Challenging Conspiracy Theories
Teaching Aid 4 1. Increasing Knowledge about Jews and Judaism 2. Overcoming Unconscious Biases 3. Addressing Anti-Semitic Stereotypes and Prejudice 4. Challenging Conspiracy Theories 5. Teaching about Anti-Semitism through Holocaust Education 6. Addressing Holocaust Denial, Distortion and Trivialization 7. Anti-Semitism and National Memory Discourse 8. Dealing with Anti-Semitic Incidents 9. Dealing with Online Anti-Semitism 10. Anti-Semitism and the Situation in the Middle East What is a conspiracy Challenging theory?
“A belief that some covert but Conspiracy influential organization is re- sponsible for an unexplained Theories event.” source: Concise Oxford Eng- lish Dictionary, ninth edition
The world is full of challenging Such explanatory models reject of conspiracy theories presents complexities, one of which is accepted narratives, and official teachers with a challenge: to being able to identify fact from explanations are sometimes guide students to identify, con- fiction. People are inundated regarded as further evidence of front and refute such theories. with information from family, the conspiracy. Conspiracy the- friends, community and online ories build on distrust of estab- This teaching aid will look at sources. Political, economic, cul- lished institutions and process- how conspiracy theories func- tural and other forces shape the es, and often implicate groups tion, how they may relate to narratives we are exposed to that are associated with nega- anti-Semitism, and outline daily, and hidden relationships tive stereotypes, including Jews, strategies to overcome them in between these forces add to the particularly during times of the classroom. It provides ped- complexity. Because of the psy- social unrest.1 agogical techniques to enable chological and emotional need students to build their critical to make sense of information The Internet has given conspir- thinking skills as they inves- and to understand why some- acy theories, including anti-Se- tigate conspiracy theories and thing has happened, some peo- mitic conspiracy theories, debunk them. One outcome of ple may fall prey to conspiracy increased reach and a veneer the technique is that students go theories. of legitimacy. This includes through a tangible and experi- a plethora of websites and social ential process that leads them Conspiracy theories attempt to media accounts providing plat- organically to the realization explain distressing events as the forms for the proliferation of that not all theories they read result of the actions of a small, false ideas, such as Holocaust or hear are based on facts. powerful group collaborating denial. This fertile environ- to promote a sinister agenda. ment for the growth and spread
1 M. Abalakina-Paap, W. S. Stephan, T. Craig and W. L. Gregory, “Beliefs in conspiracies”, Political Psychology, Vol. 20, No. 3, 1999, pp. 637-647.
1 A conspiracy theory is Background defined by four charac- teristics:
“(1) a group (2) acting in secret (3) to alter institutions, usurp power, hide truth, or gain util- ity (4) at the expense of the common good.” There are many different rea- network; the need for power sons why people may be attract- and control; and a sense of loy- source: Joseph E. Uscinski ed to conspiracy theories. Dis- alty and commitment.2 and Joseph M. Parent, Amer- asters or crises that directly ican Conspiracy Theories (Ox- impact people’s lives (such as A recent study demonstrated ford University Press) 2014 a car accident, terminal illness that conspiracy theories can or terrorist attack) can lead be comforting for those who them to search for reasons or are afraid to change the status someone to blame. An attempt quo. “By blaming tragedies, dis- to understand “why” an inci- asters, and social problems on – having inconsistent thoughts, dent has occurred can relieve the actions of a malign few,” the beliefs or attitudes, especially some of the pain and confusion. researchers conclude, “conspir- as relating to behavioural deci- When people face complex situ- acy theories can divert attention sions and attitude change.4 ations, conspiracy theories can from the inherent limitations of offer simple answers. social systems.”3 Conspiracy theories allow people to relinquish person- Disseminators of online extrem- For example, there are those al responsibility in the face of ist narratives use “push” fac- who call global warming a hoax complex situations in which tors to draw in young people or scam propagated by the sci- anyone would feel powerless. who feel socially excluded and entific establishment. Accepting Research has shown that it is “pull” factors to lure them into the reality of climate change as possible to increase someone’s feeling a sense of belonging. a result of human activity would tendency towards conspirato- Push factors can include social, logically demand that we make rial thinking by removing the political and economic griev- changes to reduce or reverse sense of personal control they ances; a sense of injustice and this trend. These changes may have over their life. The oppo- discrimination; personal cri- have negative financial or oth- site is also true: someone who sis and tragedies; frustration; er impacts on certain groups or feels a sense of personal power and alienation. Pull factors individuals. In such cases, con- in their life will be more resil- can include a sense of belong- spiracy theories can help people ient to conspiracy theories.5 ing to a cause, ideology or social deal with cognitive dissonance
2 Steven Lenos and Jordy Krasenberg, “Dealing with fake news, conspiracy theories, and propaganda in the classroom,” Ran Centre of Excellence, 29-30 November 2017, Budapest,
2 A conspiracy theory is Conspiracy rhetoric can feature all, or a combina- defined by four charac- tion of, the following points: teristics: • No event is random; “(1) a group (2) acting in secret • Everything that happens is the result of hidden intentions; (3) to alter institutions, usurp • Nothing is as it seems; power, hide truth, or gain util- • Everything is secretly connected; ity (4) at the expense of the • Although all facts must be carefully scrutinized through common good.” criticism, facts that do not fit the thesis are ignored or denied. Conspiracy theories that target source: Joseph E. Uscinski specific groups, such as Jews, can source: Pierre-André Taguieff, Court traité de complotologie, Mille and Joseph M. Parent, Amer- be rooted in and propagate an et une nuits, 2013 ican Conspiracy Theories (Ox- “us against them” mentality. The ford University Press) 2014 creators of the conspiracy theo- ry view themselves as the norm, and their theory has placed the target population in a separate in part on a conspiratorial idea group that they view as “the oth- of Jewish power. For a timeline on the Proto- er”. In many cases, the conspir- cols of the Elders of Zion, acy theory attributes responsi- Jews have historically been made see the United States Holo- bility for a certain occurrence a target of conspiracy theories, caust Memorial Museum: or a sequence of occurrences to going back to the medieval idea www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/ the group they have designated of “blood libel”. In many formu- article.php?ModuleId=100 as the “other”, which is looked lations, the “Jews” or “Zionists” 07244. upon as the enemy. This is one are claimed to form a powerful, way in which conspiracy theo- global cabal that manipulates ries are put forward for mali- governments, media, banks, cious political reasons – to offer the entertainment industry and For an update on currently the public a scapegoat. other institutions for malevolent circulating conspiracy the- purposes. ories, see the Conspiracy One of the best examples of an Watch website (in French): anti-Semitic conspiracy theory Anti-Semitic defamation fre- www.conspiracywatch.info. that still has widespread impact quently manifests itself through in the world today began with a conspiratorial worldview. For the 1903 publication of the Pro- example, on both the political left tocols of the Elders of Zion in a and right, there are people who found in references to “Roth- Russian newspaper.6 It is one of falsely claim that Jews planned schild money”, or the identifica- the most widely distributed for- the terrorist attacks in the Unit- tion of a Jewish conspiracy with geries in history, purporting to ed States on 11 September 2001. international banking and crim- record a Jewish plan for world Today, claims of Jewish control inality. Recently, new conspiracy domination. The Nazi genocide of and fascination with finances, theories have emerged that false- of Jews in Europe during World or depictions of Jews as wealthy, ly allege Jewish involvement in War II was also carried out based powerful, and menacing are the European refugee crisis.7
6 United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, “Protocols of the Elders of Zion”, Holocaust Encyclopedia,
3 “By teaching children analytic thinking skills along with the insight that societal problems often have no simple solutions, by stimulating a sense of control, and by promoting a sense that one is a valued mem- ber of society, education is likely to install the mental tools that are needed to approach far-fetched con- spiracy theories with a healthy dose of scepticism.” source: Jan-Willem Van Prooijen, “Why Education Predicts Decreased Belief in Conspiracy Theories”, Ap- plied Cognitive Psychology, Vol. 31, Issue 1, 2017, pp. 50-58.
A different, but related, anti-Se- Social media platforms have will enable them to identify and mitic conspiracy theory that become essential tools for those reject anti-Semitic representa- still exists today can be called who wish to harass Jews and tions, extremist claims and con- the “Holocaust Hoax”, which spread disinformation or hate. spiracy theories or calls to reject represents a belief that the They play an extensive role in democratic values. It is impor- Jewish people have invented or the spread of conspiracy the- tant that learners be able to iden- exaggerated the Holocaust in ories, which can also have an tify these elements as such, even order to gain political or finan- impact on efforts to uphold against a background of emo- cial advantage. This argument is human rights and democratic tional imagery or reference to used by Holocaust deniers, who values. suffering. Media and informa- claim that the evidence was fab- tion literacy helps to build learn- ricated by people working for Education about conspiracy ers’ critical thinking skills and World Jewry. 8 The ODIHR teach- theories is important both for resilience to the allure of sim- ing aid no. 6, “Addressing Hol- understanding anti-Semitism plistic explanations provided by ocaust Denial, Distortion and and for preventing extremism. conspiracy theories and extrem- Trivialization” provides more Educators should guide students ist propaganda. information on how to deal with to develop media and informa- this particular fabrication. tion literacy competences that
8 United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, “Holocaust Deniers and Public Misinformation”, Holocaust Encyclopedia,
4 Strategies for Addressing Conspiracy Theories in the Classroom
Easy, simple answers, such as those offered by con- open them up to the possibility of a “reality check” spiracy theories, can provide some false comfort on their ideas about who or what is to blame. This when dealing with a frightening situation. Teachers will make it easier for them to learn how language can help students understand and articulate their or images can be used to manipulate emotions – emotions and needs, provide them reassurance and especially at stressful times.
Looking beyond the words
When students offer a generali- be another explanation for what X flags, such as exaggerations – “We zation or perception about anoth- said or did?” are the only people that have the er’s behaviour, ask them what the Students can sometimes think in answer or will tell you the truth”, or evidence for that statement is or “black and white.” A teacher can in- absolutist statements using words how they know it is true. “Did X say troduce the idea of “shades of grey.” such as all, every, none, everybody, those actual words? Could there Encourage students to look for red never, no-one and always.
To prevent vulnerability to conspiracy theories, it is important to teach students analytical skills and how to seek out a variety of different sources.
Activity stereotype or conspiracy theo- ing together and processing in- ry and will be able to debunk it; formation together; and Use examples to debunk conspir- acy theories • During the investigation, have • Encourage students to see students list examples to how narratives change over • Have students work in teams to demonstrate the negative im- time, turning one truthful ele- investigate the origins of a ste- pact of conspiracy theories; ment taken out of context into reotype and/or conspiracy the- a simplistic, stereotypical view. ory; the most likely outcome is • Create learning partnerships that they will realize there is not among students to create enough evidence to support the shared responsibility by work-
They will be more likely to continue to use this active investigative skill set, as they are exposed to other conspiracy theories, and they will be less likely to develop stereotypical thinking and prejudice that can draw them towards extreme or fanatical viewpoints.
5 What to do if …? to a simplistic group opinion seen as fashionable or humorous. It is important, first of all, to cre- …a student shares an idea linked to a conspir- ate a space for dialogue where the students feel acy theory? comfortable expressing their ideas. This will help you to understand the key arguments that are The student might simply be repeating a notion most likely to lead the student to reconsider her/ that they heard somewhere in or outside school, his position without fear of being judged. without being convinced of the ideology that underpins the theory. Nevertheless, it is still Once a relationship of trust exists, the teacher important to address the idea in a way that stops will be able to use factual elements to probe the it proliferating and that develops students’ resil- student’s knowledge and motivate her/him to con- ience to other conspiratorial influences. sider new ways of thinking about the situation. For this to be effective, it is a good idea to use It is important not to immediately assert that the questions rather than statements and, as much student is wrong, as this can cause the student to as possible, to base these questions on facts (see become defensive or ashamed. The student may the source verification checklist, below). have been thinking in terms framed by loyalty
Source verification checklist
As a potential research assignment, ask the class to investigate the sources of a piece of information, and other opposing (factual) sources, using the source verification checklist.
CHECK THE SOURCE: as a “hook” to make readers able person – such as a teach- Where is the news posted? have a certain opinion or to er, librarian or museum repre- What kind of website is it? Can “sell” the article. sentative – can help to clarify you see who is posting it? the information. CHECK OTHER SUPPORTING CHECK THE AUTHOR: SOURCES: USE FACT-CHECKING Any serious source must reveal Check out the links indicated as WEBSITES: its author. sources and try to verify their Encyclopaedias; Factcheck.org; legitimacy, as well. the International Fact-Checking READ BEYOND THE Network (IFCN). HEADLINE: ASK AN EXPERT: Headlines are sometimes used Advice from a more knowledge-
Digital literacy is the ability to find and evaluate information online, distinguishing what is true and what is false. It combines critical thinking skills, such as source verification, with new knowledge about how the digital world works, how search engines function. Using the source verification checklist, students can ana- lyze verifiable sources of information on the Holocaust, for example.
6 The conspiracy expert, Joseph Uscinski from the University of Mi- ami, explains how he asks students to design their own conspiracy theory: “The crazier the better.” His students are asked to gather all their information from the Internet. Once they string the evidence to- gether they usually have a fairly convincing case. Each student must …during online research, then present the theory to another student, who must debunk it. Ac- a student comes across infor- cording to Professor Uscinski, the students can get quite attached mation that leads her/him to to their theory and do not like being told they are wrong. Such theo- a conspiracy theory? ries can connect to their worldview about truth, power and identity, revealing some underlying prejudices. Using online search engines can easily and quickly lead a student During such exercises, the potential consequences of these invent- to false, and even dangerous, ed or other circulating conspiracy theories can also be explored: dis- information. If they choose to trust, paranoia, fear, hate, isolating oneself or isolating a group, mak- search images instead of news, ing bad choices, hostility, violence against the supposed conspirers it is even more likely that they and so on. For example, one effect of the “anti-vaxxer” movement is will end up on a website used the spread of childhood diseases that had essentially been eradicat- to disseminate hate propagan- ed. One effect of climate change deniers’ activity is that efforts to put da. To prevent students’ vul- more responsible policies in place are being halted or diminished. nerability to such information, it is important to develop their It is important to allocate sufficient time for such exercises. This is digital literacy and capacity to to ensure that students have the chance to thoroughly analyze how distinguish credible sources of a conspiracy theory is constructed and notice the particular charac- information through independ- teristics highlighted by authors on the topic. ent thought. source: An interview with Professor Joseph Uscinski published by The searches they enter will also Steve Kolowich in the Chronicle of Higher Education, “What does have an impact on the search this Professor Know About Conspiracy Theorists that We Don’t?”, results. For example, entering 6 August 2018. “Jews control the world” will bring up hundreds of anti-Se- mitic images, many of which will lead directly to hate group websites. The ODIHR teaching Mémorial de la Shoah, France aid no. 9, “Dealing With Online Anti-Semitism“ can be helpful The Shoah Memorial (Mémorial de la Shoah) has developed edu- for cases where digital literacy cational workshops for teachers and students on the topic of con- is essential to discern credible spiracy theories on social media and their links to anti-Semitism. sources from false or mislead- Based on examples taken from social media (messages, photo- ing sources. montages and videos), the participants learn to identify and de- construct conspiracy theories and related false representations and stereotypes. The workshops aim to stimulate critical thinking and active engagement, and to encourage fact-checking and cau- tion in dealing with online messages.
For more information: www.memorialdelashoah.org/pedagogie-et-formation/activites- pour-le-secondaire/ateliers-pedagogiques.html
7 Resources and Materials for Further Reading
To learn more about currently circulating con- The Oxford Education blog also suggests some spiracy theories, refer to the Conspiracy Watch activities for addressing conspiracy theories in website (in French): the classroom; www.conspiracywatch.info. https://educationblog.oup.com/theory-of- knowledge/conspiracy-theories-intuitions-and- To learn more about the history of the Protocols critical-thinking-part-2. of the Elders of Zion: www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId Steven Lenos and Jordy Krasenberg, “Dealing =10007244. with fake news, conspiracy theories, and prop- aganda in the classroom”, Ran Centre of Excel- Joseph E. Uscinski and Joseph M. Parent, Ameri- lence, 29-30 November 2017, Budapest; can Conspiracy Theories (Oxford University Press: https://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/sites/ September 2014). homeaffairs/files/what-we-do/networks/ radicalisation_awareness_network/about- Pierre-André Taguieff, Court traité de complotol- ran/ran-edu/docs/ran_edu_dealing_fake_ ogie (Mille et Une Nuits: April 2013). news_conspiracy_theories_propaganda_ classroom_29-30_11_2017_.pdf. “Conspiracy theories, intuitions and critical thinking” from the Oxford Education Blog; Stanford History Education Group, Civic Online https://educationblog.oup.com/theory-of- Reasoning; knowledge/conspiracy-theories-intuitions-and- https://sheg.stanford.edu/civic-online-reasoning. critical-thinking-part-1.
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