Public Health Implications of Water Quality of the Kiri Reservoir, Adamawa State, Northeastern Nigeria

AMERICAN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

Senior Research Thesis

PUBLIC HEALTH IMPLICATIONS OF WATER QUALITY OF THE KIRI RESERVOIR, ADAMAWA STATE, NORTHEASTERN NIGERIA

Lynne R. Baker R. Lynne

AISHATU MANU SORO A00016772

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Science 2016 AMERICAN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

PUBLIC HEALTH IMPLICATIONS OF WATER QUALITY OF THE KIRI RESERVOIR, ADAMAWA STATE, NORTHEASTERN NIGERIA

This thesis represents my original work in accordance with the American University of Nigeria regulations. I am solely responsible for its content.

AISHATU MANU SORO

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I further authorize the American University of Nigeria to reproduce this thesis by photocopying or by any other means, in total or in part, at the request of other institutions or individuals for the purpose of scholarly research.

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PUBLIC HEALTH IMPLICATIONS OF WATER QUALITY OF THE KIRI RESERVOIR, ADAMAWA STATE, NORTHEASTERN NIGERIA

AISHATU MANU SORO A00016772

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Research Supervisor: Lynne R. Baker, Ph.D. Assistant Professor, Department of Natural and Environmental Sciences

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Second Reader: Bolade Agboola, Ph.D. Associate Professor and Chair, Department of Petroleum Chemistry

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DEDICATION

This project is dedicated to you, Dad. I pray that you get well soon.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

All praises and thanks are due to Allah (SWA) for being my strength throughout this project. A very big bear hug to all my family and friends. Dear Mummy, thank you so much for your prayers and for giving me hope.

To Ya Nura, thank you for being a lovely and wonderful being. You have been an angel right from day one. In you, I found peace and happiness. I love you and want you to know that I will forever respect and cherish the genuine bond we share. Thank you for being the best brother in the world. You are truly a delight.

My sincere gratitude and appreciation goes to Dr. Lynne R. Baker. You are more than a faculty advisor to me and to this outstanding project. You have been an unbending support system to this project and would not have been possible without you. Thank you for your unfailing attention and for believing in me. I appreciate the many hours you spent on the sampling technique and the many hours we spent on the boat. Thank you very much for being like a mother to me. It was a pleasure working with you.

I am also thankful to Prof. Bolade Agboola for being a second reader to this amazing project. Thank you, Professor, for your time and for giving me a home in the

Petroleum Chemistry department. I am grateful to Dr. Hayatu M. Raji for assisting me with the parasitic worm test.

Special thanks to Mrs. Vastinah Teneke from the Ministry of Environment; Engineer

Abubakar H. Ma’azu, Managing Director of the Upper Benue River Basin Authority; and to Mr. Jabo Beko, traditional ruler of Kiri.

I also appreciate Sylvester O’Donnell and Luqman Jimoh for their assistance in the

NES and Petroleum Chemistry labs. Special thanks to Sylvester for joining me in the field and providing key laboratory help. Lastly, I thank AUN for providing a platform for me to achieve beyond my potential.

PUBLIC HEALTH IMPLICATIONS OF WATER QUALITY OF THE KIRI RESERVOIR, ADAMAWA STATE, NORTHEASTERN NIGERIA

AISHATU MANU SORO American University of Nigeria, 2016

Major Professor: Lynne R. Baker, Ph.D. Assistant Professor of Natural and Environmental Sciences

ABSTRACT

Both water pollution and water scarcity are increasing global problems and particularly serious challenges for Africa. According to the World Health

Organization, more people lack access to safe water in Africa than anywhere else in the world. To meet the growing demand for water worldwide, dams and irrigation systems are often built, particularly to provide water for agricultural needs. However, dams, especially large dams, may promote the spread of water-associated diseases.

Completed in 1982, the Kiri Dam reservoir in Adamawa State, northeastern Nigeria, supports the water needs, which at times includes drinking, for many people living around the reservoir. To assess overall water quality and presence of disease indicators in the Kiri reservoir, and to establish baseline data for future monitoring,

I collected water samples (near-shore and open-water sites) in October 2016.

I evaluated the samples for physico-chemical and biological characteristics and compared some values to national and international standards for drinking water. I found microorganisms that indicate contamination, such as Escherichia coli, in all near-shore samples and eggs of parasitic worms, including Schistosoma hematobium and most likely Echinococcus granulosus, in most near-shore samples. Aside from

vii average turbidity (727.4 NTU), most of the physico-chemical parameters I measured did not exceed international standards. Overall, I found that the Kiri reservoir is not heavily polluted; however, some important parameters were not measured in this study, including heavy metals, nitrates, and pesticides. Future research should concentrate on these parameters, indicator bacteria, and helminths, and a monitoring program should be established.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CERTIFICATION...... ii

READERS’ APPROVAL...... iii

DEDICATION...... iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...... v

ABSTRACT...... vii

LIST OF TABLES ...... x

LIST OF FIGURES...... xi

CHAPTER 1...... 1

INTRODUCTION ...... 1

Diseases & Water Quality ...... 5

Dams, Reservoirs, & Disease ...... 8

Case of Nigeria ...... 10

HYPOTHESES ...... 16

AIMS & OBJECTIVES ...... 16

CHAPTER 2 ...... 17

MATERIALS & METHODS ...... 17

Study Site ...... 17

Sampling ...... 19

CHAPTER 3 ...... 24

RESULTS ...... 24

CHAPTER 4 ...... 28

DISCUSSION ...... 28

CHAPTER 5 ...... 32

CONCLUSION ...... 32

REFERENCES ...... 33

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Some neglected tropical diseases caused by parasitic worms (helminths) ...... 7

Table 2. Physico-chemical and biological parameters tested in this study, site of test (on-site or in the laboratory), as well as methods and materials used...... 22

Table 3. Maximum values for drinking water for parameters measured and tested in this study...... 23

Table 4. Final sampling sites, number of samples, and measurement depths...... 24

Table 5. Sampling locations and measured physico-chemical parameters from this study...... 26

Table 6. Near-shore sampling locations, detected bacteria in samples, and results by method (media)...... 27

LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 1. Decline in volume of Lake Chad from 1963 to 2007...... 2

Fig. 2A. Countries with populations that have access to improved water sources, in percentage (%) of total population in 2004...... 4

Fig. 2B. Countries with population that have no access to sanitation, in percentage (%) of total population in 2004...... 4

Fig. 3. Two major dams occur along the Gongola River, part of the Upper Benue River catchment………………………………………...... 17

Fig. 4. Kiri reservoir is surrounded by settlements whose residents engage in farming, livestock rearing, and fishing...... 18

Fig. 5. Longitudinal zonation of reservoirs and water-quality conditions generally found in these zones...... 21

Fig. 6. Life cycle of Echinococcus granulosus...... 30

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Essential for all life on Earth, water is under threat globally. Both the quantity and quality of water are of serious concern to global leaders, government officials, urban planners, and rural communities, among others. Water is a topic of special concern to public health professionals, who observe, study, and attempt to resolve water quality and scarcity issues affecting millions of people on the planet. Water quality and scarcity present an increasingly complex challenge given the effects of climate change. For example, in the future some regions may experience increased or decreased precipitation and higher temperatures – leading to increased flooding or droughts. These conditions can further degrade water quality and worsen water pollution (Bates et al., 2008).

In Africa, as human populations rapidly expand, the demand for water increases; however, water sources are becoming scarcer. Approximately 40% of Africans live in dry sub-humid, semi-arid, and arid regions. The amount of water accessible per individual in Africa is far beneath the global average and is declining; annual per- capital availability of water is 4,000 cubic meters compared to a global average of

6,500 cubic meters (UNEP, 2010).

One example is the near-disappearance of Lake Chad, which borders four countries:

Nigeria, Niger, Cameroon, and Chad. Lake Chad is the biggest lake in the Chad

Basin and one of the giant water bodies in Africa. Due to high demand for water for

Fig. 1. Decline in volume of Lake Chad from 1963 to 2007.

agriculture, demand from growing human populations, and the effects of climate change, the lake has contracted dramatically. Between 1963 and 2001, the surface area of Lake Chad declined from 25,000 km2 to less than 1,350km2 (Coe & Foley,

2001) (Fig. 1).

In addition to increasing water scarcity in Africa and globally, water quality is a growing public health and environmental problem, especially given the role of water in human health, agriculture, industry, etc. Impacts of water quality are most significant in low- to middle-income countries. Many people live in countries that are ill equipped to cope with public health and environmental crises related to water.

A large number (35%) of health-care facilities in low- and middle-income countries have no water supply or soap for hand washing, and only 19% of these facilities have improved sanitation (WHO, 2015).

Diarrhea remains a major contributor to childhood mortality and morbidity, especially in sub-Saharan Africa (Bates et al., 2008). According to the World Health

Organization (WHO, 2015), diarrhea caused by lack of access to safe drinking water, poor sanitation, or poor hygiene habits kills more than 840,000 people annually. This does not account for deaths due to such water-borne diseases as cholera, dysentery, and typhoid. Additionally, fecal matter contaminates water sources on which at least

1.8 billion people rely for drinking (WHO, 2015).

Regarding access to clean water, there has been progress, however. In 2010, the

Millennium Development Goal related to drinking water (MDG 7) was achieved – the proportion of people globally without sustainable access to safe water was cut in half (WHO, 2015). Nevertheless, many African populations still lack access to improved water sources (Fig. 2A), and millions of people around the world have access only to severely polluted or contaminated drinking water sources. This problem is especially potent in Africa, where more than 50% of the total population in many countries lacks access to sanitation (Fig. 2B).

In Africa, even where boreholes and water sanitation facilities are available, they may not be properly maintained or managed. Due to the high demand for water, these water sources may become polluted and may not be tested as often as necessary. Poverty and lack of alternative water sources often force people to use or drink water even when it is contaminated. When water is scarce, people tend to use whatever source is available, even if the quality is poor. For example, Okoro et al.

(2015) reported that residents from a town in the semi-arid region of northeastern

Nigeria buy water from water vendors, collect water from unsafe/unimproved

Fig. 2A. Countries with populations that have access to improved water sources, in percentage (%) of total population in 2004.

Fig. 2B. Countries with population that have no access to sanitation, in percentage (%) of total population in 2004. sources, or rely on free water sources such as reservoirs and unprotected wells. In the 4 sources, or rely on free water sources such as reservoirs and unprotected wells. In the region, lack of access to improved drinking water sources has notably affected peoples’ health, economic productivity, and quality of life (Okoro et al., 2015).

Diseases & Water Quality

Lack of or poor sanitation or other environmental factors may lead to contaminated water sources. When testing for water quality, particularly for drinking water, public health officials focus on bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and helminths. Regarding bacterial contamination in water, microorganisms such as coliform bacteria are often looked at as indicators of water quality. Coliform bacteria are Gram-negative, rod- shape bacteria found in the environment, human feces, and warm-blooded animals.

Total coliform count is the most common test used for bacterial contamination; it gives a general indication of the sanitary condition of water sources (Bartram &

Pedley, 1996).

Presence of coliform bacteria in water indicates possible presence of pathogenic microorganisms. The group (coliform) consists of thermo-tolerant/fecal coliforms and bacteria of fecal origin (such as E. coli). Thermo-tolerant/fecal coliform are facultative anaerobic bacteria that grow at 44–44.50C. Presence of this sub-category of coliform bacteria in water indicates fecal contamination. This is because almost all thermo-tolerant bacteria are found in the gut or digestive tract of warm-blooded animals, including humans. The presence of thermo-tolerant bacteria such as E. coli is considered a solid evidence of fecal contamination in water (Bartram & Pedley,

1996).

Diseases caused by bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and helminths are the most common health risks that are linked to drinking water. In 1986, 28 billion cases of disease episodes were due to 10 major water-borne diseases, and these diseases were caused by bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and helminths. People at risk of disease caused by these microorganisms are usually children who play in contaminated water and people living in unhygienic or water-scarce regions. All these microorganisms have high or moderate health impacts, with various levels of persistence in water.

However, it is unknown or unclear how persistent some strains of viruses are in water bodies. Bacteria, on the other hand, easily multiply in water (Gadgil, 1998).

Helminths are parasitic worms, several of which commonly contaminate water. Two notable water-associated helminths are Schistosoma parasites, which cause schistosomiasis, or bilharzia, and Onchocerca volvulus, which causes onchocerciasis or river blindness (Table 1). A third helminth, Dracunculus medinensis, has been all but eliminated globally (WHO, 2016; Table 1). Particularly problematic for Africa is schistosomiasis. Nigeria, the most populous African country, has the highest number of cases worldwide (Dawaki et al., 2015).

Almost 85% of neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) in sub-Saharan Africa are caused by helminths (parasitic worms) (Table 1). Hookworm infection has been the most prevalent neglected tropical disease, affecting nearly 50 million schoolchildren. This infection results in anemia for 7 million pregnant women worldwide. After hookworm, schistosomiasis is the second most prevalent disease caused by helminths. An estimated 192 million people are reportedly infected with schistosomiasis in sub-Saharan Africa. Neglected tropical diseases in sub-Saharan

Africa affect 500 million people from low-to-middle income families and lead to severe disability for infected individuals (Hotez & Kamath, 2009).

Table 1. Some neglected tropical diseases caused by parasitic worms (helminths).

Disease Common Pathogen Technical Name Name Responsible Symptoms/Effects Dracunculiasis* Guinea worm Dracunculus Itchy rash, blisters that disease medinensis make the worm visible, vomiting, difficulty breathing, incapacitates affected individual for 4—8 weeks

Onchocerciasis River blindness Onchocerca volvulus Severe itching, bumps or Robles under the skin, blindness disease Schistosomiasis Bilharzia or Schistosomes, notably Bloody urine and stool, snail fever Schistosoma mansoni, abdominal pains, diarrhea S. hematobium, S. intercalatum Echinococcosis Hydatid Echinococcus Causes slow growth of (cystic disease (cystic granulosus, unnoticed, but harmful echinococcosis; echinococcosis) E. multilocularis cysts in liver and lungs, or alveolar causes tumors in the liver, echinococcosis) lungs, and brain

Lymphatic Elephantiasis Wuchereria bancrofti, Extreme swelling in legs filariasis Brugia malayi, and B. and arms, alters lymphatic timori+ system, leads to severe disability and social stigma

Soil-transmitted Roundworm, Ascaris lumbricoides, Affects intestine and lungs, helminths whipworm, Trichuris trichiura, shortens breath, causes (STHs) hookworm Necator americanus, severe fever, may lead to Ancylostoma anemia, anorexia, and lack duodenale of iron and protein in gut

*An effective eradication program for dracunculiasis has all but eliminated this disease; in 2015, there were only 22 cases worldwide, the lowest number of reported cases ever (WHO, 2016). +Of all the three pathogens, W. bancrofti is responsible for 90% of cases of elephantiasis. Humans are the only known host of W. bancrofti. Elephantiasis is one of the world’s most disabling and stigmatizing infections (CDC, 2016).

Dams, Reservoirs, & Disease

Certain environments may promote the occurrence or spread of disease or other environmental problems. For example, reservoirs (man-made lakes formed where rivers have been dammed) established primarily to supply water for irrigation may lead to a greater incidence of water-borne, water-contact, and water-related diseases, as well as such environmental impacts as waterlogging (too much water) and salinization (increased salt content) of soils on irrigated land (FAO, 1997).

Reservoirs created for irrigation can exacerbate diseases endemic to a region, or they may introduce new diseases. In Africa, the most common diseases linked to irrigation are malaria, bilharzia (schistosomiasis), and river blindness

(onchocerciasis) (FAO, 1997). Irrigation waters promote disease vectors, including mosquitos, which spread the malaria parasite; snails, which are intermediate hosts that carry Schistosoma parasitic worms that cause bilharzia; and blackflies (Simulium sp.), which transmit parasitic worms that cause river blindness.

According to the International Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD), there are

58,402 large dams worldwide (large dams are impoundments >15m high or storing

>3 million m3 of water1). Large dams have a significant impact on the malaria burden in sub-Saharan Africa (Kibret et al., 2015). Communities that are nearer to large-dam reservoirs have a higher incidence rate of malaria than those communities located at a greater distance from reservoirs. Each year in sub-Saharan Africa, the presence of these large dams is associated with at least 1.1 million malaria cases,

1 Classified by the International Commission on Large Dams. 8 while another 56,000 cases, at a minimum, are expected due to planned dams. For about 15 million people, dams also increase the risk of malaria (Kibret et al., 2015).

As with malaria, large dams may affect the spread of schistosomiasis and other parasitic worms. In Africa, Asia, and Latin America, schistosomiasis affects more than 200 million people (Hopkins et al., 2008), and at least 37 million people suffer from onchocerciasis (Amazigo et al., 2006). The incidence and prevalence of these diseases have been linked to large dam construction and reservoir creation

(Chapman, 1996). In Ghana, for example, people living near the Lake Volta reservoir were severely afflicted by parasitic worms, causing the spread of onchocerciasis, schistosomiasis, and dracunculiasis (Thanh & Biswas, 1990, as cited in Chapman,

1996). Following completion of the Aswan low dam in the early 1930s in Egypt, a dramatic rise in the prevalence of schistosomiasis was reported in only three years – from 6% to 60% (FAO, 1997).

In a meta-analysis of water resources development, Steinmann et al. (2006) concluded that populations of intermediate host snails that carry Schistosoma parasites increase with the creation of reservoirs and associated irrigation systems, particularly within

Africa. Out of 779 million people at risk of schistosomiasis, nearly 14% reside near irrigation systems or large-dam reservoirs (Steinmann et al., 2006).

While the evidence for the impact of large dams contributing to the spread of schistosomiasis is widespread, the impact of small dams (5–15m high) is not well established (Grosse, 1993). Across Africa, particularly in drier or semi-arid regions, people have built small, earth-filled dams to provide water for dry-season irrigation.

While the evidence for the impact of large dams contributing to the spread of schistosomiasis is widespread, the impact of small dams (5–15m high) is not well established (Grosse, 1993).

Across Africa, particularly in drier or semi-arid regions, people have built small, earth-filled dams to provide water for dry-season irrigation. In two communities near

Kano in northern Nigeria, the source of schistosomiasis transmission was attributed not to recently built small dams, but instead to rain-fed pools used by children to bath. The pools harbored snail species that were a common vector for S. haematobium. Thus, although the dams extended the range of the snails, the prevalence of schistosomiasis did not noticeably increase (Betterton et al., 1988, as cited in Grosse, 1993). Similarly, despite predictions, a small earth-filled dam built in

1977 at Ruwan Sanyi in Kano State, northern Nigeria, did not lead to increased infection rates of schistosomiasis in male schoolchildren (Pugh et al., 1980, as cited in Grosse, 1993).

Although there is limited evidence linking schistosomiasis and small dams, one example from Mali is often cited. Increased prevalence of schistosomiasis was associated with small, earth-filled dams in Gabon County, Mali; as reservoir water was generally not used for drinking in the region, serious health risks to the local human population did not extend beyond schistosomiasis (Long et al., 1992).

Case of Nigeria

Having the largest population on the African continent, Nigeria is particularly challenged by water quality and scarcity. The country’s rapid growth in human

10 population has led to many associated environmental impacts, including water and air pollution, biodiversity loss, habitat loss and soil degradation. Poor water quality and water scarcity in Nigeria result in hundreds of cases of cholera each year and severely impact peoples’ quality of life and productivity.

Apart from the rapid increase in human population growth in Nigeria, other human activities and environmental factors severely affect the environment and water quality. For example, in the oil-producing southern region of the country (the Niger

Delta), severe environmental degradation has resulted from years of oil-related pollution (Etim et al., 2013). In another example, a river in Plateau State, central

Nigeria, was so polluted that all the chemical parameters of the river water were above the World Health Organization’s maximum permissible limits (Njoku & Keke,

2003).

Since independence, Nigeria has invested in providing access to safe drinking water sources to rural communities, but the country still faces many obstacles. Almost 70% households in the rural part of the country do not have access to safe water. Instead, these households rely on free sources, such as reservoirs and lakes, which may be contaminated. Governmental intervention toward providing safe water supplies includes the provision of wells and boreholes to rural communities, but still, these sources do not adequately meet the water needs of many communities (Ishaku et al.,

2011).

According to WaterAid Nigeria, 57 million Nigerians do not have access to safe water, and 63 million collect water from nearby open-water sources. As a result of

11 lack of sanitation or drinking water sources, 45,000 children under the age of five die every year in Nigeria. Especially in the semi-arid and arid regions of Nigeria, women and children spend many hours each week collecting water for their families. During the dry season, women may be forced to dig in dry riverbeds to collect water for their families (WaterAid Nigeria, 2016 ).

However, there has been improvement regarding access to improved drinking water in both urban and rural parts of Nigeria. From 1990 to 2011, the overall percentage of people having access to improved drinking water rose from 47% to 61%.

However, the number of people with piped water in their home premises dropped from 14% in 1990 to 4% in 2011. In addition, as a result of rapid increase in human population in urban parts of Nigeria, only 70% of the total population had access to safe drinking water in 2011. Compared to 1990, the urban part of the country experienced a 6% decrease in the number of people having access to improved drinking water sources (Tetra Tech, 2015).

Nigeria also contained or contains the most cases of dracunculiasis (before eradication – WHO, 2016), onchocerciasis, schistosomiasis, and lymphatic filariasis

(Njepuome et al., 2009). Although Nigeria has made notable progress on controlling or eradicating dracunculiasis and onchocerciasis (Njepuome et al., 2009), some 30 million people suffer from schistosomiasis – more than other country globally

(Hopkins et al., 2008). In Nigeria, by the year 2000, an estimated 101 million people were at risk of contracting schistosomiasis – nearly 17% of the total number of people at risk worldwide. Nigeria is also one of the few countries where three species

12 of Schistosoma parasites occur: Schistosoma mansoni, S. intercalatum, and S. hematobium (Chitsulo et al., 2000).

At the end of 2016, Nigeria had 52 large dams. Health impacts related to some of these dams have been recorded. For example, several studies have shown a relationship between dam and reservoir creation and the transmission of schistosomiasis in the semi-arid regions of northern Nigeria (Bello et al., 2003;

Oladejo & Ofoezie, 2006; Duwa & Oyeyi, 2009).

Completed in 1982, the Kiri Dam in Adamawa State, northeastern Nigeria, is classified as a large dam, though not by much at 20m high. The reservoir (which covers about 110km2) is surrounded by rural human settlements. The region had a population density (people/km2) of 305.7 in 2000, up from 172.7 in 1982 when the dam was built (Keiser et al., 2005). Compared to some other large dams in northern

Nigeria, Kiri reservoir supports many more people. For example, in 2000, the population density estimate (people/km2) for the Dadin Kowa Dam area in Gombe

State was 102.3, and it was 48.0 for the Kainji Dam area in Niger State. And yet, these dams have much larger reservoirs than Kiri Dam: 300km2 for Dadin Kowa and

1,260km2 for Kainji (Keiser et al., 2005).

Both Adamawa and Gombe States are within the northeastern zone of Nigeria, which is among the poorest regions of the country. Compared with the other five country zones, the northeast has the lowest percent of households with an improved source of drinking water (50% compared to a country average of 61%), and the lowest percent of households with an improved, unshared sanitation facility (18% compared to a

13 country average of 30%) (NPC & IPC, 2014). Although communities around the Kiri reservoir may have boreholes, the boreholes are not always functional and must supply water for many people. Consequently, communities rely on the Kiri reservoir for a variety of agricultural and domestic uses, including, at times, for drinking.

Local people are primarily involved in fishing and farming, and farming activities occur near the shoreline (Radda & Baker, 2015). The reservoir has a high degree of sedimentation. According to the Upper Benue River Basin Authority, which manages the dam, no studies of overall water quality have been conducted at the Kiri reservoir for about 25 years. However, some research at the site has shown environmental impacts, including erosion and pollution due to a significant loss in natural vegetation (Zemba et al., 2016). Other research indicates that water quality may be better than expected. For example, although Milam et al. (2012) found heavy metals, such as lead, cadium, and iron, in tissues of fish collected from Kiri reservoir, they noted that the levels were below WHO recommended guidelines and thus concluded that the water was not notably polluted with heavy metals.

Given the number of people who rely on the reservoir, and the present uncertainty about status of the water at the site, I investigated water quality at Kiri reservoir to determine the public health and environmental implications of human use of this reservoir. The aim of my study was to assess if human activities have affected the water quality and presence of disease indicators in the reservoir, as well as to establish baseline data to inform future monitoring efforts. Thus, I measured several physico-chemical and biological parameters and compared my findings with international and national guidelines for drinking water. The findings of this study

14 will be shared with, and recommendations will be made to, key community stakeholders, the Adamawa State Water Board authority, and the Upper Benue River

Basin Authority.

HYPOTHESES

Null Hypothesis: There are no notable differences between measured water-quality parameters of the Kiri Dam reservoir in Adamawa State, northeastern Nigeria, and international and national standards for drinking water.

Research Hypothesis: Measured water-quality parameters of the Kiri Dam reservoir in Adamawa State, northeastern Nigeria, fall below international and national standards for drinking water.

AIMS & OBJECTIVES

Aims:

 To assess overall water quality and presence of disease indicators in the Kiri Dam reservoir in Shelleng Local Government Area, Adamawa State, northeastern Nigeria.  To establish baseline data for monitoring of the Kiri reservoir.

Objectives:

 To establish key parameters for the reservoir, including physical, chemical, and biological characteristics.  To evaluate whether, and which, indicator microorganisms are present in the water.  To compare my findings with international and national standards for drinking water.  To make recommendations to the state government (Ministry of Environment) and public health authorities.  To share my findings with communities around the reservoir.

CHAPTER 2

MATERIALS & METHODS

Study Site

We conducted this study at the Kiri Dam reservoir in Adamawa State, northeastern

Nigeria. Built along the Gongola River, a major tributary of the Benue River, the

Kiri Dam is an earth-fill embankment dam, about 1.3km long and 20m above the river bed (Mu’azu, 2006; PERI, 2010) (Figs. 3, 4). The reservoir has a capacity of

615 million m3 (Mu’azu, 2006), and when the reservoir is at its normal top water level, the surface area covered by the reservoir is 107km² (PERI, 2010).

With the support of Upper Benue River Basin Authority in Yola, Adamawa State, construction began in 1976, and the dam was completed in 1982. The Federal

Fig. 3. Two major dams occur along the Gongola River, part of the Upper Benue River catchment. Dadin Kowa Dam, in Gombe State, is a hydroelectric power facility with a reservoir covering about 300km2. Located about 120km downstream from Dadin Kowa, Kiri Dam reservoir is used primarily for irrigation. Credit: aymatth2 and http://maps-for-free.com

Government of Nigeria and the Northern Nigeria Development Corporation

(NNDC), under the Savannah Sugarcane Company (SSC), were initially the owners of the dam. The dam was built primarily to irrigate 120km2 of sugarcane farms for the SSC. The reservoir provides water via an irrigation channel to the SSC; it also provides water to communities residing around the reservoir and supports irrigation and fisheries (Mu’azu, 2006).

There are several human settlements around the reservoir; however, some villages were affected during the construction of the dam. The project displaced an estimated

100,000 people (Terminski, 2015). Shalangw et al. (2014) found that local people generally believe they have not benefitted from the dam project. Those surveyed reported a loss of farm and grazing land, influx of crop-raiding birds and other species, and a decline in fish yields.

Kiri community lies at the southwestern corner of the reservoir (Fig. 4), while the

Fig. 4. Kiri reservoir is surrounded by settlements (shown here, Kiri community) whose residents engage in farming, livestock rearing, and fishing. Deforestation is widespread in the region. Photo credit: Lynne R. Baker

18 other major community near the reservoir, Shelleng, is at the northeastern corner.

Kiri is considered a development area and has smaller communities/wards under it.

Kiri and other villages around the reservoir have limited or no access to sources of safe water. For example, not all of the few boreholes in Kiri function properly

(Radda & Baker, 2015).

In Kiri and one sub-ward, Radda and Baker (2015) found that one-third of respondents in their study were non-indigenes. Family sizes were relatively large, with an average of 4.3 children and 8.6 total members per household. Respondents practiced either Christianity or Islam, and Hausa was the common language spoken in the region, followed by Kanakuru. Most respondents relied on farming for their livelihoods, while about one-third of respondents also engaged in fishing and petty trading. The study also found that farming alongside the reservoir was widespread, with most of these farms containing maize and rice (Radda & Baker, 2015).

Sampling

I conducted this study in October 2016, at the end of the rainy season (which generally lasts April/May to October in the region). Given that no water-quality research had been conducted at Kiri for about 25 years, and given time and resource constraints, I approached this as a reconnaissance survey (Green et al., 2015) to gather pilot data to assist in future monitoring efforts and help identify any immediate threats to public health.

I identified sampling sites appropriate for our study – namely, to establish baseline data and assess effects of human use (particularly, for drinking, food preparation,

19 bathing, fishing, and irrigation) on water quality. For potable water, I sampled sites along the reservoir edge (“near shore”), and for impacts on fish and the effects of and on irrigation and agriculture, I sampled open-water sites and in deep water near the dam structure (“open water”) (Chapman, 1996).

I divided the reservoir along the downstream gradient into three zones, each of which exhibits different physical, biological, and chemical characteristics due to various distances from the upper reaches of the reservoir (Fig. 5). For near-shore sites, I used targeted sampling to collect samples close to settlements where people obtain water for domestic use. I also purposively sampled in deep water near the dam structure.

For open water, in each zone I sampled along the downstream gradient at sampling locations near the center of the reservoir. Sites were located 3.5km apart, other than the dam site, which was 3km from the next sampling point. I marked all sampling locations with Global Positioning System (GPS) coordinates.

Using latex gloves, I collected water samples in polyethylene or glass containers depending on the parameter to be tested. In between collection of water at different sampling sites, I cleaned the water depth sampler using a mild detergent and distilled water. Before finally filling the storage containers to be taken for later analysis, I rinsed the containers three times with portions of the water sample (Bartram &

Ballance, 1996).

At each sampling location, I took grab samples at various depths (Bartram &

Ballance, 1996). As there are no recent bathymetric data for the reservoir, I could not competently stratify our sampling locations vertically; thus, I attempted to collect

20 samples at various depths. I collected water at 1m, 3m, and 9m depths for two of the deeper sampling locations. For more shallow water, I collected samples at 1m. In some cases, a current pulled the depth sampler, thus hindering my ability to collect at lower depths.

To evaluate impacts of human activities, such as watering livestock, farming, and human defecation, on the reservoir water, I tested water samples in the field for temperature, pH, turbidity, and total dissolved solids (TDS). I also brought samples to the laboratory and analyzed them for additional physical, biological, and chemical parameters following standard methods (Table 2).

Fig. 5. Longitudinal zonation of reservoirs and water-quality conditions generally found in these zones. The upper reaches are shallow, narrow, and winding, and form the riverine zone. Nearest the dam, the lacustrine zone is the deepest part of the reservoir, while the transitional zone is in between. Credit: Chapman, 1996, modified from Kimmel et al., 1990)

For certain parameters, I compared my results with drinking-water standards of the

World Health Organization (WHO, 2011) and the Nigerian national standards for drinking water (SON, 2007) (Table 3). For biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), I used the following guidelines from Chapman (1996) to assess values recorded in this study: 1) for unpolluted, natural waters, BOD = ≤ 2 mg/L O2; 2) for water receiving wastewaters, BOD = up to 10 mg/L O2, or more; 3) for water containing raw sewage,

BOD = approximately 600 mg/L O2.

Table 2. Physico-chemical and biological parameters tested in this study, site of test (on- site or in the laboratory), as well as methods and materials used.

PHYSICO-CHEMICAL Parameter Method Test Site Materials and Sampling Color Visual On-site NA Odor Sniff test On-site NA Solid particles Visual On-site NA Temperature Temperature probe On-site Thermometer pH pH sensor On-site pH 7 and 10 buffer solutions, pH testing probes Turbidity Turbidity sensor On-site Sampling bottle with lid, 100ml water Total dissolved Conductivity Probe On-site 300ml of water, testing solids probes Hardness Titration using Ethylene- Lab Titration reagents, conical diaminetetraacetic acid flasks, burettes, stirrer (EDTA) as titrant Metals: Na, Mg, Atomic Absorption Lab Acetylene gas, calibration Ca, K, & Fe Spectrophotometer (AAS) standards, AAS machine

BIOLOGICAL Parameter Method Test Site Materials and Sampling Helminths Sedimentation Lab Incubator, test tubes, centrifuge machine BOD Lab 5-day BOD analysis using dissolved oxygen probe

Table 3. Maximum values for drinking water for parameters measured and tested in this study.

SON (2007) Parameter WHO (2011) Guideline Guideline pH No health-based guideline value 6.5―8.5 Turbidity For small water supplies where resources are 5 NTU very limited and where there is limited or no treatment: <5 NTU Total dissolved No health-based guideline value; however, 500 mg/L solids (TDS) palatability of water with TDS < 600 mg/L considered good; water significantly and increasingly unpalatable at TDS > 1,000 mg/L Iron No health-based guideline value 0.3 mg/L Magnesium No health-based guideline value 0.2 mg/L Potassium No health-based guideline value None Sodium No health-based guideline value 200 mg/L Calcium No health-based guideline value None

CHAPTER 3

RESULTS

The final sample size included 1) near-shore sites (n = 5), of which three were near shorelines where people actively use the water for washing, bathing, swimming, etc.;

2) open-water sites (n = 6), and 3) at the dam intake structure (n = 1) (Table 4).

Sampling was complicated by a high degree of sedimentation, particularly in the riverine zone, and sampling locations that were shallower than expected.

Table 4. Final sampling sites, number of samples, and measurement depths.

Number of Sampling sitea Zone samples Measurement depth (m) DI Lacustrine 3 1, 3, 9 OW1 Lacustrine 3 1, 3, 9 OW2 Lacustrine 2 1, 3 OW3 Transitional 1 1 OW4 Transitional/ 1 1 Riverine border OW5 Riverine 1 1 OW6 Riverineb 1 1 NS1 (Baban Daba) Lacustrine 1 0.5 NS2 (near Sagon Pegi) Lacustrine 1 0.5 NS3c (Kiri 1) Lacustrine 1 0.5 NS4 (near Gundo)) Transitional 1 0.5 NS5c (Kiri 2) Transitional 1 0.5 aNear shore = NS, open water = OW, dam intake = DI bSampled at Shelleng, at the upper reaches of the reservoir along the Gongola River cNear shore sites 3 and 5 were collected about 125 m apart

All water samples tested had similar odor and color. There was no obvious smell, and all samples were murky brown. Most physico-chemical parameters that I measured did not exceed national or international guidelines for drinking water

(Table 5). With one exception, water samples were basic (pH mean: = 7.81; SD =

0.54; range = 6.71–8.94); only two samples exceeded the Nigerian maximum

24 permissible limit of pH = 8.5 (Table 5). Other exceptions included iron and magnesium; iron levels in all samples and magnesium levels in most samples (65%) exceeded Nigerian standards. Turbidity was well above drinking-water standards (<5

NTU) for both WHO and Nigerian guidelines. Turbidity values averaged 727.4 NTU

(SD = 151; range = 331–868.6).

BOD values were all under 2, indicating the reservoir water is suitable for irrigation and the protection of aquatic life. However, all near-shore samples contained coliform bacteria, including Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium, and Shigella sp., as well as Enterococcus faecalis (Table 6). In addition, all near-shore samples except NS4 contained eggs from at least two parasitic worms: Schistosoma hematobium and most likely Echinococcus granulosus. Cysts and eggs of other microorganisms were also observed. Not all eggs and cysts could be identified because they were small or looked like debris or because there was no sample slide for comparison.

Table 5. Sampling locations and measured physico-chemical parameters from this study. Measured values that exceed Nigerian standards are noted with +, and values exceeding both WHO and Nigerian standards are noted with *.

Sampling Depth Temp TDS Turbidity BOD Iron Magnesium Potassium Sodium Calcium sitea Zone (m) (oC) pH (mg/L) (NTU) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) DI Lacustrine 1 26.9 7.57 35 670* 1.3 14.53+ 0.16 6.5 6.1 10.4 DI Lacustrine 3 27.4 7.52 33 661.9* ― 12.78+ 0.37+ 5.3 5.7 17.73 DI Lacustrine 9 27.4 7.52 34 670* 1.1 16.66+ 0.45+ 6.6 6 24.8 OW1 Lacustrine 1 27.4 7.75 34 775.8* 1.7 17.27+ 0.52+ 6.6 6.2 32 OW1 Lacustrine 3 27.2 7.43 37 794.4* ― 14.22+ 0.03 6.5 6.1 3.2 OW1 Lacustrine 0 27.3 7.5 37 804.7* 1.2 15.75+ 0.51+ 6.6 5.8 27.3 OW2 Lacustrine 1 27.7 7.59 37 787.7* 1.5 17.77+ 0.44+ 6.2 6.5 25.7 OW2 Lacustrine 3 27.6 7.32 38 755* ― 18.16+ 0.35+ 4.2 5.8 19.2 OW3 Transitional 1 27.6 6.71 43 409.7* 0.5 13.22+ 0.08 6.7 6.1 8 OW4 Transitional/ 1 28.6 8.04 39.4 868.6* ― 12.69+ 0.42+ 6.8 6 19.2 Riverine border OW5 Riverine 1 29.2 8.03 33 853* ― 17.25+ 0.12 5.6 5.4 16 OW6 Riverine 1 31.3 7.97 36 866.7* ― 18.36+ 0.51+ 6.2 5.6 35.5 NS1 Lacustrine 0.5 34.8 7.66 51 331* 0.5 14.03+ 0.52+ 6.8 7.5 40 NS2 Lacustrine 0.5 35.7 8.13 39 691.8* 1.3 12.29+ 0.41+ 5.2 5.9 24 NS3 Lacustrine 0.5 37.6 8.85+ 36 847.6* 1.7 12.09+ 0.03 5.4 5.9 3.2 NS4 Transitional 0.5 34.6 8.16 38 796.8* 1.1 16.18+ 0.44+ 4.6 6.1 27.3 NS5 Transitional 0.5 37.1 8.94+ 40 781.1* 1.7 18.09+ 0.49+ 4.7 5.7 33.7 aNear shore = NS, open water = OW, dam intake = DI

Table 6. Near-shore sampling locations, detected bacteria in samples, and results by method (media).

Selective and Differential Media Used Sampling Zone Endo Agar Desoxychocolate Eosin Hektoen Salmonella MacConkey Xylose Lysine site Agar Methylene Blue Enteric Agar Shigella Agar Agar Desoxychocolate Agar Agar NS1 Lacustrine ― Escherichia coli, Salmonella, Salmonella Salmonella Escherichia Salmonella, Enterococcus Enterococcus Escherichia Shigella sp. coli, Shigella Escherichia coli, faecalis faecalis coli sp. Proteus mirabilis

NS2 Lacustrine ― Escherichia coli, Escherichia coli ― Salmonella Escherichia Escherichia coli, Shigella sp. coli, Shigella Salmonella sp. sonei

NS3 Lacustrine Escherichia Escherichia coli, Enterococcus Escherichia Shigella sp. Escherichia Escherichia coli, coli Shigella sp. faecalis, coli coli, Proteus mirabilis Salmonella sp. Enterobacter aerogenes NS4 Transitional Escherichia Escherichia coli Salmonella, Escherichia Shigella sp., Escherichia Escherichia coli, coli Enterococcus coli Salmonella sp. coli, Shigella Proteus mirabilis faecalis flexneri

NS5 Transitional Escherichia Enterococcus Salmonella, Salmonella, Shigella sp., Enterobacter Salmonella coli faecalis, Shigella Escherichia coli Escherichia Salmonella sp. aerogenes, sp. coli Shigella sp.

CHAPTER 4

DISCUSSION

This study showed that the Kiri reservoir is not heavily polluted. However, I was unable to measure several key parameters, including mercury, lead, copper, nitrates, phosphates, and pesticides. In addition, this study may have benefitted from additional samples – particularly more near-shore samples where people collect water for domestic use. Future assessments of these key parameters, along with development of ongoing monitoring program, appear important for the Kiri reservoir and its local population.

The high levels of turbidity I recorded were not surprising, as the reservoir is not an official drinking-water source, and some communities have boreholes. However, residents sometimes use the reservoir for drinking. In addition, high levels of turbidity can affect productivity, habitat quality, and aquatic life. Although turbidity is not directly associated with human health, excessive turbidity may help pathogenic microbes survive and grow.

The presence of indicator microorganisms in Kiri reservoir can be considered a threat to public health. The major concern for this site is the presence of coliform bacteria, such as Escherichia coli, Salmonella sp., and Shigella sp. Although most strains of E. coli are harmless, one strain (0157:H7) causes kidney failure and anemia that may lead to death. Typhoid may also be problematic for local Kiri residents given the presence of Salmonella sp. in water samples. Given the number of people who rely

28 on the reservoir for both domestic and agricultural purposes, the presence of indicator bacteria in water samples deserves further investigation.

As the Kiri Dam is classified as a large dam (not very large, however), and due to the well-established link between schistosomiasis transmission and large dams, I was not surprised to find Schistosoma hematobium parasites in the water samples. Informal interviews with local residents also indicated that people suffer from schistosomiasis in the Kiri region. Urogenital schistosomiasis is caused by S. hematobium, while intestinal schistosomiasis is caused by S. mansoni and other Schistosoma species that are not found in Africa.

One unexpected result was the presence of eggs that appear to be Echinococcus granulosus eggs. My review of the literature did not reveal this parasitic worm as being a problem in reservoirs or in water sources. In addition, the disease caused by this pathogen is and was not considered common in northern Nigeria.

Echinococcosis may be simply underreported or underdiagnosed in Nigeria (Dada,

1980, as cited in Wahlers et al., 2012).

Echinococcosis, or hydatidosis, is a zoonotic infection caused by the larval stage of the parasitic tapeworm E. granulosus. In the life cycle of the parasite, two mammals are the hosts (Fig. 6). Dogs are the definitive host, while sheep, cattle, goats, foxes, and pigs, among others, are the intermediate hosts. Recently, dogs are becoming increasingly recognized as the source of human infection (Macpherson & Craig,

2000). Because dogs are definitive hosts, echinococcosis is prevalent in nomadic populations that keep dogs (Wahlers et al., 2012). Dogs are commonly found in the

29 villages around Kiri reservoir. In relation to reservoirs, although echinococcosis is not considered a water-borne or water-related disease, dogs enter shallow parts of water bodies and may defecate inside. This may explain why E. granulosus eggs were observed in water samples collected from Kiri reservoir.

Wahlers et al. (2012) found that water scarcity and poor or lack of hygiene provide a conducive environment for E. granulosus to grow. I observed that poor hygiene may be an issue for the communities living around Kiri. Additionally, echinococcosis is a lethal disease, and surgery remains the only therapeutic option that completely removes and cures the disease. Therefore, I recommend further study on this tapeworm and, possibly, vaccination of domestic dogs around the Kiri reservoir.

Education about the spread of parasitic worms may also be effective, given the

Fig. 6. Life cycle of Echinococcus granulosus. 30 number of children I observed bathing and swimming in the water. In the future, more research on indicator microorganisms (particularly helminths and bacteria) is needed.

The presence of E. coli, other bacteria, and the two parasitic-worm eggs means that the Kiri water may pose health risks that should be of concern to public health officials. To minimize the risks to the local population, ongoing monitoring should be set up for the Kiri reservoir. More samples should be analyzed for both chemical and biological parameters. Ultimately, the best solution is to provide Kiri communities with improved drinking-water sources, which means further investigating borehole quality and supply. Improved water sources would make people less reliant on the reservoir for water used for drinking and cooking.

Providing Kiri communities with access to improved drinking water would also increase the population’s productivity and may reduce the prevalence of neglected tropical diseases in the region.

CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

The Kiri Dam reservoir is at risk of becoming polluted due to human activities.

Indicator microorganisms found in this study suggest that the health of people living around the region may be at risk; helminthic infection may already be prevalent around the reservoir. Local residents reported cases of schistosomiasis, a neglected tropical disease. The link between transmission of schistosomiasis and large dams/reservoirs has been established. In addition, the presence of Echinococcus granulosus in the Kiri reservoir indicates the need for further research on the hosts of this parasitic worm and possible infection rates. The water of Kiri reservoir is murky and brown in color, but still people drink it due to lack of other options. Boreholes in

Kiri do not always adequately function.

In summary, lack of access to safe drinking water and poor water quality that leads to disease transmission are major public health issues. The presence of indicator bacteria and helminth eggs in the Kiri reservoir deserve greater attention. A long- term monitoring program assessment should be established for the reservoir.

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