the likeability and to reduce the anti- dren. In another attempt, Assadi Adinlou, Mao motif in the book. To the best knowledge of Nezhad Dehghan and Khorsand (2014) analyzed the researcher nobody has employed critical dis- the political li course analysis in translations of feminist books were written by George Orwell along with its Per- in Iran. sian translations in order to extract the socio-political and ideological themes of the source text and to compare and contrast them with their Persian translated versions. The research was Adeline Virginia Stephen (Virginia Woolf), the famous British novelist, was born on 25 Jan- uary, 1882. Guerin (2005, p. 223) stated that, ideology, change and power in literature and so- lopment ciety. of feminist Literature: The findings showed too significant ideological distortions and manipulation in Persian Since the beginning of the late twen- trans tieth- vein, Azodi and Salmani (2014) analyzed the im- feminist literary criticism developed pacts of ideology on translation of political news by contributions of revolutionary nineteen-century- and twenty cen- study was conducted based on critical discourse tury authors such as Marry Woll- analysis and stonecraft, Marry Shelly, George El- (2002). The news stories were selected from liot, Charlotte Perkins Gilman, and worldwide news agencies namely Reuters, Wash- Virginia Woolf. ington Post, New York Post, and Forbes, and were compared to their Persian translations, which She was considered as a very influential were translated in Fars news agency. They con- character among the intellectuals of the Blooms- cluded that, translators imposed the dominant bury Group. Her works are considered unique, since they have psychological features. She used the ideological loads of the original texts in the the psycho- processes of translations (Azodi & Salmani, 2014). In another attempt, Li, Li, and Miao works. She was also, the pioneer of writing femi- (2018) examined and compared the ideological nist texts in the twentieth century. Her literary implications of an English cover page design of works were published with her own budget, Wild Swans with the cover page de- through Hogarth Press. Woolf suffered from sign of Chinese and French translated versions. mental illness, probably Bipolar disorder, and The study was conducted based on Kress and van she suicided in 1941. Virginia Woolf is better

- in the selection of the cover page designs. The

119 Woolf biography. (2016, December 22). Re- CDA model of Farahzad (2009), the content of all trieved from https://www.Thefamous peo- four books were examined and analyzed criti- ple.com/profiles/virginia-woolf-30.php cally, at textual and paratextual levels. At par-

3. Methodology prefaces were taken into account. At textual analysis, the research was conducted on the basis of This research adopted a comparative, qualitative, 2009) essentials and considerations and descriptive method in its nature, and can be at textual level, including lexical choices and considered as a descriptive and comparative grammatical choices. It should be noted that study. To do this, based on Farahzad (2009) CDA approach, the British novel, suggested parameters. According to her, the ele- written by Virginia Woolf along with its three ments of textual level analysis are open to be de- Persian translated versions, which were trans- veloped (Farahzad, 2009), and other significant lated after the Islamic Revolution of Iran in 1979, parameters can also be considered by the re- were critically examined. searcher in his/her study. Therefore, the researcher considered addition and omission strat- 3.1. Textual and Para-Textual Analysis of A Room of egies as the prominent elements in textual analysis of these three translations.

In this research data were gathered from the 4. Results corpus of the study. In order to compare the three Persian translated versions, which were The results of the study are provided in the translated by Mehrshadi (2016); Sajedi (2005), following, concerning textual and paratextual and Noor bakhsh (2004) with their correspond- levels to comparatively examine the British book, ing English text, the researcher studied the three and its three Persian trans- translations separately, without considering the lations. British book to achieve a mentality about the 4.1. Textual Analysis writing. Then, by adopting three dimensional

Table 1. Lexical choices

M.T1 M.T3 Safoora Proto-Text Masoumeh M.T2 Azadeh Noor bakhsh (1995) Mehrshadi Sajedi (2005) (2004) (2016) من از زیر بار این I have shirked من از زیر بار وظیفه من از زیر بار وظیفه وظیفه که در مورد -the duty of com ی نتیجه گیری در ی نتیجه گیری این دو این دو پرسش به -ing to a conclu مورد این مسأله شانه مشکل شانه خالی نتیجه برسم،شانه خالی sion upon these خالی کرده ام- کرده ام. کردم- -two questions

They are not ."مسأله" and "مشکل" Discussion: As can be seen in above sample, translated it into Masoumeh Mehrshadi (2016) and Safoora Noor the equivalent of this word. The equivalent of In fact, on the basis of her ."پرسش

120 previous statement, she cannot draw a conclu- because of what she learnt from her mother or sion from her investigation around the concept grand-mother, prefers to pay more attention or serve her times to her family with childrearing strictions, and limitations of her society. Thus, and housekeeping, rather than doing her favor- the translators restated her previous statement; able works or taking times to focus on her de- the trouble of getting a conclusion around the sires, such as writing fictions, poems, and the like. On the other hand, Azadeh Sajedi (2005), nently. On the other hand, it is undeniable that preferred to choice the equivalent and reproduce which is equal in ,"پرسش" it in her translation as statement with consideration of it as an unsolv- -text. able problem. Their intention to change rather Consequently, her choice transferred the ideo- than, the choice of equivalent can perhaps be logical load of the sentence, without putting fur- driven from their feminist attitudes, which influ- ther emphasis. enced by their society. In fact, an Iranian woman,

Table 2. Lexical Choices

M.T1 Masoumeh M.T2 Azadeh Sajedi Proto-Text M.T3 Safoora Noor- Mehrshadi (2005) (1995) bakhsh (2004) (2016) در این فاصله گیالس ها که از زردی و قرمزی در خشنده در این بین جامهای شراب زرد در این میان لیوان های بودند خالی شده ودوباره پر -Meanwhile the wine و قرمز می شدند، خالی می نوشیدنی زرد و قرمز، خالی و شدند. وقتی ان روی لبهایمان glasses had flushed شدند و پر می شدند. و بدین پر می شدندو بدین سان ، تا باال و پایین می شد در نیمه راه yellow and flushed ترتیب تا نیمه های ستون نیمه های ستون فقرات هم که ستون فقرات را که جایگاه فقرات هم که جایگاه روح است جایگاه روح است، تقریبا -crimson; had been emp روح است ، پایین می اورد کمابیش روشن می شد. روشن می شد. .tied; had been filled وبنابر این به تدریج نوری روشن شد.

In fact, through the گیالس ها Discussion: As can be seen in above table, in generalization, she gave a general meaning to her readers. In other words, this choice is intended to لیوان های -which means more general and neural. be more neutral and general, without any ideo ,”نوشیدنی logical assumption related to the feminist atti- In fact, according to what can be extracted from the text, Woolf emphasized on the question that, cision was affected by the moral restrictions and . religious taboos; wine is forbidden as a drink and Thus, it is clear that, wineglass in here bares the wine glass is forbidden too, and it is unusual in Islamic culture of Iran, since, wine is served in by a tradition breaker, a woman (Woolf), lonely, such this glass. On the other hand, it is clear that, during having lunch in a restaurant. It can be re- ideological load of the word was removed, and alized that, due to the importance of this word this choice cannot help the reader to recognize and its ideological assumption, translator re- جام ها شراب or to use the Foreignization strategy and produce

121 (2005) and Safoora Noorbakhsh (2004) con- veyed the ideological load of the term,

Table 3. Grammatical Choices

M.T1 Masoumeh M.T2 Azadeh Sajedi M.T3 Safoora Noor- Proto-Text (1995) Mehrshadi (2005) bakhsh (2004) (2016) Women have served all these centuries as looking-glasses pos- طی همه ی این قرن ها زنان در تمام این قرن ها در طول همه ی این قرون sessing the magic and زنان چون آیینه هایی عمل مانند آیینه هایی به کار زنان مثل آیینه هایی عمل delicious power of re- کرده اند. گرفته شدند. کرده اند. flecting the figure of man at twice its natural size.

Discussion: Based on CDA approach passivi- in her statement. Use of this technique in trans- zation and activization can separately indicate to lation can be rotted in feminist attitudes of the a specific language function, in which they can translator against the patriarch religious society emphasize, or bold a particular aspect of a state- of Iran. On the other hand, Masoumeh ment. As can be seen in translation of Azade Mehrshadi (2016) and Safoora Noorbakhsh ranslated in a (2004) preserved the active structure of the function of this structure puts more emphasis on and intentionally, without any force from her op- lives, rather than what the author foregrounded posite sex, serves themselves as a mirror; a thing which can portray anything, except itself.

Table 4. Grammatical Choices

M.T2 Azadeh Sajedi M.T1 Masoumeh M.T3 Safoora Noor Proto-Text (1995) (2005) Mehrshadi (2016) bakhsh (2004)

در-1919 در سال 1919- که در در سال 1919- یعنی دقیقا In 1919 which is a یعنی دقیقا نه سال حدود نه سال پیش است- او نه سال پیش- به او حق whole nine years ago پیش-به او حق رای داده رای داد. رای داده شده ?she was given a vote شده.

Discussion: As can be understood from this format of the original sentence in her transla- above table, Azadeh Sajedi (2005) employed action, which manipulated the ideological load of tivization strategy and activized the passivized the sentence.

Table 5. Grammatical Choices

122 Proto-Text M.T1 Masoumeh M.T2 Azadeh Sajedi M.T3 Safoora Noor- (1995) Mehrshadi (2016) (2005) bakhsh (2004) The most transient فکر کردم مهمانان گذرای داشتم فکر می کردم حتی ,visitor to this planet فکر کردم اگر یک مسافر این رستوران که به این مسافر عبوری این سیاره I thought, who عبوری این سیاره هم این روزنامه نگاه می کنند هم اگر این روزنامه را بر picked up this paper روزنامه را بر میداشت، حتما از این اذعان و گواه می داشت مسلما کم و could not fail to be قطعا از همین شواهد پراکنده نیز نمی توانند به بیش از این دالیل متوجه aware, even from پراکنده هم متوجه می شد این نتیجه نرسند که می شد که انگلستان زیر -this scattered tes که انگلستان زیر سلطه ی انگلستان تحت سلطه ی سلطه ی نظام پدر ساالری یک نظام پدر ساالر است. -timony, that Eng مرد ساالری است. است land is under the rule of a patriarchy.

which intensified the ideological متوجه می شد ,Discussion: As can be Seen in above table Masoumeh Mehrshadi (2016) and Safoora Noor- load of meaning than, what was written in proto- text. This manipulation can be driven from their .feminist attitude مسلما کم و بیش ازاین قطعا از همین شواهد پراکنده هم or ,متوجه می شد دالیل

Table 6. Grammatical Choices

Proto-Text M.T1 Masoumeh M.T2 Azadeh Sajedi M.T3 Safoora Noor-

(1995) Mehrshadi (2016) (2005) bakhsh (2004)

وبه یاد آن آقای پیر افتادم، و به فکر آن پیر مرد مودب به یاد آن اقای پیر افتادم که And I thought of that که حاال از دنیا رفته... بودم که اکنون زنده نیست. حاال از دنیا رفته بود... old gentleman, who

Discussion: As can be realized from this ideology of this sentence in translation, in which above table, Azadeh Sajedi (2005) translated it increased the offensive load of the meaning This lied behind the sentence. This used strategy can که اکنون زنده نیست manipulation intensified the load of feminist

Table 7. Grammatical Choices

Proto-Text M.T1 Masoumeh M.T2 Azadeh Sajedi M.T3 Safoora Noor- (1995) Mehrshadi (2005) bakhsh (2004) (2016) چرا یک جنسیت آنقدر غنی چرا یک جنسیت اینقدر چرا یک جنسیت آنقدر Why was one sex so بود و دیگری آنقدر فقیر؟ کامروا است و جنسیت متمول بود و دیگری انقدر prosperous and the دیگر آن قدر بیچاره؟ فقیر؟ ?other so poor

Discussion: As can be understood from this tense of the original sentence, which was indi- above table, Azadeh Sajedi (2005) Changed the cated to simple past, to simple present. This translational manipulative strategy can be

123 showed her feminist attitudes, in which this sentence was re-created for the meta-audiences, whom may suffer from gender discriminations.

Table 8. Grammatical Choices

M.T2 Azadeh Sajedi M.T1 Masoumeh M.T3 Safoora Noor Proto-Text (1995) (2005) Mehrshadi (2016) bakhsh (2004)

نمایشنامه و شعری از خود او هیچ نمایشنامه یا شعری او هیچ نمایشنامه و شعری She left no plays or به جای نگذاشته که از از خود نمی گذارد که ما از خود به جا نگذاشته که poems by which we طریق انها درباره اش بتوانیم در مورد او قضاوت از این راه بتوانیم درباره can judge her. قضاوت کنیم. کنیم. اش قضاوت کنیم.

Discussion: As can be seen in above table, Ma- changed the tense of sentence from simple past, soumeh Mehrshadi (2016) and Safoora Noor- and translated it to simple present, and at- bakhsh (2004), changed the tense of the original tributed its ideological load to present time. It sentence, which was related to simple past, and can be interpreted that, the use of such manipu- translated it to present perfect, in which transla- lative strategy was rooted in their feminist ideo- tors also generalized its load of ideology to pre- logical orientations. sent time. In addition, Azadeh Sajedi (2005)

Table 9. Grammatical Choices

M.T3 Safoora M.T1 Masoumeh M.T2. Azadeh Sajrdi Proto-Text (1995) Noorbakhsh Mehrshadi (2016) (2005) (2004) Whether they were پیر بودند یا جوان؟ متاهل سالخورده بودند یا جوان ؟ خواه آنها پیر باشند یا جوان -old or young, mar بودند یا مجرد؟ بینی سرخی ماتهل یا مجرد؟ دماغ ، مجرد باشند یا متاهل ، ,ried or unmarried داشتند یا پشتشان خمیده سرخی داشتند یا پشتشان خم دماغ قرمز یا گوژ پشت. -red-nosed or hump بود؟ شده بود؟ backed

Discussion: As can be seen in above table translations and intensified its load of ideology. Mehrshadi (2016) and Noorbakhsh (2004) It can be derived from their feminist orienta- changed the modality of the sentence in their tions.

Table 10. Grammatical Choices

M.T1 Masoumeh M.T2 Azadeh Sajedi M.T3 Safoora Noor- Proto-Text (1995) Mehrshadi (2016) (2005) bakhsh (2004) حتما آن را باز کرده بودم ، باید آن را باز می کردم و در یک شاید آن را باز کرده بودم ,I must have opened it زیرا بالفاصله آقایی مهربان، لحظه یک اقای مودب و مهربان ،چون بالفاصله مردی ,for instantly there issued سفید مو و معترض –مثل که چهر ه ی پوزش آمیزی داشت مهربان، با موهای سفید، -like a guardian angel bar فرشته ی نگهبانی که به جای وصدایش نرم و واضح بود و چهره ای متاسف مثل ring the way with a flutter بال های سفید، راه را با مانند فرشته ی محافظی که به فرشته ی نگهبانی که به of black gown instead of تکان دادن لباس سیاه خود سد جای بال های سپید ، عبای مشکی جای بال های سفید،با ,white wings, a deprecating

124 می کند – جلوی من ظاهر داشت راه را بر من سد کرد و تکان دادن لباس سیاه خود ,silvery, kindly gentleman شد و همانطور که مرا عقب در حالی که به من اشاره می زد مانع راه من می شد who regretted in a low voice می راند آهسته عذر خواهی برگردم با لحنی تاسف بار گفت جلوی من ظاهر و همان as he waved me back that می کرد و گفت که بانوان خانم ها فقط در صورتی اجازه طور که مرا به عقب the ladies are only admitted تنها در معیت یکی از ورود دارند که همراه یکی از هدایت می کرد با صدای -to the library if accompa اعضای دانشگاه یا اراءه ی دانشجویان دانشکده باشند یا اهسته عذر خواهی کرد -nied by a fellow of the col معرفی نامه اجازه ی وروود معرفی نامه داشته باشند. و گفت که خانم ها فقط با -lege or furnished with a let به کتابخانه را دارد. اجازه یکی از اعضای .ter of introduction دانشگاه یا معرفی نامه می توانند به کتابخانه وارد شوند.

Discussion: As can be understood from this the ideological load, through which the reader above table, Azadeh Sajedi (2005), changed the cannot perceive the pragmatic meaning. It can be subordination to coordination, and manipulated tanding.

Table 11. Grammatical Choices

M.T1 Masoumeh M.T2 Azadeh Sajedi M.T3 Safoora Noor Proto-Text (1995) Mehrshadi (2016) (2005) bakhsh (2004) If only Mrs. Seton and اگر فقط خانم سیتون و اگر فقط خانم سیتون و مادر او و اگر فقط خان سیتون و مادر و her mother and her مادر او و مادر بزرگش مادربزرگش هنر بزرگ پول مادر بزرگش هنر بزرگ پول mother before her had هنر پول کالن به دست دراوردن را آموخته بودند... شاید و پول سازی را فرا گرفته learnt the great art of اوردن را یاد گرفته می توانستیم تحقیق کنیم یا بودند...ما باید اکتشاف می بودند...شاید می توانستیم بنویسیم... کردیم یا می نوشتیم... -might have been ex تحقیق کنیم و بنویسیم... ploring or writing

Discussion: As can be seen in above table, manipulated the ideological load. It can be rooted Azadeh Sajedi (2005) changed subordination and

Table 12. Translational Strategies

M.T1 Masoumeh Proto-Text M.T2 Azadeh M.T3 Safoora Noor- Mehrshadi (1995) Sajdi (2005) bakhsh (2004) (2016) قیافه اش حاکی از آن -His expression sug از چهره اش چنان بر می آمد که از چهره اش بر می آمد که بود که تحت چنان gested that he was به شدت تحت تاثیر احساسی تحت تاثیر احساسی است که احساسی سخت مشغول laboring under است که او را وا میداشت تا او را وا دار می کرد مدادش به کار است که او را some emotion that قلمش را مانند خنجر بر روی را مثل خنجر بر کاغذ فرود مجبور می کند. قلمش made him jab his کاغذ فرود آورد، آورد. را در کاغذ فرو کند. pen on the paper

Discussion: As can be seen in above table, Ma- their translations, which intensified the ideolog- soumeh Mehrshadi (2016) and Safoora Noor ical load of the sentence. The use of addition in مانند خنجر مثل خنجر

125 strategy can be rooted in their feminist ideological tendencies.

Table 13. Translational Strategies

M.T1 Masoumeh M.T3 Azadeh Sajedi M.T2 Safoora Noor Proto-Text (1995) Mehrshadi (2016) (2005) bakhsh (2004) به درستی که این جرات را -Indeed, I would ven حقیقتا با این فرض تا به در واقع، در این اندیشه،تا به آنجا داشتم حدس بزنم که ناشناسی که ture to guess that آنجا پیش می رویم که فکر پیش می روم،که فکر میکنم" اشعاربسیاری نوشت بدون اینکه anon, who wrote so می کنم گمنام که آن همه گمنام" که آن همه شعر بدون آنها را بخواند یک زن بوده many poems without شعر بدون امضا نوشته امضاسروده است،اغلب زن بوده. است. فکر میکنم او یک زن -singing them, was of است اغلب زن بوده. بود. .ten a woman

Discussion: As can be seen in above table, feminist ideological load of the proto-text in her -translation. It can be rotted in her feminist ideo فکر میکنم او یک زن .in her translation, in which increased the logical orientations بود

Table 14. Translational Strategies

M.T1 Masoumeh Proto-Text M.T2 Azadeh M.T3 Safoora Noor- Mehrshadi (1995) Sajedi (2005) bakhsh (2004) (2016) چرا زن ها ضعیف Why are some چرا زنان فقیرند ؟ چرا زنان فقیرند؟ هستند؟ -?women poor

Discussion: In translation of above sentence, that, the poverty of women in society was more each of these three translators with conducting emphasized and stressed by the translation of

Thus, the omission strategy influenced cated to all women. For example, not just those زنان the ideological load of the sentence, in such a way whom belong to the middle class or poor class or even uneducated class.

Table 15. Translational Strategies

M.T1 Masoumeh Proto-Text M.T2 Azadeh M.T3 Safoora Noor- Mehrshadi (1995) Sajedi (2005) bakhsh (2004) (2016) She pervades po- او بر تمام شعر سایه او که در تمام کتاب موجودی که در همه کتاب های etry from cover to افکنده است ،او همه چیز های شعر حضور دارد شعر نقش عمده ای دارد ، اما از cover; she is all است اما در تاریخ غایب اما از تاریخ غایب تاریخ بکلی غایب است. but absent from است. است. history.

126 The 16th International TELLSI Conference Futurology of English Language Teaching & Literature November 14th 16th, 2018 (Aban 23rd 25th, 1397) Shiraz, Iran

Discussion: As can be seen in above table, Ma- 5. Discussion, Conclusion(s), and Implica- soumeh Mehrshadi (2016) and Safoora Noor- tion(s)

As Farahzad (2009) stated no text can be this sentence decreased the feminist ideological called as original or target, since no text can be load of the proto-text, which was stressed in this the original of another one. In fact, through the sentence. re-contextualization, manipulation can inevitably be occurred, in which some words or sen- 4.2. Para-Textual Analysis tences may be added, deleted, and altered by the

particular ideology towards or against the politi- footnotes, and prefaces were taken into account. cal, cultural, religious, and social conditions of As to comparison of the three the readers. What was seen in the study of A aces, it seemed that, Noorbakhsh (2004) tried to and its three Persian trans- show her translation as an exact reproduction, lated versions, that were translated after the Is- since she put emphasis on the equal conditions lamic Revolution of Iran, was a fact that, transla- of females, through which Iranian women more tors intentionally or unintentionally forced to change some parts of the text, in order to adjust tions, such as childrearing and housekeeping, or the loads of meanings to the norms, and values facing with casual interruptions. On the other of the target readers. The findings also indicated hand, Masoumeh Mehrshadi (2016), through her that, the traces of ideology which influenced the translations were referred to the religious, cul- moral disorders, such as loosing members of her tural, and social conditions of Iran after the Is- family and her friends during the world war I and lamic Revolution. On the other hand, some fem- II, being raped by her half-brother, and ending to inist positions were taken by these three transla- her life with suiciding. Undoubtedly, such these tors against the patriarch religious system of brought aspects of the life of Virginia Woolf can- Iran. Moreover, this study showed that, Noor- not be accepted by a cultural and religious society bakhsh (2004) used the least manipulative strat- like Iran and can affected the r egy than, Mehrshadi (2016) and Sajedi (2005) in points. Contrarily, Azadeh Sajedi (2005) tended her translation, and Sajedi (2005) had the most to portray the political aspect of this novel, ra- usage of manipulative strategy. It should be ther than illustrating it as a literary work, which noted that, some mistranslations were seen in was constructed based on the postmodernist translation of Sajedi (2005) that manipulated style of writing. In fact, Sajedi (2005), in her pref- some parts of the proto-text, but these manipu- ace, focused on gender equality, which was origi- lative strategies, which were applied by the trans- sisted to illustrate Woolf as a feminist political of the proto-text significantly. Generally, manip- writer, rather than introducing her as a literary ulative strategies, which were used by the trans- writer. It should be noted that, during the study lators intentionally or unintentionally, in the of footnotes significant points for a particular ideological ten- the outcome of the text. In fact, translation as a dency. communicative action, is mixed with values of pp. 133-168. doi: the readers and translator. Undoubtedly, trans- 10.1177/0957926593004002002 lator, readers, context of the reproduction, and Farahzad, F. (2009). Translation criticism: A CDA approach. Translation Studies,6(24), tion studies. The findings of this research seems pp. 39-47. ISSN:1735-0212 to be important for students of translation stud- Fawcett, P. (1998). Ideology and translation. In ies and teachers in the area of pedagogy, since it M. Baker (Ed.), Routledge encyclopedia of can give them fruitful information about critical- translation studies (pp. 106-110). London: thinking, comparative study, and practical evalu- Routledge. ation of translation as a target oriented produc- Georgakopoulou, A., & Goutsos, D. (2004). The tion. This study can also be conducted with other modes of discourse. In Discourse analysis: approaches such as quality assessment, and An Introduction (pp. 27-55). Edinburgh: Ed- Skopos theory. inburgh University Press. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/sta- References ble/10.3366/j.ctt1r2bf6.7 Grigorenco, E. L., Mambrino, E., & Preiss, D. D. Ariel, M. (2009). Discourse, grammar, discourse. (2012). Writing: A mosaic of new perspec- Discourse Studies,11(1), 5-36. doi: tives. NewYork, London: Psychology Press, 10.1177/1461445608098496 Taylor & Francis Group. Assadi Adinlou, N., Nezhad Dehghan, H., & G. W. (2005). A handbook of critical approaches to Khorsand, M. (2014). Ideology, change and literature. New York: Oxford University power in literature and society: A critical Press. discourse analysis of literary translations. Guranilk, D. B. (1979). International Journal of Applied Linguistics tionary of the American language. Cleveland, and Literature,3(6), pp. 260-271. (Ohio): Collins. doi:107575/aiac.i jalel.v.3n.6p .260 Halliday, M.A.K. (1978). Meaning and the con- Azodi, J., & Salmani, B. (2014). The impact of struction of reality in early childhood. In ideology on translation of news stories. Ad- H.L. Pick &E. Sal & man (Eds.), Modes of vances in Language and Literary Studies,6(1), perceiving and processing of information (pp. pp. 163-171. 67-96). Hillsdale,NJ: Erlbaum. doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.1p.163 Hodge, R., & Kress, G. (1993). Language as ideol- Bassnet, S., & Lefevere, A. (2001). Constructing ogy. New York: Routledge. cultures: Essays on literary translations. Holmes, J. (1994). The name and nature of Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Ed- translation studies. In J. Holmes (Ed.), ucation Press. Translated papers on literary translation and Du, X. (2012). A brief introduction of Skopos the- translation studies (pp. 67 80). Rodopi: ory. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, Amsterdam. 2(10), pp. 2189-2193. doi: Jabir, J. K. (2006). Skopos theory: Basic princi- 10.4304/tpls.2.10.2189-2193 ples and deficiencies. Journal of the College Fairclough, N. (1989). Language and power. New of Arts,1(41), p. 37-46. Retrieved from: York: Longman Inc. https://www.iasj.net/iasj?func=fulltext&a Fairclough, N. (1993). Critical discourse analysis Id=50013 and the marketization of public discourse: Kolawole, S. O., & Salawu, A. (2008). The literary The universities. Discourse and Society,4, translator and the concept of Fidelity: Kir- kup's translation of camara laye's l'Enfant

128 noir as a case study. Translation Journal, 117-150. doi: 12(4). Retrieved from: http://translation- http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/jlp.3.1.09sch journal.net/journal/46lit.htm Sertkan, K. (2007). The ideology of lexical choices in Li, L., Li, X., & Maio, J. (2018). A translated vol- the Turkish translations of Oliver Twist (Un- ume and its many covers a multimodal published master of art dissertation). analysis of the influence of ideology. Social Dokuzeylul University, Kültür Mahallesi, Semiotics,28(5), pp. 1470-1219. doi: Turkey. Retrieved from 10.1080/10350 330.2018.1464248 http://www.deu.edu.tr/UploadedFiles/Bi- Mason, I. (1995). Discourse, ideology and transla- rimler/14655/sertkan MAThesis.pdf tion. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: Benja- Shahbazi, M., & Rezaie, M. (2017). Reflection of mins. ideology on translation: A critical discourse Munday, J. (2008). Introducing translation stud- analysis perspective. Journal of Applied Lin- ies: Theories and applications. London and guistics and Language Learning,3(4), pp. 97- New York: Routledge. 101. doi:10.5923/j.jalll.20170304.03 Munday, J. (2012). Introducing translation stud- Snell-Hornby, M. (2001). Translation Studies: An ies: Theories and applications. London & integrated approach. Shanghai: Shanghai New York: Routledge. Foreign Language Education Press. New Mark, P. (1999). A text book of translation. Toury, G. (1995). Descriptive translation studies Tehran: Golestan Ketab. and beyond. Phildelphia: John Benjamins Nida, E. (1964). Toward a science of translating: Publishing company. With special reference to principles and proce- Van Dijk, T. A. (1993). Principle of critical dis- dures involved in bible translating. London: course analysis. Discourse and Society,4(2), Netherlands. pp. 249-283. Retrieved from www.dis- Nord, C. (2001). Translating as a purposeful activ- courses.o rg/.../P rinciples% 20of%20criti ity: Functionalist approaches explained. cal%20discourse% 20analysis.pdf Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Ed- Venuti, L. (1995). s invisibility: A ucation Press. history of translation. London: Routledge. Pei, D. (2010). The subjectivity of the translator Venuti, L. (2004). and socio-cultural norms. English Language history of translation. London and New Teaching,3(3), pp. 29-34. Retrieved from: York: Routledge. http://www.ccsenet.org/jour nal/in- Wodak, R. (2001). Critical linguistics and critical dex.php/elt/article/view/7213/5564 discourse analysis. In J. Zienkowski, O. Pérez, C. M. (2003). Apropos of ideology: Transla- Östman, & J. Verschueren (Eds.), Discur- tion studies on ideology ideologies in transla- sive pragmatics (pp. 50-70). Philadelphia: tion studies. London & New York: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Routledge. Wodak, R., & Fairclough, N. (1997). Critical dis- Mahdiyan, M., Rahbar, M., & Hosseini Maa- course analysis. In T. A. van Dijk (Ed.), Dis- soum, S. M. (2013). Applying critical discourse as social interaction (pp. 258-284). course analysis in translation of political London: Sage. speeches and interviews. Academic Journal Woolf, V. (1995). . London: of Interdisciplinary Studies,2(1), pp. 35-47. Cambridge University Press. doi: 10.5901/ajis.2013.v2n1p35 Schäffner, C. (2004). Political discourse analysis Online Websites from the point of view of translation studies. Journal of Language & Politics,3(1), pp.

129 منابع فارسی .(Virginia Woolf biography. (2016, December 22 وولف، ویرجینیا. )1383(. اتاقی از آن خود. ترجمه صفورا Retrieved from https://www.Thefamous نوربخش. تهران: نشر نیلوفر. -people.com/profiles/virginia-woolf وولف، ویرجینیا. )1384(. اتاقی برای خود. ترجمه آزاده php.30 ساجدی.تهران: نشر شیداسب. وولف، ویرجینیا. )1395(. اتاقی از آن خود. ترجمه معصومه مهرشادی. تهران: نشر روزگار نو.

130 The 16th International TELLSI Conference Futurology of English Language Teaching & Literature November 14th 16th, 2018 (Aban 23rd 25th, 1397) Shiraz, Iran

The Innocent Wife

Samaneh Saeid Department of Foreign Languages and Linguistics, Shiraz University, Iran email: [email protected]

Postmodern fiction is a popular genre which is not exempt from inculcating ideologies. Since culture restricts the humanistic nature of the individuals and imposes its socio-politically constructed ideas on them, cultural theorists have concentrated on different methods to make people aware of their humanistic power and liberated individuality. Amy Liyod s The Innocent Wife depicts a world filled with struggles of nature with culture, and characters who reveal benign intentions throughout the plotline, but are doomed to act maliciously in specific circumstances due to cultural interactions and social expectations. As a cultural critic, Julia Kristeva pinpoints the notion of the abject to magnify the phase in which the self experiences a frustrating helplessness in the confrontation with its other. The other, which can be attributed to the symbolic codes of a given culture, is ultimately a manipulative agent striving at molding individuals into subjects serving the dominant political and economic interests of the society. uality and selfhood is entailed in the process the side effect of which is the appearance of dysfunctional individuals who are rejected both by the society and their own true selves. The significance of applying social assumptions. By scrutinizing the cultural impositions, I hope to proclaim the necessity of re-thinking cultural presumptions and re-considering the inclinations of pure humanity.

Keywords: Kristeva, cultural boundary, abject, frustration, subject, ideology

1. Main text the individuals on the level of psychological appa- ratuses. Something is culturally designated as The process of individuation, becoming loathsome and demands distance. The innocent functional members of the society, necessitates Wife portrays chaotic characters much hated by internalization of social codes by which the sur- the society and its members. While the protago- vival of communities is stabilized. What social nist and his significant other could be treated members adore or disgust is what social system more sensibly and respectfully, they were permits to be adored or disgusted. The theory of abjected and repelled just because they were dif- abjection is a cultural phenomenon that affects ferent. Although these differences and their consequences are the working out of socio-political forces, the society neglects the results it cannot sive receptions of ideologies are essentially re- tolerate. Why an individual is socially repelled or quired in post-authoritarian societies. Eventu- conventionally hated is what this topic concerns ally, elucidating the notion of hatred, how it is itself about. Pondering on the significance of di- shaped culturally and practiced by the social recting similar topics, one can say that the com- members, and promoting the enthusiasm in ac- plicated conditions of the postmodern societies centuating the cultural (practical) aspect of criti- may give birth to socially dysfunctional individu- cal theories to achieve an optimistically amiable als; since these people are the victims of socio-po- future are among the purposes of the present litical failures, it is unjust to treat them as out- critical topic. casts or repelling creatures deserving the label of criminal. The necessity of changing attitudes to- References ward the less-fortunate individuals is compelling; instead of punishing them, more tolerable and Barr, M. S. (1992). Feminist Fabulation: welcoming attitudes are required. Contemporary Space/Postmodern Fiction (pp. 40-41). fiction, as a well-received genre, not only should Iowa City: University of Iowa Press. be read and absorbed but be contemplated. dis- Caputi, M. (1993). The abject maternal: Kriste- cussed, criticized and questioned. The age of pas- va's theoretical consistency. Women and sive reception or the phenomenological reading Language, 16(2), 32. Fletcher, J., & Benjamin, A. (2012). Abjection, bers must move toward peace; peace is not viable melancholia, and love: The work of Julia until matters are strictly debated and clarified. Kristeva. Routledge. abjection is a psy- Gilleard, C., & Higgs, P. (2011). Ageing abjection cho-social notion; while many researchers are in- and embodiment in the fourth age. Journal terested in attributing it to the psychological as- of Aging Studies, 25(2), 135-142. pects of the fictional characters or factual indi- Howe, I. (1959). Mass society and post-modern viduals, there must be a revival of inclinations to- fiction. Partisan Review, 26(3), 190-207. ward its more practical function which is the Kristeva, J. (1986). The Power of Horror: An Es- working out of abjection within the tangible soci- say on Abjection. ety. Kristeva, J. (1991). Strangers to ourselves. Co- -cultural lumbia University Press. notion of abject with a popular postmodern Miles, R. (2001). Abjection, nationalism and the novel, the critics might appear more powerful in gothic. ESSAYS AND STUDIES-LONDON-, clarifying the process of self-construction or the 54, 47-70. shaping of identity and shedding light upon the Oliver, K. (1993). Julia Kristeva's feminist revo- complicated structures of the dichotomies in- lutions. Hypatia, 8(3), 94-114. cluding love/hatred, acceptance/rejection, wel- Russo, M. (1986). Female grotesques: Carnival coming/criticizing. Inspiring critical thinking and theory. In Feminist studies/critical while reading literature and condemning the pas- studies (pp. 213-229). Palgrave Macmillan, London.

132 The 16th International TELLSI Conference Futurology of English Language Teaching & Literature November 14th 16th, 2018 (Aban 23rd 25th, 1397) Shiraz, Iran

Significance in Learning English as a Foreign Language

Gholamhossein Shahini Department of Foreign Languages and Linguistics, Shiraz University, Iran email: [email protected] Mahshid Safavian Department of Foreign Languages and Linguistics, Shiraz University, Iran

Given the inextricable link between language and culture and the crucial role culture fulfills in learning a foreign/second language, the present qualitative research was conducted to gain a profound insight on language teachers' views concerning the concept of culture, the significance of teaching culture, and the reason cultural components should be practiced in language classes. To this end, and based on purposive sampling, 15 experienced teachers in both high schools and private language institutes in Shiraz, Iran were selected and then semi-structurally interviewed. The obtained data were then transcribed and codified. Based on the findings, all teachers maintained that, in addition to Big C culture, special attention should be paid to teaching small c culture and its related components as well. It was also implied that the teachers viewed culture as a dynamic rather than a static phenomenon with a set of discrete cultural information that affects people's lives. Finally, the impact of teaching culture on semantic, pragmatic, as well as discourse levels of L2 was considered, by the participants, to be the main reason behind the importance of teaching culture in language classes.

Keywords: culture, teaching and learning culture, EFL teachers' perceptions, Big C culture, small c culture.

1. Main text are intricately interwoven so that no one can separate the two without losing the significance of 1.1. Introduction either language or culture" (p. 177). Accordingly, learning a foreign language for whatever purpose In the field of second and foreign language is culture bound, meaning that without introduc- teaching, the close interrelationship between ing the culture of the community where a lan- language and culture and the inevitability of guage is used, learning it cannot be fulfilled. teaching culture along the language have long On the other hand, it is obvious that in the been stressed out by many researchers. Accord- learning process teachers as the most powerful ing to Brown (2000) "A language is part of a cul- implementer of the curriculum, and the media- ture, and a culture is a part of a language; the two tors between the learners and the target culture have a central role in providing their students strategies and materials and they saw it as a with the cultural information underlying the lan- means of accurate communication which would guage (Courcy, 2001). As Borg (2003) suggests, help to acquire a wider perspective and culture "teachers are active, thinking decision-makers specific knowledge. In a similar qualitative who make instructional choices by drawing on study done in Turkey by Cetinkaya (2012), aim- complex practically oriented, personalized, and ing to understand how far prospective English context-sensitive networks of knowledge, teachers perceive English as a means of commu- thoughts, and beliefs" (p. 81). Therefore, teach- nication rather than simply an academic subject, semi structured interviews were conducted with cisions in the classroom (Tillema, 2000). Accord- 15 senior pre-service English teachers to investi- ingly, the undeniable relationship between gate their perception of the English language as teachers' perceptions of culture and their actual well as target and self cultures. The results of the teaching practice in the classrooms can be con- study indicated that although the pre-service sidered as the main rationale to attach particular English teachers had positive attitudes towards importance to explore teachers' understandings English, they had not been able to develop the of the concept of culture and its relationship with necessary sociocultural knowledge of the world language in this study. which would allow them to teach English for effective international communication and they 1.2. Literature Review were not able to provide a balanced cultural description of target and self cultures. As the pertinent literature reveals, several studies have focused on teachers' need to get ac- 1.3. Method quainted with basic insights concerning culture learning, and the need to be willing to teach cul- The participants included 15 English lan- tural competence and know how to do so. Byram guage teachers having the experience of teaching and Riasgar (as cited in Courcy, 2001) consider in language institutes (intermediate, high inter- teachers as mediators between the learners and mediate and advance levels) and schools (junior the target culture. They believe that it is the high school and high school) for several years in teachers' responsibility to help students under- the city of Shiraz, Iran. They included both males stand otherness as a part of second language ac- and females with an age range of 28 to 52 and the quisition. Zaier (as cited in Courcy, 2001) affirms academic degrees of B.A., M.A., and Ph.D. The that language teachers have the responsibility to participants were selected based on the purpos- provide their students with the cultural infor- ive sampling. The number of participants was de- mation underlying the language. They need to be pendent upon the time that data saturation was acquainted with basic insights, culture learning reached; meaning that sampling was terminated theory, and intercultural communication and when no new information was gained from the need to be willing to teach intercultural compe- new participants (Ary, Jacobs, Razavieh, & tence and know how to do so. Soresen, 2006, p. 472). In order to collect the In an attempt to investigate teacher's views data, the participants were interviewed based on about the place of culture in foreign language semi-structured interviews. The obtained data teaching in Turkey, Karabinar and Guler (2012) was then transcribed and codified. conducted a semi-structured interview with 6 MA instructors. According to the results, all the 1.4. Results and Discussion interviewees were aware of the importance of integrating culture in FL classes by using various

134 Based on the findings, although all the par- language. In a similar vein, Liddicoat et al. (2003) ticipants perceived culture as a dynamic rather claim that language and culture interact with than a static phenomenon which can be defined each other in a way that culture connects to all in terms of its various aspects ( i.e. Big C culture levels of language use and structures. & small c culture), they affirmed that special at- Moreover, the interviewees' assertions tention should be paid to teaching the small c cul- about the undeniable interaction between lan- ture and its related components. Moreover, the guage and culture signifies the fact "language relationship between language and culture was teachers have become increasingly aware that a seen by all the interviewees as intertwined, recip- second language or foreign language can rarely be rocal, and inextricably connected. When asked if learned or taught without addressing the culture and why addressing culture while language learn- of the community in which it is used" (Hinkel, ing was important, it was pointed out that as a 1999, p. 2). The interviewees' assertions about result of the effect of culture on different levels the undeniable mutual interaction between lan- of language, learning cannot be achieved without guage and culture would be in line with the com- attending to culture. The effects of language on monly accepted fact by many scholars (Brown, semantic, pragmatic, as well as the discourse 2000; Byram, 1989; Kramsch, 1993; Liddicoat, et level of language was considered to be the main al. 2003, etc.) who hold the view that language cause which justifies the inseparability of lan- does not function independently from the con- guage and culture. text in which it is used. Therefore, as a result of Based on the participants' assertions, the in- the fact that language reflects culture, it is im- separability of language and culture because of possible to dissociate the two in any real sense the effect of culture on language was believed to (Fairclough, 1992). Furthermore, it may provide be one main reason for including certain types of the evidence to suggest that people involved in cultural literacy in language learning, which con- language teaching have again begun to under- firms what McKay (2003) proposes in this re- stand the intertwined relation between culture gard. He argues that culture affects the semantic, and language (Pulverness,1995) given that a lan- pragmatic and discourse levels of the language. guage teacher as an expert of linguistics and cul- Byram (1989) also notes that "The language ture must understand the interplay between lan- holds the culture through the denotations and guage and culture while delivering these two ef- connotations of its semantics" (p.94), which is ficiently (Kramsch, 2004). why it is important to teach culture through its

References Byram, M. (1989). Cultural studies in foreign lan- Ary, D., Jacobs, L. C., Razavieh, A., & Sorensen, guage education. Clevedon, Philadelphia: C. (2006). Introduction to research in educa- Multilingual Matters. tion (7th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson. Cetinkaya, Y. B. (2013). Pre-service English lan- Borg, S. (2003). Teacher cognition in language guage perception of English language, tar- teaching: A review of research on what lan- get and self culture(s). Procedia- Social and guage teachers think, know, believe, and Behavioral Sciences, 70, 1525-1530. do. Language Teaching, 36(2), 81-109. Courcy, M. (2001). Language teachers, politics Brown, H. D. (2000). Principles of language learn- and cultures. Linguistics and Education, ing and teaching. London: Longman. 12(4), 461-462. Fairclough, N. (1992). Critical language awareness. New York: Longman.

135 Hinkel, E. (Ed.). (1999).Culture in second lan- language learning. Canberra ACT: Common- guage teaching and learning. Cambridge: wealth of Australia. Cambridge University Press. McKay, S. L. (2003). The Cultural basis of teach- Karabiner, S., & Guler, C. (2013). A review of in- ing English as an international language. tercultural competence from language TESOL Matters, 13(4), 47 50. teacher's perspective. Procedia- Social and Pulverness, A. (1995). Cultural studies, British Behavioral Sciences, 70, 1316-1328. Studies and EFL. Modern English Teacher, Kramsch, C. (1993). Context and culture in lan- 4(2), 7-11. guage teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Tillema, H. H. (2000). Belief change towards self- Press. directed learning in student teachers: Im- Kramsch, C. (2004). The language teacher as go- mersion in practice or reflection on action. between. Utbildning & Demokrati, 13(3), Teaching and Teacher Education, 16(5-6), 37-66. 575-591. Liddicoat, A. J., Papademetre, L., Scarnio, A., & Kohler, M. (2003). Report on intercultural

136 The 16th International TELLSI Conference Futurology of English Language Teaching & Literature November 14th 16th, 2018 (Aban 23rd 25th, 1397) Shiraz, Iran

Effect of Practice Type (Drill-based, Task-variation, and Task Repetition) on Learning English Subjunctives and Modals by Persian Intermediate EFL Learners

Narges Shirvanian Faculty of Foreign Languages, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran Manijeh Youhanaee Faculty of Foreign Languages, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran email: [email protected]

Many researchers have emphasized the necessity of practice for proceduralization and automatization of L2 knowledge in language learners. The kind of practice, though, has ever remained a vague concept and there is almost no clear-cut definition as to what type of practice is meant by scholars. In fact, new theories and approaches suggest different practice types after invalidating the previous ones. This study investigated the effect of three practice types including drill-based practice, task variation and task repetition on learning English subjunctives and modals by Persian EFL learners at the intermediate level. Forty adult EFL learners were randomly assigned to three groups each receiving one of these three types of practice as the treatment. The results of a multiple choice comprehension test and a production test including a picture cued sentence completion and an oral translation task indicated that all these practice types had significant effects; however, the drill-based group outperformed the other two groups. The findings show that drills might have more contribution to proceduralization hence automatization of the declarative knowledge suggesting that this kind of practice, which has been invalidated in literature, if applied correctly, might regain prominence in teaching and learning a second language.

Keywords: automatization, declarative knowledge, drill-based practice, modals, procedural knowledge, subjunctives, task repetition, task variation

1. Main text often without being aware of it anymore (DeKey- ser, 2007). Although it is taken for granted that second language learning requires a great deal of Practice leads to automatization which re- practice, there are, as DeKeyser (2007) suggests, fers to the whole process of knowledge change many unanswered questions about it, one of from initial presentation of the rule in declara- which is the type of practice. Traditionally, the tive format to the final stage of fully spontane- Audio-Lingual Method made an effort to pro- ous, effortless, fast, and errorless use of that rule, mote implicit learning and automatization through drill repetition, the focus of which is tasks available for each of the structures was ran- mainly on form (Dornyei, 2009). Another type of domly selected for the third group and the par- practice is suggested by Communicative Lan- ticipants were required to practice that first for guage Learning: tasks are, as Ellis (2009) says, themselves, second for their partners, third in meaning-focused pedagogic activities in which their groups and finally to the researcher in the learners need to rely on their linguistic and non- class. The data of this study was collected linguistic resources in order to achieve a commu- through administration of pre-tests and post- tests which were given to intermediate learners before the presentation of structure, and after the former the focus is on meaning, whereas the the practice of them. The tests were of three dif- latter focuses on the use of correct language (El- ferent types for measuring comprehension and lis, 2009). Task repetition is the other type of production. Multiple choice tests were devised practice which refers to the repetition of the for checking the comprehension of the partici- same or slightly altered task whether the whole pants of the given structures. Picture cue sen- tasks, or parts of a task (Ellis, 2005). It has been tence completion was the other post-test given found to be particularly advantageous to increas- to the participants to check their production and ing complexity and fluency of L2 oral production included incomplete sentences which were com- (Ahmadian& Tavakoli, 2010). Taking the three pleted according to the given pictures. Also, oral practice types into consideration the aim of this translation was another test of production which study was to investigate which practice type was giving the participants two Persian texts (drill-based, task variation, task repetition) is which included the target structures in Persian more effective on learning English subjunctives and were asked to read the text, then turn on the and modals. Two types of materials were used in recorder and start translating the texts into Eng- the present study; one for instruction and the lish. To test the research hypotheses and to de- other for checking the learners' performance. In- termine overall statistically significant differ- structional Materials included three types of ences, T-test and ANOVA were used. The mean practices used as treatment for each group. The percentage of the participants in each group in- participants in the first group were gone for drill creased significantly and therefore each of these practice and choral repetition. Participants in the practice types had significant effect on learning second group practiced the structures through the target structures, both in their comprehen- different tasks (task variation). For each given sion and production. However, the first group structure, 4 tasks were devised. One of the four who had undergone drill-based practice outperformed the other two groups.

138

Figure 1. Mean scores (%) of the three groups in post-tests

Table 1. One way ANOVA for the three groups in post-tests Sum df Mean F Sig. Square of Squares

Between 5187.000 2 2593.000 27.000 .000 Groups Within Groups 3436.000 37 92.000 Total 8623.000 39

References Ellis, R.(2009).Task‐based language teaching: Sorting out the misunderstandings. Inter- national Journal of Applied Linguis- DeKeyser, R., 2007. Skill acquisition theory. The- tics, 19(3), 221-246. ories in second language acquisition: An in- Ellis, R. (2005). Principles of instructed language troduction, 97113. learning. System, 33(2), 209-224. Dörnyei, Z. (2009). The 2010s Communicative Ahmadian, M. J., & Tavakoli, M. (2011). The ef- language teaching in the 21st century: The fects of simultaneous use of careful online Per- planning and task repetition on accuracy, spectives, 36(2), 33-43. oral production. Language Teaching Re- search, 15(1), 35-59.

139 The 16th International TELLSI Conference Futurology of English Language Teaching & Literature November 14th 16th, 2018 (Aban 23rd 25th, 1397) Shiraz, Iran

ceptions of the Use of Mobile- Assisted Language Learning in the Iranian Context

Amir Qaraei Torbati Department of Foreign Languages and Linguistics, Shiraz University, Iran email: [email protected] Practicality of mobile as a modern technology equipment into (second language) L2 context for instruc-

to in the Iranian context. To this end, a total of 59 experienced teachers from different provinces across Iran participated eagerly in this study. Mobile Learning Perception Scale (MLPS) was the instrument for data collection. In order to analyze the gathered data, descriptive statistics and inferential statistics were utilized. The results showed that teachers had positive perceptions of the use of mobile in L2 environ- according to their gender. These findings can have implications for both teachers and materials design- eptions in the integration of mobile into L2 context, the material designers that are going to apply and include technologies, particularly mobile-related technol- le technology into the textbooks, teachers can adjust their methods to those ends.

Keywords:

1. Introduction cently, no study has been conducted in Iran context to examine teachers` attitudes towards mo- Extensive research has been done to explore bile-based learning. teachers` attitudes towards mobile technologies in the L2 context (Leem & Sung, 2018; Oz, 2015; 2. Literature review Sad & Goktas, 2014; Serin, 2012; Uzunboylu & Ozdamli, 2011). Due to the importance of teachers` role in Although a body of research has been carried mobile learning (Nihat Sad & Goktas, 2014) and out in this regard, all of them have been done in the influence of their beliefs in using new tech- other contexts except Iran context (e.g. Leem & nology in the classroom (Carver, 2016; Ertmer, Sung, 2018; Oz, 2015; Sad & Goktas, 2014; Serin, 2005; Hermans, Tondeur, van Braak, & Valcke, 2012; Ununboylu & Ozdamli, 2011). Until re- 2008), some researchers attempted to explore teachers` perceptions towards the use of MALL in different contexts. Instruments Uzunboylu and Ozdamli (2011) conducted an investigation about teacher perception for The instrument was a questionnaire devel- mobile learning. Based on the findings, teachers oped by Uzunboylu and Ozdamli (2011). It was showed positive perceptions towards mobile composed of two parts. The first part asked the learning. participants questions such as age, gender, and GPA; the second part included Mobile Learning found that the preservice teachers had rather Perception Scale (MLPS). This scale includes 26 positive attitudes towards using laptops than items measuring the participants` perceptions of mobile phones in education. mobile learning about three dimensions: Aim- In the study done by Oz (2015), preservice Mobile Technologies Fit, Appropriateness of Branch, English teachers` perceptions towards MALL was and Forms of M-learning Application and Tools` examined. The results revealed that the partici- Sufficient Adequacy of Communication. This in- pants perceived the suitability and effectiveness strument is a Likert-type questionnaire ranging of integrating MALL into EFL classrooms in dif- from 1.strongly disagree to 5.strongly agree. ferent way. Although the teachers` perceptions of MALL Data collection procedures have been investigated in other cultures, they have been ignored in Iran context. Due to increased and widespread access to the internet and low expense factors, the re- 3. The aim of the study searcher first developed an online questionnaire to collect data. Making aware and obtaining the The aim of this study is to provide answers to consent of the participants through Telegram, the following questions: the researcher then sent them messages containing hyperlink. 1. What are teachers` perceptions to mobile assisted language learning? Data analysis procedures 2. Do teachers` perceptions to mobile assisted language learning differ according In order to analyze the gathered data, de- to gender? scriptive and inferential statistics were used. Due to containing three dimensions, three one-sam- 4. Method ple t-test were run. Also, independent sample t test was utilized to determine the role of gender Participants in teachers' perceptions.

A total of 59 EFL teachers in both gender 5. Results and discussion with different educational backgrounds participated eagerly in this study. These participants In order to answer the first question, 3 one- generally were from different provinces across sample t test were run and the following results Iran. were achieved.

Table 1. Inferential statistics of teachers` perceptions to mobile assisted language learning

141 Variable Number Test Mean Std. Devi- T Sig. (2- Value ation tailed)

AMTF 59 3 3.6780 .47638 10.931 .000 AB 59 3 3.8418 .45961 14.069 .000 FMA and TSAC 59 3 3.7514 .47336 12.193 .000

AB, Appropriateness of Branch; A-MTF, To answer the second question, an inde- Aim-Mobile Technologies Fit; FMA and TSAC, pendent sample t test was run. As shown in Table Forms of M-learning Application and 2, then Sig. (2-tailed) value is .941. The results ficient Adequacy of Communication. showed that teachers` perceptions of mobile lan- Analyzing Table 1, it is found out that teach- guage learning do not differ according to their ers have positive perceptions to using mobile in gender. This finding is in accordance with the classrooms. These findings are exactly in line findings of Serin (2012), and Uzunboylu and Oz- with the findings indicated by Nihat Sad and damli (2011) Goktas (2014), Oz (2015), and Uzunboylu & Oz- damli, 2011), who emphasized the crucial role mobiles in classrooms.

Table 2. Independent sample t test Levene`s Test for Equality of Vari- ances F Sig. t df Sig. (2-tailed) Equal variances .113 .738 -.075 57 .941 TotMALL assumed Equal variances -.075 42.095 .940 not assumed

Conclusion References

Carver, L. B. (2016). Teacher perception of barri- Integration of technology into curriculum ers and benefits in K-12 technology usage. and textbooks is of utmost importance. Knowing The Turkish Online Journal of Educational the major role of teachers` perceptions in the in- Technology, 15, 110 116. tegration of mobile into L2 context, the material Ertmer, P. A. (2005). Teacher pedagogical beliefs: designers that are going to apply and include the final frontier in our quest for technol- technologies, particularly mobile-related tech- ogy integration? Educational Technology Re- nologies, in the textbooks, they should become search and Development, 53, 25 39. awareness of teachers` perceptions. Hermans, R., Tondeur, J., van Braak, J. & Valcke,

M. (2008). The impact of primary school

142 Serin, O. (2012). Mobile learning perceptions of room use of computers. Computers & Edu- the prospective teachers (Turkish Republic cation, 51, 1499 1509. of Northern Cyprus Sampling). The Turkish Leem, J. & Sung, E. (2018). Teachers` beliefs and Online Journal of Educational Technology, technology acceptance concerning smart 11(3), 222-233 mobile devices for SMART education in South Korea. British Journal of Educational perception for M-learning: Scale develop- Technology, 0(0), 1-13 Journal of Oz, H. (2015). An investigation of preservice Computer Assisted Learning, 27(6), 544-556. English teachers` perceptions of mobile as- http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365- sisted language learning. English Language 2729.2011.00415.x Teaching, 8(2) pp. 22-34 Hermans, R., Tondeur, J., van Braak, J. & Valcke, M. (2008). The impact of primary school ers' perceptions about using mobile phones and laptops in education as mobile learning room use of computers. Computers & Edu- tools. British Journal of Educational Technol- cation, 51, 1499 1509. ogy, 45(4), 606-618.

143 The 16th International TELLSI Conference Futurology of English Language Teaching & Literature November 14th 16th, 2018 (Aban 23rd 25th, 1397) Shiraz, Iran

Wide Sargasso Sea

Samira Sasani Department of Foreign Languages and Linguistics, Shiraz University, Iran email: [email protected] Zahra Sadeghi Department of Foreign Languages and Linguistics, Shiraz University, Iran

English Literature shows that different works by different authors from different ears can be strongly Wide Sargasso Sea (1966) is a canonical postcolonial work in which th Jane Eyre as an issues like racial differences, binary oppositions, loss of identity and rejection of oppression are por- Wide Sargasso Sea is also compa- Things Fall Apart Heart of Darkness. Like Wide Sargasso Sea which is a criticism and response to the colonial novel of Bronte, Jane Eyre Things Fall Apart is a response to the previous written novel by Joseph Conrad, Heart of Darkness which, as Achebe believes, supports the policy of the British regarding African people and confirms Western superiority and the exoticism and inferiority of the colonized subjects. As Rhys refers to

Africans presented in Wide Sargasso Sea.

Keywords: Jean Rhys, Wide Sargasso Sea, intertextuality, postcolonial studies, loss of identity

1. Introduction the England she starts Jean Rhys was born in the West Indies in to write about the West Indies in her own terms, maybe identifying with these islands. To study early years formed her imagination and shaped Wide Sargasso Sea as a postcolonial response to of sixteen or seventeen, upon her first arriving in the relations between two texts and the intertex- England and her first reading of Jane Eyre, her tuality between these two different texts from imagination of repression and oppression of the different periods with quite different settings. At West Indies took place and she was shocked at Jane Eyre, written in 19th century, may seem very old in comparison with Wide Sargasso Sea which was written in independent work. With respect to all these crit- 20th century. In addition to the publication date, there are other differences between these two tual relation between two texts and the fact that ial inspiration there are significant similarities and connections Jane Eyre between these two texts which can be analyzed in (1847) and used them in her revisionary novel, intertextual approach. Wide Sargasso Sea (1966), to express her criticism

2. Intertextuality discusses the differences between these two nov-

only when it has become [a] public, alien reality, which major questions are answered made and unmade by colliding with other reali- and major problems are resolved, gives

cess of disappearing with the collision between Wide Sargasso Sea and Jane Eyre. Charlotte Jane imagination all things of significance are related to one another in a and with it the authority (encompassing the universe in which God means well, in writer and the context of the writing) that created it (p. 119). To analyze the intertextual relation between these two texts it is necessary to consider Gerard -de- intertextuality as textual transcendence to deter- her own course, while mine the relation between two texts. According to Genette, intertextuality can be defined as the mutual association of two texts and the existence both knows her personal history and of one text in another one. There are critics who what she should think about it, Antoi- believe that there is no intertextual relationship 112) dra Drake states, Wide Sargasso Sea own and could have been written without the relationship of intertextual referentiality of Jane text, making it suitable for her own time and pre- Eyre another one who asserts in a Preface to the novel man, 1989, p. 117) which was inaccessible to that Wide Sargasso Sea of Bronte and exists in its own right, quite independent of Jane Eyre p. 109). Thomas F. Stan- might not have acc

145 context of the largely amiable alliance of nineteenth-century English imperialism, Christian- land and its patriarchal laws, morality, and as-

In her letter to Selma Vaz Diaz in November 6, 1957, Rhys expressed her awareness of the auda- (p. 181). According to Rhys, the England depicted cious and problematic nature of her project stating: end of the novel, Jean Rhys refers to Jane Eyre finally, I got Jane Eyre to read and re- read and hook on my Mrs. Rochester to At the end of Part in, Antoinette de- aback when I discovered what a fat (and scribes a fiery dream: "I got up, took the improbable) monster she was. How- keys and let myself out with a candle in ever, I think I have seen how to do it my hand. It was easier this time than though not without pain struggle ever before and I walked as though I curses and lamentation. (Friedman, were flying". Imitating Bronte's Bertha 1989, p.117) in this dream, she sets Rochester's house on fire. When Antoinette awak- Wide Sargasso Sea, there are many ens, she realizes "Now at last I know allusions to the previous text and Ellen Friedman why I was brought here and what I have to do". What she must do, as readers of Wide Sargasso Jane Eyre know, is set Thornfield on Sea fire. However, she does not force reality

She attaches her text to the mother- to conform to her dream until she en- text through a sly allusion to the physi- ters Jane Eyre as Bronte's madwoman, cal book Jane Eyre: in Part in of Wide Bertha. Thus, the end of Wide Sargasso Sargasso Sea Antoinette/Bertha, whom Sea explodes into Bronte's novel. It is Rhys foregrounds and fleshes out, the madwoman in Bronte's attic who speaks of leaving her attic prison and sets the house on fire with her candle entering the world of "cardboard." In and then leaps to her death, enacting this cardboard world live the forces that what is only a dream in Rhys's novel. victimize her, that have driven her into (Friedman, 1989, p.118)

the attic and inward into her own psy- If we put Antoinette in moral and political chic spaces. These forces were born in context, her action will be justified since she is Bronte's novel, the physical book "be- West Indian and Rochester is the representation tween cardboard covers" that Rhys's of imperialist England and in her suicidal confla- nineteenth-century precursor produced and to which Antoinette refers: her) punishes her oppressor and ends her pain, "Then I open the door and walk into freeing the madwoman from her bestiality and their world. It is, as I always knew, made

tall on its hind- Everything in Wide Sargasso Sea is linked with Jane Eyre yet it is against Jane Eyre that

146 Rhys starts to write her novel. As Friedman de- 45). the oppressive patriarchy indeed all that Rhys sets out to challenge and undermine she nev- tural theory, marginality is often given a positive ertheless contemplates a different development value, being seen less as a site of social exclusion or deprivation than as a locus of resistance to so- lations between these two texts, discussed above, 52). Bell Hooks, an African-American cultural we can go further analyzing how Rhys borrowed critic, indicates that: elements such as setting, characters, and events of her novel from the previous-written novel, Marginality is a central location for the Jane Eyre, and rewrote and changed those ele- production of a counterhegemonic discourse that is not just found in words depiction and studying the intertextuality be- but in habits of being and the way one tween two texts in postcolonial perspective. in, clings to even, because it nourishes 3. Post-colonialism possibility of radical perspectives from According to the critics such as Edward Said, which to see and create, to imagine al- Toni Morrison, and Judith Butler, literary ap- ternatives, new worlds. (qtd. in Voicu, proaches were mostly manipulated by Western 2014, p.52) critics and were from Euro-American pint of view, therefore, insufficient for analysis of differ- This view is represented in the writings of ent texts from different parts of the world, espe- postcolonial writers who embrace marginality to cially those non-Western countries. These men- show their resistance and challenge to the defin- tioned critics believe that to have a correct analysis and perspective, there should be speech for colonial deconstruction of the opposition be- different cultures which leads to different interpretations, not limited to the one provided by the dominant idea, the Western perspective. Postcolonial studies include those literary works written by writers other than those western au- In Wide Sargasso Sea thors which transfer non-western perspective. is depicted in both women and the Caribbean All these works want to be heard and understood. landscape which are seen b They want to represent their concerns and feeling yet threatening Others: foreign forces to be ings without being considered as marginal or in- conquered and subjugated, and from which con- ferior. Jean Rhys in her novel Wide Sargasso Sea challenges many Western representations of the p.113). Like the nature, the garden and the West Indian primeval forest, Antoinette is a mixture of space for Caribbean writers, especially Caribbean fascination and threat and it shows the relation women writers, to speak of their own rights and between the colonizer and the colonized and the cry out their own voices. In order to resist the co- Western attitude toward the non-Western world. lonial discourses, postcolonial writers as argued Rochester has two contradictory feelings toward Antoinette and the nature and like a colonizer, . p.45) which is

147 he wants to dominate them while at the same greener with moss than the trees were time fears their mysterious powers. with foliage; the church at the gates, the road, the tranquil hills, all reposing in 4. Exoticism Found in Nature the autum bounded by a propitious sky, azure, The West Indies, as Rhys emphasizes in the marbled with pearly white. No feature novel, was the colony of England and the way it in the scene was extraordinary, but all is described in the novel and the nature imagery was pleasing. (pp.200-1) with which the writer depicts the wild and erotic nature of the West Indies shows the repressed This West Indian primeval forest in Wide Sargasso Sea is representative of the unconscious orderly England. The way Antoinette describes as well as the colonized, repressed and controlled her garden shows this wildness: by the colonizer, Rochester who is representative of England. Jean Rhys gives a picture different Our garden was large and beautiful as that garden in the Bible the tree of life Jane grew there. But it had gone wild. The Eyre paths were overgrown and a smell of dead flowers mixed with the fresh living other words, these two novels can be seen as the smell. Underneath the tree ferns, tall as forest tree ferns, the light was green. Orchids flourished out of reach or for the Christian ethic explicit in Jane Eyre some reason not to be touched. One is edged with the voodoo and obeah of was snaky looking, another like an oc- Wide Sargasso Sea; the English Garden topus with long thin brown tentacles of Eden countered by a West Indian bare of leaves hanging from a twisted Eden; the romantic patriarch, Roches- root. Twice a year the octopus orchid ter, with his malevolent and afflicted flowered then not an inch of tentacle double; the deus ex machina lunatic showed. It was a bell-shaped mass of Bertha with her haunting twin, Antoi- white, mauve, deep purples, wonderful nette. The English setting and sus- to see. The scent was very sweet and tained first-person point of view in strong. I never went near it. All Coulibri Bronte is edged with a West Indian set- Estate had gone wild like the garden, ting (for most of the novel) and shifting gone to bush. (p. 19) first-person point of view in Rhys. (Friedman, 1989, p.123)

In contras Jane Eyre the landscape, the Thornfield, is de- Rochester are simultaneously attracted to and al- scribed by Jane in a way which shows its control ienated by the Caribbean landscape they encoun- and measure: ter. Yet neither of them is able to embrace the

I surveyed the grounds laid out like a map: the bright and velvet lawn closely exoticism is apparent in the novel, firstly intro- girdling the grey base of the mansion; duced in the title and then permeates the entire the field, wide as a park, dotted with its story. Yet, this exotic nature is not something in- ancient timber; the wood, dun and sere, herent found in people, places, or objects; like the divided by a path visibly overgrown,

148 idea of otherness, the notion of exoticism is pro- doing so, Jean Rhys criticizes men and the patriarchal society. A thirty to forty years ago identified many of the p.5 bolic system, domesticating the foreign, the cul- p.106). turally different and the extraordinary [to make There are similarities between two texts regarding the depiction of female characters. Like extend the gap between the imperialist center is an orphan, Antoi- heries to further impose nette is fatherless who is fighting constantly marginality and cultural Otherness upon the col- against the men and the inequalities brought by onized subjects. male superiorities. While in Jane Eyre the relation between men and women and class differ- 5. Colonized Subjects (Kaya, 2015, p.2177) without any reference to Both novels, Wide Sargasso Sea and Jane Eyre, the racial differences, in Wide Sargasso Sea the focus on women and their problems and limita- situation of women in Jamaica which was a col- tions in life which can be studied using feminist ony of England are represented. Therefore, in approach. Although Gayatri Spivak called Jane Wide Sargasso Sea the colonizing power and its influence on the repression of women in the soci- Wide ety is insisted rather than class difference since Sargasso Sea, it should be reevaluated since in previous novel, is a woman in an elite, upper riety of cruelties to achieve selfhood yet she class. equates such selfhood with the marriage to Roch- Both Antoinette and her mother are ostra- cized by whites and also despised by their black with contradictory or ambiguous imperatives, between the two races and isolated from both; the reader loses sympathy for Jane Eyre's quest, loses faith in the worth of such a quest, for the object of the quest, embodied by Rochester, has

ject who identifies with the colonizer and learns women and forgets the problems of the third world women. Unlike what is depicted in Jane been described by Homi Bhabha can be clearly Eyre understood in the character of Antoinette who not representative of patriarchal attitudes to- becomes the object of an ward women, but of Western attitudes toward an individual whose identity is determined by an- the colonized nations. The other difference be- other person incapable of defining her own iden- tween the two texts regarding the condition of tity. It is manifested when Rochester starts call- women in each text is that while in Jane Eyre Ber- ing her Bertha which shows his desire to control tha is imprisoned in the attic because of being in- her and define her identity. As it is represented sane, the same female character has all the free- in the novel, it is Rochester who define and de- doms and benefits from every opportunity of life termine her subject and Antoinette is the object including education. In addition, while in Jane who is defined and determined. At first, she Eyre, Mr. Rochester is loyal to Jane, Mr. Mason cheats on Antoinette in Wide Sargasso Sea and in

149 the novel and her confirmation of her appear- 88) but in the end, she capitulates to ance and self. the self-determination and madness imposed In Wide Sargasso Sea owing a upon her by her husband. Unlike what depicted culturally inscribed pattern, deals with his inade- in Jane Eyre quacy by denying the value of what he cannot the cause of her alienation from her husband and ot the cause, of the fe- p.122). Rochester as a colonizer manipulates his treatment and creates a narrative in which he is no longer insufficient and can achieve mastery. identity and speak for oneself is by itself the power both Jane and Antoinette are deprived of. However, the cause of becoming silent and losing his wife and control her. The kind of madness in and the dominant power which makes these fe- is a kind of male characters silenced is not the same. Unlike knowledge in itself which is desirable and inaccessible to Rochester as it is understood from chal power, her husband, but we can see that magic and the loveliness. She had left me thirsty HANER, 2016, p.175) and it was her mother who and all my life would be thirst and longing for what I had lost before I found it" (p. 172). Rhys making her daughter secluded and imposing upon her the sense of being useless. In comparing with Antoinette and the West Indies. novel, the female protagonist tries to determine her cultural identity and preserve the integrity of revenge for his being denied access to what she alist assumptions. Her rejection of the imperialist discourse can be well understood when Chris- join all the others who know the secret and will tophine is serving them coffee when she starts to not tell it.... They can be recognized. White faces, dazed eyes, aimless gestures, high-pitched laugh- his wrong views of blacks. Apart from Roches- ter.... She's one of them" (p. 172) which leads to mutual misunderstanding and creates a gap be- his imperialist attitude is shown when he refuses tween them. The gap between these two charac- to take the native boy who wants to accompany ters, Rochester and Antoinette, results to their him to England though he can speak English by lack of understanding and inability to have a meaningful communication which culminates in mutual mistrust, an attempt to dominate the other, and eventually violence. rialist discourse is the high value she assumes for her identity and her insistence on her independ- 6. Wide Sargasso Sea and Things Fall Apart ent selfhood which is represented through the Wide Sargasso Sea Things image of mirror she uses constantly throughout Fall Apart are two postcolonial texts which are influenced by discourses of cultural nationalism and explicitly didactic in their rewriting of two Jane Eyre

150 Heart of Darkness, respectively. Both Rhys and colonizer and the colonized or the ruler and the ruled, therefore, affecting the minds of both the dominator and the dominated subjects. p.34) who try to determine their identity against 7. Conclusion the definition ascribed to them and imposed upon them by the West colonizers. These writers reject such distorted representations of native read as a modernist, feminist, postcolonial revision of Jane Eyre olonial ligious representation or critiquing the religious atrocities that go into the construction of na- mism turns into modernist pessimism depicting tional identity (Sen, 2013, p.34). characters trapped in their paranoid selves which Like Wide Sargasso Sea which is a criticism and response to the colonial novel of Bronte, Jane Eyre Things Fall Apart is a response sents a society in which all relationships are ma- to the previous written novel by Joseph Conrad, nipulated by power struggles increasing unequal Heart of Darkness which, as Achebe believes, relationships which are based on dominance and supports the policy of the British regarding Afri- submission. Both female characters in two nov- can people and confirms Western superiority and els experience oppression and humiliation from the exoticism and inferiority of colonized sub- the patriarchal and colonial p jects. As Rhys refers to the colonialist aspects of tempt to resist patriarchal oppression corre- and offensive portraits of the Africans presented repression. Loss of identity can be seen in both female characters who try to achieve self-recog- In both novels we can find the notion of de- nition and freedom but the difference resides in scribing Empire and the issues of postcolonial the cause of their loss of identity; while in Jane discourse. The matter of cultural identity which Eyre gender and class inequality in England leads to her displeasure, in Wide Sargasso Sea racial in- (Voicu, 2014, p.43) is also represented in both equality in Jamaica is insisted and presents a dif- oth the col- ferent social reality. Therefore, the power rela- onizer and the colonized state of being caught be- tions or power struggles between Antoinette and tween two cultures and the way they are influ- Rochester are more culturally based rather than enced by colonialism and racism. In both novels gender and class driven. the idea of binary oppositions as described by the colonizer to show the systems of domination References based on to revise this process and de-scribe empire to in- Blanchot, M., 1981. Literature and the Right to Death. The Gaze of Orpheus and Other Lit- erary Essays. P. Adams Sitney, Editor. Bar- members of Western institutions on behalf of rytown, NY, Station Hill, p. 21-62. oicu, 2014, p.44). In Staley, T. F., 1979. Jean Rhys: A Critical Study. this sense, the colonizer, who once seemed to de- Austin, U of Texas P. termine cultural identity of the colonized people, Rhys, J., 1984. The Letters of Jean Rhys. Francis is put on the back foot and the cultural domina- Wyndham and Diana Melly, Editors. New tion they started influences on both sides, the York, Viking.

151 ---., 1982. Wide Sargasso Sea. New York, Norton. Bronte, C., 1847. Jane Eyre. Planet PDF. Voicu, C. G., 2014. Exploring Cultural Identities Wide Sargasso Sea. Reading the Novel in English 1950 Friedman, E. G., 1989. Breaking the Master Nar- 2000. Blackwell Pub, p. 388-397. Wide Sargasso Sea. ÖZTOP HANER, S., 2016. The Absent Voice: Jane Eyre and Wide Sargasso Sea. Journal of mental Fiction. Ellen G. Friedman and Mir- International Social Research 9 (45), p. iam Fuchs, Editors. Princeton, Princeton 173-181. UP, p. 117-128. Sen, A., 2013. Things Fall Apart and Wide Sargasso Kaya, O., 2015. Intertextuality and Feminism in Sea: Revisiting Spirit, Rewriting Canon. Jane Eyre and Wide Sargasso Sea. Interna- Postcolonial Yearning: Reshaping Spiritual and Secular Discourses in Contemporary Teaching. Mannheim-Germany, p. 2172- Literature. Palgrave Pivot, New York, p. 33- 2179. 48.

152 The 16th International TELLSI Conference Futurology of English Language Teaching & Literature November 14th 16th, 2018 (Aban 23rd 25th, 1397) Shiraz, Iran

The Narrativization of Existential Consciousness in the (Post) Modern Era in Night-Sea Journey

Hadi Shahi Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran email: [email protected]

Entering the twentieth century with all its transformations augured an era of inevitabilities and (im)pos- rounding universe which seemed no more reliable like the pervious eras proved to him that he was in a new epoch which its own special paradigms and systems. How to reckon with this time has been probably the most fundamental and vital challenges of the man. This study takes a very wonderful and extraordinary example, Night-Sea Journey, out of the collection of short stories called Lost in the Funhouse (1968) by the American writer John Barth. Nigh-Sea Journey is narrated by an anonymous narrator whom the reader might take as any living being, any consciousness, and most possibly a spermatozoon, who/whi language of probability applied by the narrator in all its discourse evidences the ambiguous and uncertain nature of its contemplation. This study is an attempt to apply phenomenology of Martin Heidegger and Paul Ricoeur and its underlying existentialism of the modern absurd to excavate and investigate how the literary narrative of the post-War era evinces the ontological shift of consciousness of the (post)modern man. Keywords: phenomenology, Martin Hadeiger, Paul Ricoeur, narrativization, existential consciousness

1. Main Text Phenomenology is a modern European philosophy, or in other words, a philosophical meth- وَ إِذْ أَخَذَ رَبُّکَ مِنْ بَني آدَمَ مِنْ ظُهُورِهِمْ ذُرِّيَّتَهُمْ وَ أَشْهَدَهُمْ odology. The term comprises two Greek stems: عَلي أَنْفُسِهِمْ أَ لَسْتُ بِرَبِّکُمْ قالُوا بَلي شَهِدْنا أَنْ تَقُولُوا يَوْمَ الْقِيامَةِ إِنَّا کُنَّا عَنْ هذا غافِلينَ )األعراف، 172( And when thy Lord took from the Children simply the philosophical examination of the of Adam, from their loins, their seed, and made structures of experience and consciousness. Phe- them testify touching themselves, Ám I not your nomenology has been defined in many different Lord?´ They said, Ýes, we testify´-- lest you ways by different philosophers and thus no sin- should say on the Day of Resurrection, Ás for us, gle meaning can be assigned to it. As Gabriella Fa- we were heedless of this,´ (Surah Al-A'raf rina states: [7:172]) A unique and final definition of phenomenology is dangerous and perhaps even paradoxical as it lacks a sciousness as always being there in the world. As thematic focus. In fact, it is not a doc- Heidegger distinguishes the difference as fol- trine, nor a philosophical school, but lows: rather a style of thought, a method, an open and ever-renewed experi- For Husserl, the phenomenological ence having different results, and reduction is the method of leading this may disorient anyone wishing to phenomenological vision from the define the meaning of phenomenol- natural attitude of the human being ogy (Farina 50-62). whose life is involved in the world of things and persons back to the tran- However, phenomenology in its most popu- scendental life of consciousness and lar and prominent sense was developed and ex- its noetic-noematic experiences, in pounded by the German philosopher Edmund which objects are constituted as cor- Husserl (1859-1938). Later on, it combined with relates of consciousness. For us, phe- existentialism and hermeneutics. Husserl devel- nomenological reduction means oped this philosophy to expose and reveal the in- leading phenomenological vision ternal structures of consciousness which mani- back from the apprehension of a be- fest themselves in the immediate experience. ing, whatever may be the character of Through this method of inquiry, one can see that apprehension, to the under- where our knowledge comes from and what the standing of the Being of this being epistemological and logical categories are. Hus- (projecting upon the way it is uncon- ian cealed) (Heidegger 21). philosophy in that it demanded that knowledge be distinct and transparent but it differed in its According to Heidegger, phenomena are nei- method where Cartesian philosophy perceives ther the substratum of Being nor appearances. In the world as objects and their interaction with Being and Time (1927), Heidegger formally de- each other. Phenomenology doubted the a priori knowledge and relied on the immediate experience of the consciousness. Hence its principle of (59). In his opinion, an ap- underlined the significance of intuition in determining the structures of experience. What is also very foundational in phenomenology is the in- this study lies at his special technical language of tentionality of consciousness. The intentionality exposing the inner structures of being and time of consciousness indicates that consciousness is in the human subjects. For this reason, we should always conscious of something. One of the most first see what those terms are and how they are prominent followers and critics of Husserl was related to our study of Night- Martin Heidegger (1889-1976). He critiqued Husserl narrative theory is inextricably entwined with his own ontological theory of Dasein. Heidegger H takes apart the term phenomenology: phenome- First of all, the anonymous narrator of non and logos which is derived from legomenon, Night-Sea Journey seems at the brink of revealing or disclosing a secret if there were any secret

154 at all. This situation is what Heidegger calls presented in its various acts of contemplation alètheia (ἀλήθεια), Greek word for truth. In his and conjectures: philosophy, alètheia is related to the idea of disclosure that is how things appear in the world. In Heidegger s opinion, To raise the question of Many accounts of our situation seem alètheia, of disclosure as such, is not the same as plausible to me-where and what we raising the question of truth. For this reason, it are, why we swim and whither. But was inadequate and misleading to call alètheia, in implausible ones as well, perhaps especially those, I must admit as possi- 188). In Parmenides (1982), Heidegger, based on the etymological meaning of the word, translated In his 1925 lecture, History of the Concept ceale of Time, Prolegomena, Heidegger discusses the things become meaningful to us. In order to elu- eing- cidate the matter, he states: tion to its world, concern and, in its relation to - Alètheia, disclosure regarded as the there is always already being involved in some- opening of presence, is not yet truth. thing. The narrator of the Night-Sea Journey Is alètheia then less than truth? Or is from the beginning is obsessed with its very be- it more because it first grants truth ing and cares about its existence. Heidegger in as adequatio and certitudo, because Being and Time argues that: there can be no presence and presenting outside of the realm of the Dasein's facticity is such that its Be- opening? (qtd. in Kompridis 189) ing-in-the-world has always dis- persed itself or even split itself up In Night-Sea Journey, the world of the nar- into definite ways of Being-in. The rator is disclosed to us as it tells its story, its con- multiplicity of these is indicated by dition, and its positionality. A kind of truth may the following examples: having to do be going to be revealed and yet it may be also go- with something, producing some- ing to be concealed, hence the double meaning of thing, attending to something and alètheia which has both concealment and disclo- looking after it, making use of some- sure in the same word: thing, giving something up and let- ting it go, undertaking, accomplishing, evincing, interrogating, consid- night, the sea, exist at all, I ask my- ering, discu self, apart from my experience of (83) them? Do I myself exist, or is this a dream? Sometimes I wonder. And if I am, who am I? The Heritage I suppos- thrownness which is the past, its being-with of edly transport? But how can I be both fallenness which is the present, and existence or vessel and contents? Such are the can-be which is the future. Temporality is the on- questions that beset my intervals of tological structure and possibility of care which is foundational to it:

The ontology of the narrator in its world is

155 tells us its existence which is revealed and dis- that keep me afloat have led me into played through story-telling. Story-telling pre- wonder, doubt, despair-strange emo- sumes an interactive and reciprocal relationship tions for a swimmer!-have led me, with temporality and narrativity but also it has even, to suspect . . . that our night- affinity with dialogue. In its Heideggerean sense,

and language invites the participation of the Thus our being is contingent upon temporal- concealment. For the opposing stances of the in time and this temporality is displayed in lan- participants mirror the dynamic whereby being guage. Coming into existence presupposes time arises from unconcealment out of its opposite, or and time is that which (our) events as Paul Ric- -5). The oeur maintains, are spread in it. Could we possi- unconcealment of entities is at the same time the bly assume a temporality which its event(s) has concealment of being itself. In every truth, some- not (are not) transpired yet? Even the very syn- thi tax which is used here is limited and surrounded in the entity itself, in its manner of self-showing; by its very temporality without which none is as correctness, it becomes a characteristic of the possible and imaginable. Nonetheless, a kind of pre-existence, in its impossible possibility, is According to Heidegger, temporality cannot -Sea Journey where be shown as linear and thus it may conceal the an anonymous entity, a narrator, narrates its story to itself and to us: we analyze the narrative of Night-Sea Journey, it is clear from the beginning of the story that the -time- which theory of our journey is cor- linear time frame. Even though the structure of rect, it's myself I address; to whom I the story tends to follow a frame which com- rehearse as to a stranger our history mences with a beginning and ends with the cry of and condition, and will disclose my narrative is not linear. In this case, the

This fictional entity attempts very hard to which makes it possible for the care to reflect describe the things of its own, to contemplate upon itself as a mortal, worldly being. If we are to philosophically on the concept of journey, describe the plot of the Night-Sea Journey, first whether this assumed journey would reach an we have to see what plot means in this sense. The end, a destination, etc. In all, he tries as if to re- plot is conventionally a sequence of events which veal, or disclose a kind of secret truth which is occur chronologically in a story. Here the relationship between the event and the time is cru- ever, this disclosure is done through language and an application of a narrative which neces- events to the extent that plot makes events into sarily and inevitably needs to use temporality for a story. The plot, therefore, places us at the crossing point of temporality and narrativity: to be to be that structure of existence that reaches lan- historical, an event must be more than a singular guage in narrativity and narrativity to be the language structure that has temporality as its ulti- However, the plot of Night-Sea Journey is

156 has been thrown among things, the sea, the intended journey, the suicides, the Shore, She, the every order of creation there are two sorts of creators, contrary yet com- dox-naysayers and yea-sayers alike to our fatal plementary, one of which gives rise journey-I finally shake my head at them. And to seas and swimmers, the other to splash sighing past their corpses, one by one, as the Night-which-contains-the-sea past a hundred sorts of others: friends, enemies, and to What-waits-at-the-journey's- brothers; fools, sages, brutes-and nobodies, mil- end: the former, in short, to destiny, the latter to destination (and both narrator describes those things of its concern ac- profligately, involuntarily, perhaps cording to its temporality. Ricoeur elaborates on indifferently or unwittingly). The the concept: 'purpose' of the night-sea journey- but not necessarily of the journeyer Heidegger calls these things of our or of either Maker!-my friend could concern das Vorhandene describe only in abstractions: con- summation, transfiguration, union and das Zuhandene of contraries, transcension of catego-

passage of time and where this transience leads Thus the narrator of the story has eschato- to makes it contemplate about its relation with logical reflection on its destiny and whether this time and how to deal with it in best possible way destiny is really a destiny at all or does exist at all: which is here through the construction of narrative, ironically to preserve itself through lan- s, ambiguities, and sign don't impress me: granted that the only container and indicator of temporality. we can and do swim, that in a manner The narrator in the Night-Sea Journey tells us a of speaking our long tails and story which is set in time. However, when the streamlined heads are 'meant for' story is told, we take its time for granted. As Ric- swimming; it by no means follows- g for me, at least-that we should swim, or otherwise endeavor to 'fulfill our time into its reckoning, without any existential destiny.' Which is to say, Someone Else's destiny, since ours, so far as I to factical Dasein that the art of storytelling be- can see, is merely to perish, one way Thus when the narrator retells the story of its journey, its contemplation about its Maker, in Accordingly, in order to dissect the existen- fact everything is opened out in time. The narra- tial features of the being-there, we have to take tor who is also the protagonist/hero of the story has to reckon with time. Whether the narrator would reach the end, the Shore, or would die on ble thing for us to be able to connect to the realm the way, or even worse would commit suicide like of vorhanden and zuhanden is language: some other swimmers. Thus Ricoeur based on

157 of this fell journey, tale-bearer of a The time of a narrative is public time, generation. This suspicion, together but not in the sense of ordinary time, with the recent sea-change, suggests indifferent to human beings, to their to me now that nothing is impossi- acting and their suffering. Narrative ble, not even my late companion's time is public time in the same sense wildest visions, and brings me to a that within-time-ness is, before it is certain desperate resolve, the point leveled off by ordinary time. Moreo- ver, the art of storytelling retains this public character of time while By recounting its tale of being, the narrator keeping it from falling into anonym- not only talks about its life in general but also in- ity. It does so, first, as time common volves us as readers to share the same existential to the actors, as time woven in com- condition. The narrative of the Night-Sea Jour- mon by their interaction. On the ney is spread out before us and represents an entity who/which has to align or adapt itself to situations or events it has not fashioned or made. It and helpers: the object of the quest is unwittingly creates outcomes or situations not at someone else or something else that its own will. It is here that the narrator as our another can give or withhold. The sole being who is in direct contact with us through narrative has been left alone and it has -with-one-another of to be existentially responsible for its abandon- now ment. Of course, the narrator as any being, or en- together tity, or being- which anyone expresses is always for its situation in a way which temporality of the said in the publicness of Being-in- care can be past (its thrownness), present (its be- the- ing-with or fallenness), and future (its can-be or existence). In the Night-Sea Journey, the narra- Thus once again, the concept of time becomes significant here since the being is spread who have the same destiny. The object of the in time. Hence its past, presence, and future. The quest is to reach the Shore, the Light, the She, or narrator has been thrown as a streamlined, tailed even to meet the Maker, the Creator. The next creature into the sea at night, heading doubtfully paragraph of the story is very revealing in this toward a Shore or Shores of Light while at the sense: same time contemplating about its doubts, uncertainties, the others, the destiny and destination, etc. What is even more fascinating in the his views-but I no longer scoff. The d horror of our history has purged me upward, toward a Shore that may not exist and of opinions, as of vanity, confidence, spirit, charity, hope, vitality, every- to movement and the events of the story occur in thing-except dull dread and a kind of time as a kind of movement or progression to- melancholy, stunned persistence. ward something. The Night- What leads me to recall his fancies is ture/narrator has a beginning and an ending i.e. my growing suspicion that I, of all its birth and death. Its birth as in its present state swimmers, may be the sole survivor is unknown and its death is also puzzling. Yet its

158 seeming death might be the inception of a new Love is how we call our ignorance of beginning or birth if and only if it reaches the Shore of Light. Thus the creature assumes a possible future or in its Heideggerean sense, a can- Nevertheless, despite all this love, the narra- be for itself. One of the possibilities of this can- tor is uncertain about the outcome of its destined be for the creature of the story is the most unique journey. It unconsciously has the tendency to- possibility of death which is absolutely its own ward death. In Heideggerean philosophy, Being- and is experienced only as one unique possibility toward-death is what makes the being-there pos- of being- sible in the first place. The narrator both runs for death and it is its true existence. Heidegger re- and flees its destiny which might be either frui- tion/birth or death: ourselves time, or am I my time? If I were my time, being-there would become a question for it- -toward-death flees in fear from death The care displays itself phenomenally in the as its most unique possibility: the being of the narrator. In his Zollikon Seminars, possible impossibility of being- . In fear, being-there ing of human being as care and, ultimately, upon tries to remain indifferent to its ut- termost possibility, and considers this prior understanding of being? While lectur- death as something that does not

-toward-death, being- conflict and opposition, a cosmic struggle into there does not evade death as its which human beings are thrown, in order that most unique possibility. It trembles they can participate in the light of unconceal- in anxiety for the nothing of the pos- ment arising from the darkness of concealment. sible impossibility of its existence. Love is necessary for human beings to experience Anxiety throws being-there back this light as the surrender and self-submission of upon itself, and thus frees it from its absorption by the world and the verse in the beginning where the spermatozoons -toward-death of all humanity are called on by God to testify out makes being- ry res- of love that He is God, as if there were a kind of oluteness possible, and there with its pre-existence or prior existence before birth, the individualized being-a-whole. (71) spermatozoon narrator of the story in the darkness of the sea, together with the others, takes -toward-death is part in the light of unconcealment arising from authentic for it does not evade death even the darkness of concealment: though it is anxious for the nothingness that might await it both after reaching the Shore and at its present state. Still this anxiety of the nar- every side: 'Love it is that drives and rator makes it uniquely different from all the sustains us!' I translate: we don't other beings and it is anticipated that the narra- know what drives and sustains us, tor is going to reach the Shore and fulfill its des- only that we are most miserably tiny of reunion with Her: driven and, imperfectly, sustained.

159 tion is Her doing; the desire that pos- - sesses me is Her bewitchment. Lucid- things, already being-in-the-world is contingent ity passes from me; in a moment I'll on temporality and this temporality in order to cry 'Love!' bury myself in Her side, and be 'transfigured.' Which is to say, I die already; this fellow transported der the narrator of Night-Sea Journey in order to by passion is not I; I am he who abjures be recognized and acknowledged by the narratee and rejects the night-sea journey! I. . . must recount and delineate everything around it just based on its conjectures and misconceptions of the night-sea. Juxtaposing simple, homely, and domestic things with philosophical, existen- -toward-death leads to tial matters seems absurd at the end. However, anticipation of something unknown which reveal itself, to heed its makes the narrator unclose or unconceal its and our attention to its present existence and the other unique possibilities. It is here that tempo- passage of time in its nonlinearity is fundamen- rality enters the structure of being-there. As tal to its existence. What appears to the narrator whether as real or unreal are closely linked with its narrativity and temporality. its death, and returns from the past through its At all times we shall tell, narrate ourselves resolution to be an individual. The joining of the and care for the things around us, concern for the ecstases of the future and past in this dynamic things around us which are longing to be recog- tension opens forth the present or the moment. nized, their story yearning to be told, to be de- Anticipatory resoluteness yields the direction scribed by another entity. Our own existence is for, and allows being-there to experience the deemed impossible without ever narrating in origin of (53). and our existence is so dependent on narrative We tell things in a narratorial voice without and temporality which is no way or, no chute out ever knowing what is happening in it and how we of it. We are just already here, just as the narrator are taking it for granted as transparently as pos- of Night-Sea Journey narrating our own being in time. deggerian sense to the world. References - -in-the- -there presupposes duration, and Becoming Heidegger: On the Trail of His Early duration entails a time, and to be in a time frame Occasional Writings, 1910-1927. Ed. which is nonlinear demands a sort of narrative to Theodore Kisiel, Thomas Sheehan. be released, a Gelassenheit. This is how John Northwestern University Press, 2007. Barth actualizes in his short story Night-Sea Chernyakov, A., 2002. The Ontology of Time: Journey via his unique narrative technique. Our Being and Time in the Philosophies of own thrown-ness through the tube and chute of Aristotle, Husserl and Heidegger. Springer. existence structures our baseness of being. And Concise Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. this transpires in temporality without which our Ed. A. D. Smith, Genevieve Lloyd, Harold being is deemed to be non-being. W. Noonan, Marie McGinn, Nicholas D. Smith, Robert A. M. Stern, Sebastian does it feel the urge to tell us the narratees this

160 Gardner, and Stephen Mulhall. Routledge, Heidegger, Martin, 2001. Zollikon Seminars: 1999. Protocols - Conversations Letters. Trans. Farina, Gabriella, 2014. Some reflections on the Franz Mayr. Northwestern University phenomenological method. Dialogues in Press. Philosophy, Mental and Neuro Sciences, John Barth, 1988. Lost in the Funhouse. Anchor; 7(2):50-62. Reissue edition. http://www.crossingdialogues.com/Ms- Kompridis, Nikolas, 2011. Critique and A14-07.htm Disclosure: Critical Theory between Past Heidegger, Martin, 1975. "Introduction", The and Future. The MIT Press, p.189. Basic Problems of Phenomenology, Indiana Schalow, Frank & Denker, Alfred, 2010. University Press, p.21. Heidegger, M., 1992. "Parmenides". Trans. Andre Philosophy. Scarecrow Press, p. 71. Schuwer and Richard Rojcewicz. The Narrative Reader. Ed. Martin McQuillan, Bloomington and Indianapolis, Indiana 2000. Routledge, p. 260. University Press. Yu, Jiyuan & Bunnin, Nicholas, 2009.The Heidegger, Martin, 1962. Being and Time. Trans. Blackwell Dictionary of Western John Macquarrie and Edward Robinson. Philosophy. Wiley-Blackwell. New York: Harper & Row, p. 83.

161 The 16th International TELLSI Conference Futurology of English Language Teaching & Literature November 14th 16th, 2018 (Aban 23rd 25th, 1397) Shiraz, Iran

Portraying Feminism for Children in Animated Popular Culture: The Case of Chicken Run

Rasul Siar Department of Foreign Languages and Linguistics, Shiraz University, Iran email: [email protected]

Popular culture is an integral part of every society and its members. Not only does it entertain people, nds and educates them. This educating function of popular culture is more applicable to younger generations, especially through animations. Feminism is one of the topics which can be taught through this medium. By portraying characters in line with or against the ideals of patriarchy, a work of literature (in this case, a movie) could be considered anti- or pro-feminism. The Dream- Works Animation blockbuster Chicken Run, which tells a parable of women in the form of hens, incar- cerated by exploitive capitalists and attempting to escape, can be considered in many ways a feminist work. By juxtaposing the dark face of patriarchy in the shape of Mrs. Tweedy and her attempts to exploit from this bondage, the makers of Chicken Run have produced a stunning and entertaining family picture which introduces the viewers, who are mostly children, to the ideals of patriarchy and feminism and the clash of the two, and in the end by making the hens victorious, they support the feminist agenda. In this Chicken Run and show that it indeed supports feminism.

Keywords: feminism, Chicken Run

1. Introduction litical action. And part of it has emerged from the development of new interpretive techniques for making Traditionally, popular culture has not been considered worthy of attention by scholars and academ- Schudson 47). But there is still a lot more effort needed to propagate popular culture in the academic opposed to the "official culture" and higher education world. A simple web search of movies and TV series in JSTOR database shows how few articles and books the end of the 20th are written about applying literary theory onto them. terest in po Popular culture plays an integral role in our lives. manities and the social sciences. Part of it stems from Movies, TV series, popular songs and music, theater the growing conviction among Marxist scholars that plays, internet fan pages, among many other exam- popular culture plays a crucial role in mobilizing po- ples, affect our lives deeply and make us part of the movies, we can see this reinforced picture of women ture has become our common language, and to be- and womanhood in titles such as Frozen, Brave, Tan- gled, among others, all of which feature a female pro- ense, tagonist who is powerful and has her own voice. Alt- products of the society we live in, and this society is hough in some cases the protagonist is seemingly de- heavily dependent on its popular culture. Genera- pendent on strong male characters in the beginning tions are different from each other, partly due to the of the plot, she comes triumphant at the end by her fact that their popular culture differs from each own abilities and, in the case of Frozen, sisterly love. other. So it should be no surprise that the materials The feministic theme of these movies are often easy presented by content creators through these media to spot and easy to remember for the viewing audi- could be benefited to educate and give directions to ence, but there are other cases the feminism of which these generations. A palpable example would be the may be slightly covered by other themes. One such overly sexist and misogynistic advertisement of the case is Chicken Run. 1950s in which women are shown as super submis- Chicken Run, which came out in 2000, is a suc- sive creatures who often cannot do anything properly cessful blockbuster and critically acclaimed stop-mo- and are constantly in need of being schooled by their tion animation which has grossed over $224 million

Rodger Ebert, expresses his feelings for this movie as triarchy, often unconsciously, since it is the dominant ke best about the movie is that it is not ideology of that particular era. That is the power of simply a plot puzzle to be solved with a clever escape popular culture. at the end. It is observant about human (or chicken)

of hens who try to escape the exploitations of their the newsstands but rather [is] the material from owners, who use their eggs and kill and eat those hens s impressions of their world [is] who cannot lay eggs anymore. Mrs. Tweedy, the owner of the farm, is a greedy woman who is tired of the lives of adults, such as communism, patriotism, etc., can be taught to children and younger genera- plans to kill all the hens to turn them into chicken tions through popular culture, often in the form of pies, which would result in a lot of profit. The hens, children literature such as illustrated short stories, devastated by these cruelties are constantly trying to cartoons, animated movies, etc. One such topic is escape the farm, which fails in the beginning, but they eventually beat the farmers and escape the farm. The route to making the concept of feminism which still anticapitalistic theme of the movie might prevent the manages to send many women and men into a kind viewers from seeing the feministic agenda it carries, of nervous tizzy which is developed through its characters and plot. In As exemplified above, popular culture has the this paper, I will try to demonstrate how Chicken Run power to reinforce an ideology, but it also has the can be viewed as a feminist work, mainly by analyzing power to undermine certain ideologies as well. The its characters and the dynamic between them. power of animated movies, as part of the popular culture, should not be underestimated. There even exist 2. Feminism vs. Patriarchy mated films is the generation now occupying wall This movie can be viewed as a harsh allegory of street; precisely because they have been schooled col- the fight between feminism and patriarchy in the society. The women, or better to say, hens, in this farm (Halbers are being exploited and are kept imprisoned for the economic gain they provide their prisoners. Early in come] the most important battleground for gen- the plotline, Edwina, who has not laid eggs for five consecutive days is executed. Those who cannot lay Taking a look at recent Disney and Pixar animated enough eggs are killed to serve as an example for

163 those who do not try laying enough eggs. The hens in GINGER. What about Edwina? How the movie are portrayed as poor creatures who have many more empty nests will it take? no other choice but to lay eggs or accept their death. BUNTY. It wouldn't be empty if she'd Ginger, the protagonist of the movie, cannot stand spent more time laying, and less time es- this tyranny and keeps trying to escape this prison. caping. The starting scenes of the movie portrays her and a GINGER. So, laying eggs all your life, few other hens trying to escape, but their plans of es- then getting plucked and roasted is good cape always leads to failure. This represents the harsh enough for you? status quo that exists for women in society, which BABS. It's a living. makes it hard for women to earn their freedom and GINGER. The problem is the fences escape the harsh conditions that are forced on them aren't just round the farm, they're up by patriarchy. here in your heads. There is a better w of the characters of the movie place out there somewhere beyond that and the way they are aligned with or against a patri- hill. It has wide-open spaces and lots of archal agenda. Beginning with the protagonist of the trees. And grass. Can you imagine that? movie, we have Ginger: you get it? There's no egg count, no farmers, no dogs and coops and keys, and no fences! finest feminist characters ever commit- BUNTY. In all my life, I've never heard ted to film; free thinking, determined, unwavering in her beliefs and her ambi- facts, ducks. The chances of us getting tions. Ginger is shown from the opening out of here are a million to one. scene to have a fierce dedication to her GINGER. Then there's still a chance. own freedom and independence, as well 5 as being a brave, heroic central character. She commands respect from her fel- She stands as a true leader and hero. She tries to low chickens and more importantly from Rocky, the male romantic interest. (Hughes) tral message then, is escape from a life of entrapment and routine, to a life of freedom and independence. If Ginger is an optimistic character who lives the dream of reaching the grass fields and living a free life. She keeps trying even though she fails multiple feminism not as something cynical or bitter, but times. When confronted by the pessimism of other something hopeful and optimistic. Ginger dreams of members of the group, especially Bunty, she insists something better and nothing will stop her flying on her goals and tries to persuade them to follow them too. In one of their arguments, we can see her ter their food ration is doubled, and Babs is not exe- idealism: cuted for not laying eggs, she quickly understands what is going on: GINGER. Think, everyone, think. What haven't we tried yet? GINGER. No, wait! Babs, please! Stop it! BABS. We haven't tried not trying to es- Wait! Stop! Stop it! Something is wrong cape. here. Can't you see that? Strange boxes MAC. Hmm. That might work. arrive. Babs stops laying, but they don't

5 For the script of the movie, I used a PDF file that is that PDF files, and in the end, the resulting script is not based on the cited work, but it is enhanced in the way that 100% the same as the source file. The link of the PDFfile: the character names are mentioned. I did further improve http://faculty.winthrop.edu/kosterj/crtw201/readings/script.pdf

164 take her to the chop. Now, extra food. then that she realizes they do not need him to escape. Don't you see what's happening? They're fattening us up. They're going to kill us example to demonstrate the fact that most of the time, women are better off doing things themselves

Another character who plays an important role in the dynamic of women and men in this movie is amplifies. They create the plane as quickly as possible Rocky. He is a rooster who has accidentally lead the and work together as a team to fly out of the farm. hens to believe that he can fly, so they all want him to Sure, he does save her from being turned into a pie, teach them how to fly. Not wanting to lose his shelter but it is, in my opinion, to make him a more sympa- and sanctuary, he plays along and lets them believe thetic character, since he does not do much more use- he can fly, only to later let them down. He is hand- ful things for the group of hens. He later comes back some, and being the only young rooster in the farm, to their rescue, but it is Ginger herself who does the all the hens are attracted to him, but meanwhile final heroic deed and causes Mrs. Tweedy to fall. y is all swagger, a con man that can easily coast Fowler is the elderly cockerel of the group who has the need to constantly remind the hens of his days in RAF. He is perhaps the most sympathetic Fetcher are strong foreshadowing of his capabilities male character of the movie, mainly because he is sup- to deceive and let others down: portive of their cause and especially Ginger. He quiets the crowd when Ginger wants to talk (even though ROCKY. Guys, you are, without a doubt, she is capable of doing that herself), never directly the sneakiest, most light-fingered gives her an order, helps gather tools to build the thieving parasites I've ever met. plane, and warns Ginger of the dangers Rocky could FETCHER. Oh, don't. Stop it. bring about: NICK. I've gone bright red. So, how about them eggs? FOWLER. Beware of that one, young GINGER. Don't tell me you promised Ginger. That Yank is not to be trusted. them... GINGER. That Yank is our ticket out of ROCKY. Yep. I promised them every egg I lay this month. NICK. And, uh, when can we expect the He does whatever he can to help, and in the end, first installment? provides the group with the blueprints for the plane, and finally with the motivation gained from Ginger, speak. I'll keep you posted. miraculously flies the plane to safety. NICK. Pleasure doing business with Nick and Fetcher, the two smuggling rats are you, sir. Sucker. representative of strict businessmen who do not care ROCKY. What? about anything but their own economic benefit. They GINGER. You lied to them. only agree to help so that they can be rewarded with ROCKY. I didn't lie, doll face. I just eggs. Earlier in the movie they refuse to help since the omitted certain truths. I'll give them chickens cannot pay them with eggs: what I promised. GINGER. Which is nothing. ROCKY. Which is what I'll give them. these things. Can you get them? NICK. Oh...This is a big job, miss. Bigger than the others. This is gonna cost. The moment Ginger finds about him not being GINGER. Same as always. One bag of able to fly and finds the poster and attaches it to the seed. wall is easily the most heartbreaking scenes of the NICK. You call this pay? movie. It is a crucial moment in the movie. It is only FETCHER. It's chicken feed.

165 GINGER. What else could we give you? NICK. Eggs. porter of Ginger in every step and is a key part of mak- GINGER. Eggs? ing the plane. Bunty is a muscular hen with a mascu- NICK. Eggs. line voice and a strong body, who is a cynic to Gingers GINGER. No. Our eggs are too valuable. plans of escape and usually argues with her. Although NICK. And so are we. After you, Fetcher. her opposition is not so strong to cause her to stop Ginger, and we see her to be another key part of this escape. And then there is Babs. According to Hal- There are a couple of instances in which they sit berstam, Babs is worth extra attention: at a corner and ridicule the hens who are trying to learn to fly: Babs is this seemingly innocent, ingé- nue, passive, foolish bird in the corner FETCHER. It's raining hen! knitting. This is the one around whom, I NICK. What's this caper, luv? believe, we should build a feminist re- BABS. We're flying. NICK. Obviously! Flippin' hell. Look at this. They'll kill themselves. Want to the inspirational speech of the film. And watch? FETCHER. Yeah, all right. NICK and FETCHER. Ooh! Aah! Oi! in many ways feminism has falsely de- Careful of those eggs! fined itself in this sort of zero-sum set of NICK. Sunny side up. FETCHER. Now they're over easy! more interesting, darker strand of femi- NICK. Definitely scrambled. nism we should be engaging that runs ROCKY. Go! Go! Go! Go! Go! Go! Go! Go! through passivity and masochism. NICK. Poultry in motion! FETCHER. Birds of a feather flop to- 3. Conclusion gether! Chicken Run is a parable worthy of watching over In the end of the movie they are seen with the lot and over again. With its rich themes and stunningly of hens in the plane. But their presence there is, in my beautiful sceneries, no wonder it won many awards opinion, for comic purposes only. The way they give and nominations. Backed by a strong feminist and up on their precious eggs is not very believable for Marxist agenda, it is a family movie which can be such greedy characters. In the ending scene, we see pleasurable to both adults and children. Younger gen- them alongside the hens planning on running a erations are presented with these topics and learn them in a comic manner, and there is hardly any other which in my opinion could be a very intricate and method of teaching as useful and lasting as this. Once cruel suggestion that the exploitation of chickens again we see the importance that the popular culture may be repeated again if they are not careful, but that has in educating us and our younger ones. I think is not very likely since the rats are not very smart. So there is no better way to end this article but with far, It can be concluded that all the male characters of these words: the movie (with the exception of Fowler) have been, at some point, the antagonist of the movie, a fact Chicken Run is at its heart a film about which supports an anti-patriarchal agenda. freedom and the need for no living thing Among other hens is Mac who is the engineer be- to be confined or controlled. For any feminist watching the film this will speak to them but also anyone who sees Ginger and her friends as a microcosm,

166 as depictions of real people. Those peo- UrbanCinefile, ple will see that they live in an unfair, www.urbancinefile.com.au/home/view.asp?a= deeply troubled society, but they will see 4024&s=reviews. Accessed 10 February 2018. hope from this film and no matter how RogerEbert.com, high th www.rogerebert.com/reviews/chicken-run- of flying over it. (Hughes) 2000. Accessed 9 February 2018.

Acknowledgements YouTube, up- loaded by elledeq. 24 Jun 2013. I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my www.youtube.com/watch?v=CHd4e2h1prE. professor, Dr. Omid Azadibougar, for his constructive The En- comments on this paper. tertainment Junkie. 12 August 2015. www.imthecautionarywhale.blog- References spot.com/2015/08/hit-me-with-your-best- shot-chicken-run.html. BuzzFeed, Inc. feministfilmblog, www.buzzfeed.com/briangalindo/17-ridicu- www.feministfilmblog.word- lously-sexist-vintage-ads. Accessed 9 February press.com/2013/09/04/chicken-run. Accessed 2018. 10 February 2018. Chicken Run. Dir. Peter Lord and Nick Park. Perf. Julia Sawalha, Mel Gibson, Miranda Richardson and Annual Review of Sociology, vol. 12, no. Tony Haygarth. DreamWorks Pictures. 2000. 1, 1986, pp. 47-66. Blu-ray. Wikipedia. www.en.wikipe- Wikipedia, www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_culture. Accessed 10 dia.org/wiki/Chicken_Run. Accessed 9 Febru- February 2018. ary 2018. Liberapedia. www.libera- HuffPost, www.huffing- pedia.wikia.com/wiki/Chicken_Run. Accessed tonpost.com/sean-randall/feminisney-when- 10 February 2018. disney-me_b_10634040.html. Accessed 9 Feb- - Dia Drew's ruary 2018. Script-O-Rama, www.script-o- Iconic Piece of Feminist Cin- rama.com/movie_scripts/c/chicken-run- teganontoast. 24 July 2017. www.te- script-transcript-park.html. Accessed 10 Feb- ganontoast.com/2017/07/24/chicken-run. ruary 2018. Zeisler, Andi. Feminism and Pop Culture. Seal Press, 2008.

167 The 16th International TELLSI Conference Futurology of English Language Teaching & Literature November 14th 16th, 2018 (Aban 23rd 25th, 1397) Shiraz, Iran

Orchestrated through Feedback Types in Writing

Seyyed Mohammad Ali Soozandehfar University of Hormozgan, Bandar Abbas, Iran email: [email protected]

This investigation was an endeavor to enquire into the contribution of paper-based and web-assisted -randomized control group pre/post-test design was taken into consideration, accounting for the two experimental treatments along with a control devoid of any feedback. The p - post tested at the beginning and the end of the 11-session semester. The results of the one-way between- groups ANOVA indicated a statistically significant difference between the critical thinking scores of the three groups in terms of the feedback set. Parenthetically, the results of paired samples t-test showed a statistically significant increase within each group in terms of critical thinking from pretest to posttest. Finally, some implications were proposed accordingly.

Keywords: critical thinking, feedback, paper-based feedback, web-assisted feedback, writing

1. Introduction potential to scrutinize different issues, create and formulate viewpoints, provide proofs for Critical thinking (CT) has been perceived in them, juxtapose, deduce, assess inferences, and diverse manners. The consensus about the find solutions. Mayer and Goodchild (1990, p. 4) precise nature of critical thinking is little (Allen, consider critical thinking as an ongoing, rule- Rubenfeild, Scheffer, 2004, as cited in Fahim & governed perception and assessment of diverse Ahmadi, 2012). A number of senses about the issues. Scriven and Paul (2012, p. 2) perceive it as nature of critical thinking has been proposed by different scholars. Chafee (1985, cited in skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, Klimoviene, Urboneine & Barzdziukiene, 2006) synthesizing, and/ or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by observation, of our world by carefully examining our thinking experience, reflection, reasoning, or and the thinking of others in order to clarify and cited in Liaw, 2007) takes critical thinking into thinking is best understood as the ability of thinkers to take charge of their own thinking. This requires that they develop sound criteria p. 6) postulates, critical thinking deals with the and standards for analyzing and assessing their own thinking and routinely use those criteria and writing. Besides, it was endeavored to explore the extent of feedback contribution to the five levels p. 3) classifies critical thinking in six cognitive of critical thinking. Particularly, the present re- skills: interpretation, analysis, evaluation, search pursued to respond to the following re- inference, explanation, and self-regulation. search questions: Lipman (1988, p. 39, cited in Iakovos, 2011) states that normal thinking and critical thinking  Is there any significant difference be- are two different issues. Normal thinking is not tween the effects of the two types of feed- complicated and pincipled, and it comprises back, i.e. paper-based and web-assisted merely the mental processes applied to solve problems or to make decisions. In contrast, critical thinking in their writing tasks? critical thinking is more compicated and rule-  Are there significant differences between the five subcomponents of critical think- thinking that facilitates good judgment since it ing, i.e. inference, assumption, deduc- relies on criteria, is self-correcting, and is tion, interpretation, and argumentation, contributed by feedback types? can be found in terms of the impact of feedback on language proficiency (e.g. Bitchener & Knoch, 3. Method 2009a; 2009b; Caffarella & Barnett, 2000; Guenette, 2007; Truscott, 1996, 2007). The participants of the study included three However, a lack of consensus can be observed groups of BA students (both male and female) of among the inquirers in terms of the medium of TEFL at University of Hormozgan, Bandar Ab- feedback to be given to students. In this vein, bas, Iran. Their age range was 21 to 25. Each wavering over the efficiency of grammatical group contained 23 to 25 students. They were all at intermediate level of proficiency based on (2008) states that it is even disadvantageous to their scores on OPT test which they took before -term development in writing conducting the writing tasks. The three groups proficiency. In contrast, a great bulk of research were pre/post-tested in terms of their level of accentuates the crucial role of feedback in the critical thinking. Besides, each of the two experi- language learning process (Jacobs et al., 1998; mental groups received a particular type of feed- Min, 2006; & Zhang, 1995). The investigations, back as its treatment, i.e. paper-based feedback in this regard, mostly concentrate on the major in the first group, and web-assisted feedback in types, and the features of the feedback as well as the second group. The control group were taught with no feedback. The data were collected feedback provision on the part of instructors through a period of 11 sessions lasting for 6 (Ferris & Roberts, 2001). weeks. Parenthetically, the medium of instruction and feedback was in English in the three 2. Objectives groups. To analyze the data, one-way between- groups ANOVA was applied to explicate the level This study attempted to examine the effect of of divergence between the critical-thinking paper-based and web-assisted feedback on writ- scores of the three groups on the basis of the type of feedback they received. Additionally, to ex- other words, this study aimed to determine the plore the within-group variation in the level of more contributive feedback type to Iranian EFL critical thinking from pretest to posttest, paired ritical thinking in academic samples t-test was employed. Moreover, the eta

169 squared statistic was utilized to illustrate the effect size of feedback for each group on the whole 4. Results criticality-score variance, representing a reasonable plateau to compare the different cases of To answer the first research question of the feedback. Furthermore, MANOVA was employed study, one-way between-groups analysis of vari- to explore the extent of feedback contribution to ance was run whose output is presented in Table the five levels of critical thinking. 1.

Table 1. One-Way ANOVA Sum of df Mean Square F Sig. Squares Between Groups 316.097 2 158.049 5.553 .006 Within Groups 1963.903 69 28.462 Total 2280.000 71

As Table 1 illustrates, there is a statistically (Pallant, 2016). Besides, to reveal the between- significant difference at the p<.05 level in the groups differences, post hoc comparisons of scores of critical thinking for the three groups. Scheffe test was utilized whose output can be ob- Employing eta squared formula, the effect size served in Table 2. was 0.13, which is a rather moderate effect size

Table 2. Multiple Comparisons of Scheffe Test

(I) Feedback (J) Feedback Mean Difference (I-J) Std. Error Sig. Paper-based feedback Web-assisted feedback -4.28442* 1.55674 .028 No feedback .29391 1.54142 .982 Web-assisted feedback Paper-based feedback 4.28442* 1.55674 .028 No feedback 4.57833* 1.52461 .014 No feedback Paper-based feedback -.29391 1.54142 .982 Web-assisted feedback -4.57833* 1.52461 .014 *. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.

Table 2 illuminates that the mean score of the results did not indicate a significant differ- paper-based feedback was significantly different ence between the mean scores of no-feedback from that of the web-assisted type; that is, the and paper-based groups. Consequently, it can be web-assisted group significantly outperformed concluded that the web-assisted feedback had a the paper-based case. Also, it reveals the significant difference between the mean scores of web- level of critical thinking. In order to answer the assisted and no-feedback groups; that is, the second research question, MANOVA was carried web-assisted group performed significantly bet- out whose results are shown in Table 3. ter than the group with no feedback. However,

170 Table 3. Tests of Between-Subjects Effects (MANOVA) Type III Dependent Vari- Mean Partial Eta Source Sum of df F Sig. able Square Squared Squares Inferences 11.857 2 5.928 2.683 .075 .072 Assumptions 7.684 2 3.842 1.368 .261 .038 Feedback Deductions 27.408 2 13.704 1.790 .175 .049 Interpretations 1.926 2 .963 .612 .545 .017 Arguments 185.091 2 92.545 10.576 .000 .235

Table 3 reveals that the contribution of feed- such meaningful impact on the argument level of back on the whole was merely significant to the critical thinking, post hoc comparisons of Scheffe fifth level of critical thinking, i.e. argument. To test were conducted. Table 4 delineates the re- specify exactly the type of feedback triggering spective results.

Table 4. Multiple Comparisons of Scheffe Test Mean Difference Std. Er- Dependent Variable (I) Feedback (J) Feedback Sig. (I-J) ror web-assisted paper-based feed- 3.1214* .86317 .002 feedback back no feedback -.4870 .85468 .837 paper-based feed- web-assisted -3.1214* .86317 .002 Argu- back Scheffe feedback ments no feedback -3.6083* .84535 .000 paper-based feed- .4870 .85468 .837 back no feedback web-assisted 3.6083* .84535 .000 feedback *. The mean difference is significant at the .05 level.

Table 4 indicates that whenever the web-as- The findings of the study confirms sisted feedback is present, the contribution Srichanyachon (2012) who accentuates the would yield a significant index. In other words, significance role of teacher feedback in learning, the table shows that the feedback interaction de- and what educational researchers have addressed void of the web-assisted case, i.e. paper-based about the way to assist students gain critical and no-feedback interaction, entails an insignifi- thinking skills (Browne & Keeley, 2001; cant contribution to the argument level of criti- Henderson, 2001; Perkins, Jay, & Tishman, cal thinking. Consequently, it can be said that 1993; Raths et al., 1986; Torff, 2003). In this this was the web-assisted feedback which repect, critical thinking have been the focus of a prompted a meaningful impact on the argument growing body of literature in the realm of aspect of critical thinking. language teaching and learning (Raudenbush, Rowan, & Cheong, 1993; Torff & Warburton, 5. Discussion 2005; Zohar, Degani, & Vaakin, 2001; Zohar & Dori, 2003). Also, Hyland (2003) confirms the

171 significance of teacher feedback maintaining learning promoted by the institutional that it functions as a guidance for language leadership (Coe et al, 2014) to both generate and development, leading to critical self-correction gain the knowledge of diverse mediums of opportunity. Additionally, the results of the feedback. Learners may become more active and more willing in performing the tasks critically viewpoint, stating that teacher feedback when teacher responds to their assignments provides learners with information they need so through feedback. However, learners appear to they can critically recognize where they are in become substantially critical thinkers due to the their learning and what to do next, and web-assisted type of feedback as an alternative to consequently, they develop a sense of control the paper-based type. over their own learning. In congruence with the results of the present study in terms of the 7. Pedagogical Implications significant effect of web-assisted feedback on Instructors should provide learners with confirms similar issues (e.g. Page, 2003; Shermis enough opportunity to notice the comments in a and Burstein, 2003; Warschauer and Ware, critical way so as to fully perceive the intentions 2006). Moreover, a number of studies confirm behind them (Duncan, 2007). Also, feedback the computer-assisted feedback superiority over should be multi-modally given so as not to be paper-based feedback due to some learner- perceived by learners as an indication of oriented socio-affective reasons (Ji-jun, 2013; right/wrong prescription. In other words, feed- Matsumara, 2004). In the same vein, the back delivery can be performed as an instruc- literature on computer-assisted feedback, tional rather than a correctional aspect of the putting this issue into different frames such as learning process; that is, a learning-centered web-based feedback, internet-based feedback, mode of feedback delivery should be emphasized blog-based pair-correction, or mobile-, social- over a teacher-centered mode in order to scaffold network-, and other technology-facilitated types ty and criticality aspects of of feedback, have consistently confirmed that their learning process. If learners can be in- this type of feedback provides a quick way of formed through multimodalities of web-assisted providing indirect instruction which reduces the feedback scaffoldings, they might find substantial time and space within their learning pro- output and report being more motivated due to cesses to strategically think about their to-do taking advantage of this type of feedback (e.g. tasks while choosing a multitude of resources Lavolette, Polio, & Kahng, 2014; Rostami & and gradually developing their critical thinking Hoveidi, 2014; Ware, 2003). skills. Although learners might have already employed some of these web-assisted multimodali- 6. Conclusion ties, they may not always be conscious of such mediated processes like web-assisted feedback It can be concluded that language learning triggering potential knowledge of how to think development might take place when fostering and act critically while accomplishing the L2 would be tasks. emphasized through a sort of feedback which is more personalized, dynamic, and challenging as References in web-assisted cases. Consequently, teachers can be regarded as mediated mentors in an Bitchener, J., Young, S., & Cameron, D. (2005). environment of trust, support, and professional The effect of different types of corrective

172 feedback on ESL student writing. Journal An introduction to critical thinking. Mah- of Second Language Writing 14, 191 205. wah, NJ: Erlbaum. Ellis, R. (2009). Corrective feedback and teacher McGarrell, H., & Verbeen, J. (2007). Motivating development. L2 Journal, 3-18. revision of drafts through formative feed- Facione, P. A. (2010). Critical thinking: What it back. ELT Journal, 61, 228-236. is and why it counts? Retrieved from Moon, J. (2008). Critical thinking: An explora- http://www.insightassess- tion of theory and practice. London: ment.com/pdf_files/what & why2006.pdf. Routledge. Fahim, M., Bagherkazemi, M. & Alemi, M. Rassaei, E., & Moinzadeh, A. (2011). Investigat- (2010). The relationship between test taking the effects of three types of corrective feedback on the acquisition of English Wh- formance on the reading section of question forms by Iranian EFL learners. TOEFL. Journal of Language Teaching and English Language Teaching, 4 (2), 97-106. Research, 1(6), 830-837. Sheen, Y. (2007). The effect of focused written Ferris, D. R. (2006). Does error feedback help corrective feedback and language aptitude student writers? New evidence on short- on ESL learners‟ acquisition of articles. and long-term effects of written error cor- TESOL Quarterly 41, 255 283. rection. In K. Hyland & F. Hyland (Eds.), Watson, G. B., & Glaser, E. M. (2002). Critical Feedback in second language writing: Con- Thinking Appraisal. UK. London: The Psy- texts and issues. (pp. 81-104). chological Corporation. Halpern, D. F. (2003). Thought and knowledge:

173 The 16th International TELLSI Conference Futurology of English Language Teaching & Literature November 14th 16th, 2018 (Aban 23rd 25th, 1397) Shiraz, Iran

Multiculturalism in Discourse of Oxford English Language Teaching Materials: A Reading Course Case

Sara Mansouri English Department, Islamic Azad University, Najafabad Branch, Iran email: [email protected]

English language teaching materials of Oxford University Press, the case of the 14-chapter intermediate level of Select Readings (Lee & Gundersen, 2011). In other words, this research intended to provide a numerical examination of six measures of multiculturalism to see the extent to which a reading comprehension course book of Oxford University Press values and engages other cultures except American. This type of discourse analysis was made possible through adopting the taxonomy suggested by Bhattacharya (2005) for multiculturalism elements and sub-elements. The quantitative/qualitative analysis of this English teaching material revealed that all of the chapters of the corpus satisfy at least one or two criteria of having multicultural topics. Based on the identity of the writers, none of the chapters take care of multiculturalism because all of the passage writers are American. Less than half of the chapters educate learners about other cultures except American, the amount of loan or foreign words is too low and ap- proximately most of the tasks are not intended to provoke ideas and discussions on cultural issues. The present study, however, makes several noteworthy contributions to English language teaching material designers and suggest them to evaluate the audience and their dispersion in various parts of the world, take care of the measures of multiculturalism and involve topics and exercises that encourage cultural .

Keywords: multiculturalism, discourse analysis, English language teaching materials, reading comprehension materials, select readings, Oxford University Press

1. Introduction some other distinctive societies, for example French Canada and English Canada. Multicultur- Multiculturalism portrays the presence, ac- alism may also happen when people immigrate knowledgment, or advancement of different so- from various locales all around the globe to a par- cial conventions inside a solitary region, and con- ticular place (e.g. Australia, Canada, United siders the way of life attached to a native gather- States, United Kingdom, and numerous different ing. It can be the result of a purview which is nations). Multicultural belief systems and ap- made or extended by merging territories with proaches fluctuate widely (Harper, 2011), ex- highlights that institutes and pupils must be in- tending from the support of equivalent apprecia- volved in addressing issues like social inequality tion to the different cultures in a general public, and discrimination and teachers have to enable to an arrangement of advancing the preservation students to diagnose unfair systems of class, of social assorted qualities and to strategies in caste, race, gender or religion, and encounter which individuals of different ethnic and reli- with them (Richards, 2001). gious gatherings are tended to by the powers, ac- Multiculturalism helps the teachers to pro- cording to Kenan (2010). Burgess & Burgess vide students with information about the histo- (2005) designate Multiculturalism as a "salad ries, cultures, and commitments of differing so- bowl" and "cultural mosaic" and it is regarded as cieties; it expects that the future society is plural- advances keeping up the peculiarity of numerous istic and draws on bits of knowledge from various societies and regularly differentiated from other diverse fields, including ethnic studies and policies such as social combination, cultural ad- woman studies, and additionally reinterprets aptation and racial isolation. Not at all like Post content from related scholarly disciplines (Banks colonialism, which has come to culmination on & Banks, 2013). It helps language teachers to the both sides of the Atlantic, the hypothesis of promote principles such as diversity, inclusion, multiculturalism has for the most part been cre- skill acquisition, inquiry, democracy, critical ated in Canada and the United States as an una- thought, value of perspectives, and self-reflec- voidable truth and for a long while a strategy for tion. It urges students to bring pieces of their cul- certain administration offices (Kitano and Dan- tures into the classroom and thus, permits lan- iels, 1998). As a nearly late advancement, not guage teachers to strengthen the pupils' rational only does it presupposes the possibility of cul- and social/emotional development. To imple- tural relativism but it also accepts freedom devel- ment multiculturalism in the textbooks and lan- opments, including the social equality develop- guage classrooms, the teachers should use illus- ment and the postmodernist festival of "con- trations and materials from multiple cultures in trast", the counter Patriotism happening in their teaching. They also need to help students to 1960s, and the mass inundation of students with comprehend, examine, and decide how the im- a non-Western background into the North Amer- plicit social presumptions, reference frames, ican colleges (Long, 1997). points of view, and inclinations inside a disci- Multiculturalism in teaching English to sec- pline impact the courses in which the material is ond language learners implies the utilization of a built. The prejudice and racial attitudes should be set of strategies and materials that help teachers altered by teaching methods and materials and a react to the numerous issues made by the quickly school culture and equity pedagogy that author- changing demographics of their students (Banks ize students from various racial, ethnic, and gen- & Banks, 2013). It is a reality, a model and strat- der groups should be created (Banks & Banks, egy that underlines the distinctive selves of di- 2013). verse nations of the globe and its high ideals are While Fairclough (2004) characterizes text stressed through cultural pluralism and social re- as any real case of language being used, Cutting constructionism within the field of education. (2003) defines scripts as parts of spoken or writ- The focus of former is on the necessity of cross- ten discourse. Fairclough (2004) highlights that cultural competence development and intercul- discourses are ways of demonstrating the proce- tural communication growth to allow the learn- dures, associations and arrangements of the ers to join dissimilar values and the values of the physical world, the conceptual world of judge- overriding economic and social group. The latter ments and the social world. He believes that discourses represent not the same sides of the all

175 God's creatures, and they are related with the dif- than the other coursebook in a norm called gen- ferent associations people have to the globe. He eral considerations. The two coursebooks trivi- states that discourses establish the chunks of the ally differed in some conditions such as struc- tools that people make use of in connecting with one another, keeping isolated from one another, Akincioglu (2012) analyzed critically the dis- collaborating, challenging, ruling, and looking course of two EAP textbooks and indicated that for changing the ways in which they relate to one they differed considerably in terms of the num- another. Cook (2000) argues that discourse anal- ber of authentic texts that are ideologically ysis surveys exactly how pieces of language loaded with iconic symbols and recognizable (which are reflected upon in their full social, tex- words of neoliberal discourse. One of them in- tual and psychological context) become mean- cluded only one such text and this was without ingful and cohesive for their users and provide any symbols and detectable words of neoliberal understandings into the difficulties and proce- discourse. On the other hand, the other provided dures of language use and language learning. seven authentic and ideologically overloaded texts six of which included the iconic signs and 2. Literature review identifiable words of neoliberal discourse of which globalisation was most ubiquitous, with Both English language teaching materials production, process, commercialisation, mobil- (Vellenga, 2004; Hamiloglu and Karliova, 2009; ity, and marketization, also appearing fre- Jahangard, 2007; Sahragard, Rahimi and Za- quently. remoayyedi, 2009; Azizfar, Koosha, and Lotfi, Dickinson (2010) evaluated the course book 2010) and their discourse are investigated or and supplementary materials of Let's Go 1 regard- critically analyzed from different perspectives ing general appearance, layout and design, meth- which are as follows. odology, activities, language skills, language con- Bhattacharya (2005) studied the use and extent, topic content, teachability and flexibility, ploitation of multicultural markers in texts of and assessment. He concluded that these re- teaching English as a first language in a Scottish sources are colorful and sound thought-provok- school and an Indian school and found that ing and entertaining for young learners and the nearly two-thirds of all the texts in the Indian coursebook and other materials are easy to be and Scottish school books involved multicultural understood, the materials are easy to be used by markers, that is, 67 texts out of 108 texts had at teachers and learners, the language and topic least one multicultural marker. So, in percentage content is generally appropriate, but sometimes terms, 62.04 % texts from both the books taken needs to be adapted or supplemented based on together had multicultural markers and indi- how the local context is. He assumed that the cated that both the books failed in providing teaching methodology presented in the tea enough tasks that can be considered multicul- manual is not well-matched with either learning- tural markers. or learner-centered approaches and the gram- Jafarigohar and Ghaderi (2013) analysis of matical/ structural approach to presenting and two coursebooks Topnotch and Total English practicing language potentially confines imagi- demonstrated that teachers were more gratified nation and inspiration. by Topnotch than Total English in the principles Mohammadzadeh (2009) investigated the such as exercises, components of language, activ- techniques of engaging multicultural literary ities, tasks, and the structures of critical dis- texts in the curriculum of English language course analysis. The second thing to consider is teaching to come across the needs of the learners that they were more fulfilled with Total English who were from various cultures. He showed that

176 teachers will guide their learners to understand The use of multicultural materials in lan- more effectively the illustrations of central and guage classes can benefit the learners because inferior beliefs to be found in both Eurocentric they help them to be exposed quite early to a and postcolonial literary texts by using the post- multicultural reality characterizing many socie- colonial literary philosophy will achieve higher ties nowadays and allow them to participate in levels of multicultural literacy, which makes several different cultures. Providing the learners them more effective intercultural communica- with multicultural textbooks and teaching mate- tors. rials enables them to take part in culture of the Ranalli (2002), using Cunn dominant social or economic group and not to be guidelines, assessed upper-intermediate level engaged with issues such as social injustice and book of New Headway series and discovered that inequality. Therefore, it is very important for the the textbook stick to a present practice-produce language teaching materials to help protecting approach to learning and units of the book ar- liberal views in the present situation of the range for a partly-authentic setting context for world, where the cultures are indeed inharmoni- the target language patterns and examples. ous with one another and there is no place for Kayapinar (2009) investigated two textbook satisfaction for all the civilizing forces. Language packages comprising Opportunities and New Eng- Teaching materials, especially that of English lish File. which is an international lingual franca nowa- sults, he found that the teachers had not an over- days are very important pillars of that force. all positive attitude toward aforementioned Although the above investigations have ex- coursebook packages. amined the discourse of some English teaching Litz (2005) investigated English Firsthand 2 only and noted that the textbook was interesting few authors in the literature scientifically de- enough for many English language teachers and scribe multiculturalism in the discourse of Eng- learners. He also concluded that the textbook lish language teaching materials focusing on was generally communicative in that it followed reading comprehension. It motivated us to re- an activity approach towards teaching and learn- search the largely neglected area of the discourse ing. of reading materials for multiculturalism based Dominguez (2003) examined the represen- on a categorization and criteria determination tation of masculinity and femininity in exam- elaborated on below. ples, dialogues, and job positions in both texts and examples of New Interchange Intro. She concluded that the textbook is a valuable source for 3. Methodology the teachers as it considers both cultural and multiracial settings. She also claimed that the The present study is motivated to investi- textbook has been successful in considering gate multiculturalism traces in the discourse of the intermediate level of Select Readings (Lee and ticularly at beginner levels, and providing a bal- Gundersen, 2011), second edition, published by ance in depicting the two genders. OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS in New York, de- Tok (2010) studied the weaknesses and signed to engage the students in reading courses Spot On with its interesting and level-appropriate con- and indicated that the negative attributes of the tents and to meet the needs of global learners. textbook outweighed highly its positive charac- The paper intends to do a discourse analysis of a teristics. case of teacher-approved readings to determine

177 its implementation of multiculturalism. The ele- and the criteria determining each element as ments investigated in this 14-chapter reading multicultural are indicated in Table 1. English language material for multiculturalism

Table 1. Elements and criteria for multiculturalism in discourse analysis (adopted from Bhattacharya (2005: 41-43), with small changes) Theme or Topic or Content: What kind of theme or topic or content can be considered multicultural? Is the theme or topic or content of the text multicultural? 1. Dealing with a culture which is not the dominant culture of the country in which the book is published and used 2. Focusing on social issues associated with multicultural societies like migration, dislocation, immigration, racist abuse, isolation, linguistic hegemony, cultural plurality, social integration and assimilation 3. Concentrating on histories, achievements of people other than those native to the land of book publication 4. Stressing on informing about the geography, natural events or cultures of other lands Identity of the Writer: Where does the writer hail from? Is the writer a native of the land in which the respective book is published and used? 1. Including writers from different cultures and nations Goal or Purpose of the Writer inform or educate about other cultures? 1. Narrating, evoking feelings and thoughts, comparing, reporting or informing, educating or persuading as means the writer uses to explain multicultural issues Foreign or Loan Words: Are there foreign or loan words in the passages? Tone or Attitude of the Writer: What kind of a tone or attitude does the writer assume for his/ her purpose? 1. Being warm, polite, cautious, sarcastic, ironic, bitter, funny, humorous, persuasive or serious or a combination of more than one of these tones achieving the writer's purpose Tasks: What kind of tasks do the series editor(s) set for the students? Do the questions harp on the cultural and social issues? Do the questions make the students think about the diversity of cultures and traditions? Do the questions make the students relate to different cultures? 1. Making the learners think about cultural and social issues or asking them to relate to different cultures such as open-ended questions and tasks that welcome discussions and the views of the learners or explain other cultures

3.1. Data analysis toward science in Table 2. The topic should encounter the learners with a culture not principal It is apparent from the above table that the in the country of book publication. That is, topics topic or content should satisfy four criteria to be are considered multicultural in Select Readings called multicultural. The satisfaction or dissatis- that do not represent American-specific points faction of each criterion is shown with Y repre- because this book is published by the New York senting Yes, N for No and 0 for the discussion of office of OXFORD. The second criterion is re- culture-neutral elements such as how to make a lated with considering the issues of multicultural speech, letters of application and public attitudes societies as the topic of the reading. These issues

178 include assimilation, immigration, linguistic he- considered multicultural. The application of loan gemony dislocation, migration, racist abuse, iso- and foreign words, exposing learners to other lation, cultural plurality, and social integration cultures and encouraging them to learn more upon which depends the satisfaction of this cri- about the culture from which a word has been terion. Focus on achievements of non-American borrowed is considered as a multicultural criteria and indication of geography, natural events and of discourse analysis. The book chapters, the cultural aspects of other countries except Amer- tone of the writer which should match his/her ica are the matters of the fourth criteria satisfac- purpose and the use of loan and foreign words tion (Table 2). are indicated for each chapter in Table 5. Table 3 is quite revealing in showing the cri- The last but not the least, a detailed analysis terion of writers' identity to be considered multi- of multiculturalism in the discourse of tasks are cultural. If the writers are from countries other provided in Table 6. Different types of tasks are than America, the multicultural criterion is satis- applied in this book and those asking the learners fied. to think about cultural issues, expressing their The next table (Table 4) indicates the goal of own ideas or discussing particular issues are con- the writer of each chapter to inform about other sidered multicultural. cultures. The chapters, which report, educate or narrate the cultural issues are shown with Y to be

Table 2. Discourse analysis of content for multiculturalism Chapters Chap- Chap- Chap- 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Topic ter 1 ter2 ter 3 Criterion 1 Y* Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Criterion 2 N* N Y N N Y N N N Y N N N N Criterion 3 N Y N N Y Y N Y 0* Y 0 Y 0 Y Criterion 4 N Y N Y Y Y N Y N Y N Y N Y *Yes. This criterion is satisfied. *No. This criterion is not satisfied. 0*Neutral

Table 3. Discourse analysis of identity of writer for multiculturalism Chapters of book Chap- Chapter Chapter 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Writer's ter 1 2 3 identity Criterion 1 N N N N N N N N N N N N N N

Table 4. Discourse analysis of writers' purpose for multiculturalism Chapters of Chap- Chap- Chap- 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 book ter 1 ter 2 ter 3 Writer's Purpose Criterion 1 N Y N Y Y Y N N N Y N Y N N

179

Table 5. Discourse analysis of purpose, tone and loan words for multiculturalism Chapters Purpose Tone L/F 1 To teach people how to answer interview questions Serious and informative No 2 To explain the young people can change the world Narrative and informative No 3 To encourage students to form learning teams Serious and academic No 4 To educate how babies develop language skills Serious and academic No 5 To explain how different cultures have imagined Serious, academic, Yes different things on the face of the moon informative 6 To pint out how foreigners may experience culture Narrative and informative No shock in the U.S. 7 To explain how depending on a special place can have Personal and narrative No an important role in the life of author during the last 20 years 8 To exemplify how something you call a disability Narrative and serious No might be helpful in your life 9 To indicate how with a lot of research and practice, Serious and academic No anyone can learn how to give a good speech 10 To pint out people converse differently in Japan and Narrative and informative No America 11 To instruct how to write effective letters of Serious, academic, No application informative 12 To educate about napping as an important tradition Serious and informative Yes in Spain 13 To demonstrate how enough information about Serious and academic No science can help good decisions 14 To explain how thinking productively makes Scientific and academic Yes geniuses different from other people

Table 6. Discourse analysis of tasks for the satisfaction of multiculturalism criterion Chapters of book 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Type of tasks Connect topics Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N Y Y Y Before you read Pair work Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Preview reading N N N N N N N N N N N N N N Comprehension N N N N N N N N N N N N N N

180 Understanding Vocabulary N N N N N N N N 0* 0 0 0 0 0 the text Consider the is- Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y sue Building Vocabu- N N N N N N N N N N N N N N lary Analyze reading N N N N N N N N N N N N N N skill Reading skill Apply the reading Y Y N Y N Y Y N N Y N Y Y Y skill Discussion and Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y writing 0*: This task is absent in this chapter. that 3 of the four chapters that reported the ac- 4. Results and discussion complishments of American people have the fla- vor of multiculturalism with a Somali sage, and The discussion of the results begins with re- direct quotations from an Italian artist and a garding Table 2. The first raw of this table sug- Mexican architect at the beginning page of each gests that all of chapters of Select Readings en- chapter. The fourth criterion analysis of topics counter the learners with multicultural topics focusing on geography, cultural and natural which do not discuss the American culture events of other societies, according to Table 2, re- mainly. A quick review over each of the chapters veals that eight chapters included information shows that all the topics, including answering 6 about continents, cities and states or cultural common interview questions, student learning events of other countries except America, com- teams, learning to speak, how to make a speech, prising Philippines, Indonesia, Canada, Mexico, etc., provide the learners with facts from a global India, China, Australia, Turkey and its Ottoman perspective not dominant in the country of book Empire, and Spain and its Madrid respectively. publication, U.S.A. As the second raw highlights This table highlights that the topics of this read- just three chapters are concerned with the social ing skill book considering all four criteria are 57% issues of multicultural aspects such as achieving multicultural. It is necessary to mention that 21 academic success through teamwork, adjusting pages at the end of the book is devoted to culture to life in a foreign country, different ways people and language notes and maps that provide a converse. The rest 11 chapters do not discuss the range of information from scientific ones to geo- social problems of multicultural societies. If you graphical references and cultural matters and fa- consider the third criteria of multicultural topics mous people's biography of America and other in Table 1, you find that half of the chapters fo- countries. cus on achievements of non-Americans, contain- The identity of writer of each chapter or the ing the Japanese, Nepalese, Greek, Australian, source of each reading, if non-American, is con- Turkish, Spanish, Italian, German, Swedish, and sidered multicultural in Table 3. As it shows, the Austrian respectively. It is interesting to note writers (100%) are American, so non-multicultural. This aspect may be accountable based on

181 the care that is taken to provide today's global Spanish word which means a nap or a short pe- leaners of English with native-written texts. riod of sleep in the middle of the day is used in Table 4 shows that 6 chapters educate or in- chapter 12. Renaissance as a French word mean- form learners about other cultures. Chapter two ing rebirth can also be a loan word used in chap- reports how 90 percent of African people lives ter 14. without electricity and how interested they are in The discourse analysis of the tasks for multi- soccer that they play whenever the get the culturalism in Table 6 clearly illustrates the cor- chance. It also explains about Stich Tomorrow as respondence of task types and multiculturalism a young-led microfinance in the Philippines and factor. There are five tasks of which three are di- Indonesia which helped poor girls make their vided into separate sub-tasks. Generally, each own living. Chapter 4 provides information chapter consists of Before You Read task, having 3 about the amount of vowel sounds of Swedish parts, Reading Skill, consisting of 2 exercises, and Japanese and difficulties of Japanese to Building Vocabulary and Discussion and Writing learn English and how American babies learnt to tasks. 85% of connect with the topics task en- speak Mandarin Chinese. Chapter five explains couraging learners to connect personally to the about Indians, Chinese and Creeks culture that topic and to activate their background made variations in what they see on the face of knowledge and Pair works (100 %) asking learn- moon. Chapter six discusses very interesting dif- ers to further explore their knowledge of topic by ferences between American and Australian cul- completing a task with a partner are multicul- tures, the 10th one compares American and Japa- tural. Preview the reading task, boosting to make nese differences in conversation methods and a habit of considering the passage title, names of the 12th represents the Spanish culture about a the people and places, keywords and understand- big meal and a long nap in the midday. All in all, ing the first sentences of each paragraph before based on narrating other cultures and arousing reading any text are not multicultural. Compre- thought and feeling about them, this book is 42% hension tasks, asking to skim for main ideas and multicultural. scan for text details and Vocabulary tasks, requir- As far as this book intends to provide a reading to find the missing word forms in the pas- ing course for students of English and to facili- sage, are not multicultural. But Consider the issues tate reading skill development, vocabulary build- inspiring pupils to express their own ideas about ing and thought-challenging discussions and text, relate the text to their living situation and writings, the amount of loan words, adopted and discuss their cultural matters are 100% multicul- accepted from another language, and foreign tural. Building Vocabulary tasks aiming to teach words, taken from another language and intro- phrasal verbs, suffixes, collocations, synonyms, duced to a society where the word or phrase is compound nouns, prefixes and antonyms and not known (Kemmer, 2004), is too low (Table 5). then asking the learners to match and fill in the The use of some foreign words for which enough blanks to expand their vocabulary knowledge are explanations are brought at the end of the book not multicultural. Reading Skill tasks try to teach is evident in only two chapters, 5 and 12. Chapter using contexts, making inference, skimming and 5 uses Mare Tranquillitatis, Mare Serenitatis, Mare scanning, distinguishing facts from opinions, us- Imbrium, Oceanus Procellarum, Mare Humorum, ing context clues, finding topics and main ideas, Mare Numbium, which mean the Sea of Tranquil- identifying supporting ideas and pronoun refer- ity, the Sea of Serenity, the Sea of Rains, the ences, etc. Its first sub-task, Analyze the Reading, Ocean of Storms, the Sea of Moisture and the Sea gives the learners some sentences from the pas- of Clouds from Latin respectively. Siesta as a sage to practice the intended reading skill. It is

182 visible in Table 6 that this task is non- multicul- countries or those of the others and make com- tural which is compensated for in the second sub- parisons and contrasts between the way of life of task, Apply the Reading Skill, 64% multicultural, people around the globe. The findings of this because of utilizing open-ended questions from study suggests that Select Readings is 43% multi- readings of achievements of people from other cultural regarding all of the aspects mentioned in countries, Taiwan, Korea, Japan, etc. and asking Table 1. The inclusion of multiculturalism and the learners to think about cultural aspects of sensitivity to its appearance in course books these countries and compare them with those of helps language learners to be open-minded to- their own. Discussion and Writing tasks, 100% ward different cultures and live in multicultural multicultural here, ask the learners to express societies available almost everywhere around the their ideas about other countries celebrities', globe nowadays. Considering this factor helps such as Da Vinci, quotations, role play job inter- material developers to include liberal views in views, make a list of questions about life in an- their teaching materials from pre-reading tasks other country and lots of others that cannot be to skill developments ones and even writing mentioned here because of lack of space. Gener- tasks. The presence of multiculturalism in the ally, Table 6 shows that the tasks provided in this course books helps language teacher kill two task are 45% multicultural altogether. birds with one stone, teaching necessary language skills and enabling the learners to do their 5. Conclusion duties in the society without thinking about injustice and inequality. However, the compass of This study set out to determine the traces of the study is limited and some degrees of subjec- multiculturalism in the discourse of a developing tivity might have affected judgements, the an- reading comprehension book of OXFORD. The swer of the research question has remained just results of this study suggest that the satisfaction a part of the exercise and subject to scrutiny of multiculturalism criteria may reveal the spe- through a much more detailed study and a study cific conventions that those academic discourses of much broader scope. should rely on. These criteria should be satisfied regarding topic, writer's identity, goal of the References writer and his/ her tone, loan and foreign word use and tasks provided to be responded to. That Akincioglu, Mustafa, 2012. A Critical Approach is, a multicultural reading specifically is con- to Textbook Analysis: Critical Discourse cerned with enlightening learners about other Analysis (CDA) of two EAP Textbooks. cultures, evaluating the issues of multicultural (Published thesis). Dissertation submitted societies, informing the learners about the celeb- in partial fulfilment for the degree of MLitt rities and attainments of people from various ELT at University of St. Andrews St. An- countries, and explaining about the cultural and drews, Fife, Scotland. natural events of other societies. The writer's Azizfar, A., Koosha, M., & Lotfi, A. R., 2010. An tone should also match her/his purpose and they Analytical Evaluation of Iranian High should be from countries other than the book School ELT Textbooks from 1970 To The publication place. The use of loan and foreign Present, Procedia Social and Behavioral Sci- words prompts learners to learn about the lan- ences 3, 36-44. guage of other countries. The tasks should wel- doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.07.010 come the learners' attitudes and motivate them Banks & Banks, 2013. Multicultural Education: to think about the cultural matters of their own Characteristics and Goals, Culture, Teach- ing and Learning. John Wiley & Sons.

183 Bhattacharya, Sujash., 2005. Analyzing Texts for Jahangard, A., 2007. Evaluation of EFL Materials Multicultural Markers: Case Study of Texts Taught at Iranian Public High Schools. ELT Used in a Scottish School and an Indian Journal 9 (2), 130-150. School. (Published dissertation). Masters Kayapinar, U., 2009. Coursebook Evaluation by Dissertation MEd TESOL Moray House English Teachers. Inonu University Jour- School of Education University of Edin- nal of the Faculty of Education 10(1), 69- burgh. 78. Burgess, A. C., & Burgess, T., 2005. Guide to Kemmer, S., 2004. Loanwords: Major Periods of Western Canada (7th ed.). Globe Pequot Borrowing in the History of English. Rice Press. Retrieved 2011-01-16. University. Cook, G., 2000. Discourse. Oxford: Oxford Uni- http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~kem- versity Press. mer/Words/loanwords.html.Access Date: Cutting, J., 2003. Pragmatics and Discourse: A August 3, 2005. Resource Book for Students. London: Kenan, Malik., 2010. Guardian.co.uk. London: Routledge. Guardian. Retrieved 2010-12-10. Dickinson, Paul., 2010. Evaluating and adapting Lee, L., & Gundersen, E., 2011. Select Readings. materials for young learners. (Published New York: Oxford University Press. thesis). Assignment submitted for Master Litz, D. R. A., 2005. Textbook Evaluation and of Arts in Applied Linguistics. The Univer- ELT Management: A South Korean Case sity of Birmingham Study. (Doctoral Desertion). Retrieved No- Dominguez, L. M., 2003. Gender textbook eval- vember 5, 2012, from http://www.asian-efl uation. (MA Published thesis). Centre for journal .com /Litz_thesis.pdf English Language Studies, University of Mohammadzadeh, Behbood, 2009. Incorporat- Birmingham. Retrieved November 25, ing Multicultural Literature in English Lan- 2012, from http://www.brim- guage Teaching Curriculum. Procedia So- ingham.ac.uk.documents/collegeart- cial and Behavioral Sciences 1, 23 27 slaw/cels/essays/sociolinguistics/do- Ranalli, J. C., 2002. An Evaluation of New Head- minuez5.pdf way Upper-Intermediate. University of Bir- Fairclough, N., 2004. Analyzing Discourse: Tex- mingham. Retrieved December 20, 2012, tual Analysis for Social Research. London: from http://www.cels.bham. ac.uk/re- Routledge sources/ essays/Ranalli3.pdf Richards, J. C., 2001. Curriculum Development Analysis on the Vocabulary Presentation in in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cam- EFL Coursebooks. Ozean Journal of Social bridge University Press. Sciences 2(1). Retrieved January 3, 2013, Sahragard, R., Rahimi, A., & Zaremoayeddi, I., from http://ozelacad- 2009. An In-Depth Evaluation of Inter- emy.com/OJSS_v2n1_4.pdf change Series (3rd edition). Porta Lin- Harper, T. L., 2011. Dialogues in Urban and Re- guarum 12 (1), 37-54. gional Planning. Taylor & Francis. Tok, H., 2010. TEFL Textbook Evaluation: From Jafarigohar, M., & Ghaderi, E., 2013. Evaluation of Two Popular EFL Coursebooks. Interna- search and Review 5 (9), 508- 517. tional Journal of Applied Linguistics & Vellenga, H., 2004. Learning Pragmatics from English Literature 2 (6), 194-201. ESL & EFL Textbooks: How Likely? TESL- EJ 8(2). Retrieved January 10, 2012, from

184 http://www-writing.berkeley.edu/tesl- ej/ej30/a3.html

185 The 16th International TELLSI Conference Futurology of English Language Teaching & Literature November 14th 16th, 2018 (Aban 23rd 25th, 1397) Shiraz, Iran

Anita Brookner's Hotel du Lac and the Question of Female Identity

Roshanak Vatani Department of English Language, Faculty of Humanities, Islamic Azad University, Kerman Branch, Iran email: [email protected]

This paper undertakes to examine Anita Brookner's contribution to the feminist question in her novel, Hotel du Lac cause of the unequal and subordinate status of women in a post-war British society, Brookner attempted to challenge representations and treatment of women and the social relationship between men and women in this novel. Her characters show women who have internalized enduring limiting aspects of patriarchal ideology. Focusing on the major female character, Edith Hope, and several minor female characters, the novelist recorded their ordinary experiences in a calculated style to portray their spiritual

Hotel du Lac and to examine how while some female characters adapt themselves to the authority, Edith undergoes the process of self-recognition instead of resorting to the "safe" and accepted conventions of a patriarchal society and how she finally succeeds to accept her existential loneliness, which is the only way towards freedom.

Keywords:

1. Introduction The Metropolis and Mental Life "The deepest problems of modern life derive from the claim of the The 20th century was the century of change, individual to preserve the autonomy and individ- a period in which the technological develop- uality of his existence in the face of overwhelm- ments, inventions, industrializations, wars, eco- ing social forces, of historical heritage, of exter- nomic, political and social upheavals weakened the traditional stabilities and the presupposed What was the result of that distortion between realities. The world became more complex and the world and the self? Identity crisis. This crisis strange, which made humans more individual- was the result of the loss of real self and organic ized than ever before, but also made them fail to wholeness and so being passive in making deci- find their positions in society. Modern people sions and choosing possibilities. who faced with theses upheavals, found them- Hotel Du Lac tells the stories of people who selves isolated beings trapped in a callous world. experience such identity crisis. Those who are ex- Having lost the balance between self and the iled from the society and sent to the hotel in or- world, they found themselves disintegrated and der to change themselves. In the novel, Anita self-alienated. As George Simmel points out in Brookner portrays the situation of modern peo- novels do not lead the readers to a safe conclu- ple who are rootless in the universe and depicts sion as the old type of romance did. Rajini Walia identity crisis and ontological insecurity of peo- opens chapter one, "Feminine Self-Appraisal in ple due to anxiety, loss of autonomy and authen- Contemporary Women's Fiction," discusses this ticity. Her fluid style expresses her characters' frustrated love relationship in modern female desires and responses. She often employs first- writers like Brookner and asserts that such nov- person narrators, but they also employ limited els possess " an absolute lack of sentimentality" onlooking narrators. In both narrative perspec- as they depict women who are lonely and isolated tives, Brookner "represents tensions between the and are not fulfilled in their relationship with possibility of knowing how desire, frustration, men. and anxiety are formed within consciousness and However Brookner never claims to be femi- the external social and cultural forces that im- nist in true sense of the word but gender always pinge on narrative and shape character" (Lassner 16). scribing the emotions and on the perception of Born on 16 July 1928 in a British Jewish family, Anita Brookner studied at King's College- ner had been writing in a cultural climate af- London- and at the Courtauld of Art in London. fected by feminism. Both for Brookner and the She spent three years studying in Paris as post- feminists, the topic of self is critical because it is graduate, and went on to lecture in art at Reading pivotal to questions about personhood, identity, University and the Courtauld Institute, where the body, and agency that feminism must ad- she specialized in the eighteenth and nineteenth- dress. Regarding the constructive feminists claim century French art. A specialization which affected her picturesque style. She became the first kin 766), women internalize patriarchal values woman to be named as Slade Professor of Art at and norms that is, these values and norms be- Cambridge University in 1967. She wrote more come integrated in the cognitive, emotional, and than 20 novels most of which "explore themes of structure of the self. Once embedded in a wom- emotional loss and difficulties associated with an's psychic economy, internalized oppression fitting in the society, and typically depict intel- conditions her desires. To maximize satisfaction lectual, middle-class women, who suffer isolation of her desires, then, would be to collaborate in and disappointments in love"(Wikipedia Foun- her own oppression. Paradoxically, the more dation). She was awarded the 1984 Man Booker completely she fulfills these desires, the worse Prize for her novel Hotel du Lac. Brookner never off she becomes. married, but took care of her parents as they Brookner visual narrative represents ten- aged. She died on 10 March 2016, at the age of sions, frustrations and anxieties which are 87. formed in characters' consciousness and shape Hotel du Lac is populated with female char- their identity in a patriarchal society. Identity acters. The multitude of female characters sug- crisis and ontological insecurity is a shared fea- gest a female point of view. As Lassner continues ture among the female characters in this novel, in her e whether minor or major ones. In fact "the op- have internalized enduring and limiting aspects pression of the society and the inability of indi- of patriarchal ideology" (17). Captured in a patri- viduals to achieve their self-autonomy lead them archal society with a romantic illusion these fe- to be directed by the authority" (Yuksel 147). male protagonists would like to demonstrate This is the major character , Edith Hope, who in their love and devote their lives to the men, who the process of self-recognition, finally attains would supposedly validate their being, but the

187 such ability to accept her own existential loneliness rather than resorting to the "secure" but paralyzing values of patriarchal society. Trapped lieves that this system of power should be recon- in a world where biological and social determin- ism predetermines the lives and attitudes of all is thoroughly in command, it has scarcely need to the people as well as she herself, Edith's final so- speak itself aloud; when its workings are exposed lution for such paralysis is a Stoical acceptance of and questioned, it becomes not only subject to situation while not conforming to those patriarchal, ideological values. transmitted through language, a language which is not neutral for women or men so feminity and 2. The Perspectives on Female Identity masculinity disclose themselves in language. Most of the English-speaking feminists in- The shared perception among the diverse sist on reconsideration of the ways that we read feminist theories is that women have been op- literature. In On the Politics of Literature Judith pressed by men and by the social and literary Fetterley states that if the readers want to get a structures that are devised. They pay attention to new effect from literature they should create a (whatever the specific subject matter) the nature new understanding. She emphasizes that litera- of patriarchy and its consequences for women. To free themselves from being oppressed , some and question that complex of ideas and mythol- feminists declare women must analyze and ogies about women and men which exist in our challenge the established literary canon that has society and are confirmed in our literature is to helped shape the image of female inferiority and make the system of power embodied in the liter- oppression ingrained in any culture. ature open not only to discussion but even to Virginia Woolf, the twentieth century novelist and feminist critic, in A Room of Her Own as- to uncover the hidden system of sexual power in serts that reading literature with feminist eyes involves a double perspective: First she empha- Those images which usually fall into two groups: sizes on the gendered representation of women in literature. A short survey of great works of literature shows that women are presented as sec- ondary creatures with negative stereotypes whose existence is defined by the male characters readers identify themselves with such characters in the form of father, husband and brother. Sec- so they unconsciously take part in the process of n internalization of those unrealistic and anti- in literature, while not depicting innate characteristics of actual women, might disrupt the tra- system of thinking is to become a conscious ditional symbolic order or language system of pa- s-

Thinking about The question of female identity is a crucial Women (1968) discusses the contemptuous ste- point for feminist critics. Feminist theories re- reotypes of women in literature written by men. lated to the matter of self or identity are divided One of the most influential works written to into two groups: one those who believe that iden- study the relation of sexual power in the society tity is a purely linguistic, external and largely un- through examination of literary works is Kate mysterious phenomenon. This group is known as Sexual Politics (1970). According to Millet

188 figures of this group is Judith Butler for whom and / or self are being located somewhere outside identity has no being or basis outside the cultural or beyond language as creative, transforming domain which constructs it. " there is neither an agencies. 'essence' that gender expresses or externalize nor In modern fiction, women mostly are cap- an objective ideal to which gender aspires, be- tured by inner strife in affiliation to existential cause gender is not a fact various acts of gender problems because of the loss of harmony be- create the idea of gender" ( Butler 903). The sec- tween body and self, ontological splits, inner de- ond group who are called "essentialists" ex- cay, pessimism and alienation. Furthermore, presses the idea of a subversive excess which un- they are anxious due to uncertainties, conflicts, dermines the man- confusions and dilemmas in their lives. One of is variously conceived as pre-cultural libidinal en- these pictures is presented in Anita Brookner's ergy (Julia Kristieva/Helen Cixous), the un- Hotel Du Lac. A novel which tells the stories of tapped resources/unrealized possibilities of the people who are exiled from the society and sent self (Helen Cixous), or that which transcends to the hotel in order to change themselves. In the masculinity systems of repressive binary opposi- novel, Anita Brookner portrays the situation of modern people who are rootless in the universe Although all these critics are often catego- and depicts identity crisis and ontological insecu- rized under one heading, the difficulty of classi- rity of people due to anxiety, loss of autonomy fying these feminists under one or another head- and authenticity. The next part of the paper is ing is partly the subversive point of their writing. going to discuss the oppression of the society and There is a paradox in identifying these feminists the inability of individuals to achieve their self- in term of their foundationalism since founda- autonomy lead them to be directed by the au- tion and identity are what they resist. Cixous in thority. However, this is only Edith Hope, the protagonist, who does not resort to the safe but aginary is inexhaustible, like music, painting and conventional and paralyzing values of patriarchal writing. She states that writing is a unique em- society. Instead, she prefers to accept her own ex- pire in which women can presents this imagi- istential loneliness and to live her own female identity. feminine. This term refers to particular kind of critical writing by women which is mainly associ- 3. Individual on Trial ated with Cixous, Luce Irigaray and Kristeva. What unites this form of feminist criticism is the All Brookner's novels deal with women. They belief that there is an area of textual production represent women as intelligent and sensitive subjects who are tussling with complex realities posits a "woman's writing" which " evades the of work, marriage, human relationships and eth- male monopoly and the risk of appropriation ical values in a male-dominated value system. into monolithic phallus, the diversity, fluidity, Hotel du Lac, which won the 1984 Booker prize, and multiple possibilities inherent in the struc- portrays the reality of Edith Hope, a thirty nine- ture and erotic functioning of the female sexual year-old unmarried woman who writes popular, organs and in the distinctive nature of female romantic fiction. The novel begins with her arri- sexual experiences" (Abrams 238). Thus expres- val at Hotel du Lac. She reaches there in a state sive female self is something which places itself of bewildered confusion at the turn of events in beyond all boring confines. Unlike Butler who re- her life. After a secret and often lonely affair with gards agency and excess as linguistic phenomena, a married man and an aborted marriage, she is Cixous and Irigaray point that the female body banished by her friends. They advise her to go on

189 "probation" so as to "grow up", "be a woman", and sense through her visual narrative which proves atone for her mistakes. Edith comes to the hotel her factual, partially opinion-free presentation of swearing not to change. However, the hotel's si- what characters see. Her novels certainly use lent charms and her observations of the guests first-person narrators, but they also employ lim- there all tug at Edith with questions about her ited on looking narrators. As we see in Hotel du identity, forcing her to examine who she is and Lac, Brookner attempts to depict the inner de- what she has been. At the hotel, she observes sires, fears and frustrations of her female charac- people from different walks of life Mrs Pusey ters conflicting with the external social and cul- and her daughter Jennifer, their love for each tural codes of behavior and conventions. other, and the splendid oblivious lives they live; In this novel the characters, particularly the Mme de Bonneuil, who lives at the hotel in soli- female characters, suffer from spiritual paralysis. tary expulsion from her son; and Monica, who The oppression of the society and the inability of came to the hotel acceding to her husband's de- the individuals to achieve a self-autonomy lead mands. Edith falls for the ambiguous smile of Mr them to a kind of paralysis which is reflected in Neville, who asks for her hand in marriage. She the physical setting and environment as well as considers a life of recognition that being married the spiritual stasis of the female characters in the to Neville would confer upon her, but ultimately story. Brookner's choice of a novelist as the nar- rejects the possibility of a relationship with him rator of the story whose visual narrative de- when she realizes he is an incorrigible woman- scribes everything in the written word like a izer. This also finally leads her to realize what her painted picture echoes the characters' as well as life is expected to be. Once again, she breaks Edith's inner reality upon the objects. At the be- chains and decides to take things into her own ginning of the novel, the author vividly depicts hands and leaves Hotel du Lac. the depressive environment seen through the One of the main concerns of modernistic window: novels is to portray the modern human and his/her quest to find the meaning of self in a new From the window all that could be world where old values have been weakened or seen was a receding area of grey. It destructed. As Georg Simmel said: "The deepest was to be supposed that beyond the problems of modern life derive from the claim of grey garden, which seemed to sprout the individual to preserve the autonomy and in- nothing but the stiffish leaves of dividuality of his existence in the face of over- some unfamiliar plant, lay the vast whelming social forces, of historical heritage, of grey lake, spreading like an anesthetic towards the invisible further (154). Modern issues such as civilization, author- shore, and beyond that, in imagina- ity, control, oppression and chaos have so much tion only, yet verified by the bro- affected lives of people that they seem to be spir- chure, the peak of the Dent d'Oche, itually paralyzed and left with a disintegrated on which snow might already be self. Many modernist novelists reflect this spir- slightly and silently falling. (1) itual crisis through experimental methods such as interior monologue, stream of consciousness, The imagery of the first paragraph estab- free association and impersonal narrative. As a lishes the atmosphere of disillusionment and modernist novelist, Brookner also attempts to passivity which suffuses the story. The meta- focus on the portrayal of the spiritual world of phoric use of "window" which refers to Edith's her characters and reveals the character's inner eyes illuminates her condition of mind and feel- reality. However, she prefers to depict this inner ing. The repetition of color "grey" with the simile

190 of " spreading like an anesthetic" heighten the self-autonomy lead them to be directed by the sense of paralysis which is projected upon the authority" (Yuksel 151). This is Edith who undergoes a change in the course of the events in the visible" make clear that nothing is clear, every- hotel. In her loneliness she is the same as the thing is vague and based on supposition. Edith is other female characters such as Monica. Brook- framed by the window as she observes every- ner represents her psyche through the visual de- thing out, an observer who is surrounded by " a tails, such as objects, landscape, food, places etc. land of prudently harvested plenty, a land which From the beginning of the novel Edith suffers had conquered human accidents, leaving only the from opening her eyes and "gazing fearfully weather distressingly beyond control" (1). around the still deserted salon" (14).Although The female characters in this novel not only she is involved in an emotional relationship with does suffer from spiritual paralysis but also from David, her unsent letters to him express her emo- alienation. The alienation of the self and the tions and thoughts. A one-sided relation which world which leads to the identity crisis. Aliena- reflects Edith's loneliness. This sense leads to a tion emerges as natural consequence of existen- disintegrated self which makes her vulnerable tial predicament both in intrinsic and extrinsic and finally makes her accept Mr. Neville's pro- terms which is the result of loss of identity, a loss posal since according to the conventions of the which is rooted in the anxiety and loss of self-au- society the meaning of womanhood is attained in thenticity. Brookner projects this sense on the joining the institution of marriage. In a conver- objects, sceneries and even locations. In fact sation with Mr. Neville, Edith's view toward love these are the tools to embody the loneliness of and life is criticized by him and her sense of fear the characters. For instance Monica's dog, Kikki, and loneliness are described in a visual narration: which should be always looked after and is caged k begin whenever intrudes its owner's privacy, symbol- to crepitate. She had told herself as much, many izes its owner: a lonely woman and an extra, dec- times, but had been able to dismiss her own ver- orative, luxurious tool for her husband who dict. Now she recognized the voice of authority" sends her to exile apparently for having peace but (55). As the voice of a patriarchal society, Mr. actually to get rid of. Monica is self-alienated and Neville's proposal reflects the cultural and social non-autonomous person because she cannot suc- codes. For an unmarried woman like Edith, mar- ceed in negating her social self, a self which is not riage can provide a social position, a safe future. complete unless she becomes a mother. It seems Consequently, Edith attempts to reach an ideal- as if a female identity is shaped if only a woman ized self by ignoring the real self, by adopting experiences motherhood. When Monica becomes herself to the standards and norms of the soci- aware of her inability to be a mother, she prefers ety. In her last letter to David she confesses: to be alienated as if she was an imperfect being in the society. I do not love Mr Neville, nor does he Identity crisis and ontological insecurity is a love me. But he has made me see shared feature among the female characters in what I will become if I persist in lov- this novel, whether minor or major ones. What distinguished them from each other is their reac- will very soon, under his guidance, tion and response in the face of this crisis. Some develop into the sort of acceptable characters like Monica adopt themselves to the woman whose confidence and stam- authority , without any attempt to question the ina and indeed presumption I have framing situation." the oppression of the society always envied. Rather like your wife, and the inability of individuals to achieve their in fact. (102)

191 and framing concepts, cannot attain autonomy Edith was always longing for a long, stable, and authenticity. secure relationship with a man who would love Gender has always played a central role in her deeply. Unfulfilled by David's love, she de- Anita Brookner's works. Categorized as a novelist cides to escape from her loneliness by accepting of manners, Brookner represents the tensions Mr. Neville's proposal thus conforms to the between the inner desires, fears and anxieties norms of society. However, this desire does not and the external social and cultural forces. Her last for a long time when accidentally she sees female characters demonstrate various reactions Mr. Neville, with his night gown, comes out of when they are tested in this conflict. In Hotel Du Jennifer's room. Edith faces the reality. Brookner Lac while other female characters adapt them- describes this moment of awareness very vividly selves to the authority, this is Edith who attains : " And that door, opening and shutting, in her a self-recognition through the very details of life. dreams, in her delusive waking moments, had At the end of the novel she understands marriage been a real door, the reality and implications of as a social protection would deprive her of the which she had failed to take into account"(103). only life she ever wanted, therefore she chooses Facing the "reality" she is not that "romantic" to accept her existential loneliness rather than woman anymore. Now she understands that liv- escaping from it. have ever wanted, even though it was never mine References to call my own" (105). Thus instead of resorting to the safe but conventional and paralyzing val- Abrams, M.H. A Glossary of Literary Terms .6th ed . ues of the patriarchal society, she prefers to ac- Orlando: Harcourt Brane and company, cept her own existential loneliness. In the final 1993.Print. scene when she writes a telegraph , first she Alexander, Flora. Contemporary Women Novelists. writes " Coming home" but after a moment she London: British Library Cataloguing, 1989. thinks that " this was not entirely accurate" so Brookner, Anita. Hotel du Lac. United Kingdom: she changes her mind , crosses out the words and Jonathan Cape, 1984. writes instead " Returning" , which may symboli- ain Page". Literature. British cally reflect her new vision, a return to her lonely Council, 4 Feb 2018, www.British Con- world with a stoical acceptance. cil.org.

4. Conclusion tion, 5 Feb 2018, www.Wikipedia.org. Cixous, Helen. "The Newly Born Women." Literary The question of identity is central for the Theory: An Anthology. Ed. Juli Rivkin and modernist women writers. In many modern Michael Ryan. U.S: Blackwell, 2004. 348- works, modern people cannot be autonomous in- 355. dividuals who are able to create their own values, decide and choose their possibilities because of Feminisms. Eds Robyn r. War- the oppressive power of the patriarchal ideology. hol and Diane Price Herndl, Hampshire: As constructionalist feminists believe female Macmillan Press, 1997. identity is socially formed and the women's relation to shared beliefs about social values, morals, Man Alone: Alienation in traditions and culture that construct their social Modern Society. Ed. Eric and Mary Josephson selves. Those who cannot negate these limiting (2004), 151.PDF.

192 Humm, Maggie Feminist Literary Theory and Criticism. Lon- Tulsa don: Macmillan press ltd, 1997. Studies in Women Literature, 23.1 (Spring, Lassner , Phyllis, Ann V. Norton and Margaret D. 2004): 144-146. Tulsa Watt, Ian. Rise of Novel. The United States: Uni- Studies in Women Literature, 29.1 (Spring, versity of California, 1965. PDF. 2010): 15-18. PDF. Woolf, Virginia. A Room of One's Own. Gutenberg: Gutenberg Org , 1929. PDF. Characters". AAA, 15.1 (1990): 13-25. Mousley, Andy. Renaissance Drama and Contempo- LOGICAL INSECURITY IN ANITA rary Literary Theory. London: Macmillan HOTEL DU LAC". 7th inter- Press Ltd, 2000. national IDEA Conference, Pamukkale Millett, Kate. Sexual Politics. United Kingdom: Ru- University, 2017. pert Hart Davis, 1970. Waugh, Patricia. Feminine Fictions: Revisiting the Postmodern. London: Routledge, 1989. World". Tulsa Studies in Women Literature, PDF. 29.1 (Spring, 2010): 35-46. PDF.

193 The 16th International TELLSI Conference Futurology of English Language Teaching & Literature November 14th 16th, 2018 (Aban 23rd 25th, 1397) Shiraz, Iran

Incidental Learning of English Orthography through Flashcards by Young Iranian EFL Learners

Manijeh Youhanaee Faculty of Fforeign languages, University of Isfahan, Iran email: [email protected] Sepideh Ghandehari Faculty of Foreign languages, University of Isfahan, Iran

The present study made an attempt to investigate the effect of flashcards on incidental learning of Eng- lish letters by child EFL learners. The children were taught a number of English words using three kinds of flashcards: 1) flashcards with the picture of an object and the written word on its front side 2) flashcards with the picture of the target word on the front side and its written word on the backside and 3) flashcards with the picture of the target with no written word. The participants of the study were 38 kindergarten EFL learners aging between 5 and 6 with no knowledge of English, divided into two experimental and one control group depending on the type of the exposed flashcards. The results of a word cued recognition task and a picture cued letter recognition task revealed gain effects for both experimental groups with a better performance for picture and word on front side group. These findings suggest that incidental learning of orthography might happen in the earliest stages of exposure to an L2. We argue that if applied correctly, incidental procedures of learning might eliminate the unwanted burden of teaching/intentional learning of L2 spelling at later stages, giving space to more real life and enjoyable classroom activities.

Keywords: EFL learners, flashcard, incidental learning, intentional learning, orthography

1. Main text alone is not the solution, then what can EFL teachers of young learners do to take benefit of Teaching English to young EFL learners has the flexibility of young minds to grow better become compulsory and the age of English speakers of English? As the age for English education has become lower in countries around education lowers in classrooms across the globe, the world. It is believed that starting the study of EFL teachers of young learners try to keep up English as a Foreign Language (EFL) before the with this trend and seek effective ways of critical period 12 or 13 years old will build teaching. more proficient speakers of English. Besides, it is Learners should also know how they can not recommended to teach orthography to learn a language in a way that is effective. There preschool learners intentionally. If an early start are different kinds of approaches for acquiring language. Such approaches are different in might result in an incidental development in various ways. The most commonly drawn spelling ability for preschool learners or not. difference is the one between incidental and Based on the above discussion, this study intentional learning or between implicit and sought to answer the following questions: explicit learning. Children, as young learners, are very active 1. 1. Does using flashcards have a and energetic and have shorter attention spans significant effect on young Iranian EFL than older learners. However, they are also learners' abilities to incidentally reported to be more responsive to incidental recognize the initial letter of the words? learning at lower grades. Given the fact that 2. Which type of flashcards is more effective writing skills are suggested to be initiated and on incidentally recognizing the initial practiced after learners develop a good command letter of the words? of oral skills, there remains a fossilized spelling 3. Do flashcards of various types affect the problem for many EFL learners who start retention of the initial letter of the learning English orthography considerably later words? than learning other aspects of language. Alipour, Youhanaee, Barati, and In relation to research questions mentioned Nasirahmadi (2015) investigated the effect of above, the following null hypotheses were intentional vs. incidental practicing through formulated: vocabulary learning. The posttest results showed 1. There is no difference between '' that the incidental group outperformed the flashcards with words'' group and '' intentional group in the comprehension task. flashcards only'' group in their abilities to Conversly, Nemat Tabrizi and Sahab Feiz incidentally recognize the initial letter of (2016) did an empirical study which investigated the words. the difference between incidental and deliberate 2. There is no difference between type of vocabulary learning strategy on acquisition of flashcards and incidentally recognizing vocabulary among Iranian EFL elementary the initial letter of the words. learners. The results of the independent t-test 3. There is no difference between using representing a large effect size indicated that various types of flashcards and there was a significant difference between the incidental retention of the initial letter of two groups‟ mean scores on the posttest of the word. vocabulary. The deliberate vocabulary learning strategy group significantly outperformed the 2. Results and Conclusions incidental group on the posttest of vocabulary . To this end, this study reported here was to The results of the tests administered after make an initial empirical exploration to deter- the experiment revealed that the participants mine whether simply being exposed to written learnt the orthography incidentally. Generally, letters of target words which are thought orally there are a number of qualities of younger children as learners in pre-school or the early stages of primary schooling that suggest this can be useful. First of all, younger children are considered to have both the emotional and intellectual read- iness for additional language learning. Specifi- cally, they are less anxious than older learners,

195 enthusiastic, curious and open to new experi- study. One possible justification could be differences. Because of these reasons, an early start is ent age of the participants. seen to be important for the generation of posi- For investigating the third null hypothesis, tive attitudes towards the language and culture. three one way Anova were run. The results It has also been claimed that the regular use of showed that there was a significant difference between the picture, learners' name and un- velopment and evolving language awareness, known word cued mean of three groups. Besides, promoting enhanced problem-solving, creativity group with backside word flashcards performed and flexible thinking as well as enhanced com- better than the other two groups in terms of munication skills in general, in both the first and their performance in picture cued letter reten- additional language. tion. However, group with frontside word flash- Based on perceptual salience approach pro- cards performed better in name cued letter and posed by Pienemann, learners mostly focus on unknown word letter retention than the other initial and final letters of the words and begin- two groups. Although, there were not enough ex- ning and end of stimuli are easier to remember periments which conducted research on impact and therefore to manipulate. Because of this rea- of incidental learning of English orthography son, this study just focused on the initial letter of through flashcards by EFL learners, one possible the words. justification for higher picture cued letter reten- The pretest just was taken to make sure that tion mean of group with backside word flash- the three groups were unfamiliar with all of the cards could be the transfer of information from target words in which three groups performed short memory to long term memory. However, the same. However, The result of both descrip- the picture cued letter recognition mean of the tive and inferential statistics proved that the group with frontside word flashcards was higher first experimental group, who received instruc- than backside word group. The reason of it could tion with frontside word flashcards performed be chance or memorization. The participants of better than the other two groups in three sec- group with frontside word flashcards kept the in- tions of the test( picture cued letter recognition, itial letter of the words in their short memory. In learners' name cued letter recognition, unknown general, both of the experimental groups learnt word letter recognition). For the reason that the English orthography incidentally. participants of frontside word flashcards were exposed to picture and its orthography simulta- References neously and they could make a connection between picture and its word in their mind directly. Alipour, F., Youhanaee, M.Barati, H., & Nasirah- Gilbert (1935), for example, claimed that merely madi, A (2015). Intentional vs. incidental through exposure to words in texts, university vocabulary learning through games by students improved their spelling. young EFL Persian speakers. International On the contrary, Nemat Tabrizi and Sahab Journal of Research Studies in Educational Feiz (2016) did an empirical study which investi- Technology, 4 (1), 23-34. gated the difference between incidental and de- Gilbert, L. C. (1935). A study of the effect of read- liberate vocabulary learning strategy on acquisi- ing on spelling. The Journal of Educational tion of vocabulary among Iranian EFL elemen- Research, 570-576. tary learners. The deliberate vocabulary learning Nemat Tabrizi, A., & Sahab Feiz, Fatemeh strategy group significantly outperformed the in- (2016). The Effect of Deliberate Versus Inci- cidental group on the posttest of vocabulary. The dental Vocabulary Learning Strategy on Ira- result of their study was different from this nian High School

196 The 16th International TELLSI Conference Futurology of English Language Teaching & Literature November 14th 16th, 2018 (Aban 23rd 25th, 1397) Shiraz, Iran

Appendix:

In the name of God Learner Version Name:

1) Word Knowledge task

تصویر کلمه را پیدا کنید و دورش خط بکشید. .Find the picture of the word Example:

mum

rabbit

neck

plane

slide

leg

house

dad

ball

lion

monkey

hat

bike

fan

drum

198 pan

seal

nose

red

fish

2) Picture cued letter recognition task کلمه ی تصویر را پیدا کنید و دورش خط بکشید. .Find the word with its picture

Example:

red mum dad

2 plane house drum

1 leg bike slide

7 rabbit nose fan

199

6 monkey fan red

4 hat plane nose

5 fan ball lion

8 pan dad slide

10 hat seal mum

3) Name recognition task

دور اسمی را که می شنوید خط بکشید. .Underline the word which you hear

Example: parsa Sepideh pedram

7 parinaz nima masud 4 sepideh hedieh mehran 1 farhad bardia said 10 sara hasan leila 3 bardia mahdi farhad 6 masud donya said 8 pari nima sara 5 davod poone ladan 2 hasan diba poone 9 rana parsa lia

200

4) Unknown word letter recognition task دور اسمی را که می شنوید خط بکشید. .Underline the word which you hear Example:

pen net book

pink sink book

nose socks map

pencil net hen

rat lemon floor 5

man nose blue 6

201

sink rat map

net pat foot

horse lamp pet

pink hen nut

202 The 16th International TELLSI Conference Futurology of English Language Teaching & Literature November 14th 16th, 2018 (Aban 23rd 25th, 1397) Shiraz, Iran

Blake and Sepehri

Ameneh Zare Persian Gulf University of Bushehr, Iran email: [email protected] Mahsa Hashemi Persian Gulf University of Bushehr, Iran

Reading across cultural and linguistic borders brings into light the shared concepts and ideologies that might otherwise remain obscure. This comparative study aims at a reading of Sohrab Sepehri and Wil- liam Blake, two acknowledged and influential figures of romantic poetry in their own era and culture. As painters and poets, they both employ symbols and imageries that can be read visually as well as verbally. Among the prevalent imageries that the two poets recurrently implement is child imagery. Typi- call Song of Innocence delineates Jung's definition of the archetypal child which considers a child as a source of inspiration, innocence, and wholeness. In a com- mystical perspective toward a child and signifies it as a symbol of creation, perfect mentor, mentee, simple joy, wisdom, uncomplicated philosophy as well as bravery in overcoming obstacles on a quest for truth. This study, therefore, through stepping outside the linguistic and national boundaries, explores the aesthetic development of the child imagery in these

Keywords: Sohrab Sepehri, William Blake, child imagery, archetypal child, mystical perspective

1. Introduction always expressing a sentiment (6). This statement is also applicable to the poetry of Sohrab Sohrab Sepehri and William Blake are Sepehri. acknowledged to be among the most significant The significant role of "child imagery" in Ro- figures in the Romantic poetry of their own era mantic literature is irrevocable. The image of a and culture. As painters and poets, both Sepehri child in both English Romanticism and Persian and Blake devote themselves to art and poetry contemporary poetry is treated symbolically. with equal commitment. Their poetry is replete Both Blake and Sohrab Sepehri indicate that the with powerful and impressive terminologies as ordinary image of a child is unsubstantial in itself well as figures that can be read both visually and and yet rich as a symbol of greater and more pro- verbally. Gilchrist believes that Blake's poetry il- found realities. The child stands for purity, inno- lustrates the beauty of colors that capture in the cence, selflessness and ultimately is regarded as purest, sweetest melodies, the eyes and they are a symbol of wholeness and union with the self perspective from such great forefathers of mysti- and the external universe. cism as Rumi and Attar and applies this view- Blake expresses in a note written in 1808 on point in his poetry. By applying a tint of mystical Sir Joshna Reynold's statement that "the form of color to the "child imagery," the archetypal child childhood and ages differ exceedingly" and af- of his poems can be depicted and interpreted as firms his belief that "childhood and age are the origin of creation, the mentor, the primitive equally belonging to every class (qtd. in Kitab11). mentee, the innocent joy, the natural wisdom As a result, in his Songs of Innocence, Blake with uncomplicated philosophy, and also as a demonstrates a harmony between children and symbol of bravery in breaking the obstacles in adults which leads to the unification that is discovering the truth. mostly achieved by the support that the individ- Taking into account all the characteristics of ual gains from other individuals. Such beliefs the "child imagery" which are demonstrated in may have inspired Blake's Songs of Innocence in Blake and Sepehri's poetry, this research, which Blake enters a childlike visionary state of through an intercultural study, aims at investi- mind since his poems are composed, as Wilson gating how both poets share similar viewpoints regarding this prevalent imagery in spite of their bled him to live for a time in the age of inno- various historical and cultural backgrounds. The cence"(31). fact that the "child image" is one of the most sig- Byrne states that Blake's Songs of Innocence nificant images in Blake and Sepehri's poetry has depicts the increased quality of life presented by encouraged many researchers to analyze this im- Jung's archetype of the child (14). Jung's study age in these two poets' poetry separately; how- of the archetypal child as the basic human arche- ever, the comparative study of both poets has not types is of the great significance in Romantic po- been done in academic research. etry and leads to the comprehension of the status In the following part, the relevant studies of the child as a source of inspiration, innocence that have been utilized in the completion of the as well as wholeness. The child archetype covers present comparative research will be introduced. the wide scope of literary characters, whether in Alizade states that Sepehri's poetry is the demon- the form of a child or an adult, who possess a stration of poetical symbolism and comprehensi- unique and naïve perception of the world that be- ble mysticism that unconsciously provides the stows upon him a special power or insight. To reader with a new perspective. The utilization of Jung, the archetypal child is "a meditator, begin- verbal and visual defamiliarization of various ner of healing who makes whole"(116). As a sym- concepts has confirmed him as one of the most bol of wholeness, the child might possess seem- influential poets in Persian contemporary litera- ingly contrasting qualities such as innocence, ture (2010). Hadi S. Sultan expresses the idea wisdom as well as greatness and strength. that children must live in joy and innocence is Sohrab Sepehri, as well, benefits from his not a Blakian one. This notion has its roots in childhood recollections in various modes to es- Christianity where childhood is regarded as sa- pouse the grounds of his poetry. Since the narra- cred and innocent to the extent that children will tor of his poems is a sincere, immaculate and na- definitely enter the kingdom of God as a conse- ïve-looking child, his poems provide his enthusi- quence of their innocence (2007). Izadi Mazidi asts with opportunities to return to childhood depicts the traditional development of the idea and make new discoveries, and see the familiar of child imagery in contemporary Persian poets. with a fresh sense of perception. As a contempo- She states that the utilization of child imagery rary mystical poet, Sepehri inherits his mystical started from Nima Youshij then continued by Shamlu and Forough Farrokhzad and finally it

204 reaches its peak in the poetry of Sohrab Sepehri whose happiness escapes being affected by dis- which indicates simultaneously the regret for the heartening manifestations of the extraneous, lost childhood and a statement of childish point burdensome world. By utilizing naïve inner mo- of view with its philosophical simplicity (2011). tive as well as childish tools, Sepehri expresses Jaberi examines another significant concept in his desire for having a convenient and joyous life. the mystical poetry of Sohrab Sepehri which is On the surface the poem may refer to an encour- the concept of love. In her research, she explains aged remembrance of a cherished childhood. that mystical metaphors can be regarded as Hosseini suggests that this sense of nostalgia Sepehri's innovation in literature (2016). and regret can be approached from diverse perspectives; the reason for this variety is the quick, 2. Representation of the child as the sym- astonishing and unsettling advancement of in- bol of the innocent joy and the primitive dustry that leads to an unconscious revival of the mentee sense of loneliness which ultimately results in a desire to remember childhood (144). However, One of the dominant characteristics of Sepehri moves beyond the surface meaning to re- Sepehri's poetry is his simple perspective of the store to life the purity of that golden period. Ob- world. Nourbakhsh states that Sepehri's perspec- serving the world from the viewpoint of a child tive of the world is simple and intimate and he signifies the genuine universal spirit which seeks has a deep regard for nature (70). He loves life for inner serenity and is free of a materialistic and invites other people to have a sincere view- view of life. This childhood illustrates both the point toward it. This guileless outlook manifests childhood period of the poet and is a symbol of itself in his employment of child imagery. He honesty and purity. aims at viewing the objects and phenomena with- In Songs of Innocence, Blake illustrates the out any prejudgment and preconception, thus he spiritual energy and the joyful circumstances of can reflect the stream of amazement and enjoy- living things in nature. Innocence and joy are in- ment which is akin to children's encounter with terconnected and interdependent to the extent novelties. In "The Sound of Water's Footstep," he that the state of innocence engenders various demonstrates his juvenile outlook by interpret- modes of joy. Blake demonstrates children's in- ing life from a childish viewpoint. "Life was some- nocence and joy in many poems in his Songs of thing like an Eid rainfall, a flamboyant life/ life at Innocence. In "Infant Joy" the repetition of the that time was a queue of light and a doll and was word "joy" suggests the romantic view of child- a grip of freedom. Life was a conqueror of a city hood and infancy as a source of innocence and pure pleasure. "I happy am/joy is my name/sweet of one Eid with two dolls and a ball"(60- joy befell thee" (4-6). The poem "The Echoing 63).("zendegi chizi bud,mesle yek bareshe Eid, Green" illustrates Blake perspective of child- yek chenare porsar/zendegi dar an vaght, safi az hood's innocence and purity, as well. In this nuro arusak bud/yek baghal azadi/zendegi dar an poem, he describes a great imaginary landscape vaght, hoze musighi bud.") that is graced with the sound of joyful children The resemblance between Sepehri's imagina- unaffected by the prevalent materialism. tion and childish embellishments in this part of the poem is worthy of consideration since chil- The sun does a rise, dren deal with events and objects free of any in- And make happy the skies, fluence from conventions and prejudgments. He The merry bells ring exposes inner joy and happiness free from com- To welcome the spring (1-4). plications of the outside world, just like a child

205 The images in this poem are simultaneously Therefore, the archetypal child represents the pastoral and idyllic. The "sunrise" is the symbol balance of attributes associated with childhood of youth and a rebirth of hope and "merry bells" and adulthood as well as a balance of the con- stands for the sounds of birds that echo the scious and the unconscious. In this poem, the ex- beauty and cheerfulness of an ideal, utopian life. istence of old people expresses the fact that In the phrase "The Echoing Green" resonates not wholeness is not only achieved by harmonious only the untamed, pure nature in its essence but unification between the conscious and the un- also the Edenic bliss of man attuned to nature. conscious of the individual but also by the sup- Keith Sagar states that in "The Echoing Green," port and influence that individuals gain from one Blake presents the most elegant imaginative another. Jung states that when the inexperi- demonstration of the primitive nature pos- enced child initiates the journey of life s/he en- sessing a harmonious atmosphere in which a ters the community of adults. This adult appears child displays an insouciant attitude towards the to be as an advisor or a mentor who guides the world around and is free to play in a lush space inexperienced child into the world of adults. Em- (2). This image of nature reinforces the innocent bodied as a figure of the mentor, the adult pre- nature of children. pares the child for the personal development and In this poem, there is the theme of the pleas- also helps him to cultivate the undeveloped part ure of childhood as well as that of adulthood due of his personality (83). to the presence of the image of the old man. The interaction between the mentor Thus, there is a harmony of pleasure that is (Morshed) and the mentee (Salek) covers the shared between old people and children. In other large scope of Persian mystical poetry, as well. As words, in "The Echoing Green," children and old a mystical poet, Sohrab Sepehri expresses his people have a mutual impact on each other. Old mystical attitude by recalling the child as the people provide children with the sense of secu- symbol of a primitive mentee. Similar to Blake rity while children revive the sense of nostalgia who depicts the child as a mentee who requires and remembrance of childhood in old people. At to be guided by an experienced mentor through first, this remembrance may initially yield to sor- the journey of life, Sepehri considers a child a rowful feelings but it gradually vanishes by the primitive mentee who attains self-fulfillment by echoing of the pleasure of children. overcoming the obstacles in life with the support of a mentor. In his poem "The Eyes of a Crossing," Old John with white hair ("cheshmane yek obour") he depicts a child who Does laugh away care, is filled with wonder and enthusiasm despite suf- Sitting under the oak, fering from hardships; he does not surrender and Among the old folk. is willing to continue his way. "The child came/ They laugh at our play, his pockets were full of the passion of picking/ And soon they all say: from behind the words, he ran to the soft tended weeds/he went to fish on the pool pond/ his When we all, girls and boys, blood was filled with the scales of loneliness/ In our youth time were seen then a thorn scratched his foot/ Its sting van- -20). ished on the weeds"(7-10).("koudak amad/jibha- yash por az shure chidan bud/koudak az poshte According to Jung's definition of the "arche- alfaz/ta alafhaye narme tamayol david/raft ta typal child" as a symbol of wholeness, the child mahiyane hamishe/ruye pashuye howz/khune has opposite qualities such as wisdom and inno- koudak por az false tanhaie shod/baad khari cence as well as freedom and responsibility. payash ra kharashid/suzeshe jesm ruye alafha

206 fana shod"). Shaabanzade states that terminologies like "mentor" and "mentee," are not men- 3. Representation of the child as the tioned directly in Sepehri's poems; however, his symbol of the perfect mentor poems imply the child as an embodiment of a primitive mentee who is eager to reach to the de- In Hafez's mystical poetry, one can witness gree of perfection (2008). In his poem "The terminologies such as "moghbache" and Sound of Water's Footstep," he expresses:" I saw "tarsabache" which refer to the child as a symbol many things on earth:/I saw a child smelling the of the perfect mentor." Shamisa investigates the moon./ I saw daylight fluttering in a doorless significant role of the child in Sepehri's poetry cage/ I saw love climbing a ladder to the roof of and suggests that similar to his predecessors, heaven"(line 84). The child who smells the moon Sohrab Sepehri provides the child with the role of is the symbol of the mentee who aims at achiev- a perfect mentor in some of his poems. One of ing the knowledge of truth and perfection. the poems is "The Address," ("Neshani") in which In the above-mentioned poems, both Sepehri depicts a child who guides other people Sepehri and Blake demonstrate a sense of nostal- to the "nest of light" which is the symbol of God's gia. While in "The sound of Water's footstep" kingdom and Jabaroot (359)."In the fluid sincer- there is a sense of nostalgia for the poet himself, ity of space, you will hear rustle/ you will see a in "The Echoing Garden" this sense of nostalgia child/on a tall plane tree, picking a young bird/ is evoked by other individuals. Hosseini states from the nest of light / ask him where the friend's that this sense of nostalgia that exists in the po- house is? "(13-17). (" Dar samimiyate sayyale etry of Sepehri is the result of his antipathy to faza, khesh kheshi mishenavi/koudaki the modern life and all elements associated with mibini/rafte az kaje bolandi bala, juje bardarad az it (144). This sense of antipathy of modernity laneh nour/va az ou miporsi/khane dust kojast"). which exists in both poets culminates in the glo- Thus, the child in this poem is a knowledge- rification of Nature. According to Seyyedi, in ro- able existence who is capable of guiding and in- mantic poetry, poets are always dealing with the spiring other people, who can be considered as a struggle between dreams and ideals on the one primitive mentee, searching for the right direc- hand and the realities of an uncaring society on tion to reach to God's kingdom. According to the the other. The aversion of the modern life finds innocent nature of the child, it seems as if he its way in the emphasis of the role of Nature in himself is united with God. Sharifian states that order to delineate the values such as justice, Attar Neishabouri in his well- known book Man- equality, and freedom that cannot be expressed teghotteir defines seven stages of mysticism that in the modern society (4). This nature can have a primitive mentee should pass in order to be- an external demonstration as in "The Echoing come a perfect mentor. By utilizing natural im- Green" and "The Eyes of a Crossing" or it can refer ageries, Sohrab Sepehri illustrates all these seven to human nature and childhood as in "The Sound stages in his poem "The Address." According to of Water's Footstep." The emphasis on the role of these stages, the child who has a great knowledge nature highlights the purity of innocence and of God is in the sixth stage which finally culmi- joys that children experience. This shared conno- nates in the seventh stage which is the stage of tations of childhood that exist in above poems death and continuation (158). signify the existence of a universal spirit for seek- In "Beyond the Seas,"(Poshte Daryaha) ing the innocent pleasure in the nonmaterialistic Sepehri describes his explanation of the "utopia." world. This fact illustrates the spirit of the hu- Despite the political aspect of the poem, he de- man being that longs for and glorifies peace and picts the child as a perfect mentor." In the hand calmness. of each ten-year-old child a branch of knowledge

207 lies"(line 27). ("Daste har koudake dah sale shahr, piper into a professional poet who pipes not only shakhe maarefati ast"). In this line, knowledge is for his own enjoyment but also for the enjoy- compared to a branch of flower that lies in the ment of his audience. Hence the child acts as a hand of a child. The juxtaposition of the mentor who gives his mentee a new perception knowledge with a branch of flower signifies to of life. This new vision of life unifies the poet the accessibility of knowledge for each child. This with the whole universe. As mentioned in "The child has already passed various stages of mysti- Echoing Green," in this poem also wholeness is cism and now possesses knowledge (Maarefat) to achieved by the collaboration of the child and the be an advisor and guide for other people. Thus, adult. he embodies all the characteristics of the perfect In the above-mentioned poems, both Blake mentor. and Sepehri depict the image of the child as a The examination of Jung's theory of the ar- source of knowledge and inspiration. Therefore, chetypal child provides a better comprehension this image of a child can be considered as an of the status of the child as a source of imagina- adept depiction of a perfect mentor with the dition, inspiration, and wholeness in Romantic po- vine capability to bestow his mentee a new per- etry. In the Songs of Innocence, Blake demon- spective on life. As opposed to general beliefs strates the archetypal child as a source of inspi- about the figure of the mentor as an old man who ration and it is evident in the "Introduction" is responsible for enlightening and guiding where the piper is inspired by the image of a young people, in these poems, the children's in- child. Blake depicts the pastoral image by pre- nocence ascribes to them the aptitude of being senting the poet as a simple piper singing the mentors for other people. "Sometimes the 'child' song of pleasure when suddenly he is interrupted looks more like a child god, sometimes more like by a visionary appearance of a child on a cloud. - he Contrary to Blake's other poem, in "Introduction" is 'semi-divine'"( Jung 165-166). the adult is guided by the child. The child first commands the piper to pipe a song about a lamb, 4. Representation of the child as the sym- then to sing the song of happy cheer, and finally bol of the Origin of Creation to sit down and write his poem. Inspired by the child, he develops from being a simple piper to Many poets utilize child imagery for the sake the status of a singer, and ultimately to the rank of exposing their mystical point of view toward of a professional poet. After being inspired by the world. Sohrab Sepehri also uses this imagery the child, the poet asserts that: in order to refer to the origin of creation. In his poem "The Friend," Sepehri makes reference to And I made a rural pen, the basic elements of creation: "She called out the And I stained the water clear, wind's childhood"(line 11). (Hamishe koudakiey And I wrote my happy songs bad ra seda mikard." Nooshmand affirms that Every child may joy to hear (17-20). "breeze" can be considered as a child of the wind. When breeze transforms into the wind, it loses Gardener asserts that Blake depicts the its mildness and softness. Thus, when the child power of the child to inspire the poet and to ena- transforms into an adult, he loses his innocence ble him to see beyond the ordinary sense of na- (Zabane Adabi (web)). ture. Therefore, the presence of the child endows There is also a line in Sepehri's poem, "The him with the potential to see both inside himself Passenger", in which he mentions the childhood and his audience (19). As a result, this newly ac- of water. "Transmit me to the childhood of quired insight transforms him from a simple water's passion "(line 36). ("Ma ra be koudakiye

208 shure abha beresan"). Nooshmand suggests that Sepehri uses "The childhood of the wind" and" this passenger considers himself as a drop which The childhood of water," in order to emphasize is detached from the ocean of the universe. Now the first wind and water which are among the he recalls the time when he was united with the basic elements of creation. Blake also uses the whole universe which is the reminder of the child to recall the connection that human beings origin of creation. This origin of creation that possess with God. Sepehri glorifies is the source of innocence. Thus, instead of wind and water, he utilizes the "child- 5. Representation of the child as the hood" of wind and water in order to expose the symbol of natural wisdom and origin of creation (Zabane Adabi (web)). uncomplicated philosophy In "The Divine Image," Blake presents four traditional Christian virtues in order to conclude In Persian mysticism, mystics believe that the idea that God is the real essence of all virtues. logical and argumentative wisdom is not the Then he claims that human beings also possess form of pure wisdom since it deals with the ter- these Divine virtues, so they are no less divine. restrial and materialistic issues. One of the char- Thus, if a man manifests the qualities of mercy, acteristics of a child is that s/he is unaffected by pity, love, and peace which are the qualities of worldly matters and attempts to have a deep per- God, he can be considered as a Divine character ception of the world in the simplest way from or even as an avatar of God. By personifying God, his/her own perspective. This attribute of the Blake aims at constructing God as the image of child encourages many poets to celebrate this men, whereas in the Bible, God creates man in his form of profound and simultaneously uncompli- image. He also implies that God's abode is within cated wisdom in their poems. Sohrab Sepehri the human heart. In order to relate human be- demonstrates this type of wisdom in "The Sound ings to God, Blake utilizes the word "child." As a of Water's Footstep" by the remembrance of the result, the child acts as a transmitter that joins childhood period. human beings to the origin of Creation, God. A "On that day, I was munching the unripe child can be a great indication of the initial purity fruit of God in my sleep/ I would drink water un- of the human soul which is united with the philosophically/ I picked up mulberries unscien- source of existence. tifically" (33-35). ("Mive kale khoda ra an ruz,mi- javidam dar khab/Ab bi falsafe mikhordam/ Tut To Mercy, Pity, Peace, and Love bi danesh michidam"). Shamisa states that in this All pray in their distress; part, the poem refers to childhood and the wis- And to these virtues of delight dom in this period which was a matter of instinct Return their thankfulness. rather than that of the logical intellect. Philoso- phy is considered an obstacle in the way of find- For Mercy, Pity, Peace, and Love ing the truth (65). In another part of "The Sound Is God, our father dear, of Water's Footstep," Sepehri exposes how a child And Mercy, Pity, Peace, and Love celebrates the natural wisdom which is attained Is Man, his child and care (1-8). out of schools. Sohrab Sepehri describes his first day of school in this way:" The school snipped my According to the innocent nature of child dreams, it broke my prayers. The school vexed and childhood period, the "child imagery" can be my dolls. I never forget the first day of school, an appropriate equivalence for the origin of crea- when they stole me from my plays and brought tion in which there is no corruption and it only me to the nightmare of school (qtd. in Shaaban- sheds the light of purity and unification. Sohrab

209 zade 2011). Since the child possesses a deep per- 9). They respond more wisely than the nurse to- ception of God, he rejects the prayer of preten- ward nature. By making the simple reference to tious religious people." A boy throwing a stone at various elements of nature, children attempt to the school wall/ A kid spitting on an apricot on convince the nurse to let them play more." Be- his father's faded prayer carpet"(76-78). ("Pesari sides in the sky, the little birds fly/ And the hills sang be divare dabestan mizad/ Koudaki haste are covered with sheep"(11-12). Because for zardalu ra, ruye sajjade birange pedar tof mi- them the sun is still shining and birds are sing- kard"). The act of throwing a stone at the school ing, there is no trace of an approaching night. wall indicates the universal tendency to glorify Children's intrinsic wisdom makes them respond the natural wisdom which is not corrupted by to the harmony of nature in the most uncompli- materialistic issues. cated way; and the nurse who is influenced by In "The Lamb" Blake uses a child as a narra- this sincerity concedes to their request in a posi- tor who poses some questions which are simulta- tive way "Well, well, go and play till the night fade neously simple and profound" Little Lamb who away"(line 13). Thus, the nurse comprehends made thee / Dost thou know who made thee?"(1- that children in their innocent and uncorrupted 2). This addresses the basic question of human vision are able to perceive things that adults with existence. By quoting this question from an in- all their experience cannot. As previously men- nocent child who addresses the most innocent tioned that in Songs of Innocence the wholeness is creature, the lamb, Blake indicates that children achieved by the influence that individuals gain often go to the heart of existence because they from one another; in this poem children's un- have not yet learned to complicate the world complicated wisdom create an atmosphere of in- around them. Then he follows by juxtaposing tegration with nature which makes the nurse in- himself with the little lamb as well as the creator fluenced by this integration and experience the of the little lamb that is the indication of the in- same sense "My heart is at rest within my breast/ nocence of the human soul. The child implies And everything else is still"(3-4). that the whole universe shares the same light. The "child imagery" plays a significant role in This pure knowledge and perception of the world Romantic literature. As Romantic poets, Sohrab and God are not achieved by academic studies Sepehri and William Blake make the excessive and specific philosophy or experiences of life. use of this imagery in their poems. Both poets This is a profound and instinctive wisdom which found it indispensable to experience a childlike is inherited by all human beings and is high- mentality; as a result, diverse dimensions of lighted by the innocence of the child. childish attitudes and poets' congenial and can- did tone create momentarily a childish clarity He is called by thy name, and acceptance in their audiences. The image of For he calls himself a Lamb: a child in both English Romantic and Persian He is meek & he is mild, contemporary poetry is treated symbolically, He became a little child: thus the two poets do not reflect upon the actual I a child & thou a lamb, image and qualities of childhood alone. The dom- We are called by his name (13-18). inant characteristic of a child, which is innocence, enables both poets to examine the concept The poem "Nurse's Song," reflects children's of childhood in their poems and illustrate its wisdom about nature. Children play on the green multidimensionality. By utilizing Jung's theory grass while the night is approaching. The nurse of the "archetypal child" in his Songs of Innocence, calls them to enter the house, but they desire to Blake moves beyond the physical representation play more" No, no let us play, for it is yet day"(line and penetrates the realm of the unconscious of

210 the human mind where the individual can trace Jaberi,Sareh. Imran-Ho- the beginning of his/her history. As a mystical cal Love Metaphors: A Cognitive Analysis Persian poet, Sohrab Sepehri demonstrates the of Sohrab Sepehri' Journal of mystical perspective of the image of childhood. Language Studies. Vol. 16, no. 1, 2016, pp Despite various historical and cultural back- 143 156. grounds, both poets share similar viewpoints of Jung, C. G. The archetypes and collective uncon- this prevalent imagery. Through analyzing scious. 2nd ed. New York: Pinceton Univer- Sepehri's poetry and Blake's Songs of Innocence, sity press, 1959. Print. this research indicated both the multidimensionality of the concept of childhood and the way the plied in the poetry of Blake, Wordsworth two poets represent the "child imagery" as a sym- Majalate Koliat tarbiat bol of innocent joy and the primitive mentee, the Alasasiat. 2013, pp. 9-19. perfect mentor, origin of creation, and natural Noorbakhsh, Mansoor. Be soraghe man agar mi- wisdom without complicated philosophy. ayeed. 1376. Print. Sagar, Keith. Innocence and Experience.pp.1-8. References Web. 30 June 2018. www.Keithsagar.com

Boostan pp. 1-14. Adab. Vol.2, no.3, 1389, pp 201-221. Byrne, Alice C. The child: An Archetypal symbol in dakanehaye Arefane dar sheere Sohrab." literature for children and Adualts. New Parnian Sokhan -2014. York: Peter long publishing, 1995. Shamisa, Sirous. Negahi be Sepehri. Tehran, Gardener, Stanley. Blake's innocence and experi- 1382. Print. ence ret Mustaqbaliay (18)2007.pp.19-40. Hosseini Kazerouni, Ahmad. Afsaneh Seraji. Pajooheshi Oloom Ensani Daneshgah Alzahra. Vol.61, no.61-62. Win- Parnian Sokhan. ter1385-1386.pp.157-181. Vol. 13, no. 31, 1395. pp. 143-154. Wilson, Mona. The Life of William Blake. London: Oxford University Press, 1971. sheere no (Nima Youshij, Shamloo, Far- Zabane Adabi. Web. 30 June 2018. www.re- zanooshmand.blogfa.com

211

Author Index

Abdolmohammad Movahhed, 105 Maryam Heidari Vincheh, 65 Abolfazl Ghanbari, 43 Mehrnoosh Pirhayati, 114 Alireza Bahremand, 25 Mohammad Hossein Bakhshandeh, 16 Ameneh Zare, 203 Mohammad Nabi Karimi, 2 Amir Qaraei Torbati, 140 Mohsen Habibinasab, 51 Azizullah Mirzaei, 65 Narges Shirvanian, 137

Nasrin Malekpour, 85 Batul Musavi, 81 Nasser Dashtpeyma, 85 Batul Musavi, 94 Nazanin Nayyeri, 97

Elham Khamoushi, 81 Parastoo Alizadeh Oghyanous, 2 Elmira Bazregarzadeh, 33

Rasool Mirshekaran, 89 Farzaneh Haratyan, 114 Rasul Siar, 162

Ronak Karami, 68 Gholamhossein Shahini, 133 Roshanak Vatani, 186

Hadi Shahi, 153 Samaneh Saeid, 131 Hossein Aliakbari Harehdasht, 105 Samira Sasani, 144

Sara Mansouri, 174 Laleh Atashi, 16, 94 Sepideh Ghandehari, 194

Seyyed Mohammad Ali Soozandehfar, Mahmood Hashemian, 58 168 Mahnaz Azad, 43

Mahnaz Zamani, 58 Vafa Keshavarzi, 75 Mahsa Hashemi, 203

Mahshid Safavian, 133 Zahra Nazemi, 105 Majid Fatahipour, 43 Zahra Sadeghi, 144 Manijeh Youhanaee, 137, 194

213