RECENT RESEARCH IN THE MIDDLE VALLEY Introduction to a Special Volume

Aaron Deter-Wolf and Tanya M. Peres

The Cumberland River flows 688 miles synthesis, or attempt at a synthesis, (1,107 km) westward from its headwaters exists. We offer this special guest-edited in Letcher County, through volume of Archaeology as an southern Kentucky and northern Middle effort to highlight the distinct Tennessee before emptying into the Ohio archaeological record of the Middle River near Paducah, Kentucky. Since the Cumberland River valley and encourage late seventeenth century, the Cumberland future scholarship. In this Introduction we River has served as a vital resource and offer a description and definition of the transportation corridor for European and Middle Cumberland River valley, a brief Euro-American settlement, development, overview of the history of archaeology in and commerce in Tennessee and the the region, and highlight the current state surrounding region (Brent and DuVall of archaeological research and resource 2001). However, the history of human management addressed by the activity along the Cumberland River contributors to this volume. begins long before European exploration west of the Appalachians, or proto-historic The Middle Cumberland River Valley settlement of the region by the Shawnee, Defined , Creek, and Chickasaw. Consistent human occupation and reuse From a physiographic perspective, the of natural levees and adjacent terrace Middle Cumberland River valley stretches landforms since the late Pleistocene has roughly from the confluence of the resulted in the formation of numerous Cumberland River with the at deeply-buried, stratified, multicomponent Celina (Cumberland River Mile [RM] 381) archaeological sites. The density of downstream past Ashland City to the prehistoric settlement along the mouth of the (RM 153). Cumberland River and its tributaries is Within this region the Cumberland River is particularly notable within the Middle fed by major tributaries including the Cumberland River valley in Tennessee, Obey, Caney Fork, Stones, and Harpeth where archaeological evidence has Rivers, as well as numerous higher order revealed that initial human occupations streams. The watershed of the Middle occurred by at least 12,100 cal BP (Deter- Cumberland River valley drains the Wolf et al. 2011a). northern portion of the Central Basin and With such a rich and ancient history, the northeastern portion of the adjacent one would think a published synthesis of Eastern physiographic archaeology along the Cumberland River provinces of Tennessee (Figure 1). would have occurred years ago. The Central Basin physiographic Unfortunately, primary data and site province consists of an elliptical information are found mainly within the depression extending across the central “grey literature” -- technical reports, state portion of Tennessee, which formed as a site files, and field notes -- and no result of accelerated weathering of a

5 Tennessee Archaeology 6(1-2) Summer 2012

FIGURE 1. The Middle Cumberland River valley with locations of sites discussed in this volume. Paleozoic anticlinal structure known as Overview of Previous Archaeological the Nashville Dome (Floyd 1990). The Research in the Region portion of the Central Basin along the Cumberland River drainage is Our archaeological understanding of characterized by gently rolling to hilly the prehistory of the Middle Cumberland terrain. In the area immediately adjacent River valley comes as a result of to the Nashville Dome, undisturbed and numerous survey, testing, and excavation extremely dense limestone of the Lower projects performed by the Tennessee Mississippian epoch Fort Payne Division of Archaeology (TDOA) (e.g., Formation (ca. 360–345 MYA) prevented Broster and Barker 1992; Broster et al. substantial erosion, resulting in the 1991, 2006, 2008; Cridlebaugh 1983; formation of the Eastern and Western Deter-Wolf et al. 2011a; Jolley 1979; Highland Rim physiographic provinces. Moore 2005; Moore and Breitburg 1998; These areas are characterized by rolling, Moore and Smith 2001; Moore et al. 1992; dissected terrain situated around 300 feet Norton and Broster 1993, 2001; Spears et higher in elevation than the Central Basin. al. 2008), archaeological consultants and The intersection between these provinces Cultural Resource Management firms is marked by numerous finger-like (e.g., Allen 1999, 2008; Barker 1997, protrusions where the Central Basin 2002, 2004, 2010; Bentz 1986; Dillehay et province extends along major river and al. 1984; Gregory et al. 2010; Law 2005; stream channels into the surrounding McNutt and Lumb 1987; McNutt and Highland Rim. Weaver 1983; Walling et al. 2000;

6 Introduction

Wampler 2007), and from academic John Haywood (1823), Joseph Jones investigations (e.g., Anderson et al. 2010; (1876), William E. Myer (1928), and Gates Berryman 1981; Beahm et al. 2010; P. Thruston (1890). These gentlemen, Morse 1967; O’Brien 1977; Worne 2011). along with Frederic W. Putnam (1878) However, while the Tennessee Division of and other representatives of Harvard’s Archaeology site file database includes Peabody Museum of Archaeology and entries for more than 3,100 prehistoric Ethnology (Moore and Smith 2009), were sites within the Middle Cumberland River drawn to the earthworks, graves, and valley as of June 25, 2012, the site file relics of the area’s late prehistoric database indicates less than 10 percent inhabitants and performed some of the (approximately 260) of these resources earliest archaeological investigations in have been subjected to formal the region. investigations beyond intensive surface Modern efforts to identify the collection and/or shovel testing. boundaries of the Middle Cumberland Instead, much of our knowledge initially proposed an regarding the archaeological character of area that included the Cumberland River the Middle Cumberland is the result of watershed from the confluence of the investigations conducted by Middle Cumberland and the Caney Fork (RM Tennessee’s avocational archaeological 309) downstream to the mouth of the community, including notable efforts by Cumberland at the (Ferguson 2012 Society of American Archaeology 1972). The culture boundary has since Crabtree Award recipient John T. Dowd. been refined both as a result of Data from surveys and excavations during archaeological excavations (e.g., Moore the 1970s through early 1990s and 2005; Moore and Smith 2001; Moore et al. continuing monitoring by members of that 2006; Smith and Moore 1994) and community have been published in reanalysis of older collections and data various forums (e.g. Dowd 1972, 1989, (Moore and Smith 2009; Smith 1992; 2008; Lindstrom 1979; Parker 1974) and Smith and Miller 2009), and now contributed to the permanent site file encompasses the area from the Caney record at the TDOA. This information Fork to the confluence of the Cumberland provides essential baseline data on which and the Red River at Clarksville (RM 125) our understanding of the archaeological (see discussion in Moore et al. 2006). character of this region is built. While late prehistoric sites attracted Within the archaeological literature the some of the earliest scholarly interest in term “Middle Cumberland” is used to ancient habitation of the Middle identify a discrete regional late prehistoric Cumberland River valley, Mississippian culture (i.e., Middle Cumberland occupations only scratch the surface of Mississippian) defined in part by the area’s archaeological record. Of distinctive mortuary practices, artistic around 1,700 sites in the region that have styles, and ceramic typologies. The produced temporally diagnostic materials, density and unique archaeological just 20 percent include Mississippian character of these Mississippian artifacts. Nine percent of temporally- occupations along the Cumberland River assigned sites include Paleoindian or in has been transitional Paleoindian diagnostics, 46 recognized since at least the nineteenth percent include Woodland materials, and century. Antiquarian scholars include 74 percent have produced artifacts

7 Tennessee Archaeology 6(1-2) Summer 2012

diagnostic of the Archaic period.1 These Nashville have been largely unimproved earlier cultural periods in the Middle except according to the efforts of Cumberland River valley, and particularly individual landowners. These outlying the Archaic, also witnessed the areas have suffered slow destruction fluorescence of distinctive regional since the creation of Cheatham Lake, Old cultural phenomena including a variant of Hickory Lake, and as a the Benton mortuary tradition (Deter-Wolf result of varying water levels, boat wakes, 2004), and the creation of extensive shell and dam outfall. middens/mounds (Peres and Deter-Wolf In addition to impacts from erosion, the 2012). numerous easily-identifiable and readily- The archaeological density of the accessible prehistoric site deposits along Middle Cumberland River valley can be the Middle Cumberland River and its explained in part by the ample resources tributaries have for years attracted of the region. These include easy access detrimental attention from the public. to potable, navigable, and mineral-rich Middle Tennessee has a strong tradition water; high concentrations and varied of avocational archaeologists helping to species of flora and fauna; fertile soils promote site preservation and public along river floodplains; longer growing understanding of Tennessee’s seasons and temperate winters resulting archaeological past. Unfortunately, public from temperature modulations of the interest in the prehistoric archaeology of Central Basin; access to transportation the region has not been entirely and trade routes including the overland benevolent. For much of the last century Natchez Trace and the Cumberland River; prehistoric sites, and particularly those and the ready availability of high-quality with visible riverbank profiles, have lithic material found eroding from the attracted the attentions of professional nearby physiographic boundary and along looters and unscrupulous collectors the gravel bars of numerous rivers and focused on identifying prehistoric graves streams. Cultural factors that may have in order to obtain the finely crafted contributed to migrations of people in and mortuary offerings those burials out of the area for millennia are currently sometimes include (Moore 1989). under study. A combination of both Intensive looting in the Middle environmental and cultural factors likely Cumberland River valley has historically attracted the earliest settlers of the Middle targeted two site types: cemeteries and Cumberland River valley during the late shell middens. The interest of looters in Pleistocene. these particular sites stems from considerations of convenience and Modern Impacts to the Archaeology of preservation. Diagnostic stone-box graves the Middle Cumberland River of the Mississippian period are sometimes identifiable on the ground surface Over the last century, the majority of because their distinctive configuration of the Cumberland River bankline in the limestone slabs has been exposed by immediate vicinity of downtown Nashville erosion or cultivation. Although shell has been covered beneath stone riprap middens are not typically visible on that protects archaeological deposits and ground surface, they are readily generally prevents site erosion. However, identifiable in riverbank profiles, where the riverbanks both east and west of thick-banded concentrations of freshwater

8 Introduction shell stand out from surrounding alluvial May 3, the Cumberland River crested at soils. Both shell and limestone have a 52 feet, 12 feet above flood stage and its naturally high pH, which counteracts soil highest level recorded since 1937 acidity and results in excellent bone and (Tennessean.com 2010). Throughout the artifact preservation. Looters concentrate greater Nashville area floodwaters on these types of sites because of the inundated the hundred-year floodplain increased likelihood of encountering and impacted or destroyed more than preserved human remains and grave 9,000 homes and businesses. goods. After floodwaters abated and the There are several locations along the Cumberland River returned to its summer Cumberland River watershed in Middle pool elevation, the co-editors conducted Tennessee where looting of large sites damage inspections of several large, situated on private property has been deeply-stratified prehistoric sites in the ongoing for years or even decades. vicinity of Nashville in order to assess Although inspections of these sites have flood damage. Those inspections repeatedly identified evidence of identified significant riverbank erosion, deliberately disturbed human burials, it and determined that substantial has proved difficult or impossible to archaeological deposits had been apprehend or dissuade looters from their displaced or destroyed as a result of the activity. Over the last decade TDOA flood and subsequent looting of newly- archaeologists have also observed a uncovered site deposits. The scope of phenomenon in which professional looters damage documented during these site lease known prehistoric sites from private inspections prompted us, along with Dr. landowners in order to mine the deposits Shannon Hodge of Middle Tennessee for high-quality artifacts. These materials State University (MTSU), to apply for are then sold at regional artifact shows Rapid Research Response funding from and on the Internet. This artifact mining is the National Science Foundation in order legal under current state law, which on to assess both natural and anthropogenic private property protects only those site disturbances caused by the flood. archaeological remains directly That grant was awarded in June 2010, associated with human burials (Moore and over the following 10 months we 1989, 1998), and then only when performed a shoreline assessment of 128 deliberate burial disturbance can be prehistoric site locations with the aid of documented. students from MTSU and community Our own ongoing research interests volunteers (Figure 2) (Deter-Wolf et al. along the Middle Cumberland River 2011b). coalesced following catastrophic flooding While conducting background that occurred over the weekend of May 1, research for that project we were struck 2010. Beginning that morning, heavy both by the number of archaeological storms deposited an average of 15 inches resources and the steady output of high- of rain on Middle Tennessee and southern quality recent archaeological work which Kentucky. Water levels rose rapidly along has been conducted within the Middle the Cumberland River and its tributaries in Cumberland River valley. With this in the vicinity of Nashville, and by the mind, we approached the editors of evening of May 1 evacuations were Tennessee Archaeology and proposed a underway in some neighborhoods. On guest-edited volume devoted to

9 Tennessee Archaeology 6(1-2) Summer 2012

FIGURE 2. MTSU Student Joey Keasler examines a riverbank profile along the Cumberland River in Davidson County during the 2010 NSF-funded emergency survey project. archaeological research in the Middle 110 survey performed on behalf of the Cumberland River valley. We are pleased U.S. Army Corps of Engineers following and honored that they accepted our the May 2010 flood. This article examines proposal, and that we are able to present the effects of the historic flood and looting the following articles on the unique on three Mississippian sites in Cheatham archaeological history of the region. and Stewart Counties. performed in conjunction with the project Overview of Contributions to the reveals that, despite ongoing issues of Special Volume erosion and looting, the intact archaeological resources of the Middle Much of the recent archaeological Cumberland River valley remain an work performed within the Middle important resource for understanding Cumberland River valley has been the human occupations in Middle Tennessee result of Cultural Resources Management and the Southeast. investigations related to federal Excavations along the Cumberland permitting, human remains concerns, and River at deeply-buried Paleoindian sites as due diligence ahead of development such as Johnson (40DV400) (Barker and projects. This volume begins with the Broster 1996) and Widemeier (40DV9) article “A Flood of Looters: Endangered (Broster et al. 2006) have provided Mississippian Resources along the Middle important evidence of late Pleistocene Cumberland River,” in which Danny human occupation in both Tennessee and Gregory discusses the results of a Section the American Southeast. The prospect of

10 Introduction

additional unrecorded deposits spanning Project conducted excavations at three the terminal Pleistocene-Holocene stratified riverbank sites that span the transition prompted the 2010 Early Archaic through Early Woodland, commencement of the Cumberland two of which include substantial shell River/Midsouth Paleoindian Project (now midden components. In “Radiocarbon the Bells Bend Archaeological Project, Dates from Three Sites Along the Middle http://bellsbend.pidba.org/). Cumberland River Near Nashville,” Shane The preliminary field season results Miller, David G. Anderson, Thaddeus are presented here in two articles. In the Bissett, and Stephen Carmody discuss 29 first of these, “A Preliminary Report on the AMS radiocarbon determinations from Sanders #1 Site (40CH193), Cheatham those sites. In addition to contributing a County, Tennessee” Shane Miller, John significant new body of radiometric data Broster, Gary Barker, David G. Anderson, for the region, this article provides and Stephen Carmody describe information critical to our emerging Paleoindian and Early Archaic materials understanding of patterns of formation, and a radiocarbon sample recovered from occupation, and reuse of shell midden a deeply buried, stratified site in sites. Cheatham County. Few single component or short-term As previously discussed, distinctive use sites have been identified to date and readily-visible shell middens along along the banks of the Cumberland River the bank of the Middle Cumberland have in Middle Tennessee. The discovery and long been targeted by looters and excavation of these sites therefore collectors. Unfortunately, until recently provides a rare opportunity to generate there have been few professional focused, comprehensive data on human excavations directed at examining the occupations in the region. In “The Harpeth specific chronology, composition, or Shoals Marina Site (40CH195): A cultural significance of shell-bearing sites Terminal Archaic Fire-Cracked Rock in the region. This volume of Tennessee Complex on the Cumberland River, Archaeology begins to rectify this paucity Cheatham County, Tennessee,” Marc of data with two articles. In Wampler and Larry McKee discuss data “Zooarchaeological Analysis of a recovery investigations at a Cheatham Multicomponent Shell-Bearing Site in County site that produced a significant Davidson County, Tennessee” Tanya M. corpus of Late and Terminal Archaic Peres, Aaron Deter-Wolf, and Gage A. dates. Fire-cracked rock features from the Myers describe the results of emergency site provide information on processing sampling of a large multicomponent site and cooking techniques, while featuring stratified shell midden Chenopodium seeds recovered from a components from both the Archaic and feature at this site offer a possible window Mississippian periods, and discuss how into early plant domestication. these data may contribute to our The onset of the Mississippian period understanding of the complex social and (ca. AD 1000) saw a dramatic population environmental processes that led to the increase along the Middle Cumberland formation of shell middens/mounds in the River, and a corresponding escalation of region. sites and site types. Over the ensuing 450 During the 2010 field season, the years, Mississippian occupations along Cumberland River/Midsouth Paleoindian the Middle Cumberland River ranged from

11 Tennessee Archaeology 6(1-2) Summer 2012

single farmsteads to cemeteries and Tennessee,” Courtney Cox examines multi-mound centers (Moore and Smith remains from the West site (40DV12), a 2009; Moore et al. 2006). In 1969, John late Regional III/early Regional IV period Dowd and John Broster conducted an cemetery (Moore and Smith 2009) excavation of several structures within the situated along the lower terraces of the Cockrill Bend/Sandbar Village site Cumberland River. Her analysis of (40DV36), which they initially identified as skeletal pathologies suggests a small hamlet or village. The results of Mississippian populations supplemented their work were published in 1972 in the their agricultural subsistence base with first and only issue of the Southeastern riverine resources procured from the Indian Antiquities Journal. Given the Cumberland’s main channel. limited distribution and availability of that The “Mississippianization” of the journal, we are pleased to be able to Middle Cumberland River seems to have present a reprint of their report, “Cockrills been launched from the western portion of Bend Site 17c: A Reprint from The SIAS the Central Basin, likely originating at the Journal 1972” for a broader audience. site of along the Harpeth Subsequent investigations at 40DV36 River in Cheatham County (Moore and identified the presence of a small Smith 2009). In the eastern portion of the Woodland component and Mississippian Central Basin, resident populations occupation spanning the period ca. AD outside of the direct control or influence of 1100-1450. (Regional Periods II – IV Mound Bottom began to coalesce into [Moore and Smith 2009]), and the site local chiefdoms. In “Mississippian was listed on the National Register of Ceramics and Settlement Complexity: Historic Places in 1994. In “Changing Insights from the Beasley Mounds Interpretations of Sandbar Village (40SM43), Smith County, Tennessee,” (40DV36): Mississippian Hamlet, Village, Emily Beahm and Kevin E. Smith present or Mound Center?” Kevin E. Smith and the results of a small-scale mapping and Michael C. Moore revisit the data from excavation project in early 2008. Findings 40DV36 in order to suggest that the site is from that project suggest that by AD 1280, larger than previously identified, and may the residents of Beasley Mounds were have originally been a small mound more closely affiliated culturally with center. inhabitants of the Upper Cumberland and By the start of the Mississippian than to their nearer period, populations along the Cumberland neighbors to the west. River and its tributaries had been The distinctive Dover chert obtained systematically exploiting riverine species from quarries near the Cumberland River for consumption and construction material in Stewart County, Tennessee, was prized for upwards of 4,000 years (Peres and by Mississippian populations throughout Deter-Wolf 2012). Despite the importance the region and used in the manufacture of of maize agriculture to late prehistoric oversized and eccentric lithic artifacts. populations in the region, the resources of Although the quarry site is located outside the Cumberland River remained a the boundaries of the Middle Cumberland, significant supporting element in the Dover chert was traded upstream and Mississippian diet. In “Skeletal Evidence appears at Mississippian sites throughout of Aquatic Activities from a Middle the region. This volume concludes with Cumberland Site in Davidson County, the article "Discovery and Early

12 Introduction

Investigations of the Dover Quarries by Hadlett, Erik N. Johanson, Ashley M. Parmenio E. Cox and Warren K. Smallwood, and Sarah Walters Moorehead, 1926-1932," by Kevin E. 2011 The 2010 Cumberland River/Midsouth Smith. In this article, Smith discusses Paleoindian Survey Project: Exploring early efforts to identify and describe the Human Occupation and Climate Change in the Late Pleistocene and Holocene source for Dover material. Eras. Paper presented at the 23rd We thank Mike Moore and Kevin Current Research in Tennessee Smith for the opportunity to edit this Archaeology meeting, Nashville. special volume of Tennessee Archaeology and for their assistance and Barker, Gary guidance during the process. In addition, 1997 1982 TDOT Excavations at 40RD77: A we thank the authors who contributed Late Middle Archaic Mortuary Site in their research to this effort and the peer Tennessee’s Central Basin. Paper reviewers who provided a service presented at the 9th Current Research essential to the completion of the project. in Tennessee Archaeology meeting, Finally, we thank the Tennessee Division Nashville. 2002 An Archaeological Assessment of a of Archaeology and the MTSU Portion of Site 40CH31 at Brush Creek Department of Sociology and and Cumberland River (River Mile Anthropology for their research support. 160.6), Cheatham County, Tennessee. Report submitted to the U.S. Army Notes 1 Corps of Engineers, Nashville District. The TDOA state site files are a dynamic Copy on file, Tennessee Division of database which is updated on a daily basis. Archaeology, Nashville. Consequently, the data regarding site quantities and temporal affiliations which we include here 2004 Archaeological Assessment: Proposed represent the character of the overall site file Shoreline Modification and Stabilization record as of late June, 2012. We encourage Along the South Bank of the future researchers to consult the site files Cumberland River and Unites States directly regarding site locations, temporal Army Corps of Engineers Easement affiliations, and level of investigation, rather from River Mile 163.59 to River Mile than relying on earlier published data. 163.91, Cheatham County, Tennessee. Report submitted to Mr. Robert References Saunders and the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, Nashville District. Allen, Dan S. 2010 Archaeological Assessment of 1999 Archaeological Investigation of the Riverbank and Shoreline Adjacent to Mizzell Site (40WM255): A Middle Tennessee Gas Pipelines 1-4, West Archaic to Early Woodland Period Site in Bank Cumberland River at River Mile the Central Basin of Middle Tennessee. 160, Cheatham County, Tennessee. DuVall & Associates, Inc. Report Report submitted to Tennessee Gas submitted to Sullivan Engineering, Inc., Pipeline and the U. S. Army Corps of Brentwood, Tennessee. Engineers, Nashville District. Copy on 2008 Two Mississippian Burial Clusters at file, Tennessee Division of Archaeology, Travellers’ Rest, Davidson County, Nashville. Tennessee. Tennessee Archaeology 3(1):77-86. Barker, Gary and John B. Broster 1996 The Johnson Site (40Dv400): A Dated Anderson, David G., D. Shane Miller, Tom Paleoindian and Early Archaic Pertierra, Derek Anderson, Thad Occupation in Tennessee's Central Bissett, Stephen Carmody, Tracy Basin. Journal of Archaeology

13 Tennessee Archaeology 6(1-2) Summer 2012

42(2):97-153. the Widemeier Site (40DV9), Davidson County, Tennessee. Tennessee Beahm, Emily L., Kevin E. Smith, and Erik S. Archaeology 2(2): 120-127. Porth 2008 Paleoindian and Early Archaic 2010 The Castalian Springs Chiefdom 2008- Occupations of the Widemeier Site 2009: More Insights from a Sumner (40DV9), Davidson County, Tennessee. County Mound Center. Paper presented Current Research in the Pleistocene at the 22nd Current Research in 25(1): 64-66. Tennessee Archaeology meeting, Nashville. Cridlebaugh, Patricia A. 1983 Penitentiary Branch: A Late Archaic Bentz, Charles, Jr. Cumberland River Shell Midden in 1986 The Chapman Site: A Terminal Archaic Middle Tennessee. Report of Settlement in the Middle Cumberland Investigations No. 4. Drainage of Tennessee. Department of Conservation, Division of Miscellaneous Papers No. 11, Archaeology, Nashville. Tennessee Anthropological Association, Nashville. Deter-Wolf, Aaron 2004 The Ensworth School Site (40DV184): A Berryman, Hugh E. Middle Archaic Benton Occupation 1981 The Averbuch Skeletal Series. A Study Along the Harpeth River Drainage in of Biological and Social Stress at a Late Middle Tennessee. Tennessee Mississippian Period Site from Middle Archaeology 1(1) pp. 18–35. Tennessee. PhD dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University Deter-Wolf, Aaron, Jesse W. Tune, and John of Tennessee, Knoxville. B. Broster 2011a Excavations and Dating of Late Brent, Joseph E. and Glyn D. DuVall Pleistocene and Paleoindian Deposits at 2001 Subduing the Cumberland: A Story of the Coats-Hines Site, Williamson the “Old” Locks and Dams on the County, Tennessee. Tennessee Cumberland River, Tennessee- Archaeology 5(2):142-156. Kentucky. Report on file, Nashville District U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Deter-Wolf, Aaron, Tanya M. Peres, and Shannon C. Hodge Broster, John B. and Gary Barker 2011b Emergency Shoreline Assessment 1992 Second Report of Investigations at the and Sampling of Archaeological Sites Johnson Site (40DV400): The 1991 along the Cumberland River in Middle Field Season. Tennessee Anthropologist Tennessee. Survey report submitted to 17(2):120-130. the US Army Corps of Engineers, Nashville District. ARPA Permit Broster, John B., David P. Johnson, and Mark DACW62-4-10-0437. R. Norton 1991 The Johnson Site: A Dated Clovis- Dillehay, Tom D., Nancy O'Malley, and Cumberland Occupation in Tennessee. Thomas Gatus (editors) Current Research in the Pleistocene 1984 Prehistory of the Middle Cumberland 8:8–10. River Valley: The Hurricane Branch Site, Jackson County, Tennessee. Broster, John B., Mark. R. Norton, Bobby Occasional Papers in Anthropology No. Hulan, and Ellis Durham 4. Department of Anthropology, 2006 A Preliminary Analysis of Clovis University of Kentucky, Lexington. Through Early Archaic Components at

14 Introduction

Dowd, John T. 1972 The West Site: A Stone Box Cemetery Jones, Joseph in Middle Tennessee. Miscellaneous 1876 Explorations of the Aboriginal Remains Papers No. 10. Tennessee of Tennessee. Smithsonian Institution, Archaeological Society, Knoxville. Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge 1989 The Anderson Site: Middle Archaic No. 259. Government Printing Office, Adaptation in Tennessee’s Central Washington D.C. Basin. Miscellaneous Paper No. 13. Tennessee Anthropological Association. Law, Zada 2008 The Cumberland Stone-Box Burials of 2005 Archaeological Inventory: Bells Bend Middle Tennessee. Tennessee Development, Nashville, Davidson Archaeology 3(2):163-180. County, Tennessee. Zada Law Archaeological Consulting. Report Ferguson, Robert B. (editor) prepared for Bells Landing LLC and 1972 The Middle Cumberland Culture. Hawkins Partners, Nashville. Copy on Publications in Anthropology No. 3. file, Tennessee Division of Archaeology, , Nashville. Nashville.

Floyd, Robert J. Lindstrom, Bruce 1990 Tennessee Rock and Mineral 1979 40WM32: An Archaic Site in Middle Resources. Originally published 1965. Tennessee. Tennessee Anthropologist Bulletin 66. Tennessee Department of (35):15–32. Conservation, Division of , Nashville. McNutt, Charles H. and Lisa C. Lumb 1987 Three Archeological Sites near Gregory, Danny, David Price, Sarah Lowery, Hartsville: Smith and Trousdale Matthew Spice, Lauren Souther, Amy Counties, Tennessee. Occasional Irons, and Hugh Matternes Papers 14, Memphis State University, 2010 Cultural Resource Investigations and Department of Anthropology, Memphis; Geophysical Survey along the and Publications in Anthropology 48, Cumberland River: Lyon, Russell, and Authority, Norris. Trigg Counties, Kentucky, Cheatham, Stewart and Sumner Counties McNutt, Charles H. and Guy G. Weaver Tennessee. American Recovery and 1983 The Duncan Tract Site (40TR27), Reinvestment Act 2009, Section 110 Trousdale County, Tennessee. Compliance, Technical Report 32. New Publications in Anthropology 33. South Associates, Stone Mountain, GA. Tennessee Valley Authority, Norris. Report submitted to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Nashville District. Moore, Michael C. Copy on file, Tennessee Division of 1989 A Review of the Tennessee State Archaeology, Nashville. Cemetery Law and Its Effect Upon Archaeological Data Recovery and Site Haywood, John Preservation. Tennessee Anthropologist 1823 The Natural and Aboriginal History of 14(1):64-76. Tennessee. George Wilson, Nashville. 1998 An Updated Review of the Tennessee State Cemetery Law and Other Statutes Jolley, Robert L. Regarding Prehistoric Burial Removal. 1979 Archaeological Reconnaissance in the Tennessee Anthropologist 23(1&2):55- Headwaters of the in 64. Middle Tennessee. Tennessee 2005 The : A Anthropologist 4:32–62. Mississippian Town on the Little Harpeth

15 Tennessee Archaeology 6(1-2) Summer 2012

River, Williamson County, Tennessee. Michigan. University Microfilms, Ann Research Series No.15. Tennessee Arbor. Department of Environment and Conservation, Division of Archaeology, Myer, William E. Nashville. 1928 Two Prehistoric Villages in Middle Tennessee. Forty-First Annual Report of Moore, Michael C. and Emanuel Breitburg the Bureau of American Ethnology, (editors) 1919-1924, pp. 485-614. Smithsonian 1998 Gordontown: Salvage Archaeology at a Institution, Washington, D.C. Mississippian Town in Davidson County, Tennessee. Research Series No.11. Norton, Mark A. and John B. Broster Tennessee Department of Environment 1993 Archaeological Investigations at the and Conservation, Division of Puckett Site (40SW228): A Archaeology, Nashville. Paleoindian/Early Archaic Occupation on the Cumberland River, Stewart Moore, Michael C. and Kevin E. Smith County, Tennessee. Tennessee 2001 Archaeological Excavations at the Anthropologist 18(1):45–58. Rutherford-Kizer Site: A Mississippian 2001 The Sogom Site (40DV68): A Mound Center in Sumner County, Mississippian Farmstead on Cockrill Tennessee. Research Series No. 13. Bend, Davidson County, Tennessee. Tennessee Department of Environment Tennessee Archaeology 1(1):3-35. and Conservation, Division of Archaeology, Nashville. O'Brien, Michael 2009 Archaeological Expeditions of the 1977 Intrasite Variability in a Middle Peabody Museum in Middle Tennessee, Mississippian Community. Ph.D. 1877-1884. Research Series 16. Dissertation, Department of Tennessee Department of Environment Anthropology, University of Texas, and Conservation, Division of Austin. University Microfilms, Ann Arbor. Archaeology, Nashville. Parker, Malcom Moore, Michael C., Emanuel Breitburg, John 1974 The Owl Creek People, 6660 B.C.: The T. Dowd, C. Paris Sripling, and John B. Hart Site at Nashville, Tenn. 1972–1974. Broster Copy on file, Tennessee Division of 1992 Archaeological Investigations at Archaeology, Nashville. 40DV35: a Multicomponent Site in the Cumberland River Valley, Davidson Peres, Tanya M. and Aaron Deter-Wolf County, Tennessee. Tennessee 2012 Embedded: 4,000 Years of Shell Anthropologist 17:54–78. Symbolism in the Southeast. Paper presented at the 77th Society for Moore, Michael C. Emanuel Breitburg, Kevin American Archaeology meeting in E. Smith, and Mary Beth Trubitt Memphis, Tennessee. 2006 One Hundred Years of Archaeology at Gordontown: A Fortified Mississippian Putnam, Fredric W. Town in Middle Tennessee. 1878 Archaeological Explorations in Southeastern Archaeology 25(1):89- Tennessee. Eleventh Annual Report of 109. the Trustees of the Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology Morse, Dan F. 2(2):305-360. 1967 The Robinson Site and Shell Mound Archaic Culture in the Middle South. Smith, Kevin E. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of 1992 The Middle Cumberland Region:

16 Introduction

Mississippian Archaeology in North Central Tennessee. Ph.D. Dissertation, Wampler, Marc Department of Anthropology, Vanderbilt 2007 Data Recovery at 40CH195, the Harpeth University, Nashville. Shoals Marina Site, Cheatham County, Tennessee. TRC, Inc. Report submitted Smith, Kevin E. and James V. Miller to Progress Capital, Ashland City, TN 2009 Speaking with the Ancestors: and US Army Corps of Engineers Mississippian Stone Statuary of the Nashville District. Tennessee-Cumberland Style. University of Alabama Press, Worne, Heather Tuscaloosa. 2011 Conflicting Spaces: Bioarchaeological and Geophysical Perspectives on Smith, Kevin E. and Michael C. Moore Warfare in the Middle Cumberland 1994 Excavation of a Mississippian Region of Tennessee. PhD Dissertation, Farmstead at the Brandywine Pointe Department of Anthropology, Site (40DV247), Cumberland River Binghamton University, State University Valley, Tennessee. Midcontinental of New York. Journal of Archaeology 19(2):198–222. Aaron Deter-Wolf Spears, W. Steven, Michael C. Moore, and Tennessee Division of Archaeology Kevin E. Smith 1216 Foster Ave., Cole Building #3 2008 Evidence for Early Mississippian Nashville Tennessee 37243 Settlement of the Nashville Basin: Archaeological Explorations at the Tanya M. Peres Department of Sociology and Anthropology Spencer Site (40DV191). Tennessee Middle Tennessee State University Archaeology 3(1):3-24 Murfreesboro, Tennessee 37132

Tennessean.com 2010 Special Report: Nashville Flood. http://www.tennessean.com/section/SPE CIAL04108. Site accessed June 1, 2010.

Thruston, Gates P. 1890 The Antiquities of Tennessee and the Adjacent States. Robert Clark & Co., Cincinnati. Online facsimile: http://www.archive.org/details/antiquities tenn01thrugoog

Walling, Richard, Lawrence Alexander, and Evan Peacock 2000 The Jefferson Street Bridge Project: Archaeological Investigations at the East Nashville Mounds Site (40DV4) and the French Lick/Sulphur Dell Site (40DV5) in Nashville, Davidson County, Tennessee. Publications in Archaeology No. 7. Tennessee Department of Transportation, Office of Environmental Planning and Permits, Nashville.

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