121

Tamilnadu which is in the Southern part of India is the end of all states in the topography of India, has many beautiful places to see. There are many beautiful scenery, ancient monuments and historic temples for their unique sculptures, with the culture and tradition of the natives and so on. There are lots of other things to be spoken as well. One such place to be watched and enjoyed is Mahabalipuram. This is a magnificent tourist place.

Mahabalipuram is situated on the coramandel coast, 58km to the

South of Chennai. It was designated a world Heritage site by UNESCO in

1984 for it stunning range of monuments, dating from the sixth to the tenth century A.D that include stone rathas (temples in the form of chariots) mandapas (cave junctures) the famous Shore temple and giant sized sculptures carved on granite rocks.

The richness in Mahabalipuram was not known to many, as Pallavas did not outlet and expose their quality and innovative creations to the outer world for obvious reasons. The aestheticism was hidden until the late 18th century. What is special about Mahabalipuram of course every one can point out the rock – cut caves, temples made from a single rock, temples and strives of different structures, and bas – relief’s which are so artistic and sheer creativity. Mahabalipuram is referred as an open – air museum. The great Pallava kings Narasimha - I and Rajasimha have well 122

preserved these stylistic qualities that one can enjoy in Mahabalipuram even in the present day.

The beauty of the place is not only due to these architecture but the vast casuarinas trees, the silvery sandy beach the classical hand made crafts around have made them all to form what is a collective splendor.

Any visitor who visits Mahabalipuram will remain startled and intoxicated with the grandeur. They feel excited and more out from this historical and fascinating tourist spot.

Hearing of a temple singing to the rhythm of waves, rocks reading epic poetry spell binding sculpture and rock – cut caves echoing a glorious past. That’s Mahabalipuram for you all in one.

Mahabalipuram is one of the 16 World Heritage sites being protected and developed by the Archaeological survey of India and the central tourism department. The visitor to this sought after tourist destination never fails to experience the rare symphony on the rocks created by the Pallavas. The tourists discovery derive pleasure through a series of wonderful monuments, now getting a fresh lease of life, and an enchanting beach.

The monuments are broadly in the form of monolithic, most of which are called rathas or chariots rock – cut caves excavated from hillocks, structural temple and Bas – relief carved on hill edges. It’s ideal for visitors to explore the resort beginning with the five rathas on the 123

Southern side, move towards the hillside to see the caves mandapams and thala Sayana Perumal temple, and proceed towards the sea to experience the beauty of the Shore temple.

4-1 Rathas

In this chapter I have attempted very briefby about the rathas, mandapas and temples of Mahabalipuram. But I have made sincere attempt and elborate discussion about the Dharmaraja ratha and Shore temple due to the aesthetic beautification. Rathas are free standing temples cut out of solid rock most of which are locally called or styled rathas or chariots. The five rathas is a set of magnificent monolithic rock temples. Panch is a Hindi word which means ‘Five’. These five rock temples are located in a sandy compound. These five rathas are the perfect examples of the evolution of Dravidian style architecture. They resambll are look similar to that of the Buddhist shrines and monasteries.

Rathas in English means chariot. There chariots are constructed with towers, the cars of Gods, multipillared halls, and sculptured walls which are chissled out minutely1.

The rathas stand not far from one another and by their neat alignment, and the height, length and width of each structure, reveal the consummate skill that has built on rigid geometrical conceptions2.

The Mamallapuram pancha rathas or five chariots are elegant rock- cut shrines famed as the structural fore-runners of the temple of South 124

India. They have an individuality of their own amidst the fumble of stone monuments filling the shore area. For style they are unrivalled even in their unfinished state, each one pleasantly different in essential elements from the other3.

George Michael explains, that "The series of monolithic temples known as rathas literally chariots, at Mahabalipuram provide a varitable catalogue of the architectonic forms and sacred icons current during, the seventh and eighth centuries in Southern India. Despite the face that this monolithic phase was only transitory, the 'rathas' reveal a true sophistication of craftsmanship and imaginative elaboration of the

Southern Indian architectural formula4.

The rathas have an association to the great epic Mahabharata which describes the heroes of Mahabharata with their wife Draupadi which is termed as Pancha pandava rathas. The five rathas are Draupadi’s rathas,

Arjuna’s rathas, Nakulasahadev’s rathas, Bhima ratha and Dharamaraja5.

4-1-1 Bhima ratha

The Bhima ratha with a roof, shaped like the hood of a county wagon, is elongated on a rectangular base and is supported lengthwise by four pillars and two pilasters. The other ornamentations, false (chaitya windows (dudu) and pavilion, are similar to that of the Dharamaraja ratha.

The curvilinear roof her and in the Draupadi ratha is at once suggestive of 125

its origin from the thatched hut with covering. The Bhima ratha contains no paddy grass figure carving.

This ratha is faced towards west and this is laid third of the rathas.

The shrine is gorgeous as it measures 42ft in length, width and 25ft in height. The pillars are lion carved whereas the other parts are plain. This ratha too is an incomplete one. In the epic Mahabharata Bhima the huge guy is bulky and strong he is fond of eating all the time6.

4-1-2 Arjuna ratha

The next one, called Arjuna ratha, is almost a replica of the

Dharmaraja ratha. There are carved panels between pilasters on the four sides of its main body on the ground floor and first storey. Three sides of the main body of the ratha contain five panels each, the central and corner ones bding narrowe but more prominent. In the corner panels there are standing figures of dvarapalakas. In the central panels are a Siva leaning on Nandi on the south and Indra on Airavata on the east and a Vishnu leaning on Garuda on the north. In the other panel are mithuna figures or royal couples. One of the panels to the east shows a rishi carrying a staff followed by his disciple. The attempt of the sculptor to represent many of them in full and three quarters profile shows a mastery of skill. Similar mithunas are also portrayed in the panels of the upper storey. Alternating

Elephants and lions are carved at the base of this monument all around as 126

supports. The scheme of decoration by means of kudus and pavilions is the same as in the Dharmaraja ratha.

To the west of the temple projects a portico supported by two pillars and two pilasters of the squatting lion type, of which the pollars are lost. A flight of steps part of the monolithic leads up to the portico.

Immediately above the capitals of the pillars and pilasters and below the kudus is a row of dwarfs (Ganeas) artistically portrayed in different funny postures. The corresponding row in the upper storey shows a frieze of geese. In the cell of this ratha guarded by dvarapalakas, there used to be a head crowned by trisula similar to the one at the southern end of the wagon roof of the Ganesa ratha. This was obviously intended to represent

Siva. Though the horns are lost, they can be reconstructed after those in the Ganesa ratha. This is no longer shown in the cell. Behind the ratha is a colossal monolithic couchant Nandi which, even in its semi finished state, is a masterpiece7.

The Arjuna’s ratha is dedicated to Lord Siva. This has a small portico and carved pillar stones. Inside the shrine there are no inscriptions or figures whereas on the outer walls. There are carvings of Gods and humans. A panel on the Northern wall is carved with two doors – keepers.

Beautiful carvings of Lord Vishnu and Garuda on one panel and the other panel with a couple. The Eastern wall is carved with a double dvarapalakas, in the middle wall the portrait of Lord Indra riding an 127

Elephant, a log standing of the left with has disciples and two beautiful women are perfectly chissled out. These beautiful carvings have been praised by many poets. There is also a figure of Nandi bull which is still left unfinished8.

4-1-3 Draupadi ratha

The next temple, named Draupadi ratha, is probably the most elegant in this group. It is supported by four corner pilasters and has a niche crowned by makaratorana on three sides, while on the west it has two niches containing figures of dvarapalakas which flank either side of the doorway decorated with makaratorana. The remaining niches each contain a representation of standing Durga, the one on the east resting on the severed head of the buffalo demon. In the cell inside there is another four armed standing Durga, adored by two male worshippers kneeling at her feet, one of them brandishing his sword to cut off his head as an offering to the Goddess, and four dwarf ganas flying overhead. In front of the ratha is a standing lion. This is located at the entrance gate, which is spectacular and simple, shaped like a hut and is dedicated to Goddess

Durga. Female door – keepers stand on the either ride of the rath. One holding a bow and another word. At the eastern wall a bas relief stands portraying Goddess Durga standing on lotus and two worshippers at here feet offering flowers and one of the person’s head respectively. Energy 128

other walls have the figure of the great Goddess, and at the front of the temple is a Lion’s figure, which is the celestial vehicle to the Goddess9.

4-1- 4 Nakula Sahadeva ratha

The temple named after the twin heroes, Nakula and Sahadeva, is an apsidal one with ornamental features as in the Dharmaraja, Arjuna and other rathas. This extends slightly forward to form a porch supported by two Lion pillars. Ther are no figure carvings on this temple. Close to this is a monolithic Elephant suggesting the Gajaprishthakara (Elephant back) shape of apsidal temple.

In front of Arjuna’s ratha there are the Nakula – Sahadeva rathas.

This is a double decorated building. Dedicated to Lord Indra the God of rain. As in Greek and Roman mythologies, where there are different Gods for various aspects Indian mythologies assigned specific gods for different aspects. There is some proof depicting this ratha to which might have been dedicated to Subramaniya associated with Elephants. The Elephants shaped sculptures face towards the sea. One who eaters the Panchrathas, can visualize the back portion of the Elephants and it is named as

Gajaprishthakara which means Elephant’s back side. The Elephant sculptures are huge and are highlights of the pancha rathas10.

4-1-5 Ganesa ratha

A path beyond the Monkey group leads to the Ganesa ratha, one of the finest monolithic temples at Mahabalipuram. Though three storeyed it 129

has workmanship that resembles the Bhima ratha in roof form. The gable ends of the wagon roof have a finial showing a human lead decorated by trident shaped head gear, the side prongs suggesting the usual horns in the dvarapalakas figures and the central one a long and narrow crown. This motif is repeated in the finials of the decorative gables along the wagon roof. There is as usual the pavilion and kudu ornamentation. The elaborately worked roof has nine vase shaped finials and is the precursor of the later gopuram, an essential adjunct of medieval south Indian temples. A row of pilasters decorates the sides and the back, while the opening is the west. Between the dvarapalakas at either end are two lion pillars in the center and two pilasters. The cell beyond the hall once contained a Siva linga, but it is now occupied by a figure of Ganesa installed by villagers four or five decades ago.

The only completed sculpture of the five rathas is the Ganesa ratha.

This lies west to the Bhima ratha and it resembles the Arjuna’s penance. It was earlier dedicated to lord Siva and now it is the shrine of Ganesa. There was a lingam structure earlier and now an idol of lord Ganesa has been replaced by the Pallavas did not stop with there fine rathas but they went on to build more sculpture of them. Four are found lying on the outskirts of Mahabalipuram. Two rathas which lie side by side on the way to

Tirukkalakkundram are named as Pidari rathas. To the South of these two 130

rathas lies the Valayankuttai ratha and the fourth one which lies opposite to the Mahishasuramar dinimandapa are nameless.

The Ganesa ratha, standing close to 'Arjuna's penance' is the one completed ratha. Resembling the Bhima ratha it is an oblong structure with two storeys. The inscription shows that it was dedicated to Siva but the lingam had been removed from inside. The Ganesa image inside is a recent substitution. Two more, the Pidari rathas are on the road to

Thirukkalkundram, a third to their South is the Valayankuttai ratha and a fourth stands opposite the Mahishasuramardini mandapam11.

4-1-6 Valayankuttai ratha

Near the buckingham canel are theree rathas smaller in size than the five monolithics one of them, called the Valayankuttai ratha. It a shrine facing east and, though roughly finished, resembles the Arjuna ratha.

4-1-7 Pidari ratha

Close to Valayankuttai ratha two unfinished rock – cut shrines, which are called Pidari rathas.

4-1-8 Dharmaraja ratha

Dharmaraja ratha is the largest, tallest and most interesting and informative square and three storyed ratha. Among the rathas and mandapas the most artistic significances is Dharmaraja ratha. So it is essential to bringout the significances of Dharmaraja ratha

131

4-1-8-1 The architectural features of the Dharamaraja ratha

Compared to the rest of the monolithic vimanas in Mahabalipuram the Dharmaraja ratha* is a type in itself. It is an anarpita tritala vimana of the apparently sandhara type. Unlike many other contemporary and later

South Indian vimanas in which only the ground talas contains a cella for the main images, this ratha is conceived as one with cella (for deities) in all its three talas (Storeys). It is Sama chaturastra (or square) upto the prastara (architrave) of the third tala, but astasra octagonal in its griva and sikara. These features make it a Dravida vimana of the misra variety. The hara of the three talas, following the anarpta or nonapplique mode, have each an alinda behind them separating them from the harmyas of the second and third talas and the octagonal griva respectively at the above three levels. The vimana faces western direction.

The aditala or ground floor is surrounded by an outer wall cantoning only the four corners langulakara kudya of langula bhitti, the open interval between each extreme or corner wall part on the cardinal sides has a frontage of two pillars and two pilasters, in antis, all made out in the rough or unfinished. This arrangement forms a partially closed outrmost peripteral mandapa round the shrine part. In front, on the western side, is further added a small mukhamandapa, its prastara carrying a hara of karnakutas and salas, with two nidas introduced in its composition for the first time again as in the front line of the hara of the

*Plate I -III 132

second tala of the Nakula-Sahadeva ratha. This face alone makes out the carving of the lower portions of this ratha as of a later phase coval with or a slittle posterior to the completion stages of the upper leves of the Nakula

- Sahadeva ratha, thought the carving of the Dharmaraja ratha from top down to this region may be said to have commenced earlier and mostly completed in its uppar parts.

It was begun in the time of Mamalla himself, and a label bearing that name is inscribed on the paksa sila (Paraper) or sopana bhitti of the steps of the second tala leading up to the third on the east.

Another interesting feature of this ratha is the ingenious telescoping of the adjacent members at the corner of the hara on the front line over the mukhamandapa of the first tala to give perspective appearance of a kuta from a corner view and of a sala from a side view. This ‘L’ shaped or langulakara kutasala motif perhaps heralded the karnasalsa of the gopura prastaras which came later on with the elaboration of the tiers or the talacchanda of the gopuras. Such a kutasals or karnasala is to be found again in the same position in the hara of the mukhamandapa of the structural Rajasimhesvara temple of the Shore temple complex, also at

Mahabalipuram. This indicates both their proximity in point of time and the continuity of this feature in this structural temple phase. This karnasala like motif is repeated over the front line on top of the smaller mukhamandapa of the second or madhya tala also. 133

The top or uparitala may be said to be completed in all respects, as the griva and sikara over it are, including the provision of a shrine chamber in front on the west and a relief image consecrated in it. The madhya tala, the completion of which should have formed the next stage, is, likewise, complete except for the fact that its shrine chamber is still left incomplete as also the dvarapalakas on either side that would guard its entrance. The top members of the aditala too which should demarcate the bas of the madhya tala can be said to hae been finished. While, thus, the architectural details and the various sculptures have been completed in respect of the two upper talas it is aditala or ground floor alone that is architecturally quite incomplete, while preference has been given to the completion of the sculptures on its exterior corners. It now remains for us to describe the angas and anukayas of this vimana type12.

4-1-8-2 Aditala or ground floor

This unique monolithic version of a structural vimana stands high over the rest of the series over an equally interesting pedestal that is rather tall in proportion to the tala heights and much taller than the bases of the other monolithic rathas. It is a double base, costing of a lower and sincomplete upapitha or sub base and an upper partially completed adhisthana or the ral base. The upapitha is of the mancha type with a tall recesse kandhara with a mahapatti platform on top, the lowermost kura or footing not yet cut out of the rock. The projecting mahapatti is shown as 134

supported, further, by alternating frontals of Lions and Elephants, relieved from the kandhara face, posed at intervals, as in the case of the common upapitha platform of the Draupadi and Arjuna rathas at the head of the line on the north. The rough outlines of these animal reliefs are carved out of the rock mass at the north east corner while for the rest they are either uncut or could not be cut for want of sufficient rock material. They were perhaps intended to be supplied by separate sculptured pieces inserted in position wherever found necessary as is actually found to be the case in the upapitha below the Draupadi and Arjuna rathas.*

The mahapatti of the upapitha serves also as the upana or the lowermost member of the adhisthana. Over this upana is the taller and recessed vertical course, the jagati, which in turn carries the other courses above, in succession a projected octagonal torus moulding or the kumuda, which because three of its facets of octants are rendered visible is called trikpatta kumuda a recessed short kantha or neck moulding, again a projected and curved down cornice moulding or the kapota, which peculiarly enough is devoid of the usual horse shoe shaped kudu ornaments at intervals its lenghth, a recessed gala and vajana top forming a pratimukha course or frieze of widely spaced out animal forms. This consists of pairs of lions alternating with pairs of Elephants with one of the

Elephants of each pair shown as charging its mate. The positions of the paired lions and Elephants correspond to the bases of the façade pillars

*Plate I - III 135

and pilasters and the base corners of the cantoning walls of the paridhi or peripteral mandapa of the aditala.

The kapotabandha type of adhisthana is a speciality of her since it is otherwise unknown in the whole gamut of early Pallava adhisthanas, the usual type being the prati bandha without the kapota member. The feature is perhaps indicative of a later phase in point of time when the work was reaching down to the bottom. The adhisthana mouldings are carved to complete round the noth east corner on the rear side of the vimana, while for the greater part round the north east corner on the rear side of the vimana, while for the greater part round the other there corners it is incomplete or partial with the upper courses alone cut. The adhisthana was intended to have four ascents with landings at the top level on the centre of each cardinal side, each with laterally placed flights of steps or the sopana with a centre landing and frontal parapet and banister.

This is roughly indicated on the north, east and mukhamandapa porch was to have been provided with a masonry flight side the mukhamandapa porch was to have been provided with a masonry flight of steps, there being no rock material left for a monolithic sopana. *

The peripteral mandapa round the central shrine of the aditala has rather wide openings on the four cardinal sides between the narrower strips of the end walls that cover the corners, the open intervals having

*Plate I - III 136

two free pillars and two pilasters in antis, the latter butting the cantoning walls on each face, all togerher forming the facades on the North, East and

South. The two middle pillars of each side have a wider interval or bay between them than between each of them and the pilaster of that side.

The feature is a departure from the surally equal intercolumniation of

Pallava rock cut designs and perhaps takes after the chalukhya feature.

This may also possibly be related to the intended caturmukha or sarvatobhadra aspect of the central harmya or sanctum that the mandapa invests with door openings on all four sides of the square or at least false doors or ghanadvaras on the three side’s woth a real one on the front side.

The pillars are all lion based the squatting lions of the pollars face front carrying octagonally mouded shafts or danda, while the lions at the bases of the Pilasters face each other, carrying tetragonal shafts in consonance with the edge of the walls they abut. The pillars and pilasters asre all incomplete in their details and are in various stages of finish. Also the pillars are in various degrees of isolation from the rock mass of the central shrine part. The capitals are of the Pallava order but lack the abacus (the mandi) or phalaka with its doucene venter the pali, but otherwise show the vase shaped kalasa or lasuna over the top of the danda, the saucer shaped tadi or neck over it surmounted by the bulbous or cushion shaped kumbha that carries the scorbel bracket or potika the potika arms are curvilinerar with intended taranga or roll ornamentation. 137

On the west face the narrow mukhamandapa porch has on its façade four such lionor vyala - based pillars.*

The four stretches or walls embracing the corners the langulakara kudya or langula bhitti, in surprising contrast with the pillars and other architectural parts, are dressed to the finish on all the eight faces on the exterior. The two adjacent faces at each corner have each a plain rectangular figure niche or devakostha cut into it.** These devakosthas, eight in all, contain almost life size bas reliefs of standing figure, seven divine and one a royal portrait13. The niches are devoid of any torana crest or architrave topping that is found in other cases of Pallava rock architecture.

The central cock mass inside the peripteral ambulatory is squared out in plan and roughly made ort though not quite isolated from the peripheral parts. If finished it would form the thick wall of the central shrine with its principal dorrway on the west with, possibly, three more on the other three sides judging more from the location of the flights of steps on the north, east and south sides, also, of the upapitha – adistana, making it ‘chaumuk’ or chaturmukha or alternatively it was to be a pattern with three ghandvaras with a real dvara in front or three wide sculpture niches or devakosthas on the three sides in place of the ghanadvaras.

The architecture or prastara over the peristylar and frontal mandapas, consisting of the uttira or beam laid over the corbels of the

*Plate I - III **Plate I - III 138

pillars and pilasters and contoning wall strips and the more prominent and eaves like flexed cornice or kapota, is cut right round in full, complete in all details. Over the uttira is run a narrow vajana course with a convex or doucene valabhi course that is decorated by a frieze of bhutas forming the bhutamala that is overshadowed by the prominently projected kapota above. All the bhuta forms, in various poses and stances of merriment and dance, are all finished except for six over the northern face and those in the valabhi over the two lateral beams of the mukhamandapa13A. The greater number and and closeness to each other of the bhutas are in distinct to their comparatively lesser number and wider spacing the valabhis or the

Draupadi and Arjuna rathas. These bhuta and animal motifs representing the carved and embellished end faces of the ceiling timber work in brick and timber originals, the lupas and jayantis, are quite functionless in a monolithic or even in a built up stone structure.

Yet in spite of their loss of function they persist, conventionalized though, as a definite and obligatory decorative frieze the bhuta hamas or vyalamala as the case may be through the succeeding centuries. Over the bhutamala the projecting flexed kapota is embellished by pairs of kuduarches, horse shoe shaped with flat shovel finials a distinct Pallava characteristic. The pairs correspond in position to the bases of the karnakuta and sala elements of the hara or string of miniature vimana types set over the dege of the tala top as is characteristic of the southern 139

vimana. On the surface of the kapota are reliefs of prostrate Monkeys, humans or lions with their backs ripped open forming open water chutes that ultimately pass through their heads, tube like, and spout out through their open mouth. These animal chutes are designed and located in alignment with the vent holes at the base of the parapet like harantara sections that connect the kuta and sala elements of the hara. Theis is quite a novel feature rarely noticed anywhere else in early architecture. The prastara line, as that of the upapitha or adhisthana below, is rendered straight on the peripheral norm or vinyasa sutra, without offset bays or recessions that would correspond with the kuta sala elements of the hara on top. This may be because it constitutes the prastara of the peripteral and axial mandapas. The same prastara is extended over the mukhamandapa top also14.

The aditala prastara is terminated by a frieze of vyalas the vyalamala which forms the blocking course constituted by the antari and alinga patti elements of the primordial wooden original. The vyalas resembling the cut ends of the timber work, too are very close set as set as the bhutas in the bhutamala below indicationg such need in a large storeyed structure of this type, and heralding alike the conventionalization on loss of primary function (consequent on the change in the building medium) of this feature as a decorative frieze. The vyalamala on each side,

South, West and North instead of being set on straight lines as parts below, 140

shows offset bays and recessions according to the hara components for which it forms the basis. The forntal transoms (alingapatti) of the offset bays carrying sections of the vyalamala terminate at either end into projected makara faces crossing with similar ones carved at the ends of the more extended transverse main timber, and usual feature of imitation in stone work of the wooden original. The hara* thus set over the vyalamala over the prastara of the peripteral mandapa of the aditala is composed of karanakutas occupying the corners and three salas in between them on the north, east and south sides, the two types of elements strung up, as it were, by the spacer like harantara intervals which are in turn decorated by nasikas on their exposed exterior.

While the karnakuta or the kuta at the corner (karana) is a replica in miniature of a samacaturasra (sequre) vimana or shrine with four-side domical sikara (roof) ending in a single stupi (finial) the sala or kostha is the miniature representation of an ayatasra (oblong) shrine with a vaulted or wagon top sala sikhara (roof) carrying a row of stupis along its top ridge. These are placed each over the respective bay of the vyalamala. The intervening harantara sections, coming over the recessions of the vyalamala line, represent each a cloister (or in late cases conventionalised into a simple thick parapet with curved coping) of lesser height then the kutas and kosthas and of narrower width on its exterior wall the nasika.

*Plate I - III 141

These ksudra nasikas are made up essentially of two pilasters enclosing a lattice or trellis window (jalaka) surmounted by an arched torana or festoon, the former projected from the wall of the harantara and the latter from the curved coping roof, dormer like. This scheme of two karnakutas, one at either end, and therr intervening salas or kosthas over each of the lateral and rear faces of the aditala is, however, interrupted on the frontal or western side by the fowardly placed porch like mukhamandapa.* The hara extension over this includes an additional member, namely, the panjara or nida which is the minaiture of the apsidal shrine type of the same stature as the karnakutas and salas. This panjara, which becomes the third essential component or element, besides the kutas and kosthas, in the haras of later south Indian jati vimanas, is found introduced for the first time in thies ksudra vimana form and again, as noticed earlier, in the front section (south) of the hara over the second tala of the apsidal Nakula-Sahadeva ratha, likewise a ksudra vimana, as its own miniature. Among the earlisest extant series of vimana forms as represented by the monolithic rathas of Mahabalipuram this is a singnificant departure form the norm. it is however, absent over the other three sides of the aditala or ver andy of the forut sides of the two upper storeys or talas of the Dharmaraja ratha as also over any of the other rathas, as came to be the feature in later times.

*Plate I - A 142

Another feature of interest is the combination elements on the two front corners of the mukhamandapa hara which are two telescoping sala of the adjacent sides, presenting the aspect of a kuta when viewed diagonally from a angle and sala of that side when viewed from and one of the two sides, a feature already referred to before15. The frontal hara over the mukhamandapa prastara is thus constituted by two karnasalas at each front corner, a central sala, and two panjaras, one each coming in between the karnasala of the side and the central sala. The three salas come over the intercolumnar spaces between the four facade lion pilladrs, while the two panjaras come over the region of the corberl of the two inner lion pillars. The central position of the true sala would make it a dvara sala.

Behind the circumvallatory hara of the aditala the top of its parikrama (peripteral circumambulatory) mandapa affords on open perambulatory round the second tala body or farmya, which is called the alinda. The presence of this interventing alinda separating the hara from the harmya of the upper tala makes the hara anarpita or non appliqur as against the usual arpita or merged condition where the hara on top of the lower tala impinges upon, and partially merges into, the base of the harmya of the next upper tala beconing arpita or appliqué. The presence of the alinda would thus allow scope for the rear aspects of the hara and its elements to be fully exhibited and thus the gajaprstha (rump or hind quarters of the Elephant) form of the rear parts of the apsidal nidas can be

*Plate I - III 143

distinctly brought out as also the symmetrical rear part of the kutas and salas. But in the case of the Dharmaraja ratha the need for cutting a sufficiently wide alinda walk behind the aditals hara and beyond the basal perimeter of the already determined second tala harmya, with in the scope afforded by the existing rock material, has compelled the architect sculptor to plane down, as it were, vertically the rear of the hara elements the kutas, salas and panjaras, so as to afford the maximum possible circumambulatory space for a person to walk round.

4-1-8-3 Second or Madhya tala

The second tala harmya which is obviousy an upward continuation of the wall of the aditala harmya (sanctum or garbhagraha) lies inside the alinda and is devoid of a distinct adhisthana. Its walls on the three sides, north, east, and South are each thrown out slightly forward into four bays or bhadras (much like the ratha offsets of north Indian Rekha Prasadas) with two extreme bays of lesser width adjacent to the corners, and two intermediate bays of greater width. They thus correspond in position to and form the respective basal infrastructure for the two karnakutas and the two salas of the hara above the prastara over each face of the three sides of this tala. The intervening recesses on each face representing the wall proper or salilantara of the harmya accord with the harantara sections of the hara above. The projected bays are cantoned, each by two square pilasters flanking a sculpture niche sunk in between them. They 144

carry full capitals of the order the components of which are also of the same square section. The top of the shaft or dandi is marked by the padmabandha band with the malasthana of pendent loops of beads and pearls from the lotus petal band.

The vase shaped kalasa or lasuna, the saucer shaped tadi or drk over its brim,a lenticular or cushion shaped bulbous pot or kumbha and over it the potika or corbel bracket, all forming the constituents of the capital, are clearlay brought out. The usual abacus the mandi phalaka with its pali or doucene venter is eliminated here also as in the lower tala. The corbel arm has a curved smooth profile or is provided with taranga or roll moulding over it and a median band or patta all typically Pallava. The corbel is fitted over a short tenon like virakantha projecting up from the kumbha. Over the potika runs the uttira or beam of the prastara.

The salilantara recesses, between the relieved bhadra bays corresponding to the harmya wall proper, too are provided with figure niches and filled with fine sculpture as are the bhadra niches. Thus there are seven sculpture niches four in the bays and three in the intervening recesses, each on the north and south faces and all of them are quite complete in all their architectural aspects and enshrine finished sculptures. While the fourteen niches on the north and south are full niches, on the eastern side only the two extreme niches are fully exposed with full standing sculptures inside and the remaining five intermediary 145

niches are totally or partially obscured in their lower parts by a paksa sopana or double flight of steps cut lateral to central landing on top raised almost to the level of the third tala, providing access to it and guarded by an arched banister all in front of it. Still the exposed upper parts of two penultimate niches, one on either wing over the lower steps are filled with sculptures in torso upto the waist or even a little lower to the extent the seve ascending steps on each side would permit. Thus there are only four sculptures in all on the eastern side. Behind the top landing the second tala hara on this side is interrupted at its middle by a cutting of dimension equal to the width of the central harantara section between the two salas of the hara of that side in order to provide the entrance to the alinda round the third tala harmya.

The western face of the second tala harmya or its main entrance side presents frontage of a different kind, in that it has a shallow shrine chamber excavated into its face (cave temple fashion) with a façade of two pillars and two pilasters in antis, that come in between the two extreme bays containing figure niches as on the other three sides of the harmya exterior. These pillars and pilasters of the shrine front, four in all, are lion based. The basal lions of the two four sided pilasters in antis, with capitals of similar plan, posed one at either extreme, face each other, while the basal lions of the two pillars coming in between and having octagonal shafts and capitals above, though not fully carve, were intended to face 146

front. The oblong shrine chamber which occupies the width of the central salilantara recess and its two flanking bhadra bays pur together is excavated only to a certain depth and not completed. Thus it was to have three entrances between its four faced columns two pillars and two pilasters16 with two narrow dvarapalakas niches, one on either side.

Fronting this shrine entrance is a small mukhamandapa advanced into the alinda passage over the top terrace of the aditala mukhamandapa.

It is open on all its three sides with its own prastara in extension of the main harmya prastara, carried over two pillars placed one at either extreme on its front line. These have sejant or couchant lion bases, the lion at the base of the north pillar facing south west and its fellow on the south facing north east their shafts are circular while the capital members over the malasthana are sixteen sided in section.

They carry cruciform corbels with cross arms or the taranga pattern but devoid of the median band or patta. The cross arms of the taranga pattern but devoid of the median band or patta. The cross arms are to support the longitudinal beams on either side and the front cross beam or transom. The narrowed recesses one on either end of the shrine entrance contain each, a sculpture of a dvarapalkas or doorkeeper that is incomplete their niches are flanked by four sided pilasters of the same type as elsewhere the extreme bay niches one at either end of this western side, however, contain fully finished sculptures, thus making a total 147

number of four on this side, in addition to the eighteen on the other three sides, north, east and south.

The madhyatala prastara has a bhutamala in its valabhi course, below the kapota which is decorated by kudu ornaments at intervals. All the components are present as in the case of the aditala prastara but they are shown as alternately thrown out and recessed on the vinyasa sutra or the norm line of the perimeter in accordance with the bhadras and salilantaras (bays and recesses) on the harmya wall below, and the scheme of kutas and salas and harantaras of the hara above. This prastara is topped by a vyalamala, likewise offset and recessed, carrying the hara above. This bhutamala below the kapota is interrupted at intervals, over the corbel line of each pilaster below by crouching lion forms. The hara over the harmya part* is made up in all of four karnakutas one over each corner, and two salas intervening, as should be the case, over each of the three sides north east and south with interconnecting lengths of harantara.

The harantara sections coming over the salilantara recesses of the harmya wall have nasikas (ksudranasikas) as in the harantara of the aditala hara, but often without the trellis or mesh pattern in the rectangular bases posed below their arches and between their flanking pilasters.

The kutas and kostha are placed over the bhadra or projected bays of the wall below. In front on the western side the hara** is drawn forward over the top periphery of the mukhamandapa by the deflection of

*Plate I - III **Plate I - A 148

the haranantara interval inside the main karnakuta of that side to terminate ahead in karnasala of the same pattern as below, one such coming over each front corner of the mukhamandapa with a central sala in the frontline, the whole being connected up by two intervening harantara bits, one on either side of the central sala. This central sala as the one below over the façade of the aditala mukhamandapa, functions as the dvarasala the preceursor of later elaborated gopuram entrances.

The composite pattern of karma sala either extreme at the two front corners on both the adi and madhya talas is thus a clever device in the plan in order to get a central sala or dvara sala on the front line instead of a central harantara or salilantara as obtains on the scheme over other theree sides of either tala.

4-1-8-4 Third or Uparitala

The third tala harmya a lesser square of lesser height rises over the top of the second tala with an open alinda all round running behind the hara of the madhyatala. It repeats essentially the same features as in the madhyatala but the lateral and rear wlls, noth south and east, have each three bays or bhadras only, thrown forwarde with two intervening salilantara recesses, the former corresponding to the two karnakutas, one at either corner of ever side and the median sala of each side and the latter to the two harantara sections over the prastara above. As in the case below on the madhyatala, the bhadra bay is formed by a pair of pilasters of 149

similar type. With capitals and cross corbels set in advance of the wall face, represented by the salilantara recess, with a similar forward extension of the lupas or jauamntis with a cross piece or transom in front to carry the similarly extended elements of the prastara. All the bays as also the recesses have sunk niches with fully complete figure sculptures, fice on each side, north east and south.

The front or western face into which is excavated a shrine, chamber, complete in all respects, presents accordingly a slightly varied arrangement. The cells rectangular on plan, is of appropriate width but of depth reaching only to about half of the required depth, its rear wall coinciding almost with the north south median norm line or madhya sutra and not extending beyond. The shrine is dedicated to Siva in the form of

Somaskanda, which is a characteristic of the times of Paramesvaravarman and Rajasimha pallava, sculptured in relief on the rear wall. The shrine entrance is cut into the space between the two central bay pilasters which thus form the door frames, in the absence of a more sistinct door frame composed of jambs, sill and lintel. Cut into the two recess niches, one on either side, are the two dvarapalakas. On top of the two dvarapalakas niches are two gana figures supporting thin corbels with taranga flutings.

Over the shrine entrance the corresponding length of kapota with kudus of the harmya prastara is interrupted in its general scheme and replaced by a projected frieze of bhutas or ganas carrying loops of a garland, this length 150

extending on either side beyond the tops of the two central jamb like polasters and reaching up to the top of the two penultimate pilasters at either end and consequently devoid of the kudu motifs17.

This is in fact and function a slightly projected ledge over the region of the shrine front entrance and flanking dvarapalakas niches in the form of a strainght torana or a variety of vidyadhara or citratorana inview of the festoon or garland being carried by, or associated with vidyadharas or ganas. This bhutamala ledge or this part of the caves line, laid over the thin corbels supported by the two gana forms over the niches aforesais, has its own valabhi part made up of a hamsa frieze in line with the main valabhi of the harmya prastara that is likewise a hamsa-valabhi rather unusual at this locus, in contrast to the bhutamala valabhis of the two lower talas that conform to usual norms. For the rest the harmya prastara follows the lines of projections and recessions of the bhadras and salilantaras of the wall of the harmya below and in accordance with the placement of the kuta sala harantara scheme above. The bhutamala lintel with hamsa valabhi below with the supporting pilasters is an antefix or a pressed torana mukha patti taking the place of a small mukhamandapa18.

The niches between the paired pilasters of the bays on either extreme also contain finished sculptures and these four on this (western) side, added to the fifteen on the three other sides (five on each side) make 151

up a total of nineteen wall sculptures and with the addition of Somaskanda group enshrined in the cella make for twenty in all on the third tala. The prastara of the uparitala has a prominent kapota embellished by kudu ornaments and it is of the same pattern as those on the talas below but overhangs a hamsa valabhi as stated above, in place of the bhutamala of the valabhis of the lower talas. The vyalamala on top forms the basis that carries a hara* of four karnakutas, one each at the four corners and four cardinal salas, one each over the middle of each side thus forming bhadrasalas. In the total elevational or vertical perspective, these median bhadrasalas on the two lateral and rear aspects of the vimana** alternate with the two salas of the madhyatala face below while falling on the same vertical line as the central salas of the aditala. However, on the frontal aspect on the western side*** the scheme is inevitably altered by the projection of the mukhamandapa facades of the adi and madhyatalas and the straight torana antefix of the uparitala with the reselt that all the three central salas of the three talas come on the same vertical line to form the dvarasalas of the respective tala fronts.

The introduction of the karnasala patterns on the frontals of the two lower talas and their apparent kuta or sala like aspect on a gonal or frontal view makes the total elevational aspect accord with that of the other three sides. On a casual look the real difference is not perceptible because of this ingenious device. This variation incidentally demonstrates *Plate I - III **Plate I –AB, II - AB ***Plate I -A 152

also the two prevalent schemes of distribution of the salas of diminishing number over the superposed tiers or talas one alternating and the other opposite on the vertical plane. Such play on the alternating and opposite arrangements of the salas and their numbers on each side of the talas between the end karnakutas anticipated well the later textual systems of classification and nomenclature not only according to the number of talas of the vimana but also to the number and the schematic arrangement of the salas over each of them and in relation to their positions in the talas below and above, factors that would all allow for a variety of permutations and combinations. The apt proportions of the hara components in this vimana and the scheme of their arrangement either way on the three sides on the one hand and on front on the other, add grace to this fine model of architectural composition when looked at from any of the four sides.

Rising from behind the hara of kutas and salas over the terrace of the uparitals is the neck like griva, of lesser dimensions, but octagonal on plan, over a short basal platform or pindi of similar plan.* The griva has eight corner pilasters on its eight angles carrying on top a beam like vajana with a valabhi above it that is decorated by a boldly carved bhuta frieze.

The bhuta series, in place of the more usual and appropriate hamsa frieze is interrupted at each corner by a rearing or rampant vyala springing from above the pilaster and butting its head against the lower edge, or ostha, of *Plate I - III 153

the cupola like sikhara, as if supporting the overhanging avalambana or eaves like brim.

The sikhara or ultimate roof is likewise, octagonal and wider at its base than the griva and forms a graceful dome of very proportionate base height dimensions and shape quite in agreement with the fact that it was the first part to be carved out from the top of the monolithic mass and as such its dimensions were to be the yardstick and the controlling factor for those of the parts below while its form shape and finish, alike were to be the ideal. It is indeed one of the most perfect and gracefully shaped

Pallava sikharas. From the centre of each one of the octant faces of this griva sikhara combination is thrown out, baywindow like, the mahanasika with the rectangular lower component projected from the griva face and the arched upper gable component projected from the sikhara face. The arched upper component is of the same pattern as the kudus below, but larger, and is essentially a floral torana issuing our of two makadra mouths, one on either side at the base, and terminating in a flat rhomboid or shovel shaped finial with a carved front into which the upper ends of the ornate floral festoons on either side terminate. In its total aspect, rectangular base (often with dwarf pilasters or nakula padas cantoning its two front corners) offset from the griva face and arched torana top projected, gable like, from the sikara flank, combined, the mahanasika is only a larger version of the similarly composed ksudra nasika on the 154

harantara flanks of the hara lines and the alpa – nasikas likewise projected form the faces of the individual kuta and sala forms. In fact these nasika forms are akin to the facades of apsidal forms of vimanas.

The ribs and avalambana of the adjoining sikara octants on either side of each mahanasika arch are shown as braced by embossed plates or the konapatta of patralata design, the scroll foliage spreading out on either side at the base of the adjacent octant and the slender creeper running up the curved rib to meet the others on top round and apical lotus base the mahapattika that is to carry the stupi. This is after the pattern of a metal sheet cupola (copper dome) of the original structural models that is made up of eight octants laid with proper curvature over the timber skeleton and ribs and braced at the joints over the ribs by such embossed brace plates.

On top where the ribs with patralata bracings converge is the mahapattika laid out as an expanding lotus with a socket at its center for the reception of the basal tenon of the stone stupi. The stupi or finial made as a separate piece and placed inside the socket, was found fallen from its position and is now placed on the ground near the north east corner of the adhisthana.*

The octagonal griva and sikara thought over a square body of tala harmyas would make this tritala vimana a typical Dravidian vimana. The incomplete state of its lowest and principal part, a defect that has been *Plate I - B 155

very much made up for and camouflaged by the perfect finish of the corner walls, their niches and sculptures, is apparently no detraction from its total aesthetic value. What has come to us today is still a magnificent example of a Pallava architectural form of the times with the full complement of sculpture.

The unusual design of a three storeyed upparikha with a peripteral mandapa enclosing a caturmukha central cella anticipates largely the nirali mandapa in the centre of a tank or teppakulam intended for the float festival in South Indian temples. It is a grahaprasada mandapa type. This suggestion is further strengthened by the design of the similar Vaikuntha perumal temple in Kanchi with a catustala square vimana of the anarpita type apparently caturmukha in its aditala with a parikha or moat like and sunk ambulatory round the base of its adhisthana which in turn is surrounded by the high plinth and pillared cloister of the malika mandapa outside as obtains round a tataka or water tank19.

4-1-8-5 Sculptures and the Iconography

The sculptures on this ratha are the largest in number that could be found on any of the rathas and are of great variety. The label inscriptions on its talas over the sculpture niches are mostly titles of Mamalla and some, perhaps, of his son Mahendra or his successors and are not in any way descriptive of the sculptures. The third tala which has been completed in all respects with a west-facing cella and a small open 156

mukhamandapa with a sflat torana entrance has on the real wall of the cella a bas relief representation of Somaskanda. The inscription atyantakamapallavesvara grham which appears once on the front lintel of the shrine entrance, and again on the eastern side beam of the same tala, indicates that this is the creation of Paramesvara, belongiong perhaps to the closing years of his reign when he, and after him his son Rajasimha, specialised in this sculptural conception of Siva.

4-1-8-6 Sculptures on the aditala

In marked contrast with the unfinished pillars and pilasters with vyala bases on the four sides of the aditala, the four stretches of the cantoning corner walls or langulakara bhitti have been dressed to the finish on all the eight exterior faces and rectangular niches are cut into them with almost life size bas reliefs of standing figures. Seven of these figures are divine and one depicts royalty. On the top of many of these niches are engraved in Pallava – grantha script the different birudas or titles of Narasimhavaraman Mamalla.

4-1-8-7 Westeren faced tala

On the front or western face of the aditala are two forms of Siva, one in each end niche. Both are four armed and standing. There are no inscriptions above these niches.

Niche 1. The sculpture of Siva, at the southern end* has both its upper arms hanging down, which is rather unusual. The right hand holds, *Plate IV - A 157

by the tail, a serpent which hangs down with a raised hood, and the left has a kamandalu. The lower right hand bent at the elbow holds some unidentifiable object, perhaps an unfinished lotus or rosary while the lower left is on his waist. This figure gives one the impression that it has three arms and the fourth arm on the left side is to be inferred only from the worn out remnants in the gap and the kamandalu. The skirt is worn round the waist without the kaccha and secured at the waist by a katibandha. The hem line of the skirt or antariya over the ankles is rather prominent. The additional vastra or uttariya is worn round the hip, with hanging tassels on the left and right sides of the legs.

The yajnopavita is of many standards and is worn in the upavita fashion, unlike the nivita yajnopavita found in the other divine sculptures.

There is a kanthika round the neck, small rings in the distended ear lobes and a jatamakuta on the head. The correct identification of this aspect of Siva is not quite clear. It may be a representation of keval

Chandrasekharamurti.

Niche 2. Siva in the northern niche* has a heavy jata bhara. He holds an aksamala and a mrga in the upper right and left hands while the lower right is in the abhaya hasta and the lower left is in the katyavalambita hasta. He stands in smabhanga, wears a kaupina like garment with akatibandha, a serpent coiling round the thighs with its raised hood on lift. He wears a vastra yajnopavita, without clasps, folded

*Plate IV- B 158

flat and worn in the nivita fashion. The wrists are adorned with kankanas.

The exact iconographic identification of this kapardin is not clear.

4-1-8-8 Northern faced tala

The two sculptures at the extremes of the northern face are

Harihara at the eastern end, with the inscription Sri Narasimha above it andBrahma at the western end. The latter is without an inscription over the top of the niche.

Niche 3. Brahma* also four – armed, stands in samabhanga. Three of his four faces are visible, the front and the left faces are finished but the right face remains unfinished. He wears a skirt like garment and kaccha of the same style as Harihara but the kaccha fold is held up a little so that the hem of this skirt at the ankle is rolled up. Another folded cloth is worn loosely round the thighs with a knot and tassel on the right hip in symmetry with the knot and tassel of the folded kaccha cloth on the left hip. The main skirt is secured at the waist by a katibandha. A flat folded cloth worn with one of its two ends in front of the left shoulder and the other behind it serves as a yajnopavita, worn in the nivita mode. He wears an udarabandha, kanthika, makara-kundalas, damakuta, kankanas and bahuvalayas. The upper right and left hands hold lotus buds, the lower right is in abhaya and the lower left on waist (kati).

Niche 4. Harihara** stands in samabhanga. He is four armed. His right half represents Siva and the left Vishnu. A pleated vastra is worn *Plate V - A **Plate V - B 159

round the waist like a skirt reaching down to the ankles and it is secured at the hip by a katibandha. Another long waist cloth, folded fanwise, is wound round the waist with the shorter end tucked in on the left and hanging down like a tassel upto the ankles. The longer end is brought in front of the waist and passed between the two legs to be taken backwards in kaccha fashion and tucked behind while the remaining length is brought round to the right side of the hip where it is tucked up again to hang as a symmetrical tassel. The folded vastra forming the kaccha is not pulled up sufficiently to roll up the hem of the skirt, as is the case in some other

Pallava sculptures.

Round the thighs is a loosely coiled serpent with its expanded hood and tail locking into a knot on Siva’s side and it is under this loose coil that the folded kaccha passes to reach the hem of the skirt. In addition to the katibandha and these vastras there is a loose chain or katisrnkhala (waist girdle). Round the belly is a flat udarabandha. The yajnopavita of rolled cloth with its two bell shaped clasps on the left is worn in the nivita fashion. There is a kanthika round the neck and makarakaundalas in both the dangling ear-lobes. Harihara wears a jatamakuta on the right half of the head with a terminal crescent and a kiritamakuta on the left. The arms are adorned with kankanas. The upper right hand holds the parasu and the lower right is in abhaya. The upper left is in position to hold a prayoga 160

cakra, which is shown separately outside the niche, and the lower left is on the waist.

4-1-8-9 Eastern faced tala

On the eastern face are Ardhanari-Siva at the northern end with the inscription Bhuvanabhajanah above and Skanda in the form of Gurumurti or Brahmas-asta at the southern end with the inscriptions prthvisarah and

Sri Bharah.

Niche 5. The image of Ardhanari* deserves special mention among these fine sculptures because of the perfect balance of the masculine features and weapons of the Siva half, the graceful poise, the anatomical details, and the sporitive lotus of the Parvati half and also because the

Parvati half, like the Siva half has two hands instead of the single hand usual in later times. The Siva half stands in samabhanga and the Parvati half in dvibhanga with a slightly raised hip. There is a katibandha indicating a close fitting garment which in the case of Siva half reaches upto the knee and in the Parvati half to the ankle, which is adorned by manjira (padakam or Silambu in Tamil). Below the katibandha is another folded cloth wound round the hips and hanging in tassels on either side.

In addition there is a loosely girdling serpent (cobra) round the thighs with its raised and spread hood springing up a little away to the right and with its tail end on the right of Sivs’s side. There is no udarabandha or yajnopavita for the Parvati half. Round the neck is a *Plate VI - A 161

kanthika with a circular pendant knotted behind. And with the two tasseled free ends of the string beyond the knot hanging over Parvati’s shoulder. In the right ear lobe is a makarakundala and in the left a patrakundala. The crown is a jatamakuta on the right and a karandamakuta on the left halves. The upper right hand holds the parasu appropriate to Siva and the lower right is in abhaya, both adorned by kankanas appropriate to men. The upper left holds a padma and is adorned by a helical valaya appropriate to a woman, while the lower left is hanging down in lambahasta.

Niche 6. Skanda as Gurumurti or Brahmasasta* is shown as a youth standing four armed in samabhanga. He wears a tight garment, kaupina- like, secured by a katibandha with another folded cloth wound round the waist and hanging on either side with a loop and tassel. He has an udarabandha, a sutra yajnopavita in the nivita fashion, a kanthika round the neck, patrakundlas in both the ears and a conical karndamakuta with a broad rounded turban like base or fillet. The upper tight hand bolds an aksamala, the upper left a padma, the lower right is in abhaya and the lower left on waist katyavalambita.

4-1-8-10 Southern faced tala

On the Southern face are an image of a standing with four armed

Siva in the niche at the eastern end, with the inscriptions atyantakamah and anekopayah above, and royal portrait (identified with king *Plate VI - B 162

Narasimha) in the niche at the western end, with the inscriptions Sri

Megah, Sri Trailo kyavardhanavidhih abvoe.

Niche 7. The sculpture of Siva* is standing in samabhanga with four arms, his drses including the katibandha and additional uttariya vastra, similar to that of Gurumurti. In addition there is a serpent girdling round the thighs with its raised hood on the right side. Over the udarabandha is worn a vastra yajanopavita in the nivita fashion. Siva wears a kanthika round the neck, makarakundalas in both the ears and a jatamakuta on the head. The upper right hand holls the parasu while the object held in the upper left, perhaps the pasa, is indistinct the lower right is on abhaya and lower left on waist.

Niche 8. The two armed sculpture considered to be a portrait on

Narasimhavarman-I** has all the royal accoutrements. He has a tall kiritamakuta, makarakundalas in both the ears, a rudraksa necklace, a vastra yajnopavita in the upavita fashion clasped over his left chest, udarabandha, and a katibandha securing the skirt or antariya which is converted into a kaccha by a second folded cloth taken down from the front of the waist round to the back, the loose ends going round the hips and ending in a loop and tasse on the left. An additional folded vastra or utariya is wound loosely round the hip with a broad loop in front of the thighs, secured over the right hip with looped knot and tassel ends. His

*Plate VII - A **Plate VII - B 163

right arm is held down, the hand in kataka holding something and the left is on the waist.

4-1-8-11 Sculptures on the second tala or madhya tala

The general scheme of the walls of the second storey is that they have in front of them pillars of the tetragonal type placed well in advance of the general wall surface, with faintlay marked plinths at the bottom that gradually merge into the shafts above. These four pairs of columns correspond to the four bays, the three intervening recesses marking the main wall face, all the seven having sculpture niches as obtains typically on each of the two lateral faces, while there are only four on the rear face and four including the dvarapalakas on the front face, respectively.

4-1-8-12 Western faced tala

The front end of the second tala on the western side has between its two extreme pairs of pilasters with enclosed sculptures, similar to those on the other three sides, ans interposed shrine frontage with another kind of pillars and pilasters, four in number and all of them intended to be lion based, a vital feature that has altered the general scheme of four bays and three recesses. Of these four columns, the two extreme ones are pilasters in antis designed to have four sided shafts and capital components above, and ther basla lions facing each other. The two inner pillars with the lions

(not cut fully) facing forward was to have octagonal shafts and similar components over them and capitals on all four without the phalaka and 164

Pali. These pillars have not been finished. Behind these pillars and pilasters a shrine chamber bas been excavated to a certain depth and left unfinished. This shrine chamber would thus bave had three entrances when finished as described earlier.

In front of this shrine entrance of this tala is additionally the mukhamandapa, its projection facilitated by thie similasr mukhamandapa projection below in fornt of the first or adi tala. It is open on all three sides with its prastars carried over two pillars, placed one at either extreme with squatting lion bases, the lions facing North - West and South - West.

On either side of the pillared facade of the shrine proper and on the inside of the penultimate polasters of either extreme, which are the inner ones of the paired pilasters of either extreme bay that is similar to those of the three other main sides is a narrow wall space into which is cut a niche.

Niches 9-10. In the northern niche, adjoining the shrine entrance, is the figure of a dvarapalakas* almost completed, while in the southern niche, the stone has been roughly blocked out for the figure of his conunterpart, but the carving has not even commenced.** The apparent bicornuate head of the northern dvarapalakas which really mark the two curved outer prongs of a trisula or trident with the third central straight prong merging into the head gear, would indicate him as the ayudha purusa here suladeva or astradeva and alswo that the shrine was intended *Plate VIII - B **Plate VIII - A 165

to be dedicated to Siva. The completed torso of the northern dvarapalakas has a faint upavita mode yajnopavita.

Niche 11. The southern extreme niche provided by the paired pilasters has a graceful figure of a woman* carrying a pot of water or some offering. Her posture suggests that she is walking towards the shrine. She is in tribhanga, and adorned by a karandamakuta, patrakundalas, a hara, anklets, and bracelets. There is no kucabandha and the katibandha secures a diaphanous skirt tucked between the legs with and additional folded vastra knotted on the right and hanging in tassels. She holds up the vessel in her left hand and her right bent inwards is in kataka.

Niche 12. At the northern extremity is a four armed image of Siva as kankalamurti** on the beam over the head of the kankalamurti and below it are the two birudas satyaparakramah and paravarah. Kankalamurti is in slight profile, head turned front and adorned by a jatamakuta with a skull and cresent on top. He wears patrakundala in his right ear, a small ring in his left ear, a kanthika ajina yjnopavita and a katibandha securing a kaupina like garment with an additional vastra thrown loosely round the waist and knotted on the left. He holds a coiled pasa in the upper right hand and a camara in the upper lift. In the lower right he holks the danda with the mayura piccha and pennon on top slant across the shoulder, while the lower left holds kapala20.

*Plate IX - A **Plate IX -B 166

4-1-8-13 Northern faced tala

Niche 13. On the northern wall of this tala there are seven niches.

Between the two pilasters in the bhadra niche at the western end is Siva as

Vinadhara (Siva Ardhanari)* and over him the three labels Nayana manoharah, vamah and atimanah are inscribed. Vinadhara is four armed and stands in tribhanga, the upper right is in katakamukha hasta suggesting tuning of a stringed instrument, the lower right and upper left hold the bottom and top of the vina a cross the chest, with the three middle fingers bent and the thumb and little finger outstretched in the gesture of stopping and strumming the strings. The lower left hand is in lamba. It is either hamsapaksa hasta or is holding something perhaps a pustaka, with the little finger stretched out. He has a jatamakuta with a skull and cresent, patrakundala in the right and small kundalas in the left ear lobes, a kanthaika a nivita yajnopavita of folded cloth, udarabandha and a katibandha securing the light garment reaching up to the knees. The additional vastra is thrown round the thighs with a knot at the left. He wears padaraksas. The feminine pose of the left half and the tell tale breast on that side below the pot of the vina also suggest the Ardhanari aspect.

Niche 14. Next to him in the wall niche is four armed Siva with dancing attendant** having a jatabhara on his head, perhaps Tandu. Siva is half turned towards the dancing pupil. While Siva holds the parasu and trisula in the upper right and left arms, his lower right is on the wist and *Plate X - A **Plate X - B 167

the left placed against the chest in the cinmudra like hamsahasya pose suggesting his exposition of the art to his disciple and the closeness of the mudra hand to the chest further suggesting his mastery in the art. His head dress is peculiar, being a flat jatabhara shaped like a turban formed by the tresses wound round the head with a central circular crst jewel.

The right ear lobe is empty while in the left there is a patrakundala. There is a kanthika with a rudrakksa bead round the neck and the jivita- jajnopatita is a folded cloth worn in the yogavastra fashion.

The katibandha secures a short kaupina like garment reaching up to the middle of the thighs. The additional rolled vastra is wound loosely round the things. Tandu is in a dancing pose with the right leg half bent at the knee or in the half sitting posture and the left bent knee raised upto the thigh level, the sole turned forward by the twist of the ankle suggesting kunchita. His right arm is slightly bent at the elbow, and the extended palm faces the ground in thecentura hastamudra suggesting forward stepping, while the left is in lola confirming the forward gait. His vastra yajnopavita is worn in the nivita fashion.

His pleated skirt is held at the waist by a katibandha with a clasp through which the two ends pass and hand down. Round the neck is a kanthika. The ear lobes are without and ornament. His raised left foot has a jingling anklet (manjira or kalal befitting a dancer. 168

Niche 15. In the adjacent pilaster or bay niche to its east is Siva and his favourite devotee Chandesa* in a asubmissive pose. Siva is embracing him. Over these are the birudas kamalalitah, Ameyamayah and

Sakalakalyanah. Siva four armed is in semi profile turning towards

Chandesa. In the upper right he holds a camara and in the upper left he holds a serpent by its tail. The lower right is on waist the lower left thrown round the shoulders of chandesa in embrace. His jatamakuta shows on top a crescent, the left ear lobe has a patrakundala and the right none. He has a kanthika round the neck and a nivita yajnopavita of vastra. The kaupina like short garment, which hardly reaches any further beyond the upper region of the thighs (urudhagna), is held by a katibadha with a central clasp through which the two ends are run to hang down in short tassels.

The additional rolled vastra wound round the thig is knotted on the right. His left leg is bent at the knee and crossed behind the right one which rests on the ground and is supported on the toes. Candesa stands in bhanga with a forward stoop, his right arm is folded in front of the chest and the fingers are in the act of reaching upto close the mouth. The left arm is folded across and supports the bent right elbow, the pose in both hands indicating utter submission or dasabhava.

He wears a heavy jatabhara, parted in the middle and falling over either side of the face with a small conical top knot. In both the ears are patrakundalas and round the neck a hara. The katibandha binds a tight- *Plate XI - A 169

fitting kaupina like garment which is covered up by the two loops of the additional vastra going round the thighs and knotted on the left. Like Siva he wears kankanas and bahuvalayas21.

Niche 16. In the central wall niches, which is a little more deeply sunk, is four armed Siva as Gangadhara* carrying Ganga, depicted as a woman, in his upper left hand. His upper right hand carries an aksamala, the lower right is in mustihasta, suggesting an act of stabilization, the lower placed against his chest, plam upwards in pataka suggesting anugraha. He is in tribhang with the left leg planted straight, right bent at the knee stepping on a small platform. He wears a jatamakuta without cresent or skull. Round the neck is a kanthika and the yajnopavita of folded cloth is worn in upavita mode. His skirt like pleated garment, reaching up to the ankles, is held by a katibandha at the waist. Another folded cloth taken round between the legs and knotted on the side forms the kanccha in addition to the two loose loops knotted on the left. Ganga is shown as kneeling on the upper right palm of Siva with her hands in anjali22.

Niche 17. The pilaster or bay niche to its east has Vishnu** four armed, carrying prayoga cakra in upper right and sankha in the upper left, which is behind the head of a half kneeling Garuda. The lower left is placed over garuda’s shoulder, as if to mount on him in the same way as

Siva is shown as purring his hand round his devotee or vahana in a similar panel on the southern wall.*** The lower right hand is in kataka. He has a *Plate XI - B *Plate XI - B ***Plate XVI - C 170

tall kiritamakuta with a small sirascakra behind. There are makara kundalas in both the dangling ear lobes with studs above. The haras are of beads and pearls. The chord like yajnopavita is worn in the nivita fashion with a clasp over the left chest.

The arms are adorned with kankanas and bahuvalayas. Below the udarabandha there is a katibandha holding thepleated skirt like garment, reaching up to the ankles, while an additional folded vastra passing form the front to the rear between the legs froms the kaccha, its loose ends tied round the waist and knotted on the left with one of the ends loosely hanging in front of the thighs. Garuds is shown as emerging from behind

Vishnu with his lift palm resting on his bent left knee, as if prepared to bear the weight of Vishnu when he mounts, the right holding his mouth by the two fingers in abject submission (bhrtyabhava).

He wears a karandamakuta over a jatabhara falling on either sede of the face over the large patrakundalas adorning his ears. His chordlike yajnopavita is worn in the upavita fashion and behind his hands are shown the wings. Like Vishnu he wears kankanas and bahuvalayas and his garment reaches up to the thighs in kaupina fashion with katibandha at the waist. Over this niche are inscribed the birudas Sri Narasimhah, Bhuvana bhajanah, Sri Meghah Apratihatasasanah.

Niche 18. To the east of the Vishnu panel in the wall niche is Siva as

Kalari* dancing on Kala, in the catura pose, bent right leg planted and bent *Plate XII - A 171

left leg raised. Siva is four-armed, the upper right in mrgasira, upper left in trisulahasta, both in poses suggestive of the appropriate objects to be held the lower right holding a parasu (the top of the weapon broken) and lower left pointing in sucihasta towards Kaka below. The jatamakuta shows a large skull in front. The right ear lobe is empty while the left has a patrakundala. There is hara of beads round the neck and a rudraksa yajnopavita worn in the upavita fashion. The katibandha secures a garment worn like a kaupina reaching up to the knees with a loose vastra round the highs, knotted on the left. The arms are adorned by kankanas and bahuvalayas. Kala, who is shown as fallen with bent knees and face turned up towards Siva, in supplication, has a matted jatabhara, patrakundalas in the ears, beads round his neck and a yajnopavita in the upavita fashion. He is shown with two lateral tusks (damustra) in the mouth.

Niche 19. In the extreme pilaster or bhadra niche at the eastern end is Siva standing in front of a bull and leaning affectionately on it as

Vrsabhantikamurti* and on top of this are inscribed the birudas sthirabhaktih, madanabhiramah and vidhi. Vrsabhantika is standing in graceful tribhanga, left leg planted straight, right slightly bent and crossed over on front with the toes resting on the left foot. The kaupina like garment is fastened round the waist by a katibandha. In addition there is a loosely coiled serpent round the waist with its raised hood on the left. The *Plate XII - B 172

folded vastra yajnopavita is in the upavita mode. Round the neck is a kanthika with a phalaka in front. The right ear wears a small stud the left ear lobe is filled by a patrakundala. The tresses of the jata are wound round the head like a broad turban with a circular crest jewel on top. He is four armed and holds in the upper right a damaru, in this upper left pasa.

The lower right is affectionately resting by the elbow on the hump of the bull, the hand caressing the nape of its drooping head. The lower left is held with palm up, third finger and thumb bent, in what would apperar to be mayurahasta against the hip.

4-1-8-14 Second eastern faced tala

On the eastern side some wall space has been obscured by the stairs block leading up to the tala above. This is a double sopana or flight of stairs, with seven steps on each wing, a significant number indicating saptapadi, the lowermost a candrasila, guarded both inside and our by parapets with copings in the form of a proboscis issuing form a makara mouth and coiled at the tip below. The landing on top is guarded in front by a more or less semicircular parapet with an inscription reading

Mahamalla23 on its outside coping. This stair block leaves room only for two full exposed wings of the wall one on either side of the sopana show the end pair of bay panels one each on either extreme of the wings of the eastern wall. These two fully pilasters of that wing entirety with the enclosed niche, while only the top of the outer pilaster of the penultimate 173

pairs on the respective wing is rendered visible. The extreme pilaster or bay niche on the northern side as well as the wall niche to its south depict two devotees.

Niche 20. The outer figure* on the North wing carries in his left hand and over his left shoulder a staff with its lower end passing through a bulbous base and a free tip joined to the wall by a connective to obviate breaking off and depicting an ektar Vina or Yal indicating the holder to be a bard (panan) or Yal panan or stavaka. His right hand, bent at the elbow, points towards the centre of the wall in the pose of stava or singing hymns in praise of God. His left hand is holding the instrument, the fingers strumming it at the same time for the sruti or drone. He wears a loin cloth or kaupina and has matted hair (jata) suggesting that he is of the ascetic class. The birudas inscribed above his niche are Anupamah and Nayankurah.

Niche 21. The inner one on the north wing** carries a basket of offerings over his right shoulder supported by his right hand and a crook like temple key (tiravu kucci) in his left suggesting that he is a temple servant and cook svayampaki. He has a top knot, yajnopavita in upavitamode and wears a vastra reaching upto the ankles secured by a katibandha on the waist.

Niche 22. On the south wing of the wall in the inner niche is another

Priest*** the paricaraka, bearded, with a jatabhara over his head, carrying *Plate XIII - A **Plate XIII - B ***Plate XIV - A 174

in his right hand a ghanta or bell which he holds by its top handle and is ringing by tossing it, while the other hand is extended in adoration or stava towards the supposed shrine somewhere at the cente. His yajnopavita is also in the upavita mode.

Niches 23. In the extreme pilaster niche on the south on the eastern face is the principal priest (arcaka)* carrying a long basket of flowers

(puspaputa) in his left hand and picking themout with the fingers of his right hand as if performing arcan. He has an almost clean shaven head with a small lock of hair stuck up on top (purvasikha) representing a priest or

Saivacarya.

His upavita yajnopavita and vastra with central kaccha reaching to the ankles, kanthika round the neck, and the dangling ear lobes with kundalas confirm the identification. The birudas inscribed over this sculpture niche are vamah and paravarah.

4-1-8-16 Second tala southern face

There are again seven sculptures on this face, four in the bhadra niches and therein the recess niches.

Niche 24. On the southern side of this tala the pilaster or bhadar niche on the extreme east has a form of four armed and standing Siva.**

He is carrying a rosary and camara in the upper two arms, the lower right is in kartari and the lower left is on the waist katyavalambita. He has a jatamakuta, patrakundala in the right ear and the left is unadorned. There

*Plate XIV - B **Plate XV - A 175

is a hara round the neck, a katibandha securing a kaupinalike garment, the additional loose vastra round the thigh being knotted on the right. The birudas inscribed over this sculpture niche are vidhih and vibhrantah.

Niche 25. In the wall panel to its west is shown Siva, four armed, as

Andhakasurasamharamurti* with Andhaka groveling under his feet. Siva stands alidha like in tribhanga, with his legs astride, the right leg behind is placed on Andhaka’s back the left leg kept apart and bent at the knee. His tight garment is secured by a katibandha, the two ends passing through a clasp and hanging down in front. The additional loose folded vastra wound round the hips is knotted on the right.

His sutra yajnopavita is worn in the upavita fashion. There is a hara round his neck, a patrakundala in the right ear and a makarakundala in the danling left ear, a jatamakuta on the head with skull and crescent complete. The arms are adorned by bracelets and bahuvalayas. The upper right holds a parasu, the upper left a serpent, the lower right (slightly broken) suggests tarjani or chastisement, while the lower left holds the trisula just below the trident end, while the shaft end disappears behind

Andhaka. The reversed position of the weapon (trisula) suggests discomfiture of Andhaka even after a wrestling bout, the use of the weapon being needless. Andhaka wears a jatabhara patrakundalas, beaded rudraksas, yajnopavita in upavita and has curved side tusks, showing of his mouth24. *Plate XV - B 176

Niche 26. The pilaster or bay niche to its west shows again four armed Siva as Vinadhara* standing with left leg crossed over and body leaning left, with his upper left hand resting on the head of a standing gana on that side while the lowe left and the lower right hold the top and bottom of a danda like vina across the chest, the upper right holding a damaru. He has a heavy jatabhara, which is parted in the middle with a little top knot and hides the ear region on either side of the face. The left protruding eat lobe has a patrakundala and the right none. He has a hara round the neck, a tight kaupina like garment with a katibandha and a loosely coiled serpent round the thighs with its raised hood on the right.

He stands with a lean to the left in tribhanga, his left leg crossed in front of the right, toe resting on the ground. The gana is a dwarf with a pot belly and wears patrakundalas his right hand is held up in a pose which suggests singing or stava and his left is in kati. Neither Siva nor the gana is invested with yajnopavita the birudas inscribed over this niche are

Srinidhih and Niruttarah.

Niche 27. The central wall niche contains a standing figure of

Vishnu.** He is four armed and stands in samabhanga. He has a cakra and sankha in the upper right and left hands and the lower hands are in abhaya and kati. He has a tall kiritamakuta makarakundalas in both the ears, a hara round the neck and a chordlike yajnopavita in the normal upavita fashion. His pleated skirt reaches the ankles and has its two ends gathered *Plate XVI - A **Plate XVI - B 177

in folds, tucked in front, and secured by a katibandha of folded cloth with its two short ends passing through a central clasp. A second folded cloth tied round the waist has one of its long ends taken from behind between the legs and tucked in front thus gathering up the hem of the main garment. The other end is loosely taken round the thighs in two rounds, both of which are knotted on either side with a hanging loop and tassel.

Niche 28. In the pilaster or bhadar niche to the west of this central

Vishnu niche is Siva* standing and resting against the half kneeling human form of Nandi** who is in the same posture of obedience as Garuda in the

Vishnu niche*** on the northern wall. Siva is four armed the upper right holds an aksamala, the upper left a serpent, the lower right is in kataka and the elbow of the lower left rests on the right shoulder of kneeling Nandi.

He stands in tribhanga with the right leg planted straight and the left bent and crossed behind, toes touching the ground. He has a jatabhara drooping down on either side of the face, patrakundala in the right ear and a small ring shaped kundala in the left. He wears a necklace of beads and his yajnopavita is a vastra worn in upavita fashion. His kaupina like garment is secred by a katibandha whit an additional folded vasta loosely wornround the waist. Nandi, wearing karnadamakuta over a jatabhara, emerges from behind with his left knee bent, right arm holding the mouth in submission (bhrtya bhava) and the left fore arm across the chest with elbow planted on bent left knee as if in support of the leaning weight of the

*Plate XVI - C **Plate XVI -C ***Plate XI - C 178

God. He wears patrakundalas, a hara, kandanas and bahuvalayas and looks up towards the tilted head of Siva as if waithig for his commands and ready for his mounting (bhrtya bhadrah). On top inscribed on the niche lintel are the birudas Nayanamanoharah,

Sarvato bhadrah.

Niche 29. In the wall niche to its west is Krishna two armed* trampling kaliya, represented by a human torso with a serpent tail and with the head shaded by a three headed serpent hood. Krishna is two armed and is depicted as a young boy with kesabandha and patrakundalas. He has a hara round his neck and a yajnopavita in the upavita mode. The garment is a kaupina with a katibandha, the additional kativastra going round the thighs. He wears large kankanas and has his left foot planted straight behind kaliya’s hoods, on his nape, while with the bent right foot he tramples upon Kaliya’s writhig body. His two hands hold up the tail.

Niche 30. In the extreme western bhadra panel is another sculpture of Siva** standing in tribhanga with a forward lean of the body. He is four armed and over the sculpture on the niche linted there is a single biruda which reads lalitah. Siva holds a parasu in the lower right hand and the lower left is on the waist. The upper right and left hands are in kataka and kartari poses suggestive of appropriate weapons held. There is skull in front of his jatamakuta, a patrakundala in his right ear lobe and a small

*Plate XVIII - A **Plate XVII - B 179

stud in the upper part of the left ear. He wears a beaded necklace, an udarabandha and a katibandha which holds in place the kaupina like garment covering the thighs. The additional folded vastra is worn loosely round the thighs and knotted on either side.

4-1-8-16 Sculpture on the third tala

Behind the hara of kutas and salas and surrounded by the circumambulatory rises the wall of the third tala. Here too, the pilasters are set in advance of the walls resulting in three bays and two recesses each on the north, east and west faces which are all sculptured niches, while the arrangement is altered on the western face. On this face is to be found a short label inscription reading Atyantakama Pallavesvaragrham.

Through the western side at its middle is cut a rectangular opening which leads into a large excavated cella inside, of more or less the appropriate width in conformity with the outer plan of the shrine, but excavated to about half the necessary depth, thus resulting in a rectangular cell.

Niche31 On the back wall of this cell which thus coincides with the median North South axial line (madhyasutra) is cut a very beautiful group in three panels of which the central one depicts Somaskanda* with two flying ganas one at either top corner. This is a remarkable sculpture of great interest. The principal deities are Siva and Uma with baby Skanda in between them and this grouping constitute the only seated sculptures in *Plate XVIII - A 180

the whole seres of icons found on the three talas of the ratha. Siva is seated on the proper right half of a rather plain oblong bhadrapitha pedestal, in ardhaparyanka, facing full front, his right leg hanging in front of the seat, toes touching the ground, while the left is tucked up and folded across over the seat. He is four armed the upper right and left in kataka mudra in position to hold appropriate emblems, which are, however, absent. His lower right arm is bent at the elbow, fore-arm held a little slant, close to and in front of the right chest, the hand in the cinmudra or vyakhya pose suggesting an exposition, discourse or narration of some theme, while the left arm is held down with a bend at the elbow and the hand resting with a loose grip on the left thigh in musti hasta pose.

While there are kankanas or wristlets on the arms, there is no ornament on the leg such as an anklet. He wears a vastra that is urudhagna or reaching up to the thighs, secured at the waist by a katibandha. His vastra yajnopavita is worn in the normal upavita fashion going under the right arm. The head is a little tiltede down and slightly turned left towards Uma. The ears are prominently lobed with makarakundalas in them, resting on either shoulder, and the head is adorned by a jatamakuta. Uma seared on his left, over the left half of the same seat, has her left side alone visible and with her back abutting on the side wall of the niche. She is thus in full profile with her left side alone exposed as she is fully facing Siva. Her head is markedly tilted down with a 181

slight turn to the left and her right ear nearer to Siva is further turned towards him by the four-finger of her right hand as if trying to listen to his words in rapt attention and not willing to miss anything of what Siva says.

Though in profile, she is also seated in the ardhaparyan kasana, her left leg dangling down in front of the seat with the foot much above ground, while the right leg is folded at the knee and is resting squarely on the seat. This is hidden by the little child-Skanda, who sits on her lap, covering her right thigh and foot. She is two armed and holds Skanda seated on her lap, by the left hand while the right is applied to the right ear in the attitude of straining it for better hearing. Her vastra is rather diaphanous, reachind up to the ankles, which as the dangling left leg shows, are adorned by anklets or manjiras.

She wears kankanas and valayas on both the wrists and an armlet over the elbow. She no kucabandha or yajnopavita but wears a hara round the neck. Her lobed ears sport kundalas, while the tresses are done up on top of the head, dhammilla fashion, as a tall crown. Skand wears a small karandamakuta and is shown as if clamouring for something (hence

Uma’s need for straining her ears) reaching out his chubby hands quite like a baby, his right hand touching the left fore arm of Siva in the act.

The whole depicts a natural and intimate family grouping. Two ganas, a male and a female, are shown in the flying posture over the two top corners above Siva and Uma respectively. Their inner hands are 182

raised in stave or adoration while the other hand of the gana over Siva holds something, not clear that of the feminine gana over Uma is placed on the chest. Vishnu and Brahma are shown as standing inside separate panels one on either side, north and south. Both are in tribhanga facing almost front, four armed their left and right upper arms, respectively (that are nearer to the central Somaskanda group), held up in stava or attitude of praise, the other upper holding the symbols appropriate. The lower arms towards the central group right of Vishnu and left of Brahma, are held with palm down and facing front pataka like. The other lower hand in either case is placed on the hip in kati. Their yajnopavitas are in upavita and their skirts reach up to the andkle with a kaccha fold between the legs and the hem rolled up. There are other kativastras or uttariyas and ornaments as found elsewhere on the Vishnu and Brahma sculptures on this ratha. Vishnu has a kiritamakuta and Brahma a jatamakuta.

This sculpture group that is more natural and less tending towards the conventional must have been carved in a period subsequent to that of

Mamalla that is later on in the time of Paramesvaravarman when the excavation of the sanctum was taken up and completed and subsequent worship in at least this top shrine of this triple-celled vimana, commenced.

On the floor of the shrine is a square mortice hole (ten inches square) which perhaps accommodated a linga, of a later data. The entrance to the shrine is cut between the two paired pilasters at the centre of the western 183

side the pilasters thus forming the door frame of the doorway which otherwise has neither jambs nor lintel nor sill.

Niches 32-33 On either side in the wall niches are two dvarapalakas. Whereas the southern one* almost facing front, raises his right hand in the kataka pose, with the left hand on waist and the club on his right rests on the wall behind, the northern one** is in half profile, resting both his hands on a club. Though their poses are different, both of them wear the same ornaments and dress, namely karandamakuta over the jatabhara, patrakundalas, a hara, a twisted yajnopavita, an udarabandha and a katibandha securing the kaupina like garment reaching up to the thighs with a loosely coiled additional vastra round the thighs.

On the top of the two dvarapalakas niches are two large gana like figures supporting thin corbels with taranga flutings. They are pot bellied, wear yajnopavita and each of them holds a small pot in both the hands.

Niches 34-35 The end pilaster niches on either side of this face show two devotees*** identical in all respects with one hand on waist, and the other holding a flower in adoration. Each of the pair has a karandamakuta over the jatabhara partially hiding either side of the face, patrakundalas in the ears a hara, an udarabandha and a katibandha, the latter securing the kaupina like vastea reaching above the knees, the additional vastra folded and loosely coiled round the thighs and knotted on the sides. They both wear kankanas and bahuvalayas. While the

*Plate XIX - A **Plate XIX - B ***Plate XX – A, B 184

yajnopavita in the southern figure* worn in the normal upavita fashion chord like, the yajnopavita worn in the nivita fashion by the northern figure** is a sutra yajnopavita knotted in front of the left chest in tassels.

4-1-8-17 Thired tala north face

Niche 36 On the northern wall there are three bay and two recess niches. The central projected niche contains Candra*** standing in samabhanga. He is two-armed the right holds a lotus the left is on the waist he has a circular halo behind the crown. Candra wears the characteristic channavira in addition to a kiritamakuta, makarakundalas, a kanthika, an udarabandha, a katibandha securing a closely fitting kaupina–like garment

(urudhagna) with a folded vatra or uttariya wound in two loops round the thighs and knotted with a loop and tassel on either side. Candra as Soma can be identified because of the sculpture’s location on the northern side of the vimana and the style of the vastra which resembles many of the Siva figures in contrast to the Surya from on the eastern face of the same tala, in which the garment is worn in the fashion of many of the Vishnu forms. His chord like vastra yajnopavita is worn in the nivita.

Niches 37-38 On either side of him in the wall niches and in the projected pilaster niches are two pairs of devotees**** of these the inner two wear jatamakutas and each sports a flower in his inner hand. The western one holds the flower by his right hand at the level of his chest and has his outer or left hand on the waist. The outer or right hand of the *Plate XX – A **Plate XX - B ***Plate XXI - B ****Plate X XI- A,C 185

person on the east is placed in kataka against his chest holding another flower. They wear haras and katibandhas securing skirts reaching up to the ankles with another folded cloth wound round the hip and taken forward between the legs forming the kaccha, described earlier as the characteristic mode for Vishnu forms. The one on the east* wears a vastra yajnopavita in the upavita fashion. While the other** wears a sutra yajnopavita in the nivita fashion. This is perhaps for breaking the symmetry and to suggest difference in identity.

Niches 39-40 The two extreme bay niche figures stand facing front.

The inner (right) hand of the western figure*** is in a suci-like or mayura hasta post with the first two fingers stretched or pointing out, while the inner (left) hand of the eatern one**** holds a flower in kataka. The outer hands of both are on the waist. Otherwise they more or less resemble the two figures occupying the two extreme niches of the western side. The devotee on the west end has a nivita yajnopavita while on the east has it in upavita.

4-1-8-18 Thired tala eastern face

Niche 41 The eastern side too has five sculpture niches, three in the bhadra and two in the salilantara sections. In the cenral projected niche is shown a Sculpture of Surya***** identified so because of its location on the eastern side, appropriate to Surya, and in his having a circular prabhamandala behind his head. His nether garments are worn as a skirt, *Plate XXI -C **Plate XXI - C ***Plate XXII- B ****Plate XXII - B

*****Plate XXIII -B 186

pleated, with a central kaccha and secured at the waist by a katibandha.

The hem of the garment is rolled up as in the other sculptures (particularly the Vishnu forms) described above. Otherwise, this Surya sculpture is identical with the Candra on the north wall, but slimmer. Above him on the niche lintel are the inscriptions Sri Atyantakama Pallavesvaragrham.

Niches 42-43 On either side in the two wall panels are shown the same kind of devotees as on the northern side, these sculptures in the east being more or less a repetition of theose on the north. The devotee immediately to the north of the Surya niche* holds out his inner (right) hand towards Surya with a flower and his left (outer) hand carries another flower and is placed against his chest. His counterpart to the south of the

Surya niche** has his inner (left) hand on the waist, while the outer (right) hand carries a nilotpala and is placed against his chest. The same difference is noted in the yajnopavita modes.

Niches 44-45 The devotee on the northern extreme*** with upavita yajnopavita has his inner hand towards the central niche in pataka, palm open while his outer or left hand is on the waist. His counterpart at the southern extreme with novita yajnopavita**** holds something (not quite clear) in the katakahasta of his lieft or inner hand, while the right hand is placed on the waist in symmetry with his counterpart.

*Plate XXIII - A **Plate XXIII – C ***Plate XXIV – A

****Plate XXIV - B 187

4-1-8-19 Thired tala southern face

Niche 46 This face again, like those of the north and east, contains five niches, three in the bays and two in the recesses in between. On the south side in the central panel is shown Siva* wearing a large jatabhara.

He is four armed the upper tight hand is in cinmudra, the upper left in kapitta hasta mudra, the lower right in abhaya and left in kataka or musti.

He stands in a pose of contemplation with his right leg slightly raised suggesting a standing from of Dakshinamurti. His two ears are without ornaments except for two small studs on the top of the lobes. There is a hara round the neck and the vastra- yajnopavita is worn in the upavita fashion. His katibandha secres a kaupina like garment and in addition there is a strap of deer skin or ajinapatta passing round the thighs. He wears valayas in the wrists. Such standing forms of Dakshinamurti are rather rare, except for the Vinadhara form. The kataka like poses, oinmudra and kapitta or tamracuda hasta of the two upper arms held up almost at the same level are clearly not suggestive of the pose which can hold the vina.

Niches 47-48 On either of his sides and occupying the two wall niches are two devotees holding a flower, each, in their inner hands right in the case of the eastern** and left in the case of the western devotee*** the other hand being on the waist in bothe cases. Both have uttariyas over their left shoulders as yajnopavitas – upavita in the case of the western one *Plate XXIV - B **Pate XXV - C ***Plate XXV - C 188

and nivita in the case of the eastern one. They wear long skirt-like garments reaching the ankles, the ends are gathered up in folds and tucked in front and secured by the katibandha, the kaccha being formed by another folded cloth wound round the waist and taken forward between the legs and tucked on either side of the hip, thus lightly rolling up the hem of the skirt. The head dress of the eastern figure is a jatabandha simulating a short cylindrical cap –like makuta while his counterpart has his long tresses of matted locks wound round the head turban like and secured by strings of bead or rudraksa.

Niches 49-50. The extreme pilaster niches on either side contain two other sculptures of devotee. The one at the eastern end* faces front and wears crown. His right hand is in kataka and the left katyavlambita.

His yajnopavita is worn in upavita fashion. The one at the western end** is in semi profile as if walking round the south west corner to the shrine entrance in front on the west. He carries a flower in his right hand, and his left is on the waist. His yajnopavita is in the nivita mode. The former wears a kiritamakuta and the latter a karandamakuta. The devotee at the eastern extreme has his right ear lobe extended and adorned with a few kundalas dangling over his right shoulder, but the left ear lobe is not so extended. His counterpart at the western extreme has an enormous patrakundala in his left ear the right one partially hidden, has small kundalas. In other respects they are more or less similar.

*Plate XXVI - A **Plate XXVI - B 189

The characteristic arrangement of the sculptures in the five niches of each of the three sides of the third tala, north east and south with a central divine figure flanked by two pairs of devotees or attendants recalls the scheme on the three sides of the aditala of the Arjuna ratha. Of these fifteen sculptures on the three walls and four more on the western face

(excluding the Somaskanda group inside the shrine) the surya icon, having more resemblances in form and features with the unfinished dvarapalakas to the north of the shrine entrance in the madhyatala, stand apart from the rest which form a class by themselves.

4-2 Mandapas

Caves excavated in hill scarps and used as temples, in some cases.

They are called mandapas. Mandapas in Tamil mandapam or canopies.

4-2-1 Varaha mandapam

This is a fine completed architecture which lies besides the Arjuna penance. The entrance has two pillars engraved with two horned lion bases, and a cell protected by two gate keekpers. There are four striking bas reliefs, the northern one with Lord Vishnu (Varaha) Varaha (the mighty boar) standing at one foot on top of Naga, the snake king. He is rescuing Prithvi, the Goddess earth from the primordial ocean. Varaha triumphed in his attempt and he holds the disce with his upper hands and lower hands holding prithivi who is seated on his knees. 190

The southern wall portrays Lord Vishnu as Vamana (a small figured

Brahmin). He (Vamana) approaches empower Bail, a tyrant, requesting him to grant a land which will enable him to cover three steps. Empower

Bail grants him the wish and Vamana covers the earth with one step, the

Heavens with the second and the third on Bali’s head with Bali’s permission. Vamana pushed Bali to the underworld.

Lord Vishnu is portrayed with his cosmic from with eight hands and light legs. Along with Vishnu, stand Lord Brahma, Lord Siva, the Sun and the Moon. The eastern wall portrays Goddess Lakshmi with two maidens and two Elephants powering water on the head which are portrayed on the backdrop. The other side has the carving of Goddess Durga standing on a lotus flower. She is standing under the shade of a royal umbrella with her four hands. This is exactly portrayed to that of Draupadi ratha.

This is a small rock - cut mandapam featuring four panels of fine liking door keepers and four interesting bas – relief. There is an oblong bathing tank in front with steps leading down to where the water must once have been. The Varada panel on the northern wall displays the grand figure of Vishnu after he emerged from sea where he had rescued Goddess

Earth from a demon. The Goddess, seated on one of his knees, looks with pride as the Lord holds her gently, the right hand on her back and the left holding her low leg. In his two hands the disc and the conch van are seen. 191

He is shown in another portrayal of one of Vishnu's ten incarnations, on the southern wall, as the Vamana who grew to the size of an all pervading giant in order to suppress the tyrannical ruler Bali,

known also as Mahabali. But to infer that the town derived its name

Mahabalipuram from this rules, which was reported to have held sway over this area, is not warranted as Bali belongs to legend and mythology25.

The Lord came to him as a dwarfish Brahmin asking for three feet of land. When the king bali agreed, the dwarf turned into a figure so colossal as to be able to measure the earth with one foot and the heaven with another. But when he appeared not to know what to do for the third foot of land, the puzzled Mahabalipuram bowed low and offered his head for his visitor to place his foot upon. Where upon the dwarf obliged and pushed him into the neither world, ridding the earth of a tyrant with his eight hands thrust out and his left leg stretched upwards, Vishnu revealed his mighty form before the final act of humbling Bali26. Brahma and Siva and also the Sun and Moon are there in this panel.

On one side of the eastern wall is a fine image of Lakshmi sitting on a lotus. Two Elephants are spraying water over her with their trunks form a picturesque addition to the four female attendants waiting upon the

Goddess. On another side of the wall stands Durga on a lotus flower protected by a royal umbrella. She has four arms and the figure is similar to that in the Draupadi ratha. Beyond this cave further south, is the 192

unfinished Royala gopuram dating from the Vijayanagar period and a

Siva temple.

The Adivaraha cave temple to the south west of the Mahisha suramardini mandapam, is dedicated to Vishnu in his incarnation as a boar. Artistically rich and historically notable, this is the only Pallava temple in Mahabalipuram where worship is conducted on traditional lines.

Sculptures of Gods and Kings are found in an imposing array, among them those of two Pallava rulers whose names aster also given. They are among the best to be found here. An inscription is seen that lists the ten Avatars of Vishnu.

What attract the northern wall are the beautifully carved figures of

Simhavishnu on his throne with his two queens standing with all their grace on either side. Adjacent to this the Ganagavathara scene,

Mahalakshmi seated on a lotus on the eastern wall, with four maidens in attendance and two Elephants in the background one of which is pouring water over the head of the goddess from a pitcher, pleases even at a casual glance, as does the Mahavishnu figure close by. In the central chamber, guarded by two dvarapalakas the bore incarnation comes to view, then a bas relief of Harihara and next Durga standing on the head of a buffalo. On reaching the southern wall one beholds the Pallava regal grandur in the scene of Mahendravarma with his two queens. To the north – east of this mandapam is the puliputhur mandapam27. 193

A little apart and behind the Mahishasuramaradini cavei the Varaha cave is faced of which is almost completely hidden by an ugly modern building which is usually kept locked and thus prevents the visitor from having a look at the cave. The cave consists of a large hall with a front row of four pillars and two pilasters supported by squatting lions and a back row of two pillars (without lions) and a cell cut in the centre of the back wall. In this cell is a representation of Varaha raising the earth from the ocean.On the wall of the verandah on either side of the cell are four panels, respectively with a Gajalakshmi seated on lotus and bathed by Elephant and attended by nymphs, an eight armed Mahishasuramardini towards the extreme end and two representations of Vishnu, one beside each of these two. On the side walls of the verandha are again two panels, one showing a seated king with queens and the other a standing king leading his two queens.

The panel of Gajalakshmi is similar to that in the other Varaha cave

Mahishasuramardini is represented standing on the cut head of the demon

Mahisha. Vishnu in both the panels is adored by two kneeling devotees at his feet and is flanked by dvarapalakas, one of whom has snake hoods above his head gear suggesting sashay, the lord of serpents, always associated with the Varaha incarnation of Vishnu. Two of the panels here represent Gangadhara and Brahma, the former receiving Ganga on his 194

locks the strands of which he is supporting with his right upper arm. This reminds us of a similar representation in the Tiruchirapalli cave.

Among the interesting group of royal portraits one represents a king seated on a Simhasana flanked by his two standing queens and the other shows a king dressed in royal robes leading his senior queen followed by the second and pointing his right fore finger towards the image in the central shrine. The two labels in grantha chracters of the seventh century at the top read sri Simhavishnu potradhirajan and Sri

Mahendra potradhirajan, meaning respectively, the glorious Adhiraja

Simhavinnapotra (Simhavishnu pota) and the glorious Adhiraja

Mahendrapotra, pottadhiraja, pottarayan being a family title of the Pallava kings connected with the Tamil pottu or Sanskrit Pallava, sprout from which the Pallava family took its name and these groups respectively represent Simhavishnu and Mahendravarman. It may be recalled that there is a labelld representation of Narasimhavarman-I in one of the corner panels of the Dharmaraja ratha.

4-2-2 Mahishasuramardhini mandapam

This is a rock - cut cave temple. This mandapam is well depicting the fantastic craftsmanship of the Pallavas. It consists of three small shrines in the inner wall which is exactly the typical pattern of the Pallava art and architedcture. On the northern wall, the battle between Goddess 195

Durga and the buffalo headed demon. Mahishasura is beautifully inscribed

Mahishasura symbolizes animal strength, ignorance and egoism to go with.

Every God and celestial beings depended on Mahishasura. In the course of time, Mahishasura became more frightful. Devi Mahaturaya while describing his power refers that when he ran on the earth it is broken is to pieces and the swing of the tail made the ocean water spread everywhere. Then the tyranny of Mahishasura was destroyed by the three supreme Lords Vishnu, Lord Brahma and Lord Siva, in the form of

Goddess. Many poets have sung in praise of this perfect portrayal especially by Heinrich Zimmer28.

Apart from this, there is a fine sculpture of Somaskanda, and on the southern wall the sculpture of Lord Vishnu in repose on his sever hooded cobra couch “Adisesha”, Lord Siva as Somaskanda is shown with four hands. The upper hands are shown holding a snake in one hand and a beaded chain on the other, while his lower hands performing abhaya and yoga mudras. Goddess Parvati is seated beside him holding little Skanda on her lap and a Nandi Bull is seen beneath. Lord Brahma and Lord Vishnu are pictured in the background representing the power, wisdom and peace symbolically the sculptures on the western and southern walls relate the episodes from Devi Mahaturaya, the celebrated Sanskrit poem which is recited and sung by the followers of tantric school. The prelude is about the destruction of the two demons Madhu and Kaitabha, who are known 196

for their power and strength. The story goes on to an end as to how these demons were deterged by yoga maya through Lord Vishnu. Lord Vishnu kills these demons by slaying their heads with his discuss29.

This has three little shrines in the rear wall and conforms to the pattern of Pallava rock- cut mandapams. The presentation of Somaskanda,

Seshasayana and battling Durga forms and combination of sculptures unique in many respects. The family ensemble of Siva, Parvati and Skanda in the central shrine symbolises the union of peace, power and wisdom as commonly understood. On a high pedestal sits Siva a snake and a rosary in his upper hands, while one of his lower hands shows a gesture of abhaya and another a yoga mudra. Parvati by his side holds Skanda on her lap.

Nandi, the mount of Siva is below, and in the background are Brahman and Vishnu30.

The sculptures on the southern and northern walls relate two episodes form Devi Mahatmyam31. When Vishnu stretched himself on his serpent couch and sank into a sleep of peace at the end of a kalpa, a long period of time, two demons Madhu and Kaitapa determined to destroy

Brahma. Vishnu had to be awakened in order to deal with the threat, and

Brahma invoked yogamaya to awaken the sleeping of God. Mahakali, the

Goddess of sleep emerged from Vishnu's eyes, mouth, nose and chest and he awoke to kill the demons. The postures merit a close study. Vishnu is a picture of supreme response, yogamaya is in the act of fleeing, and the 197

demons get ready for action as does Vishnu's disc in human form. It was with this disc that the heads of the two are severed.

More interesting than these two scenes is the action – packed one of

Durga's fights with the buffalo – headed demon that is to be found on the northern wall. Mahishasura symbolizes brutishness and ignorance. When he threatened the Gods, Mahalakshmi came on the scene as Durga to lead the divine forces. The wall presents a battle in progress.

Although the compass is small the figures convey a lot. Heinrich

Zimmer wrote: "What is most striking in this relief is the nimble, slender grace and dashing courage of the maiden like Goddess. She appears as a young Amazon bestriding her mount, the lion, and rushing at the clumsy demon who is greater in stature and strength than all the Gods. Another remarkable feature is the extraordinary restraint and discreetness with which the vigorous theme has been rendered for what is shown is not victory. On the contrary, the battle is still far from its decisive stroke31A.

The adversary of the divine order stands mightly on both feet he weighs in his hands a great iron club and he watches for the moment to fling this against his enemy. He is moving away, and watching for his moment to lunge. And the Goddess, showering arrows to him and his hosts, is still engaged in the opening stratagems of battle32.

The subtle and unique achievement of this masterpiece is that though an indecisive, fleeting phase of the encounter has been presented, 198

the outcome is obvious from the attitude of the adversaries. The demon has not been touched, yet one sees, that he is ultimately to be overcome.

For the unconcern of the Goddess, which is revealed in the playfulness of her handling of the bow and arrows and the way in which she bears her swords as she rides ahead, is the telling contrast to the posture of her crafty opponent, stubbornly and reluctantly falling away while watching for an opportunity to deliver his blow. The exuberance of valour and soul force, cheerfulness and self assurance on the side of Durga and her attendants, playing in opposition to the cunning brutal strength and the material bulk of the demon host, represent on antithesis of spiritual powers that immediately shows who is going to win33.

This is indeed a master piece perhaps the finest panel in

Mahabalipuram. Radhkamal Mukerjee suggests that, "a moment of the hard – fought battle of Durga and Mahishasura the slender dignity, the sportive ease and the self assurance of Durga echo profound

Metaphysical truth34.

A contrast will be strikingly evident from a comparison between the contemporary relief of Durga Mahisasuramardini from Mamallapuram and Ellora respectively. At Ellora there are several Durga images, the most important being the images in Rameswaram and Dasa-Avatara caves. In the Mamallapuram relief the dominant note is lyrical due to the Divine sportiveness the triumph over the assure is foregone conclusion. Thus 199

Durga here shows greater ease and playfulness and assure shrinks back spontaneously. In the Ellora relief the dominant note is heroic. In the

Dasa-Avatara cave relief Durga is in the thick of the hard fought battle, well poised on her lion mount and the assure valiantly lifts the mace coming out of the buffalo whose head is severed.

In Rameswara relief the fight is ended and the asura supplicates in worship. Here the stillness of the triumph of the deity and the defeat of the assure are magnificently reinforced by the breadth and heaviness of modeeling and the light and dark effects of the cave recess. Durga herself is steeped on unfathomable silence, and her agitated lion is replaced by the subservient buffalo. While the blend of poise and majesty with the villa nice of Divine playfulness is discernible at their best in the medieval cave sculpture of India.

These qualities of the Mahishasuramardini panel are abundantly evident in the best temple representations of the Goddess such as those from Bhumara, Dulmi, Mukhed, Khiching and Kumbakonam. Outside India

Mahishasuramardini standing of the buffalo in Jiva is also exquisite in its expression of vitality and serenity.

A straight path about 200m from the group of the five rathas leads to the Mahishasuramardini cave, a long hall with a triple cell. The façade of this cave shows four pillars and two pilasters. The pillars are polygonal with bulbous cushion. Capital and square abacus. Pillars supported by 200

squatting lions rise from the angles of a stylobate in the small mandapa projecting form the central cell which is flanked by dvarapalakas. The cornices of the mandapa and of the entrance of the cell are decorated with friexes of geese. At either end of this large hall are two large panels, one representing seshasayi Vishnu and the other Mahishasuramardini the central cell is intended for a Siva linga and on the wall behind is the usual representation of Somaskanda.

In this case below Siva is in his vehicle Nandi. Vishnu on this serpent couch is represented in yoga nidra and the great calm in this figure is expressly heightened by the fury of madhu and kaitabha shown brandishing their weapons. The aydha purushas of Vishnu, including the beautiful youths sudarsan (discus and Nandaka (sword) the charming amazon kaumodaki (club) the dwarfish Panchajanya (conch) are all shown first taking the permission of the Lord and then proceeding against the demons35.

Mahishasuramardini is shown either armed, riding her lion equipped with all weapons or using the bow with its string pulled up to her ear. She is attended by hosts of ganas and amazon yoginis and is in the war like alidha posture using a huge club. The umbrellas held over the vanquished and the victor is very suggestive. The contours of the Mahisha demon have been powerfully delineated and the battle scene is full of animation, the enthusiasm of the ganas and the dis sprited attitude of the 201

asuras being delightfully contrasted. This is one of the most remarkable representations of Mahishasurmaradini in a group, of which we have another at ellora. This, along with seshasayi Vishnu opposite, Varaha and

Gaja Lakshmi in the Varaha cave and Arjuna’a penace are probably the best representations of plastic art at Mahabalipuram.36

4-2-3 Dharmaraja Mandapam

This cave temple, typical of Mahendravarman’s time, is triple celled and has massive pillars and the dvarapalakas (door keeper) figures have been chipped and effaced by vandal37.

4-2-4 Krishna Mandapam

This is the biggest among the mandapams and is dedicated to Lord

Krishna. Lord Krishna is a famous legendary god who has been the symbol of many mythological stories. The sculptures inside this mandapam are beautifully partraying the myth of Lord Krishna during his brave and energetic adulthood. He lifted the huge mount Govardhana in elder to provide shelter to his people and their animals from the rain. Lord Indra,

God of rain poured rain continuously due to his wrath. The shepherd community namely Gokulas was shopped and thanked lord Indra once a year for his showers of blessings38.

But Lord Krishna asked the people to stop their practicing such custom as it was the people’s hard work that brought the people the materialistic wealth and not Lord Indra. Due to this lord Indra got angry 202

and ordered the rain clouds to pour heavily to destroy all the animals. The people trembled in fear and went to Lord Krishna for help and lord

Krishna did this mighty act of protecting the people by lifting the huge mount to protect the people and their cattle. The mighty deed was that he lifted the mount with his single little finger.

The downpour of rain continued for seneral days. Lord Indra felt very embarrassed and withdsen the clouds, considering the marvelous act of the amall boy. The pastoral life of the people is carved inside the mandapam. The sculptures that are beautifully portrayed constitute a shephered milking a cow while it licked its calf, a farmer walking with his child placed on his shouldr, a shepherdess carrying a pot of curd on her head, a yhong couple pictured beautifully and other pastoral portrayals39.

4-2-5 Panchapandava mandapam

Beyond that there is a large cave temple known as Pancha pandava mandapam of which only six lion pillars and similar pilasters at either end are finished. The brackets above the capitals of these pillars are decorated with lions and griffins with human riders40.

4-2-6 Varaha mandapam

Close by to the south west of the Ganesa ratha and behind Arjuna’s penance is the cave known as Varaha mandapam, a fine specimen of its type. The hall at the front has two lion pillars and two pilasters, and beyond this, in the centre, is the cell guarded by two dvarapalakas. There 203

are four panels representing Varaha raishing the earth from the ocean wher in she was submerged Gajalakshmi seated on lotus and bathed by

Elephants. Durga with four arms and Trivikrama over coming the demon king bali. A remarkable feature about the first panel is that the snout of the boar has been handled with such dexterity that it blends in a natural way with the human contour of the rest of the figure in the panel. Among those surrounding and adoring Varaha are Surya, Brahma, the rishis and a

Goddess who is Prithvi herself. The right foot of Varaha rests on the hoods of the Naga king sesha. The delineation of lotus leaves and flowers and ripples suggests water.

In the Gajalakshmi panel, lakshmi is seated on the lotus wearing a peculiar type of crown met with in Pallava sculpture and Suvarnavai kakshaka (golden cross garland on the torso) and hands in position to hold lotuses. The pond is suggested by the lotus leaves below. The Goddess is flanked by two nymphs on either side bringing pots filled with water for her bath which two Elephants empty over her head. Here, as elsewhere in

Mahabalipuram the female figures appear apparently nude, but the student of early Indian sculpture will see that this is merely a suggestion of diaphanous apparel. The contours of the trunks of the Elephants natural folds of their ears have been handled delicately41.

Durga is represented standing with four arms, carrying the wheel and discus in the upper pair, the other two hands being in abhaya and 204

katyavalambita. The parasol above signifies her universal sovereignty. On either side are a lion and an antelope. Siva ganas skip above and two devotees flank her at her feet the one to her right cutting and offering his head42.

In the Trivikrama panel Vishnu holds his bow, sword and shield in addition to his conch, discus and club. The celestial sphere is suggested above by the Sun and Moon. Bali and other subdued demons are shown at his feet. Brahma adores the uplifted foot of Vishnu, and Jambavan beats a drum and rejoices over the event. The figure corresponding to Brahma to the right of Trivikrama is probably Siva. The figure falling in mid air is probably of Trisanku, and this suggests that the foot of Vishnu reached the abode of the celestials beyond that of Trisanku, who is supposed to occupy the mid-air43.

4-2-7 Ramanuja mandapam

Further northern and facing east is a cave called the Ramanuja mandapa. It is a triple celled Saivite cave completely ruined in lataer times be vandals who chiselled and destroyed the carved panels. The façade of the vace has two pillars and two pilasters supported by squatting lions.

The palace site and lion throne are sen to the north west of the lighthouse is a plateau where the royal palace was probably located, now marked by a heap of brick debris. The only noteworthy object here is a monolithic lion and a large rectangular seat with a beautifully carved couchant lion at one 205

end. The modeling of the animal closely resembling the vehicle of the

Goddees in the Mahishasuramardini cave is exceedingly well done. The lion is significantly portrayed as roaring, proclaiming as it were the sovereign power of the Pallavas. The back is made somewhat flat to serve as a seat44.

4-2-8 Kodikal mandapam

To the west is a small primitive rock - cut cave temple, devoted to

Durga. From the massive pillars and the general features of the temple, which closely resemble other of the Mahendra period, specially the one at

Mahendravadi it can be assigned to the time of Mahendravarman-I. The facade shows two massive pillars and pilasters at either end. Beyond the hall to the front and cut in the centre of the back wall is a cell guarded by female door-keepers on either side of the entrance. There is an inscription Sri Vamankusa in letters of the middle of the seventh century on one of the pillars45.

4-2-9 Koneri mandapam

This is a crude unfinished cave temple with four pillars supported by couchant lions and flanked by pilasters and with a central cell46.

4-2-10 Rock - cut temple

Close to this to the south west is a five celled rock-cut temple.

Though the pillars here resemble the type usually met with in

Mahendravarman’s shrines, their greater finish and attenuated shape, the 206

general form of their carving including dvarapalakas and the advanced architectural features all point to the time of Narasimhavarman-I as the date of the excavation of the cave divided in to three parts, the top and lower portions cubical in sedction and the middle one octagonal. There is a back row of four pillars similar in style to the pillars of the front row in the Mahishasuramardini cave, round in section but fluted and provided with bulbous cushion capitals. The socket holes in the floor of the five shrine cells indicated that they were intended for Siva lingas. The row of kidus of chaitya windows along the cornice finial and the rrow of geese below are typical of the early Pallava period47.

4-2-11 Thirumurti cave

This is a triple celled temple for the three Gods of the Hindu pantheon, Brahma, Vishnu and Siva. The front of each one of these cells is beautifully carved with all the usual decoration of a gopuram and pilasters support the superstructure. The entrance of each cell is flanked by dvarapalakas in narrow panels shown as usual in three quarters profile.

Towards one end beyond these is a niche surmounted by makaratorana for eith armed Durga standing on the cut head of the demon Mahisha. In the cells are represented Brahma, Siva and Vishnu, each attended by kneeling devotees and flying dwarf ganas, one of each on either side.

Brahma unusually has here a single face and wears a cross garland of rudraksha beads. He carries a rosary and water vessel in his upper pair of 207

arms, the other two being in abhaya and katyavalambita as in the other two deities. The word Malla in later period of Narasimhavarman’s time in

Brahma’s cell indicates the date of these carvings48.

The village is studded with numerous other shrines in all stages of incompleteness, a few of them obviously important being structures with multiple cells scooped out of the solid rock and forming, as it were, cave shrines. The most famous is the Thirumurthi cave dedicated to the

Trinity located in the north of the village and containing three cells and many notable sculptural pieces. The shrine to the north, with two ascetics and dvarapalakas, has a bas relief of a four armed deity, identified as Brahman. It is evidently a Brahma shrine. The image of Siva with four arms can be seen on the rear wall of the central shrine; lingam is also here in the foreground. Two door–keepers are posted at the entrance. The Vishnu image occupies the third shrine. To complete the picture, at the Southern end is a bas – relief of Durga standing on the head of the slain Mahishasura.

A pathway running east leads to a mini animal world in stone that projects finally chiseled creatures – an elephant with a call playfully crouching underneath, a Monkey and Peacock – to relieve the monotony of the display. The kotikal mandapam nearby rectangular in shape, is a

Durga shrine although barenow but for two female door – keepers, one carrying a sword, the other a bow49. 208

4-2-12 Atiranachanda cave

This shrine has intriguing features. While the massive pillars, simple corbel capitals and the dvarapalakas indicate its early date, the fluted Siva linga inside are late characteristics. A number of inscriptions here mention that king Atiranachanda dedicated the shrine to Siva named that king Atiranchanda dedicated the shrine to Siva named after himself

Atiranachandesvara.The word Atiranachanda was probably one of the many surnamed of Rajasimha to whose time may be assigned the other later features of the cave50.

4-2-13 Monkey group

Close by is a tiny but realistic carving of a group of Monkeys, a family consisting of the father, mother and child. One of the parents is removing lice from the head of the other, while the little one is resting on the lap51.

4-2-14 Elephant group

A little beyond the Ganesa ratha towards the north is a small unfinished group of Elephants, Peacock and Monkey. The Elephants show a family composed of the parent animals and two little ones. The realistically carved Peacock and Monkey are perched a little above52. Near the approach to this group is a perfectly balanced huge boulder resting on slender rock base, popularly known as Krishna’s butter ball. Beyond this, three huge boulders, suggesting an open air. Country oven are called

Bhima’s oven by the villagers. 209

4-2-15 Mahishasura rock

A little to the north of the Shore temple is a large piece of rock almost touching the sea with a shrine of Durga cut into it. On the back wall of the shrine is an eight armed figure of Durga. The door way is flanked by lion pilasters and female door keepers. On the farther side of the rock is carved Durga’s lion attacking Mahishasuramardini53.

4-2-16 Carved rocks

To the south of the Shore temple and not far from it are some carved rocks, one of which has a niche and another has been fashioned onto the form of a rampant lion and a niche containing Durga. A rock opposite this shrine has been shaped like a recumbent lion, and the back of the rock with the Durga shrine has another similar shrine, facing east, dedicated to

Indra, whose identity is suggested by the head of the Elephant carved below the niche. At one end of the rock is a carving of a trotting horse as also of some worshippers, all of which are weather worn54.

4-2-17 Tiger cave

About 4.8km north of Mahabalipuram, in the hamlet known as

Saluvankuppam, there is what is known as the Tiger-cave. It is a rock – cut shrine of Durga approached by a flight of steps, has a small portico in front and is flanked by two pilasters supported by rampant lions. All around the cells are large lion heads55. Towards the left end two other cells have

Elephant heads carved beneath each. Judging from the general features of 210

the carvings and the peculiar nature of the rampant lions the shrine may be assigned to the time a Rajasimha56.

4-2-18 Sapta matrikas

This is a complex of Pallava sculptures at the northern end of the hamelet adjoining Mahabalipuram. It is believed to be a representation of the seven rishis – Kashyapar, Adhri Jamadagani

Vaiswamitrar, Bharatwajar, Gantamar and Vasistar. Further north are the

Gangaikondan mandapam and a Vishnu temple of the Rajasimha period known as Mukunta Nayanar temple57.

4-2-19 The penance bas-relief

The magnificent penance scene on the finest open air rock canvas in the world, 27 meters long, 9 meters high, has over the years had scholars puzzling over the identity of the hero the lean, emaciated figure on the posture of penance is Arjuna, the hero of Mahabharata, as raditionally believed, or is he Bhagiratha, an ancestor of Rama58. Whoever he may be the person with thick jata hair and beard, arms uplifted as in prayer, and standing on one foot is unmistakable in the act of severe penance.

The scene on the rock – involving the Gods and demigods besides man bird and beast bears witness to the workman's conception of the universe. The significance of the rock surface being filled with these beings high and low lies in the fact that they were present on an important 211

occasion. Both the Arjuna and Bhagiratha legends bear out the significance of that event.

Arjuna was the one of the five Pandava brothers and was deprived of their kingdom. He undertook a penance to please lord Siva and obtain a weapon with which he could destroy his enemies. When Siva appeared before him to grant the boon, all living creatures appeared to witness the event.

This is the theme of Kireetarjuniyam, a poetical work of Bhairavi, who lived in the time of Pallava King Mahendravarman59. But the limitations of this explanation are apparent when it is compared to the

Bhagiratha story of the legend of river Ganga's descent to earth.

King Bhagiratha had to redeem the souls of his ancestors turned in to ash in the neither world by the curse of an enraged stage. For this purpose the water of the celestial Ganga had to be brought down to wash them, and so Bhagiratha undertook a penance. The Gods relented but a new problem cropped up – what a disastrous descent to earth Ganga would make? Bhagiratha had to go again on penance to invoke the help of the supreme Siva to save the earth from the devastation. Siva received the

Ganga in his matted locks and prevented devastation by allowing the water to only trickle to the earth through his locks. This was indeed a sight for the Gods, and so all of them came to hail the event. 212

A small cleft at the centre of the canvas divides into two. On either side is shown all kinds of beings hurrying to witness the miracle. The Sun and the Moon, the Yakshas and the Gangadharas and the Vidyadharas, all celestial attendants versed in music dance and other fine arts, the there.

Also present are Siddhas and the Charanas, some beared, the

Kimpurukshas, a short in stature and holding the ends of their turbans, the

Kinnara pairs, half man and half bird carrying cymbols, Veena and other

Music instruments. The cleft in the rock depicts Ganga descending to the world a – a theory supported by the remains of a masonry water tank on the hill at the head of the cleft. Whether at any time this served to provide an artificially created waterfall down the cleft is not known, but as an interesting possibility it excites admiration for Pallava engineering skill60.

This is the Gangavartharna theme in which, it was propounded by

V.Goloubew in 1914, has been amply supported by evidence in other sculptures61. All the figures have their back turned to Siva, which seems to imply that their attention was fixed on something else, a supply that their attention was fixed on something else, a super natural phenomenon like

Gangas descent. And the Siva shown here is not the familiar figures of Siva as Gangadhara in the act of containing the ferocity of a river. He is shown as he must have appeared before Bhagiratha to grant him the favor as he was seeking62. 213

Radhakamal Mukerjee defines, that the Ganga rock – cut relief is one of the perfect examples of cave art in the world conceived and executed on colossal scale in harmony with the cosmic event it represents63.

The Gangavakrana theme is central to Pallava sculptural extravagance. As against the sole representation of Arjuna fighting with

Siva in a panel at the Kailasanatha temple in Kanchipuram, the Gangadhara panels abound in Mahendra's Trichirappalli cave temple, the Adivaraha cave temple in Mahabalipuram, the central niche on the north side at the second level of Dharmaraja ratha at Mahabalipuram, in the central west – facing shrine of the Kailasanatha temple, on the outer wall of its main sanctorum, in the façade panel of its enclosure shrine of the Kailasanatha temple, on the outer wall of its main sanctorum, in the façade panel of its enclosure shrine 24 and shrine 50, in the mukhamandapa of the

Matengeswara temple of Kanchi, on the north face of the vimana of this temple and in the mukhamandapa of Mukteswara temple also in Kanchi64.

The canvas chosen for it in the Mahabalipuram, has relief, perhaps the biggest in the world, in large enough to permit the presentation of a variety of animal forms65. On the southern side is depicted a forest with tribal people and wide animals. A bird on the branch of a tree, a Monkey pearling from another and climbing a third attract attention. Hunters, some with moustache, with bows and arrows, carry on their shoulders the kill tied to a poleabbits and deer, a tiger suckling its young, lions, in all 214

postures, standing, recumbent and roaring, the tortoise and other creatures are interesting studies in nature. A heard of Elephant dominates the area the male, female and the calves, moving in the swaying gait peculiar to the species.

What is far greater artistic value than the theme is the facility with which man and animal have been created in stone. The moods vary from the spirited to the soft. Divinity is full of grace and the female forms glow with and unearthly aura. The accornts of the male as well as the ornaments of the female are wrought with uncommon attention to detail.

The human forms are in perfect proportion. The hand held aloft, dropping to the side or holding an object is as natural as it can be. Even the animals are depicted just as they would appear in the forest.

Towering above the Bhagiratha figure is the Lord of Siva below this is a shrine of Lord Vishnu. Four ascetics are seated in front but the heads of three having been chipped away. Notable river side scenes show a man wringing his cloth after washing another worshipping the Sun and some sanctified sankes i.e., Nagas rising to the surface from the under world hands folded and faces beaming. There is almost to take atone go here.

But the whole is rounded off in a humorous vein what a Panchatantra episode presented along side the Puranic and which should not be missed.

A pious looking cat performs penance with eyes closed, unmindful of the mice in front66. 215

4-2-20 Rayala gopuram

Beyond this, at the top of the boulder, is an unfinished gopuram or temple gate tower of the Vijayanagara period showing the typical decoration on the jambs. This is the second unfinished

Vijayanagara gopuram at Mahabalipuram the other one being opposite the

Talasayana temple.

4-3-1 Temple

Temple is a holy place of both daily and occasional worship. It may also be a centre of pilgrimage at festival times. Temple is the symbolic reconstruction of the universe. The activities of Gods and the lives of human beings art linked together in a continue in which time is conceived as a cyclical system. The architecture of the Hindu temple symbolically represents his quest by setting out to dissolve the boundaries between man and the divine.

4-3-2 Olakkannisvara temple

The name of the temple may probably be Olakkannisvara (flame- eye) Siva. But it is popularly known as olakkanatha temple. On the summit of the rock containing the Mahishasuramardini cave is this masonry temple of Siva which can be assigned to the time of Rajasimha

(circa 690-715). Though the superstructure is lost, it must originally have resembled the Shore temple. There are the usual rampant lions and panels representing Siva in various attitudes. Of these the most remarkable ones 216

are Dakshinamurti (Siva as a youthful ascetic meditating under a tree),

Ravananugrahamurti (Siva showing mercy to Ravana, who attempted to shake Kailasa, his mountain abode) and Alidhanrittamurti (Siva dancing in the pose of a warrior in action) 67.

4-3-3 Talasayana perumal temple

This temple, situated in front of the Arjuna’s penance, is a comparatively modern Vishnu temple dedicated to Talasayanaperumal.

The carving and workmanship, though not very lavish, is typical of the

Vijayanagara period (fifteenth-sixteenth century) 68.

4-3-4 Shore temple

It is believed that there were seven magnificent temples what are known as the seven pagodas, built near the sea shore. But the lonely survivor is the shore temples. It was originally constructed during the7th century and later it was Narasimhavarman-II, (Rajasimha) completed the skilled work in his rule. This is one of the oldest of the South Indian temples which were structural temples constructed in the nature

Dravidian style. This Shore temple has gained popularity and tourists gather here because it has been listed among the world heritage sites of the UNESCO. The temple is full of designs made by carvings69.

There are three temples of which two Siva temples face east and west respectively. The other one is the Vishnu temple. The Vishnu temple was built by Narasimhavarman-I and the other two were built by 217

Narasimhavarman-II. One can find the beautifully carved twin dvarapalakas (gate keepers) at the entrance of the east facing Siva temples.

On both sides of the temple inside are the marvelous sculptures of Lord

Brahma and Lord Vishnu with their better halves. The top part of the

Sivalinga figure inside the temple is found damaged. There are sculptures of Somaskanda Lord Siva with his betterhalf, Parvathi, and his sons,

Skanda and Ganesa are found on the near wall. A part from Lord Siva’s sculpture, one can find the sculptures of Narasimha and Goddess

Durga also70.

The central shrine is in the form of a rectangle. It has a magnificent statue of Lord Vishnu which is known as Talasayana perumal or

Ananthasayana which means sleeping Vishnu. The peculiarity about this particular temple is Vishnu reclines on the floor listening silently the sounds of names. The figure of Vishnu is found in segments which are to be looked through various doors. The other sculpture is portrayed in such a many that Lord Vishnu seated in mount Garuda helping Gajendra, the

Elephant, found in the southern wall and the northern wall is the portrayals from the life of lord Krishna. The grand temple is surrounded by mandapas and compound walls. There is a rock –cut of a lion rode by two yong women. The lion has a small cut, a square shaped cut in its belly.

A Huge rock near by the temple has been the target of the waves to touch it from the ancient days. 218

There is also a carving of a buffallo demeon running with a stick in his hand, located in the northern side. The temple looks beautiful due to the lights during weekend evenings71.

4-3-4-1 Signification of the shore temple

Narasimhavarman-II Rajasimha succeeded the throne after

Parameswaman in 700 A.D., as is evidenced by the Reyuru grant dated in his twenty five Year72. His reign period can be ascertained with the help of

Chinese sources73, which show that he was ruling atleast till 720 A.D. As he was comparatively free from dynastic wars notable progress was made in the field of temple building and the most outstanding monuments erected by him being the Shore temple at Mahabalipuram. G.Thangavelu, an art historian suggests that the Shore temple was constructed by

Rajasimha74. Dr.R. Nagasamy also confirmed this through many sources, at

“The temple with triple shrine was built by Narasimhavarman-II familiarly known as Rajasimha75.

When Mahendra-I turned Hindu, he liberated a feeling for art that under his leadership, and later, under that of Rajasimha, made the name of

Pallava a venerated one is Indian art history76. The storm of creedal contention which has filled the reign of Mahendra has disappeared and

Hinduism was triumphantly secure. The royal saint clothed its truths in the visible garb of art. 219

When Huen-Tsang visited Kanchipuram and Mahabalipuram about

640 A.D., he found a number of ‘Deva’ temples indicating that Hinduism was winning the battle77. The spiritual and intellectual battle must have caused enormous excitements in the country. The relevant Pallava epigraphs emphasis the solidarity of Narasimha-I and the artistic propensities of Narasimha-II78. Pallava art is a synonym for grace and elegance. There is not an element of discord in any Mamallapuram composition. The ultimate source of all this serenity was the religious aesthetic who sat on the throne in Kanchi79.

Rajasimha loved variety and innovation. In the whole range of

Indian art there is no other king who felt the impulse to re-create the models of a fallible style. He was keenly interested in temple art, past and present. He had the scholar’s reverence for old monuments to the extent of wanting to preserve their style for after-ages. f he had not made the rathas, an essential link between the brick and timber styles before him and the new mode would have been lost. He was an aesthetic not only in art but also in religion. All his art was at the service of religions. He was a great devotee of Lord-Siva and was guardian of righteous conduct80. One of his honorifics in the Kailasanatha temple calls him the ‘Ocean of fine arts’. He was a great patron of art, literature and other fine arts.81 it is revealed in innumerable titles he assumed for himself like Vinanarda. He was not only a great devotee of Siva but also a prolific temple-builder.82 220

In this country where civilization is at low tide of her flow, and culture is only continued amongst the elite of the country, the idea that art has nothing to do with the stages of cultural evolution of a given people is extant. “To them the idea that art is for art’s sake has become idee fixe hence they cannot tolerate the idea that art per se cannot exist, that has got a socio-political basis, and it has got co-relation with the fate of the culture of a given group of people or a nation.”83 Even so preliminary a study of temples of medieval Tamilnadu is valuable, however, in that it seeks to identify and explain certain heretofore neglected features of what most South Indian Historians have agreed is one of the most important institutions in Tamil Society – “The Hindu temple”. It is widely agreed that in devotional Hinduism, the temple art bridged social and cultural stress- points in earlier centuries as they appear yet to do.84

Rajasimha greeted the unseen with a cheer, he also loved to experiment with the seen. Every aspect of his monument exhibits a love of variety. Indian Art History from 3rd century B.C to modern times is divided into three main periods early period, lasting to the 3rd century A.D.

Classical period from the 4th to 8th century A.D., and the late period from 9th century onwards.85 In the classical age, under the patronages of the

Pallavas, the southern region of India, the art is, monumental and spiritual.

Instead of lively scenes which might have been taken from daily life, there are grand figures of Gods, which by their expression and majesty are 221

remote from human life. The composition often round a central figure, helps to stress the religious idea behind.86 Rajasimha had developed such a technique. Though there would have been structural Hindu temples earlier to Rajasimha they have lost their architectural importance because of the material and styles introduced by them.

The Shore temple with triple-shrines was built by Rajasimha.

Rajasimha was a great patron of art, literature and other fine arts. It is revealed in innumerable title he assumed for himself like Vinanarada. He was a great devotee of Siva and a prolific temple-builder. Both litchi records and copper plate grants of the Pallavas extol him as the one, who lavished wealth on temples and scholars. It is to the genius of this monarch that we owe the monumental Kailasanatha temple of

Kanchipuram and the Talagriesvara temple at Panamalai. An inscription in Pallava grantha characters with the balipitha at the western end of the

Shore temple extols the powers of Rajasimha.87

4-3-4-2 Various names of the temple

This temple has been so often visited and illustrated that the very name of the Shore temple would recall the two towers standing on the shore. Thirumangai Alwar, who lived in the eighth century A.D., has sung of the temple and refers to Lord Vishnu as Kadalmallai Talasayana.

Rajaraja, the great Chola emperor, has left two inscriptions in the temple, recording gifts of lands etc. Interestingly he mentions the names 222

of the three shrines at Kshatriyasimha Pallavesvaragriham, Rajasimha

Pallavesvaragriham and Pallikondaruliya Devar Shrine88. R.Nagasamy, further explains that “Rajasimha who constructed this temple, was a kind of varied tastes and delighted in assuming hundreds of titles, as evidenced from the Kailasanatha temple inscription. Amongst his titles, mention may be made of Rajasimha, Narasimha, Kshatriyasimha and Purushasimha as also Mamalla, Saturmalla and Amitramalla, etc. It is therefore evident that the Khatriyasimha Pallaveswara and Rajasimha Pallaveswara found in the inscription are after Rajasimha’s titles89.

A recently discovered label inscription found on the lintel of this

Vishnu shrine, in the Pallava grantha script of Rajasimha age, gives the name of the temple as Narapathisimha Pallava Vishnu graham. An inscription of Virarajendra Chola, also found in the temple, refers to this,

Lord as Kadamallai Emperuman90.

M.A. Ananthalvar comments the Shore temple as talasayana temple.

N.S. Ramasamy refers to that the name of the Shore temple has been called earlier as Pallikondaruliya perumal temple91.

M.A. Ananthalvar notes that the best and the most refined of all is the type of work found in the Jalasayana temple more commonly known as the Shore temple92.

223

4-3-4-3 Material used

The art historians especially Mr.James Fergusson considers that,

“Rajasimha’s age does not differ materially from that of the rest and it is with the greatest diffidence that I venture to express an opinion differing from that entertained by so competent an authority”93. But, Mr.Fergusson was specially engaged in the examination of the rock-cut temples: remarking the similarities and differences existing between them and similar works in other parts of India. He also considered the celebrated

Kailas temple to have been copied from some earlier edifice of Southern

India. C.Gubbins looking to the very great similarity of style inclined to refer this Shore-temple of Mahabalipuram to the age of those of earlier structure although the precise model of the Kailas may not be found here, but at Chidambaram or Thanjavur94. This would give a considerable difference of the Brahmanas who attended Mr.Goldingham, that their ancient books contained no account of any of the structures have described, except the stone pagoda near the sea and the pagodas of the bricks at the village95.

The Shore-temple, although built in stone in several courses from the foundation to the Kailasa, the whole temple looks as if it was cut out of one solid rock, like the Ellora cave temples96. George Michell firmly suggests that the importance of the contribution of the Pallava king

Rajasimha to the development of South Indian temple architecture in 224

the early eighth century can hardly be overestimated under his patronage.

Structural temple building in granite was initiated and the Shore-temple at Mahabalipuram, probably the earliest structural Pallava stone building, shows a mastery of the new style97. “Supporting to George Michell,

N.S.Ramasamy describes that, “With characteristic self-confidence, the

‘Agamapramanah’, that Rajasimha was the Chitrakarapuli, that he too might have called himself plunged into the high enterprise of clothing the truths of his religion in the visible garb of stone temples”98. He had done with rock excavations. These had rewarded him with remarkable sculpture. But, the man of art cannot live by sculpture alone he must have architecture. This could be obtained as he wished only in structures of stone99.

There by he can get an obvious conclusion that the credit of introducing stone in temple construction goes to Rajasimha. The mineralogists might possibly form some idea of their age from an inspection of the several species of granite of which the walls are composed. Some kinds of this rock, it is known, are how much more liable to decomposition than others and the fact is here evident some of the stones are badby decayed while others appear as sound as on the day they were shown.

Percy Brown remarks, “The first Pallava building to be constructed in dressed stone was the ‘Shore temple’, so named in modern times, as it 225

stands on the extreme foreshore of the ancient port100. Although the earliest known production in this technique of Pallavas as it dates from the last years of the seventh century101. The materials of which it is composed and the manner in which they have applied indicate a certain amount of latent experience in the art of building construction.

4-3-4-4 General Description of the Shore temple

Set against the background of unfathomable sky and the boundless sea, each merging with the other in a far off horizon, with the melody of the waves gently rolling over the outer walls, with the two towers as if piercing the blue canopy of the sky, with their sharp spires and with the green wood in the front welcoming the visitor with a gentle breeze, the

Shore temple has a splendor unsurpassed in aesthetical appeal102.

The temple, standing as it is on the coast for over a thousand years with most of its sculptures having been eroded due to the saline action but leaving vestiges here and there, more outlines, shines in its pristine glory103.

Satish Grover defines that “the most exquisite and well-preserved is the Shore temple at Mahabalipuram, dedicatedly poised on the rocky shore line, half in the sea and half in the land”104. He also described that the quality of the construction of the Shore temple marks the graduation of the South Indian stone masonry from an initiative into an accomplished craftsman105. 226

Percy Brown remarks, “As a proof of its workmanship for over a thousand years the ‘Shore temple’ has endured on this exposed spur of rock, buttered for half the year by the monsoon rollers, at other times. The grey sea creeps half-visible, half-hushed and grasps with its innumerable hands its silent walls”106.

The Shore temple yet with the ceaseless activity of the sea on the one side, and the insidious menace of the drifting sands on the other, its twin towers are still erect, and its shrine remain intact, immutable it stands, a silent record of a great but almost forgotten people107.

The Shore temple is the magnum opus of Rajasimha and a magnum bonum to the South Indian temple architecture. Whatever the historians assume, the saints suggest, and the philosophers of art proclaims about the amalgamated dual shrine of the different deities of two opposite sects of

Vishnu and Siva, it is a naked truth to bring a fair conclusion about the religious tolerance of the rulers.

Nulli Secondus, says that Shore temple is the tap-root of our

Dravidian architecture. Though it is tarnished of weather-beat it still stands splendidly to exhibit our cultural antiquity. Every genuine researcher will watch with wonder the earnest memory of ancient time. It is all alone and above all, day by day, step by step and from end to end, we can catch hold in great deal107A.

227

4-3-4-5 Structural description of the temple

Researchers on Shore temple assume from the Rajaraja Chola’s inscriptions about the existence of Chatrya Sihamani Pallavechwaram temple and Rajasimha Pallavechwaram along with this Shore temple which then called as Pallikondaruliya Devar108. Due to natural havoc and calamity the former two temples were out of sight.

The structure of the Shore temple resembles with Dharmaraja ratha but it is highly ornamented and neatly arranged. The complete structure of the Shore temple complex seems to be the replica of wooden structure.

It faces towards the eastern direction.

However, as Percy Brown refers, the plan of the Shore temple is not seen according to custom109. The central building is surrounded by a massive enclosure wall. Structurally, it is a complex of three shrines, one behind the other. The entire complex is built over a low, practically buried, natural rock, exposed to inundation by breakers and tides. There are three shrines, known as Rajasimheswara facing towards west,

Kshatriyasimheswara shrine facing towards east and another shrine in between the two is Vishnu shrine. The small Vishnu temple and the

Rajasimheswara are the earliest part of this temple complex forming a nucleus consisting of a Siva temple facing west and a Vishnu temple, slightly out of alignment with it, facing east. The Kshatriyasimheswara temple was also built in the region of Rajasimha. 228

The complex further contains accessory mandapas in axial alignment with the Rajasimheswara to the west. The prakara known as the ambulatory passage and the entrance of the gopuras are very ruined and clearly discernible only in plan. The Kshatriyasimheswara shrine has a closely surrounding wall on its north, east and south, but is open on the west, in order to provide access to the Vishnu temple. The flooring and the ceiling are made up of granite slabs.

Shore temple is consists the space of about 1600 square feet and is in ruined condition. The three shrines adjoing each other, being in some sense but one piece of building. But, the existence of the two spires impress one with an idea of their being two separate temples. The more loftly structure to be found about 60 feet high. This is the more eastern of the two, and has overlooking the sea, a door way 7 feet 6 inches high and 6 feet wide. Within this temple the east facing Siva shrine consists a large broken black granite lingam which is sixteen sided with a perimeter of 6 feet and 6 inches. The west facing Somaskanda shrine has a group of sculptures representing Mahadevi Parvathi and their son Kathikeya. The body of one large temple is enclosed with a massive stone wall, which as well as the temple it self bears the appearance of having been decorated with much ornamented sculpture. Small pieces of chunam still adhering to the ornaments give rise to the conjecture that the temples were either originally coated with it, or have been so covered in subsequent repairs. 229

There can be no doubt that this Shore temple was once elegant specimens of architecture, though they are now too much decayed to retain many traces of their original beauty110.

Entry being obtained through the western side of the court yard which was left entirely opens. But, quiet early in its production this simple scheme was complicated by two additional shrines being attached, rather unsymmetrically, to its western end, one of which provides the smaller spire, as well as what at first sight appears to be main entrance. It is these two supplementary shrines which have converted the Shore temple into a double towered monument, unconventional in its grouping and a little difficult to comprehend111.

While we discuss the structural development of the Shore-temple,

Percy Browns description is apt and clear. His descriptions are thus it is quiet clear that the central building comprising the Shore temple is a development of the monolithic rathas of the previous phase, specifically from that of Dharmaraja ratha, the different in treatment between the two types of temple is considerable112. He also suggests that, “The change in technique from rock-cut to structural partly accounts for this, and the interval separating the execution of the two productions, although no great, would have some effect. And there was of course, a new ruler on the throne, whose personal predictions may have had some influence”113. 230

But even these factors, significant though they may be, can hardly be accounted for the difference not only in trend, but in the forms as well, which appear in this first structural example of the Pallavas. We see in the composition of the Shore-temple more rhythm and more buoyancy than in the monolithic rathas of the previous phase, lightness and a soaring quality that was however not entirely due to the more tractable technique114.

There is also another important component in this structural example, which although relatively a matter of detail, was destined to give not a little of its character to the latter Pallava art. This, the appearance in the architectural scheme of a very pronounced type of pilaster, a rampant lion in prominent relief, and which finds a place wherever such a structural form with an ornamental support is required115. Elaborate description is given in the sculptural analysis of

Shore temple in this chapter.

C.Gubbins Esq. is description on the structural analysis is very interesting to note. He describes that, “the walls and the roof of a connecting passage still exist. But all access by this route is now barred by a slab of block balastic rock, fixed in the eastern wall of the portico if needed opposite its entrance. A similar larger slab occupies a corresponding place on the inner surface of the western wall. And on both are images of Siva, Parvati and Karthikeya. It is unable to discover whether the space intervening between these two slabs is vacant or has 231

been filled with masonry. But, they and their immediately surrounding blocks of stone are long subsequent in date to the rest of the building.

They have been inserted in order to mark the ancient entry116.

As matters at present stand, it is impossible to assign any reason for the existence, or other mass of building, between two temples of Siva places in the some place. There are only two suppositions that will account for the execution of these two buildings with a covered passage of connection. Either the smaller was a santcury to be entered only from the larger. Otherwise, it must have been a portico through which admission was obtained to the larger or real temple. The first hypothesis is contradicted by the existence of the western entry of the smaller edifice, which is certainly contemporaneous with its construction. And also by the fact that the stone screen encircles the larger building ceases on arriving opposite the smaller.

Therefore, we are, thrown back up on the second; which is supported not only by these circumstances, but also by the extreme simplicity of the present door to the larger temple a mere plain opening in the wall. Here we must mention that the smaller shrine is approached from the west with ease and on a level while the only access to the simple opening in the eastern screen now serving as an entry is over a low but steep and rugged rock washed by the breakers below. This rock has certainly the appearance, both here and elsewhere, of having been partly 232

cut into rude steps and partly perforated as if it is to receive some superstructure that has since disappeared117.

4-3-4-6 Vishnu Shrine

The oldest part of the temple is the seventh century image of Vishnu sleeping, cut out of the natural boulder118. Vishnu’s face directs towards north and 10’ feet length. As George Michell observed, it is reasonable to believe that the Pallikondarulia Perumal known as Vishnu shrine existed before Rajasimha’s time, perhaps even in the second century A.D. When

Bhutan Alwar sang of the Lord by the sea, his innovator spirit was not checked; but challenged rather. What must have struck the royal innovator most was the fact that an image existed all by itself, with the waves beating upon it. He would improve upon the location by building another shrine even nearer to the sea. In building the Shore temple its makers had to reckon with the existence of the image of Lord Talasayi, enshrined or not, and with the contiguity of the sea. Nothing in all

Mamallapuram is more characteristic of the ‘Atyantakama’ that Rajasimha was then that he should have chosen a location like this119.

We cannot judge whether the image of Lord Vishnu was originally located in a shrine, or was placed in the open. This cannot be determined.

Bhutan Thirumangai Alwar and Avanthi sundarakathasara speak of the images of being away washed by the sea. According to the Sanskrit work,

“the sea brushed its feet with gentle ripples120. It is perhaps reasonable to 233

assume from the above reference that the image lay in the open. This possibility is strengthened by the fact that Rajasimha’s name for the shrine

– Narapathisimha Pallava Vishnugraham, is engraved on the entrance in

Pallava Grantha characters. Rajasimha could have rebuilt in stone the old brick and timber structure.

The image of reclining Vishnu inside the shrine is unconventional.

The Lord is represented as reclining on the bare earth. There is no serpent couch. The image has only two hands. Lordess Bhudevi is absent. So, are the weapons. According to Vaikanasagama, this ‘abhicarika’ form of image may place in a water fort as well as in the forest fort. This type of Vishnu images are faced by the rulers towards enemy’s direction. Its continuity to the sea, no doubt makes this shrine a kind of waterport120A.

The shrine is rectangular on plan. On the outer walls there are carvings of Lord Vishnu with Gajendra and Lord Krishna dancing on

Kaliya. N.S.Ramasamy suggests regarding the ritual of this Vishnu shrine as that, “In only one rock temple, the Adivaraha and in one of the Shore temple shrine were images of Lord Vishnu consecrated as the sole object of worship”121. In the Dharamaraja, Ramanuja and Thirumurthi mandapams, Vishnu appeared as one of the trinity.

Further, some suggested that the deity installed in the Vishnu shrine is Talasayana. Some of the inscriptions it carries call the temple that of

Talasayansperumal, but these are of the middle ages. A contrast could be 234

drawn between Talasayana perumal, he who reclines on the sea coast and

Talasayana perumal, he who reclines on land, but for the fact that the image in the Shore temple shrine is located on bare earth, without the adhisesha couch. When the hymers say that the Lord is reclining on earth, do they mean that the image in the Shore temple shrine does so or do they refer to the temple inland. Talasayana perumal is enshrined in the later

Vijayanagar temple, interpretation regarding the location of the reclining

Vishnu create numerous doubts to its date.

However we can conclude that the Vishnu shrine in the Shore temple complex would be very earlier to Rajasimha. But his regal patronage was given in a magnificent level to beautify this Vishnu image by constructing a separate shrine and a vimana over that. Scholars and

Archaleogists suggest that the vimana over the Vishnu shrine may be ruined due to natural havoc.

4-3-4-7 Siva shrine

E.B.Havel defines, Saiva temples built of fine masonry, which evidence the growing popularity of the cult, first began to appear in

Southern India about the seventh century A.D. especially from Pallavas122.

But he expresses, that the existence of Siva temple in the simplest form appear even in the sixth century A.D.123

William Chambers suggests that the Shore temple was wholly dedicated to Siva124. But Babington doubts, “whether this Shore temple 235

was dedicated to Siva or Vishnu. But tradition favours Vishnu125. He further suggests that the pillar which stands before it amidst the spray of the sea is certainly not a lingam as some suppose, the spray of the sea is certainly not a lingam as some suppose, but merely the sthamba or post126.

Hereby we can assume that the Siva shrine was the later innovation in the

Shore temple complex. But George Michell suggest that only after 7th century A.D the image of Vishnu was housed in a small shrine, in combination with two other shrines which, judging from the fluted lingas placed there and the images carved on their rear walls were dedicated to

Siva127. The lingam in the east facing shrine and the sculptures of the

Somaskanda shrine facing west were made of black granite stone. It can prove that these two Svia shrines were constructed in the contempora neous peiod. The dating renders it possible for the linga, in however simple a form, having been originally installed in the Mamallapuram temple128. But some scholars will not grant event this. They argue that every linga which is found today or which once existed is a latter addition, and that the object of worship was the Somaskanda idols, Siva alone set up on the back wall or picked out in the stucco and painted.

The absence of the ‘pranala’ is not a decisive argument in itself. The linga might have not received purificatory baths. Even if it had, could not the water had been removed by other means as in portable vassals. 236

It can be reasonably said that further evidence is necessary before it may be asserted that the linga was not originally worshipped in the Mamallapuram temples129. No argument can be drawn from the agamas because at that time these temples were created, they had not been systematised.

There are lingas in front of the Somaskanda panels in the Siva shrines of the Shore temple. There are no sockets in any of the three shrines of the Dharmaraja mandapa but they are to be found in all the five of the Koneri mandapa and in the central shrine of the Mahishasura

Mardini temple. But here our question is what the object or objects of worship were in the Saiva temple, the Somaskand panel or the linga. It has been suggested that the panel was the original object of worship and that the linga was set up later. None of the rock temples contain a linga fashioned out of rock as could have been easily provided as, in fact it has been in many of the Chalukyan, Pandian and Muttarayar monuments130.

The argument is that the lingas, where they are found or where they once stood, to judge from sockets, were introduced in later times. The view is based on the argument that the ‘Varimarga’ and ‘Pranala’ necessary to let the abisheka water run out of the sanctum, have been created in later times, in the Pallave temples131. A few of the illustration are not convincing but there is no reason to dispute the assertion that the 237

Somaskanda panel was worshipped in the Mamallapuram temples. The problem relates to lingas.

Further three stages in the ritual worship of the main deity in the cella in the Kanchi temples and coeval temples elsewhere in the Pallave period have been postulated first when only the Somaskanda panel existed as the object of worship in the sanctum subsequently when there was a linga alone erected perhaps without even a bhadrapitha, and later when the pitha, by then usually circular, was added to it either by slipping into the linga or by assembling the “Yonipitha” in parts around the linga. The second stage when the linga alone was set up has been ascribed to the late

Rajasimha period and later Pallava Nandhivarman period132.

4-3-4-8 Vimana

With the rising sun spreading its rays like a golden ball, with white clouds moving across, the towers are most fascinating133. Sathish Grover wonders, that the spires over either of the cells are the earliest and probably the most serene and beautiful examples of soundly structured masonary versions of the sculptural Dharmaraja rahta134.

The Shore temple is a complex of three shrines with accessory mandapas, prakara, enclosure, vimana and entrances. Of the three, the larger vimana facing the sea on the east, called Kshatriyasimhaswara and the smaller vimana as it’s rear facing the village on the west called

Rajasimheswara are both dedicated to Siva. 238

The geometric scheme of these is the same as that of Dharmaraja ratha, their somewhat elongated profile is like a graceful feminine complement to the strong and robust masculinity of the Dharmaraja ratha prototype135.

Dr.B.G. Babington, while writing the twin towers of the Shore temple describes that the declaration of the more aged people of Mahabalipuram gave him certain inspiration on these two vimanas. The native’s declaration follows thus “they have seen the tops of several pagodas far out in the sea, which being covered with copper, probably gilt, were particularly visible at Sunrise as their shine surface used them to reflect the Sun’s rays, but now that effect was no longer produced, as copper had since become incrusted with mould of verdigiris”136. Fergusson refers, that the vimanas of the Shore temple as the finest and the most important vimana in the South India137.

M.A. Ananthalwar describes, “The form of the spires here closely analysed have all the features of the Buddhistic stupa in them, but these are greatly suppressed by a blending of several of the Dravidian features138. But we do not have any authentic evidences to prove

Buddhist artistic influence on Hindu temple, especially on Shore temple.

M.A. Ananthalwar’s interpretation on the style of the twin vimanas is baseless. These vimanas over the shrines form the central and principal 239

mass, which the gopuram or original gateway alongside is comparatively insignificant. The only other temple like it in plan is that at Thanjavur139.

The height of the large vimana is about 60 feet. It is surmounted by the umbrella shaped summit called kalasa, made of basaltic rock. The granite below bears no signs of destruction by the sea air.

The taller eastern vimana is of four storeys. It is square on plan up to the griva, and thence octagonal. The ‘garland’ of miniature shrines does not appear on the first storey, but it is present on the top of the ardhamandapa. On the first storey are placed sedent lions at the four corners. On the fourth story also without the garland there are at the four corners bhutas squatting on their haunches and blowing conches.

Looking at this vimana from the outside, one must think that, in face, it has five storeys. This is because the wall of the narrow prakara appertaining to this shrine is less tall than and the first storey of the vimana and the

‘Garland’ on the top of this wall looks like an additional storey. At the rear there is a gap, tilled partially by the elements of the garland on the top of the Vishnu shrine.

On the eastern wall of the Siva shrine ‘Prakara’ there is an incipient gopura. It is made up of an opening with a miniature ‘Sala’ vimana above it. It is rather smaller than the front one in Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram. These two are the earliest of their kind in

Tamil region. 240

The western vimana is in three storeys. On plan it is square up to the neck but octagonal above. The garland appears on the second storey but there are conch blowing bhutas on the third. The shrine shares its adhisthana with the rock platform on which reclines Lord Talasayana in the contiguous shrine. As in the eastern vimana, the objects of worship are a Somaskanda panel and a linga. Lord Vishnu and Lord Brahma are included in the former group.

R. Nagasamy suspects that the Shore temple originally consisted of three vimanas and the third vimana which was over the Vishnu shrine has crumbled down140. It is evident that all the three shrines in the temple were under regular worship for a considerable time. It is well known, that according to the prevalent custom, a temple is placed under worship only when it is crowned with a vimana and duly consecrated with a stupi. It is therefore certain that the Talasayana shrine had a vimana, which has crumbled. The above conclusion is amply justified by the presence of a course of rectangular and square pavilion ornaments which formed the first storey of the vimana141. This is further proved by a rectangular pavilion ornament of the other storeys still lying scattered inside and compound. Judging from the vast remains, the vimana was of a rectangular type with a series of stupies arranged in a line or its ridges, and attained a height between those of the big and small towers. Though 241

rectangular vimana over the sanctorum went out of existence in later times, it was present in Pallava times142.

In the palmy days of the Pallavas, as the devotee approached the temple, he would have seen a compactly built enclosure with perhaps four incipient gopuras, and a Nandi image on the top of the walls. How many vimanas he would have seen is a moot point. The middle, Vishnu shrine must have possessed a vimana. Rajasimha could scarcely have failed to add one to it, if lacking. This vimana would have been a sala as was appropriate for the image in the shrine. It is said that there are signs. On what base has survived of the super structure of a vimana having once stood there143.

Rajasimha’s construction of this temple complex with two square vimanas interpressed with a rectangular one, each spire from the land’s side showing an increase in height and the whole being set against the background of the ocean is indeed a marvel, an inspiration and vision quiet befitting, a great artist like Rajasimha144.

4-3-4-9 Gopura

Some of the visitors to the temple in the last century have written of it or drawn it. But their evidence is not of much help in reconstructing the temple in its original form. That there was a gopura on the western side is clear enough. The existence of another on the north may be deduced from the remains reinforced by a drawing of the middle 19th century of the 242

northern prakara wall. The drawing indicates the base of a gopura consisting of a few slabs. At about this place there is a gap in the wall today. On either side there are the lower portions of what seem to be dvarapalakas. There are no such indications on the southern wall. But, it is reasonable to assume that there was a gopura on the south too. If so, the temple had gopuras on all the four sides145.

4-3-4-10 Ambulatory passage or prakara

George Michell defines that the Shore temple introduces an ambulatory passage way around the principal shrine and emphasis the door way to this shrine by a prominent ornamental barrel vaulted roof-form146.

Half-way along each of the long sides of the passage there was a pillared arcade. Containing an altar possibly provided for Naga worship, as all the courts and passage around could be filled with water. A feature of this prakara was a series of carved panels on the side walls, each containing a figure subject depicting some striking mythological episode – a picture gallery in stone147.

The courtyard or prakara of the temple could be partially flooded, by a complex system of channels, reservoirs and drains that carried the sea water into basins around the cult room148.

243

4-3-4-11 Sculptures

Religious and intellectual stir made men’s mind to interpenetrate with the truths of Tamil and Sanskrit literatures. While Hindu iconography, as a whole is based on manuals, at Mahabalipuram an entire scriptural episode is illustrated in sculpture. Sulptural descriptions were sculptured. When we remember the religious conflicts with which India was torn, the part of the rulers played in them, we realize the importance which the kings and protectors of religion placed on religious buildings and idols. Though the Pallavas art and religious creations are numerous as the sands on the sea-shore, the sculpture in the Shore temple is as radiant as rose. The ambiguous sculptural monuments in the Shore temple reveal clearly the condition of religion prevailing in the Pallava region. The pre-possessing looks of the sculpture are not only a rare outstanding monument, but an anchor of our behind time.

R. Nagasamy defines, that, “the temple standing as it is on the coast for over a thousand years with most of its sculptures having been eroded due to saline action but leaving vestiges here and there, outlines shrines in its pristine glory”149.

Dravidian temples are highly decorated and have much curious sculpture150. K.R.Srinivasan remarks that, “though the sculpture in the

Shore temple complex are much eroded by the most and saline winds from 244

the sea, the architectural proportions are made up, and the natural setting on the sea make the edifice one of the finest monument in India151.

The eastern shrine contains a relief of Somaskanda on the back wall.

There is a linga in front of this relief, sixteen-sided, fluted, and polished and without a pedestal. It has been damaged. There are panels of Lord

Vishnu and Brahma on the side walls. The southern and western walls of the shrine have been patched up. There is a drawing of 19th century A.D. which indicates a dent in the walls of the contiguous Vishnu shrine, and obviously this shrine too had fallen out of repair. There are some sculptures on the northern wall. They include Triparantaka, Narasimha and Durga.

In the passage in front of the shrine there are dvarapalakas on either side of the entrance and sculptures of Lord Krishna with Goddess

Lakshmi and of Lord Subramania with his consort nearby there are other sculptures which appear to be historical152.

Percy Brown, while discussing the introduction or rampant lion sculptures defines as, “that in the Shore temple the haraldic Lion, erect and holding up a Dravidian capital, projects from every angle, and is also introduced at intervals around the lower part of the entire building. As the style progressed, this leogriff motif became more frequent and more characteristic, so that it may be generally regarded as the identifying symbol of the Pallava style153. 245

The west facing Siva shrine consists of the Somaskanda sculpture.

‘Siva’, ‘Sakti’ and ‘Skanda’ are in sitting posture. The central Talasayana perumal consists Vishnu sculpture in reclining pose154. Here we have to note, that almost all the Siva Shrines face towards east. But, in this Shore temple, the west facing Somaskanta Shrine is unconventional.

Further from the large number of small nandi images, many of them broken which are to be found among the debris. Some of the Nandi

Scupltures have been placed on a low wall. It may be deduced that they stood originally on proper prakara walls. A visitor said in a book published in 1920, “Excavations have uncovered an outer enclosed by walls the tops of which support closely set figures of bulls. On the storeys of the two vimanas which these walls enclose nandis are replaced by bhutas blowing conches”.

A little to the south of the sanctorum and within the complex is a majestic Lion which carries a miniature Mahishasuramardhini carved inside a square cavity cut in the neck of the animal. Two attendant deities of Goddess are shown as mounted on either side of the animal. A little to north of this in the plat form is an exquisitely carved deer shown with the majestic case. Unfortunately its head is mutilated. In between the deer and the lion could be noticed a dwarf with only the legs preserved.

C.Gubbins Esq. refers even in 1853 A.D. in his note, that, “I discovered 246

several images of kneeling bull generally placed opposite a lingam, so corroded as to be only recognizable on careful examination155.

A similar image, in a better state of preservation is to be seen within the granite screen on one side of the portico; and on the other, in a closest or small chamber of comparatively recent construction, is a large recumbent status of Vishnu, with the ordinary Sesha-naga below and above him”156. He also mentions that, on the shore close by several rudely sculptured rocks one representing a monster with human arms and the head an ox or buffalo commonly called Yamaraja157.

4-3-4-12 Balipitha and other structures

In front of the shrine there are three balipithas, two in a row, the second slightly out of alighnment. In the vicinity there are foundations of some buildings probably mandapas. It was the discovery in 1912, of

Sanskrit verses in Grantha Pallava script on the plinths of two structures on the western side of the second court-yard that led to the temple being ascribed to Rajasimha158. The honorifics contain in this epigraph are of Rajasimha’s. A part of this inscription occurs on the Kanchi

Kailasanatha temple.

Outside the walls, both to north and south, there are foundations of other structures. It is unlikely that these buildings were covered with the temple. For one thing, their location would be unagamic. For another, the stones seem to be less old than those of the temple. Perhaps, the 247

buildings were part of the measures taken since about a century now to preserve the temple from the sea. But, this again is speculation159.

4-3-4-13 Enclosure wall

The central buildings were surrounded by an outer rectangular enclosure containing many interesting features. In the first place it seems evident that portions of the ground plan of the enclosure consisted of the system of shallow cisterns, which could be flooded on occasion, so that it resolves itself into a type of water temple. Some of the conduits and receptacles may still be traced and it is clear that they constituted an essential part of the layout. The water to feed this system was brought by canal and conveyed by sluices throughout the building, any overflow being carried down a rocky cascade in the rear of the shrine and into the sea160.

The surrounding was an imposing structure, its parapet and coping crowned by figures of kneeling bulls. At close intervals all round the exterior projected boldly carved lion pilasters are there. On the western side, admission was obtained through a richly ornamented door-way.

This door-way was the main entrance and led into a corridor, one side of which was formed by the inner face of the enclosure wall, the other by large rectangular building probably an outer mandapa, but only the foundations remain. 248

B.G.Babington’s suggestion on Shore temple reveals, that there are always two or three spacious courts surrounded with walls, which are now washed by the waves161.

John Braddock’s remark on Shore temple also reveals thus these temples were formerly surrounded by an outer stone wall, part of which only is now standing. Two pillars also remain showing the position of the western gateway. C.Gubbins Esq. noted that the Shore temple is surrounded on three sides by a granite screen of ten or twelve feet distant from the body of the temple. On the fourth side, the west, stands a miniature of the temple, opening towards the west, the bearing every appearance of having originally been its principal entrance162.

N.S.Ramasamy also describes that the temple has suffered much from time and other agencies of dilapidation. The surrounding walls of the temple have been much ruined, but excavations made in 1884 revealed the lines of these where they had fallen, and of other buildings in the west half of the court163.

John Braddock, while defining the enclosure, remarks that, huge heaps of granite stones, several of which are sculptured figures lie in front and on each side of the eastern temple, and have tended greatly to protect it from the hostility of the sea, which has evidently encroached considerably. Many of these stones are of large dimensions measuring from 6 to 10 feet long, 3 feet wide and 1 foot thick and some of them are 249

appearances of sculptured architectural ornaments, through the infleunece of the weather, the action of the water and lapse of time have combined to deface them164.

4-3-4-14 Stone pillar

Percy Brown’s fantastic description on Shore Temple reveals, that,

“It was a landmark by day and beacon by night as out amongst the breakers still raises a stone pillar on which a lamp would be placed to shine across the water and guide the mariner to his anchorage165.

B.G.Babington noted that, the pillar used to discover the meridian at the time of founding pagoda is seen standing at some distance in the sea166.

John Braddock describes, “About 65 feet in front of the eastern temple and now standing in the sea is a square pillar which measures 11 feet in height and 22 inches square. It is a common appendage to all the country pagodas167.

C.Gubbins Esq. also defines that, “One solitary column still raises its head above the waves and is commonly considered to have been a stamba, known as pillar, to support lamps it should however, be remarked that there is no vestige of any mode of ascent, to place them neither of niches where in they might be placed. The top is formed into a kind of peg, as if to receive some capping stone, and I have myself little doubt that it is the sole relic of some terrace or arcade once extending in this direction”168. 250

But however, the lamp pillar, in front of the temple, amidst the waves is much lattered, but a symbol of high historical romance. When lighted at night, it must have served as a kind of beacon for the shopping in the roads. As the emigrants of culture and trade sailed for the south eastern countries, many of them must have cast a longing look at the reseeding homeland and taken the light flickering in the darkness for a good omen.

The lamp stand intrigued many of the foreign visitors at Mamallapuram in the 18th and 19th centuries, and fantastic were the explanations they offered of what it could have been. A few took it for a ling.

Satish Grover also defines that, “To the Pallava Mariner, the edifice was a virtual light house. He was guided to his haven of safety by observing a lamp lit on a pillar in the courtyard that could be seen from the ocean through an aperture in the wall169.

4-3-4-15 Foreigner’s views about the temple

This Shore temple has various names, and it has been defined as one of the seven pagodas. The origin of the European appellation “Seven

Pagodas” cannot satisfactorily be traced. Reise Nach advocates that the name may have been given as stated by Dr.Graul’s guide to the five rathas, the Ganesa temple and the Shore temple170. Scholars on temple suggest that the existing Shore temple is one of the seven pagodas and the rest of other six were swallowed up by the sea. William Chambers also defines that the entire rathas, cave temples and structural temples were called as 251

Seven Pagodas. Simply, the entire area of Mahabalipuram has been called as Seven Pagoda”. He referred to in his article on “The Some Account of the Sculptures and ruins at Mavalipuram, that a place few miles north of

Chennai, and known the seamen by the name of Seven Pagodas171. But,

William Chambers noted that the Shore temple was built of brick. He referred that, close to the sea are the remains of a Pagoda built of brick and dedicated to Siva, the greatest part of which has evidently been swallowed up by that element”172. But, Dr.B.G.Babington referred, “the stone pagoda on the sea-shore, which serves as a landmark for shipping, and is erroneously stated by Mr.Chambers to be built of bricks173. C.Gubbins

Esq. supports Babington and referred in his article that the Shore temple is built of large masses of hewan granite174. Now it is not necessary to discuss that whether the shore-temple was originally constructed of stone or brick. The visible stone skeleton of Shore temple proves that it was originally constructed by sand-stone.

Lieutenent John Braddock, Reverend William Taylor, Sir Walter

Eliot, George William Mahon and Charles Gubbins have suggested that the

Shore temple has been included in the list of seven pagodas. We cannot ascertain which the other six pagodas are. But, if we assume that the five rathas and the Ganesa ratha may be other six pagodas, then what are the names given to the other existing monuments at Mahabalipuram the whole compound of the Shore temple was buried under a thick deposit of sand 252

till a few years ago. This has been cleared, but the extreme rearness of a sea is a perpetual menace to the safety of the temple. The extreme laden winds from the sea are devouting in to the vitals of the fabric and supplemented by rain, causing erosion to the sculpture. The temple has, however, recently been effectively protected from the direct beating of the sea waves and spray by the errection of a semi circular granite wall.

*****