Kanchipuram Is the Ancient Capital of Pallava Kingdom Is a Renowned Town Dedicated to the Presiding Deity, Sri Kamakshi

Home , Bhima Ratha, Gopuram, Jyestha (goddess), Krishnadevaraya, Mahendravarman I, Narasimhavarman I

Kanchipuram is the ancient capital of Pallava kingdom is a renowned town dedicated to the presiding deity, Sri Kamakshi. It is one of the sacred cities of Hindus. Kanchipuram situated on the Chengelput –

Arakkonam junction of the Southern Railway. Kanchi is 77 kms distance from Chennai.

Kanchi is one of the seven holy cities of India, the other six being

Haridwar, Ujjain, Varanasi, Madhura, Ayodya and Dwaraka and

Kanchipuram has been a centre of great activitiy for religious leaders, among them Saint Appar and Siruthondar, are famous saints. The city has had glorious past, successively as the capital of Pallvas, the Cholas and the

Vijayanagar, although while under the Pallava, it had been invaded and held for a short time by the Chalukyas of Badami and Rashtrakutas.

Kanchi is one such place. It has been a seat of learning from times immemorial a center of spiritual activities and a place hailed as the temple town with more than thousand temples. This is also the place, where Lord

Siva is seen in the form of Prithvi out of the five elements. Kanchipuram has been a place enriched by ancient wisdom and further strengthened by the existence of Kamakoti Pitham supposed to have been established by

Adi Sankara. Hailed as Nagaresu Kanchi (city of cities) Kanchipuram stands as a monumental testimony to India’s rich culture heritage and ancient wisdom.

Kanchipuram is sanctified by Divinity, nourished by Nature and inspired by Spiritualism. The triple divine dispensation as manifest in the forms of Moksapuri, Prthviksetra and Saktipitham, lends sanctity to the place. Kanchipuram has always been a perennial source of knowledge expounded by a galaxy of poet’s scholars, saints, and philosophers. The sum total of wisdom acquired from Vedas and other sources needs to be properly documented, preserved and analyses for the benefit of mankind.

Innumerable temples for various Gods of the Hindu pantheon are found everywhere in towns and villages of Kanchipuram. Some of them are wonderful monuments with excellent sculpture, architecture and murals.

Being closely linked with Mahabalipuram by geographical proximity and historical ties Kanchipuram is imperative for a fuller appreciation of the magnitude of Pallava architecture. In this city, we find specimens of buildings that reflect not only a maturity of Pallava art, but the heightened effect on these produced by the significant contributions of the

Vijayanagar and Chola rulers.

The Kanchipuram temples of Siva and Vishnu represent the best in

Dravidian architectural and sculptural traditions going back to the 7th century A.D. to the creation of which Pallava, Chola and Vijayanagar rulers had contributed substantially.

The name of Kanchipuram is associated with a cluster of magnificent temple (and also gorgeously colored silks), constituting

virtually a complete record of the Dravidian architecture. The artistic excellence of the temples, coupled with its sanctity as one of the seven sacred cities of India, Kanchipuram attracts streams of visitors from the nook and corners of the world through the Year. It has been a centre of learning and culture for centuries. Buddhism and Jainism once flourished here, side by side with Hinduism. Adi Sankara, one of the famous saints of

India, established his Episcopal seat (Kamakotipitam) here1.

3-1 History

Kanchipuram the city of temples, is one of the reputed Muktishetras, played a dominant role on the political and cultural history of our county from as early as the third century B.C. Hiuen – Tsang, the Chinese traveler who came to Kanchipuram early in the 7th Century A.D. had seen and described the stupa, which was built by Ashoka here. Even earlier to that the pristine glory and importance of Kanchipuram is well attested to in the puranic literature. But an authentic and historical limelight of

Kanchipuram is first thrown only during the Sangam period. Perumpana uppadai vividly describes Kanchipuram and its city plan, as compared to the form of the Lotus2.

Kanchipuram was a reputed centre of learning, attracted students from far and beyond, right from the earlier times. Patanjali, the great grammarian of the 2nd Century B.C referred to the word "Kanchipuraka" means one associated and hailing from Kanchi. From the mention of the

word "Kanchipuraka" it can be conjectured that the place Kanchipuram would have been an intellectual centre, acknowledged as such by Patanjali.

Mayurasarman, the founder of the kadamba dynasty came to Kanchipuram for higher studies in the reputed University called "Ghatika" Hiuen – Tsang has praised the city for its intellectual eminence3.

Besides the Chola king Karikala, who according to the Tiruvalangadu copper plates, rebuilt of embellished with gold the city of Kanchi, there is yet another king whose association with Kanchi is revealed by the verse of the Sangam work called Perumpanaruppadai. It seems Kanchipuram served as his Capital. During the Pallava regime (A.D. 4th cent – 9th cent.)

Kanchipuram functioned as a nucleus of all their activities. The temple building activity was in full swing during this period. They have dotted the whole of Kanchipuram and its according with cluster of monuments numbering more than thirty. Hiuen Tsang, who visited Kanchipuram during this period, enumerates some eight Deva temples, and hundreds of

Sangharamas here4.

Kanchipuram, continued to serve as the seat of the royal power though as secondary capital in the Chola times, owing to its earlier and traditional prominence, Vijayalaya, the founder of the imperial Chola line extended the Chola suzerainty over Kanchipuram. Though the centre of gravity of the building activity was shifted to Thanjavur during this period.

Kanchipuram was not totally neglected, as is testified not only by the

inscriptions recording the construction and renovation of the temples, but also by the existence of the Chola temples there5.

After Chola, the Pandyas, Hoysalas, Telugu – Cholas and other minor dynasties has their sway over Kanchi, for a very short period. Finally,

Kampana (A.D. 1344-77) son of Bukka I of the Vijayanagar Empire supplanted the Sambuvaraya chiefs of padaividy and established their rule over Kanchipuram. During the Vijayanagar period many additions and alterations were made to the already existing temples. Supplementary to the construction of new ones. Huge prakara, high gopura, pillared mandapa are the characteristic features of the Vijayanagara architecture6.

3-2 General characteristic features of Pallava art

In the South old dynasties, the Cheras, the Pandias and the Cholas declined and new ones appeared of which the chief was the Pallavas7. The

Pallavas patronized learning art and temple building both cave temples and structural temples including monolithic rathas and stone carvings of mythological scenes in Mahabalipuram. Their art is essentially religious8.

The temples were profusely decorated with carvings inside and outside and their design was more that of monuments, than of buildings a temple represented, so as to speak a fervent prayer to the deity9.

Pallavas temple constructions were quiet new in their style from that of the temples exist prior to Pallavas. There were only temples constructed of bricks and wood in the Dravidian type of architecture. It is

very difficult to explain what makes the taste of one period differ from that of another. A period of elegant taste is some times followed by a reverse.

But however good art and good taste are as often a matter of morality. In all the fine arts, though there may be certain definite standards of artistic merit, the opinion of respected judges undoubtedly changes with every generation. The architectural programme also obeyed consideration of political nature. For instance, the holy city of Mahabalipuram was founded by Pallava Mamalla10.

When we remember the religious conflicts with which India was torn at that time and the part of the rulers played in them, we realize the importance which the kings and protectors of religion placed on religious edifices11. Almost of our rulers contributed much to the development of temple architecture and sculpture. Each of the dynasties remarkably rendered their sincere services to fine arts. Though there had been political rivalry between the ruling dynasties of different region, there had been rivalry in architectural level also.

The rivalry between the Pallava and Chalukya rulers was reflected on the architectural level; the existence of two Kailasanatha one at Ellora and other at Kanchi reflects this spirit of emulation.

Temples were constructed on different materials and in different structures. But the ideas behind the construction are the same. The art of ancient India, as we know it is mainly almost exclusively religious, because

secular works, to which frequent references are made in literature, have not survived up to our own day. In fifty century the three religions of India

Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism were in keen rivalry with one another.

Architecture, sculpture, and painting at that time attained a degree of technical skill which combined with aesthetic sensitivity, gave the works produced at that period, a harmony, a balance and profundity which place them on the same level as the refinements of literature and the elevation of contemporary thought12. The religious stir created by the holy saints in

Pallava period makes the rulers to pay more attention on art.

A detailed analysis on bhakti movement of the saints is dealt with in the forthcoming chapter. However, as the world book Encyclopedia estimate, Dravidian art is seen in much of the architectural of South India.

Dravidian buildings are highly decorated and have much curious sculpture13. The ancient period temples were small in size, but right from the Pallava period both building technology and the ritual use of architecture became increasingly sophisticated. Percy Brown observed, it is observable at Mamallapuram, now almost obliterated still gave the town a magnificent look14.

K.V. Subramanya Aiyer declares that "The period which followed on the wake of Hindu religious revival of South India honored and invested the religious heads with super human powers, witnessed the construction and consecration throughout the length and breadth of the country of

innumerable structural monuments, richly decorated with a profusion of sculptural works entailing extraordinary expenditure, saw the enthroning of the Hindu idolatry with imposing pomp and resounded with the public discussions of abstruse problems by the quantificial heads who were respected to the utmost degree"15. He also explained that the earliest of the monuments of South India, shaped by the hands of men, are the rock-cut caves which the Pallava king Mahendravarman excavated after his conversion to Saivism and dedicated to Siva, Vishnu, and other

Prance deities.

The cave temple at Vallam, Mahendravadi, Syamangalam,

Dhalavanur, Mandagappattu, Pallavaram and Tiruchirappalli owe this origin to Pallava king. The Pallava trained their skill in building monuments also and they were highly successful in it16. A detailed table is enclosed at the end of this chapter to show the Pallavas overall contribution to temple architecture and sculpture.

3-3 Pallavas chronological contribution to religious art

The stone inscription in Mahabalipuram and Kanchipuram name the

Pallava rules, recounting their great deeds but not much light is thrown on their origin17. The inscriptions are in Prakrit, Sanskrit and Tamil probably denoting the order in point of time in which the languages came in to use.

Tamil was made the official language of the realm by the Pallavas who are

believed to have come from the north18. Some scholars consider them kin to the parathions19.

The main characteristics, however, as handed down by history are undisputed a war light tradition, which enabled them to set up a strong kingdom, ensuring a succession of Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas in the north, and the rising Tamil Princes in the South, and an artistic temperament, which found expression in a creative Endeavour that has earned for Tamil Nadu a fame as imperishable as the rocks on which they spent their skill20.

What is known of the Pallavas from the reign of Simhavishun 575 –

600 A.D.21 is authentic, unlike those particulars after often given going farther back to 350 – 500 A.D. Vassals of the Satavahana empire22 became independent early in the 3rd century and expended their hold over the area from Kanchipuram to the Krishna. It was during the time of Simhavishnu, who, on coming to the throne assumed the title of 'Svarishimha', known as

'Lion of the South23 that the Pallavas began the career of conquest that brought Cholamandalam under their control. Among the sculptures at

Mahabalipuram is a relief of this doughty king with his two queens. He is also known to have been the patron of Bairavi, the Sanskrit poet who was the author of Kireetarjuniyam. Mahendravarman -I is also credited with introducing the concept of cave temples excavated from solid rock. Most

of monuments of Mahabalipuram, and certainly the rathas, are said to have been carved during his reign.

The peaceful reign of Narasimhavarman - II 695 -722 A.D saw the creation of the best of the early Pallava masonry temples, beginning with the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram. He assumed the title of

Rajasimha24. He greatly assisted in his endeavors in the field of art by his queen Rangapathaka25. Nandivarman, 717 – 719 A.D. was responsible for the other famous temple at Kanchi, the Vaikundaperumal temple.

Few cities rival Kanchi, the home of Pallava art and the seat of administration, the wealth of literary, inscriptional and sculptural work.

The great Buddhist scholar Dharmapala belonged to Kanchi so did

Vatsyayana, the author of Nyayabhasya. The Pallavas were ardent Hindus and Saivism and Vaishanava literatures flowered during their period in what may be called a great religious revivalist movement. The study of

Sanskrit and the Vedas under the influence of Saivism flourished in Kanchi in what must have been the final phase of Sanskrit culture and

Aryanaisation of the South26. Outside the country, under the impetus which their rule provided, Sanskrit culture spread far and wide in South

East Asia27. Soon after them, Tamil took over in the Pallava region under

Chola – Pandya hegemony, and Telugu held sway under the Rashtrakutas in the Andhra country to the north28. Indian history in both the north and the south entered a new phase.

Archaeological remains of the Pallava period are found extensively in the kingdom, but the finest are in Kanchipuram and Mahabalipuram.

Worker of art so numerous and fascinating as those found in

Mahabalipuram could have been undertaken by a prince of the ruling dynasty29. There are 14 cave temples, nine monolithic shrines, three structural stone temples and four bas relief rock panels.

Scholars specializing Mahabalipuram have unraveled some of the mysteries relating to who why and how. Two views are prevalent on the origin of the monuments-one, that they were commissioned by one king in particular, Narasimhavarman - I and the other, it was Rajasimha known as

Narasimhavarma - II who was solely responsible for all of them in the 8th century30. Historians have not pronounced finally on the authorship and the examination of the evidence goes on. Some archeologists have come out with weighty arguments against the multiple authorship theory, declaring that all these monuments were ordered by Rajasimha31. This kings title, 'Atyantakama', which appear to refer to his achievement in creating an "unlimited variety" of monuments and sculptures32. But it is on this very variety of styles noted on the work that the other theory, attributing the monuments to several rulers, rests. These variation in style, it must be pointed out, are not obvious at first glance.

The Pallava rulers occupy an important place in the school on South

Indian temple-building that is famous throughout the world as Dravidian

style. A product of a thousand years of evolution, this style had its faint beginning in the Pallava period and it was the Pallava rulers who gave it direction and impetus. It was on their foundations that significant contributions were made later by the Cholas and Pandyas. The Pallava rathas were the core of this style and this essential element of the temple complex took root under Pallava patronage in the structures in

Mahabalipuram and Kanchipuram. This must have been proceeded simultaneously with the declining importance of the Buddhist and Jain styles in the region, south of the Krishna river in Mahabalipuram itself, three phases of the architectural development can be traced corresponding to the periods of the three eminent rulers, Mahendra varman, Narasimhavarman - I and Rajasimha, reflecting progressive degrees of refinement that can be discerned even by the lay man33.

3-4 Artistic style of the Pallavas

The vital artistic style of the Pallava period passed into history in a process of absorption that censured the continuity of Tamil cultural tradition34. The Pallava contribution in the field of architecture and sculpture was prolific and far-flung from Thirukalukundram in the north to Trichirappalli in the South. It was a contribution made with rock as the basic raw materials, as the transformation of the rocks of Mahabalipuram testify. Where rock stood, figures were carved, sometimes single sometimes in groups. Structures in the shape of mandapas were created

out of boulders and rathas with all their ornamentation took shape as sculptured monolithic. The artist's task was one of cutting, scooping, carving, grinding and polishing, aided by a geometric conception of form and features and the vision of the beautiful which is rare to come by anywhere else in the world35. The Pallava artisans were indeed the masters of the art of stone.

Huge stone slabs cut out of rocks and boulders are still a great part of South Indian temple architecture, to the evolution of which Pallava artisans have made a significant contribution36. It is their chariot like structures without wheels, which find an echo in the Deccan temples. The seven rathas of Mahabalipuram have pillars, roofs, tapering tops and spire like endings besides square of rectangular bases marking them as the forerunners of the latter day temples37. In the storied upper portion of the rathas, architects have noted the beginnings of the gopurams in pyramidal towers characteristic of South Indian temples. The rathas were among the many interesting monuments brought to light in the re-discovery of

Mahabalipuram at the beginning of 19th century38.

Besides the rathas the sculptured beauty is to be found in

Mahabalipuram in its pillared mandapams and wall panels. Mandapams are cave like structure scooped from rocks. The panels on the rock surface inside the mandapam and outside are art galleries in miniature. The biggest of the bas relief is carved on a huge rock canvas out in the open

and is legendary event of great significance commonly believed to be

Arjuna's penance. The Gangadhara panel shows Lord Siva holding back river Ganga in his locks while the river hurtles down from the heavens to the earth. In the Somaskanda panel Lord Siva is seen what his consort Uma and son Skanda. The reposing Vishnu stretched on the coils of the snake

Adisesha Lakshmi on her lotus seat served buy Elephants, and an armed

Durga sallying forth to fight Mahishasura are other re-creations of mythology in which the Mahabalipuram artisans revealed.

Art drew its inspiration from mythology because religion dominated the Hindu life them as it does now39. The best in Hindu art and letters are those that describe divine beings and depict their deeds. Literature was a vehicle for the out pouring of piety. Songs were hymns in praise of Gods and Goddess, dance a dedication to the divine and sculpture and temples were a revelation of the highlights of mythology40. The themes of Hindu temples and sculpture were almost always taken from the religious texts, legends and traditions41.

3-5 Pallava’s religion in art

The aim of all art was to glorify God and Mahabalipuram sculptures were re-creations of familiar mythological anecdotes on which the Hindu mind longs to dwell the Govardhana text, Arjuna's penance, the Varaha and Vamana episodes and the destruction of Mahishasura.

The basic tenet of Hinduism is faith in the supremacy of the

Trimurthis i.e., three Lords known as Brahma, Vishnu and Siva represented in these sculptures. Brahma is the creator and has no temple dedicated to him Vishnu is the protector, and his devotees, the

Vaishnavities, Suriya as the destroyer of evil and his devotees are Saivites like Pallavas. Their consorts are respectively Saraswati, Lakshmi and

Parvati of the ten incarnations of Vishnu the most popular and lovable one is krishnan the charming cowherd of Gokula who finds a place in the creations on the boulders of Mahabalipuram.

The mythological themes in stone are a manifestation of the Pallava faith in Hinduism. Buddhism and Jainism which were making in roads into

South India seemed to have suffered a set back. Appar, the Tamil

Hindu Saint, is created with kindling a religious fervor in King

Narasimhavarman - I belonging to 600 – 630 A.D. which largely accounted for the revivalist activity in the kingdom taking various forms42. The sculptural representations of the Gods and Goddesses of Hindu pantheon of both the Saivite and the Vaishnavite sects were re-created without distinction, pointing to the influence of Nayanmars and Alwars, Sages who had already brought in being a bhakti cult. Siva and Vishnu sculptures abound in Mahabalipuram as well as those of Devi and Sakti, Buddhist and

Jain motifs styles of architecture are meager here and have been absorbed in a totally Hindu mode of creation43.

A delightful freshness, largely owing to the simplicity of its folk are origins, marks the Pallava sculptural and architectural out- turn in

Mahabalipuram44. The objects varying in size from the small to the stupendous, are so many in number that the work must have gone on unceasingly, depending probably only on the mood of the ruler and the strength of his personal image-building impulse. The grace that abounds in this works, the context of its antiquity – most of it is nearly 12 centuries old is what matters, and is such as to evoke admiration. The motivation is not clear enough to explain the magnitude of the activity. But that only make the creations of art with religious background, the scale and style to be seen in Mahabalipuram45.

They have created cave temples rock-out shrines besides masonry structures. They have filled hill sides with bas relief's and panels populated with figures of exquisite beauty. The representation of action is realistic, and of movement, whether of birds animals or humans entirely natural.

They eye is compellingly drawn to the ideal proportions of the structures hen out of rock as in the perfections of the Godly and human forms. The spiritual theme dominates though the secular is not absent, both equally well conceived. Kings and warriors, peasants and devotees, trials and hunters figures in several panel. The female figures of queen and commoners impress with their loveliness. What is perhaps the world's

oldest children's slide is also to be found here, close to the penance panel and in stone too46.

It is the handsome figures of the God and Goddess of the Hindu pantheon that the Mahabalipuram sculptures have mainly chosen to provide. The incidents in which the pantheons were involved as well as the postures, in which they have been commonly represented, are familiar to every Hindu. These are the same representations to be found here, only original in details her and there. The Trimurthis, Brahma, Vishnu and Siva appear singly or with their consorts, Saraswati, Lakshmi and Parvati respectively. Siva is often shown as Gangadhara containing the Ganga in his locks, or as Somaskanda along with Uma and Skanda, or merly as the phallic symbol in lingam in shrines. Vishnu gives darshan in the

Anantasayana pose, stretching out with characteristic grace on the coils of the many-headed snake Adishesha.

His Avatars as Krishan, Varaha and Vamana are presented. The others omitted47. Lakshmi is seated placidly in the lotus. Durga in the act of fighting a buffalo demon symbolizes the conflict of good and evil.

There are sculptures of demi gods and demons, beings floating in mid-heaven water nymphs, ragas dvarapalakas and the mounts of Gods, none of which does any violence to the senses of the beholder softened as he is by an art suffused with the ideal of high purpose. Crude and coarse touches are conspicuously absent; a certain refinement of approach

reigns supreme, eschewing the least suggestions of roughness48. An art induced ennobling experience is what the Pallavas had consciously aimed at in Mahabalipuram49.

Radhkamal mukerjee defines, that the school of Mahabalipuram of on the coast shows a slender, super human sublimity, delicacy and sensuousness, and maintains a subtle and elegant balance between the vigor and tension of movement, especially in serene flight and languorous repose, worthy of gods and angles50. He has also emphasized that the art of Mahabalipuram have superhuman sublimity and lyricism in cosmic themes51. While Mukherjee discussed the techniques applied in

Mahabalipuram art creations he points out, that, the Mamallapuram techniques, the first, of organizing a whole boulder into the plastic composition on a large scale over-stepping the shape and size of a regular frame and second of fitting the composition to a rectangular panel or recess, and setting the figures against the flat surface of the rock or making them appear as emerging from within the informed rock "influenced not only cave sculpture but also relief on temples wall in India and abroad"52.

The monuments fall into four groups in this cradle of Dravidian temple architecture the monolithic, cave temples, sculptured scenes and structural temples53. The monoliths free standing, cut out of solid rock, known locally as rathas though without the stone wheels as found in the sun temple at Konark, mark the beginning of South Indian temple

architecture. They are not built up, but cut – out of the rock in a process that starts with hewing in the rough squaring up then passing on to cutting inwards to form pillars and tiers of roofs, and ending with chiseling and filling to create the ornamentation. The rathas except for the Draupati ratha are characterized by a storied elevation of the roof. The walls are broken into niches for sculptures on the ground floor and compact pavilions run around the upper storey.

The Dharmaraja and Arjuna rathas are in square shape, have their storied roofs capped by a dome, the stupi or stupika. The Bhima and

Ganesa rathas of rectangular shape have barrel like vaults with gables at the two vital elements of the latter day temples, the pyramidal vimana above the sanctum and the tall gopuram of the immense pile over the gateway leading to the temple enclosure54. They are combined in a single temple complex along with other elements familiar in the Pallavan structure, such as the garbhagraha in front of it, the mandapam and the porch with pillars. The courtyard and the huge enclosing walls came later.

The Shore temple formed by two symmetrical shrines joined each other, each with its own tower and stupika, precedes the emergence of the organic and unified concept found in the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi with a walled court, gopuram, pillared mandapam and vimana. The more developed form of it in the even later Vaikunthaperumal temple there. The

Cholas unique contribution in later years came in the form of metal images along with grand edifices of superior engineering skill55.

It is in constructing the houses of Gods that the greatest achievement of Indian architecture has been witnessed during the ages. Reflecting the basic nature of the South Indian people's communion with the God are the grandeur of the Thanjavur 'vimana', the ornate Madurai 'gopuram' the imposing 'Corridor' of Rameswaram and the exquisite 'Carvings' of the

Blur and Haliberd temples56. The regional variations in the structure of the abodes of gods show the richness of the spiritual resources of the notion as a whole that sustained a consistent temple building effort. Both the utility and decorative aspects played their part in the evolution of the temple structure as a temple also served as a place of refuge in times of war, famine floods and pestilence.

Art such as dance and music and letters and literature have also flourished under their auspices and within their precincts57. Stone built shrines for the gods and goddesses had their beginnings in Aihole in the

Bijapur district of modern Karnataka during the Chalukyan regn between

450 and 600 A.D.58 this was the era when Gupta and Vaktaka shrines were coming up in North Indian59. In the south the far-different Deccan style was evolved in the Tamil country in Kanchipuram, Chidambaram,

Thanjavur and Trichirappalli with five dynasties making ample contribution, the Pallavas of 600 – 900 A.D. Cholas of 900 – 1150 A.D.

Pandyan of 1100 – 1350 A.D. Vijayanagar of 1340 – 1565 A.D. and the

Nayaks of Madurai of 1600 – 1700 A.D.60 The Pallavas who laid the foundation of this style were responsible for two of its forms, the rock – cut and the structural. The technique of rock – cut shrines, in which they distinguished themselves belong to an early period and falls into two groups, the pillared halls and the monolithic shrines scooped out of huge boulders, both widely exemplified in the Mahabalipuram monuments61.

The Mahabalipuram mandapams bear evidence of a progressive refinement of technique traceable in three stages the reigns of

Mahendravarman of Mamalla and of Rajasimha62. The mandapams were at first simple open pavilions excavated in rock with one or more cells deeply cut into the rock wall the pillars being massive, octagonal shaft with square upper and lower parts. A row of pillars only 7 – feet high stands in the front façade with immense bracket. Soon roll cornices appeared above the pillars along with decorative motif borrowed, probably from the

Buddhist style63. In the Mamalla period free standing monolithic shrines cut–out of massive rock the rathas came into vogue. Further improvement is demonstrated in the provisions of well ornamented slender pillars with supporting squatting lions. What is more significant was the adoption of

'pyramidal' design with one pillared mandapam mounted on another.

There are ten mandapams in all each as tall as 15 to 20 feet with pillars forming the most graceful part of the structure. The lion motif as

the pillar base in some the curves of the melon capital, the lotus motif above and wide abacus in others point to the trend towards beautification, a principal aspect of which was the blending of sculptured figures with the architectural frame work. The Durga and Varaha mandapams amply prove this trend. Eight major cave temples with dvarapalakas on either side of the entrance are often singled out as being in a more complete state than the others. These are the Kotikal mandapam dedicated to Durga,

Dharmaraja mandapam with three Sanctorums Adivaraha cave, varaha cave, Ramanuja mandapam, the incomplete Mahishsuramardini cave

Trimurthi cave without mandapam and sanctorums and the five called

Koneri mandapam64.

The rathas fall into an entirely different category of architecture though making their appearance along with the improved cave temples.

The Mahabalipuram rathas, in so far as they foreshadow the Dravidian temple, mark a land mark South Indian architectural history. The five

Pandava rathas are objects of beauty, the Draupathi ratha being the smallest and simplest in style and the Dharmaraja ratha is the biggest.

Scooped from a monolithic rock and having multiple storeys each is different from the other. Wars not as much as weather, have caused the damage that cannot however diminish the beauty of this petite unfinished shrines. The missing items include numberless stupis on roofs at the upper levels, the noses on the faces of human and Godly figures, and

various limbs. The Chalukya invasions and battles in the region of Chennai not far from Mahabalipuram during the period of Mamalla may have resulted in some wanton destruction and cessation of work at the spot65.

The second phase of Pallava architectural development to which impetus was given by Narasimha-II of Rajasimha favoured the structural type of construction with slender pillars standing on rampant lions66. The style which came into prominence in the last quarter of the 7th century, had its rudimentary exposition in the Shore temple at Mahabalipuram and more substantially, in the Kailasanatha and Vaikuntaperumal temples at

Kanchipuram. Other features are large groupings of figures and increasing number of miniature panels.

Whether there is a tendency deification of royalty in these sculptures shrines and temples are better left to the perception of the beholder. It would not however be surprising if he were to be inclined to hold that one of the purposes of architecture, generally speaking, must have been to glorify kings and queens their rule and their achievements in peace and war. The impression is strengthened by the inscriptions on some of the monuments67. They describe not only the monuments the religious ideologies but describe the rulers and their work, not excluding their gifts, and list their titles, which are understandably, couched in superlative terms68.

Royalty comparing itself of ten by implication some time even directly to divinity is not uncommon. The Pallava rulers did not lack behind in this respect. Claiming parity with the Sun, Moon and Indira and mythological heroes like Arjuna, the monarchs did try to show of in their own stone records. Some scholars have seen in the Somaskanda panels as synthesis of the divine and the human, in other words, the trio in the panels as synthesis of the divine and the human, in other words the trio in the panels as representing either the divine family or King Rajasimha, his father and mother69. The scope for assigning a double meaning to a sculptured figure will be readily concerned by those familiar with the literacy device called Dhavani, adopted so defectively by Dandin, the

Sanskrit poet of the time, in the Dvisamadanakavya, as pointed out by

Michael lock wood, a leading researcher in Mahabalipuram studies70.

Before we get into a detailed study of Shore temple, we must know also the monolithic rathas has reliefs and some of the important sculptures along with Pallavas structural temples in detail which will add adjunct to this these. And thereby we can clearly understand how far the religious and mythological ideologies reflect in art form during the Pallava reign.

3-6 The temple

Temples are an essential part of believer’s life and contribute greatly to providing him solace and peace of mind. The ‘Murthi’ in every

temple’s sanctum is full of grace and blesses devotees who offer worship.

Each temple has a hoary legend associated with it.

Temples are the sacred places where we have the privilege of worshipping the Almighty in a form appealing to our thought and heart.

The omniscient and omnipotent God descends on to the earth to uphold

‘Dharma’ and protect the virtuous from the wicked whenever exigencies arise. It is described as Avathar or incarnation. In these incarnations, the

Lord performs many miracles to manifest. His greatness and to establish faith in the hearts of his devotees our ancestors have constructed temples to commemorate these incarnations and also the perpetuate the faith in

God. The Deity is installed in the temple to enable devotees to think of the greatness of God with undaunted faith that the deity installed there sanctifies the place to shower blessings on the devotees for all times to come. These temples are the sacred places of worship by means of which our thoughts are purified. Purification of thought it the sure way to get rid of our sins, egoism, and ensure purity of thought. Prayer protects us from falling a prey to the impulses of ‘Maya’ and makes us worthy of seeking liberation. Our ancestors have therefore laid stress on the importance of temple worship as a means of mental peace. It is no exaggeration to say that the pilgrims who visit Kanchi will carry the impression that those who have a glimpse of the glorious temple of Kanchi and offer prayers, in this

Mukthi shetra are indeed the blessed and are well on their path to reach the goal of life.

Kanchipuram is a granary of art and architecture. It is also the birth place of many saints and scholars. Sri Poigai Alwar, first among the

Alwars was born in this sacred city. Nayanmars like Sakkiya Nayanar,

Thirukurippu Thonda Nayanar, Iyadigal Kadavarkon lived in this city and attained salvation. The associations of renowned religious teachers like

SriAdi Sankara. Sri Mooka Sankar and Sri Ramanuja and eminent Acharyas like SriNigamantha Maha Desigar and Sri Manavalamamuni adds to the greatness of this holy city. Great devotees like Thirukachinambi and

Thirukachichiappa Sivacharya who are distinguished as the recipient of

God’s grace and the learned scholar Sri Parimelazhagar, repured for his commentary of ‘Thirukkural’ dwelled in this city. In defense to the Prayers of these noble souls affluent in God’s grace, the Almightly chose to perform many miracles in this holy city of Kanchi. Kanchi is therefore described as a theatre for God’s miracles.

Tamil Nadu is the name of a lyrical landscape which stretches from lower Andhra Pradesh to the tip of Kanyakumari, its lands watered by the

Pennaitar, Kaveri, Noyyal, Amaravati and other minor rivers which flow down from Mysore mountains to the north and the ghats of Kerala to the west with the Bay of Bengal washing its Eastern Shores and the Indian

Ocean kissing it on its chin. Tamil Nadu is truly called the haven of the

vibrant and live practitioners and legatees of the architectural heritage. It is a land of art treasury. Prior to the first known standing monuments like the cave-art of the Pallavas and Pandyas there was existence of structural forms of temples in very early times Tamilnadu. It is however clear by both direct evidence like 'Mandagappattu' record as well as indirect stylistic evidence that before temples of durable materials were erected, brick, mortar and timber were the media.

So it is obvious that, wood and brick had been used for constructions of secular as well as religious edifices in the earlier times. A change in this situation was clearly heralded, for the first times. A change in this situation was clearly heralded, for the first time in the early Pallava period.

The strong traditional association of stone with the dead, prevailing among the people of the South must have been a deterrent to the adoption of stone as material in temple building till about the close of the sixth century and in carving images of gods for worship till the first half of the seventh century.

As far as Kanchipuram is concerned, though we do not have any material evidence to show the existence of the monuments prior to the

Pallava period, we have a vivid word picture of it in the Sangam literature.

Mahendravarman - I, was really a Vichitrachitta (inventive or curious minded) who initiated the art of scooping out the rock for the abodes of Hindu deities, dotted in the suburb of Kanchipuram with many

such creations. Materially speaking we do not have any temple built by

Mahendravarman - I in Kanchipuram. But a pillar found in the ruined mandapa near the thousand pillared mandapa in the third prakara of the

Ekambareswara temple has an inscription in Pallava grantha characters of the 7th century A.D. which gives various birudas of Mahendravarman - I

(A.D. 580-630). This pillar must have evidently formed part of a structural temple of the time of Mahendravarman - I, probably built in the area.

The reign of Narasimhavarman - II, Rajasimha (A.D. 690-800) who bestowed his wealth to temples and Brahman as was popular in many respects. For art and architecture, this fairly sustained and peaceful reign was epoch making. In the sense that structural temples in stones were reared up for the first time an extensive scale. There are six or seven temples built at Kanchipuram besides four major temples at

Mamallapuram and one more at Panamalai, during his rule. Now let us see the Kanchipuram Pallava’s temple.

3-7 Kailasanatha temple

The Kailasanatha is the largest temple complex built by Rajasimha and added to by his son Mahendravarman - III in his father's life time. The main vimana of the Rajasimheswara is a typical Dravidian Style of square sikara type with four tiers, facing east, and its aditala is integrated with seven abutting sub-shrines, square ones in the four corners and oblong

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ones on the three sides on the diagonal and cardinal axial. All the sub shrines have independent entrances and enshrined icons.

The main vimana has a high adhisthana with moldings and excellent ornamentation. The Jagatai position of the adhisthana is embellished with friezes of bhutas, some with animal and some with demon faces. They are depicted in various poses of dance and merriment. The tripatta kumuda found over the Jagatai in the adhisthana is also exquisitely carved with various ornamentations. The wall of the temple has been adorned with vyala based plasters. Unlike the sculptures defined only in the cardinal niches, the whole wall has been crowded with number of beautiful sculptures making Kailasanatha temple as a veritable treasure house of saivite Iconographic forms. This is the richest of all Pallavas shrines in terms of figural decoration71.

The first and third tala has the usual hara with karnakutas and bhadrasalas, but the second tala has panjaras in addition to that, a pattern met with for the first time. The fourth tala has bull figures at the corners.

The octagonal griva shows figures of Siva Dakahinamurthy, Vishnu and

Brahma on the East, South West and North directions respectively. The sikara has Mahanasis on all eight of its faces72.

The garbhagraha has a Somaskanda panel on its rear wall obscured partially from view by the centrally placed eight foot prismatic dharalinga

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of black stone characteristic of Rajashimhas's time, in which such Lingas seem to have been introduced73.

In front of the main vimana there is a detached mandapa known as

Rajasimha mandapa. It is flat topped, with cantoning walls at the corners and pair of pillars at the intermediate openings of its four faces and with more such pillars in rows inside. Dvarapalakas appear in niches on the east, Lakshmi and Saraswathi on the south and Durga and Jyestha on the north74.

Standing in front in the same axial line is the Mahendravarman - III in his scheme of elaboration of his father's temple unit. It is a two tier vimana with wagon vaulted roof like sikhara known technically as sala sikara. It is also constructed in sandstone except the upana and Pattika of the adhisthana which is made out of granite slabs. This vimana contains a

Somaskanda panel on its rear wall and a prismatic Dharalinga of basalt in the centre of the floor of the sanctorum75.

Another interesting feature of the Kailasanatha complex is the fifty- eighth sub-shrine surrounding the main Rajasimheswara, forming a connected cloister like chain found the inner face of the prakara wall. All the sub shrines are of (except the two coming opposites the north south median axial line of the main vimana) two tiered square sikhara type, enshrining mostly the form of Siva either in painting or in bas relifs. The two exceptions are two tiered Nagara vimanas with wagon top roofs

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dedicated to Vishnu and Brahma. The external walls of these parivara shrines of the malika contain a verity of sculptures both Saivite and

Vaishnavite of varied iconography and plastic art. The sculpture includes the Dikpalas, Ganesa, Saptamatrika, Chandesa and other parivara deities76.

In front of the kailasanatha complex stands a row of dedicatory shrines of memorial vimanas, six to the left and two to the right of the main gopura entrance. The main objects of worship in these shrines are

Dharalinga, with the Somaskanda panel on the back wall. The exterior of the shrines also depict various saivite themes like somaskanda,

Lingodbhava, Kalari, Yogamurthi, Gajasamhara, Tripurantaka, and

Dakshinamurthi. Hara and others two of the North rows of shrines were gifted by two queens of Rajasimha the fifth in the row was clearly built by

Rangapataka the favourite queen of Rajasimha77.

3-8 Vaikuntaperumal temple

This temple is situated in the North east side of Kanchipuram. The

Vaikuntaperumal or Parameswara Vinnagaram is one of the magnificent creations during Nadivarman - II reign. It is a typical Dravidian vimana with four tiers, facing west with a frontal mukhamandapa, both standing over a tall adhisthana. The temple complex is surrounded by a cloister mandapa, externally walled by the prakara and internally colonnaded. The narrow path between it and the temple is served as an open circumambulatory path around the temple. The structure is built

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entirely of sandstone, the floor below the adhisthana and the pattika on its top above being of granite slabs. The three tiers below are functional, providing cells for three forms of Vishnu (sitting, standing and reclining) the top tier merely symbolic, without any opening, is a solid cube and provably added to beautify the temple in proportion to its base78.

All the three tiers have ambulatory passage, achieved by the system of three concentric walls successively increasing its height one behind the other, Up to the third tala, it has harmamala consisting of Karnatakutas, bhadrasalas and panjaras, whereas the fourth tier is devoid of the hara. It had formerly four lions at the corners, now replaced by four seated Garuda figures, both the Lion and Garuda being appropriate cognizances of

Vishnu. The cloister wall which is of lesser height than the first tier has haramala consisting of kutas and salas. The interior of this wall has depictions of the historical events which led to Nandivarma - II coming to the throne. It intercity by echoes the various procedures followed during the coronation of the king and also the contemporary social activities79.

The depiction of it historical event in the temple through initiated by

Rajasimha in the Shore temple at Mamallapuram, takes its perfection here.

The figures found on the vimana, ardhamandapa, walls and other places makes the temple a museum for studying conscious of beauty and with exquisite and seductive charm of the sculptures makes the art become sensuous and sophisticated, receives the admiration of every visitor.

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Lord Vaikunta Perumal dwells under Mukunda vimana in a sitting posture facing west. His consort is worshipped by the devotees with the sacred name ‘Sri Vaikuntavalli’. There are three tiers in this temple. In the lower, middle and upper tier, the Lord is seen in sitting, reposing and standing postures respectively. While circumambulating the main sannidhi, we come across treasure house of artistic sculptures. The life history of many Pallava Kings is portrayed here80.

If we reach the middle tier climbing up the steps, we see the Lord reposing on Adishesha, facing west with his Lotus feet, pointing towards the South. Inscriptions here reveal the Pallava King Nandivarman constructed this temple and also catalogue the names of other Pallava

Kings who undertook constructive works in this temple81.

The second historic Pallava temple in Kanchipuram is the Vaikuntha perumal considered as the “body of God” was built in 770 A.D. by

Nandivarman - II Pallavamalla (731 – 796). As Nandivarman given the title of Paramesvara at the time of his coronation, the temple is also known as “Paramesvara Vinnagaram” (the abode of Vishnu) as sung by

Tirumangai Alwar, the celebrated Vaishnava saint. The architecture of the temple is unique with three sanctums on the three floors one over the other and a concealed staircase leading to the upper floors. The three sanctums enshrine Vishnu in three postures seated, reclining and standing.

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The walls are adorned with fifty Sculptures, besides the panels depicting the history of the Pallavas, leading to the coronation of Nandivarman82.

Prof. Dennis Hudson of Smith College U.S who has done extensive research on South Indian temple architecture, found correlation here with the mandala scheme enunciated in the Bhagavata, explaining the doctrine of chaturvyauha (four formations), he identifies the central in die sanctum of the ground floor as Vasudeva facing west, i.e., the Earth, Sankarsna facing north, the realm of human life, Pradyumna facing east towards heaven and Aniruddha facing south the realm of ancestors. The sculptural scheme matches the pancharatra concept, representing the six glorious excellences and the 12 murthis (dwadasa – namas)83

On the ground floor, two covered pradaksinapathas surround the sanctum while lower most sanctum and its ardhamandapa surrounded by an open narrow ambulatory. The sanctum of the third floor represents the concept of space time, depicting Vasudeva in the human avatar of Lord

Krishna its three tier tower is around 20m high adorned with miniature buildings. The cellar, which house a statue of Vishnu, is preceded by a mandapa with two bays of four columns. The building as a whole is surrounded by a gallery, whose columns rise from the heads of rearing lions, this colonnade leaves too narrow a space for the spectator to be able to stand back from the building and look at the tower. It was intended to guide the processions of the faithful in their circumambulation. The walls

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of the gallery are covered in relief that illustrate the legendary battles between the Pallavas and their neighbours, the Chalukyas84.

It is on the walls of this platform the unique historical sculptures have been carved. Beneath thirteen of them, all on the south wall, there are explanatory labels in Tamil and eighth century inscription of Pallavas.

These panels depict the story of Pallavamalla’s accession to the throne after a disturbed interregnum, which has different interpretations.

Numerous inscriptions are found in this temple relating to the wars between Pallavas and Chalukyas. Besides these inscriptions, the battle scenes of the Pallavas with Ganegas and Chalukyas are depicted in bas relief around the main prakaram. The cloisters inside the outer wall consist of lion pillars and are representative of the first phase in the architectural evolution of the grand thousand pillar halls of later temples85.

The Brahmotsavam of this temple is celebrated in the asterism

Punarvasu in the month of Chitrai. Vaikunta Ekadasi Festival and Kaisika

Dwadasi Festival are celebrated in this temple popularly.

Pilgrims who visit this temple worship the Lord for cherishing the desires and carry with them the satisfaction of having seen treasure of sculptural beauty and the memory of the devotion of the mighty Pallava

Kings to Lord Sri Vaikuntanadha.

This temple stands as a monumental testimony to the splendid architectural skills of those times. Those architects executed a complicated

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plan with perfection in tune with the then prevailing norms. It is maintained by HR & CE Dept. and taken over by the Archaeological Dept. of

Indian Government.

3-9 Mukteswara and Matangeswara temple

The Mukteswara also called Dharmamahadevi Iswaram, after the name of Nandivarman - II queen, as revealed by the inscription found in the temple and the Matangeswara also constructed during the reign of

Nandivarman though found in two different places in Kanchi are alike in many respects. Both are square, three tier Vesara type vimana with circular griva and sikhara. These are the earliest extant temples to possess a circular griva and sikhara though the models of these forms are represented in the Bhima ratha, at Mamallapuram. Both the temples are standing with their front mandapa on a raised adhistana, which is again placed on upapita and the pattika over the adhistans, the whole temple is built of sandstone. First and second tiers, of both the temples have haramala consisting of karnakutas and salas. The third tier is devoid of haramala, but carries four nandis at the scorners86.

Sculpture on the walls of both temples is mostly sun relief. SriK.R.

Srinivasan is of the opinion that these may have been carved several years after the original construction.

In the Muktheeswar temple the deeds of the Divine are wonderful, and captivating. Sometimes God subjects His devotees to severe test with

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the intention of bringing their noble traits to light, to make the world recognize their greatness and the superiority of their devotion. The places where such divine acts of the Lord are exhibited considered sacred and temples are constructed there for the Lord in commemoration of that divine happening. Such divine sports are performed both by Lord Vishnu and Lord Siva. Such sports by Lord Vishnu are described as Leelas and those of Lord Siva as Thiruvilaiyadalgal87.

If Alwars have sung in praise of such Vaishnavite temples they are called Divyadesams. If the four Saiva Saints known as Naalvar have sung in praise of the Sivakshethras they are called padalpetra sthalangal the sacred places which were hailed by one or all of the four saints – Appar,

Thirugnanasambandar, Sundarar and Manickavasagar. The noble devotees graced by Lord Siva are known as Nayanmars. One such sacred place is Sri

Muktheeswarar temple in Kanchipuram and one such great devotee is Sri

Thirukuripputhonda Nayanar88.

Once there lived a washer man in Kanchipuram who was a devout saivite with remarkable traits and virtue. There was no trace of egoism whatsoever in him. He used to render selfless service to all devotees of

Lord Siva by guessing their bent of mind correctly with intuition and fulfilling their immediate needs. Hence he became popularly known as

“Thirukuripputhondar”. His usual service was to wash the clothes of the

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devotees of Lord Siva who came on pilgrimage to Kanchipuram. He used to do this service voluntarily without expecting any return benefit89.

Once in winter season, Thirukuripputhondar met an aged devotee of

Siva whose lustrous body was completely besmeared by sacred ash. But he was wearing dirty tattered clothes. Thirukuripputhondar was deeply moved by this sight. He prostrated before the old man and requested him to grant him the privilege of washing his robes for him. The aged devotee of Siva had no spare dress to rely on and so hesitantly agreed to entrust the job to Thirukuripputhondar provided he would undertake to handover the washed clothes back to him before sunset so he would not be made to expose himself to the biting cold of the winter night. Agreeing to this,

Thirukuripputhondar collected the tattered dirty clothes of the aged devotee and went to the tank to wash them. He took great care to prevent them well and kept them spread for drying in the bright sunshine89A

A few moments later, the sky was overcast and there was a heavy downpour of rain. The unexpected non seasonal rain dampened the wet clothes and disheartened Thirukuripputhondar. He simply stood gazing at the sky. As it was drawing towards sunset, Thirukuripputhondar body trembled in the cold while his mind trembled in fear at the thought of committing the sin of breaking promise to the aged devotee.

The very thought of the old man shivering in bitter cold, approaching the thondar for the washed clothes and his inability to

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handover the same made Thirukuripputhondar tremble in dismay. Like all noble souls who prefer to shed their lives rather than dishonor the plighted word, Thirukuripputhondar decided to commit suicide by striking his head against the granite stone used for washing the clothes. At that moment, Lord Siva appeared before him to make a timely intervention and reveal that the aged devotee was none other than Himself. Lord Siva praised the noble qualities of Thirukuripputhondar and asked him to continue, his noble service assuring him of mukthi or liberation at the end.

Lord Siva consecrated in the temple on the spot where this Thiruvilaiyadal occurred came to be called ‘Muktheeswarar’ and Thirukuripputhondar came to be known as Thirukurippu Tondanayanar90.

Pilgrims to Kanchi visit the temple of Sri Muktheeswarar and carry with then the thoughts of the noble service of Thirukuripputhondanayanar and the abundance of Grace of Lord Muktheeswarar registering the saying in their mind that service to Humanity is the real Service to God.

3-10 Ekamparanatha temple

The Sri Ekamparanatha temple is of hoary antiquity. Beginning as a small fane, it has grown over the centuries into a large one of over 12.14 hectares, with innumerable shrines, mandapa, gopuras and tanks. A Siva

Linga with 1008 small lingas, idols of Vishnu and Nataraja are highlights of this temple. This is one of the most ancient temples in India and has been in existence even prior to 600 A.D. This vast temple with high rising

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gopurams dominates the skyline of Kanchipuram. Siva is the presiding deity here, worshipped as Prthivi Lingam, symbolizing earth, one of the five primordial elements. Kanchipuram is thus known as Prthviksetra. No separate shrine for Parvati exists here. Pallavas, Cholas and Vijayanagar kings especially Krishnadevaraya contributed much to the construction and development of this temple. The details of contribution of various dynasties are as follows91.

Karikala Cholan constructed a mandapam for Ekambaranathar the single mango tree in 190 A.D. The palace of Bappa was situated in front at a distance of a kilometer, on the banks of Vegavati. Narasimhavarman - II renovated the existing temple covering 30 acres with five prakarams.

Varador donated some villages to the temple Sarvatheertha kulam was constructed near the temple bath. Sarvatheertha kulam is now at the outskirts of the town. Krishnadevaraya built the main gopuram in 10 tiers with 540 thittkal to a height of 188 feet, the tallest tower among the

South India temples92.

The name of the Lord Ekampara is derived from an ancient mango tree of unusual properties with four branches representing the four Vedas.

Each leaf is of different shape, and each branch bears fruits that taste differently. This tree also grants boons especially to ladies for bearing children. Although these mangoes were sold (each as high as rupees forty) well at one time, today it is facing decay without bearing any

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fruits. Adjacent to the trunk of this hallowed tree lies a mini temple to kumaraswamy known as Mavadi Kandam, the Skanda of the sacred mango93.

The nomenclature of Ekampara is derived from “Kamba” or pillar, a synonym for the pillar of fire or “Sthanu” a well known name of Lord Siva.

Further, Goddess Parvati once worshipped a Linga of earth in the bed of streamlet the kampa, flowing near the Kanchimayanam, now a shrine in the temple. To test her devotion, the Lord causes freshen in the river.

In her anxiety to save the Linga from being washed away, she hugged it to her bosom. Delighted by the act Lord Siva married her. All the four principal Nayanmars have sung about Lord Ekamresvara with Thevaram songs. Idols for 63 Nayanmars along with the Utsavamurthis (processional idols) are also installed here94.

The temple has five prakaras and a huge mandapa with thousand pillars (only 616 survive today) near this were found some columns with honorifics of Mahendra - I Pallava carved on them they are now in the

Chennai Museum. Elsewhere in the temple there is a shrine for Sage

Agasthya referred by King Mahendra in his well known Sanskrit farce

Matta Vilasa Prahasana. The temple’s later history is equally glorious.

Epigraphs record donations by the Cholas, (among whom Kulottunga - III was prominent the Telugu Cholas, and the Vijayanagaraking.

Krishnadevaraya built the massive outer gopura of nine storeys (58.5m

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high) in 1509 A.D. An image of him and another of his consort appear in the gopuras95.

The temple was used as a fortress during the campaign which culminated in Robert Clive’s famous defense of Arcot. There are signs of hits by cannon balls on the main gopura. A part of the wall near this tower was rebuilt in 1799 A.D. by Hodson the then Collector of Chengalpattu district. There are some join reliefs also on this wall95A.

The glory of Lord Ekampareswara has been extolled by Saints

Tirugnansambandar, Appar, Sundarar and Manickavasagar known as the great four or Nalwar in their divine songs, Muthuswami Dikshatar of the trinity of Karanatik music and Pattinathar have also song in praise of his glory. Details of this temple could be found in Periapuranam,

Kanchipuranam, Manimekalai and Matthavilasa Prahasanm. The temple is very famous for its sculpture96.

The temple has the tallest tower in Kanchi with a height of 58 meters or 192 feet. This 9 tier Rajagopuram was constructed by Sri

Krishnadevaraya, the Emperor of Vijayanagar in 1509. Pilgrims coming to

Kanchi from Chennai via Poovirundavalli and Sri Perumpudur could see this gopuram even from a long distance97.

In the first inner prakara, we come across the sannidhi of Goddess

Mahapralayabandhini. Adjacent to this, we have the processional deity as

Somaskandar. Adjoining this, we see the trunk of the mango tree which is

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the sacred Sthalavriksha. The four Vedas are supposed to be its branches.

It is here that Katyayani worshipped Siva. This 60 feet tall tree is more than 3500 years old. It yields fruits of four different tastes from its four different branches. When Markandeya survived a deluge, this tree, itself a manifestation of the Lord’s from, supported him. At the trunk of the tree,

Lord Siva with “Chinmudra” dwells as Somaskandar. Under this peetam we have darshan of Kamakshi in penance, Lingodbavar and the Goddess embracing the Lord Mavadiseva98. In the garbhagrha, Lord Siva is seen as

Prithivilingam, adorned by a silver Kavacham or covering. As the idol is made of sand, it is only the pedestal of the lingam that is anointed

During the periods of Chola, Pallava and Vijayanagara Empires, Lord

Hudson, Collector of Chengalpattu District, under British rule in 1799 and

Natukkottai Nagarathars in 1900 carried out many construction works in the temple. Recently, in 1979 and 2007 the Mahakumbabishekam was performed. With the blessings of His Holiness Jagadguru Sri

Sankaracharya, Sri Jeyandra Saraswathi Swamigal, the 69th Pontiff of Sri

Kanchi Kamakoti Peetam a number of kainkaryamas are carried out by the devotees now and the along with the improvements carried out by the

H.R. & C.E. Department of the Government of Tamil Nadu and by the general public99.

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3-11 Piravataneswara temple

The Piravataneswara temple is built out of coarse sandstone. It is a small two storeyed square based vimana of the typical Dravidian architectural order. The walls have cantoning and intermediate pilasters, based a rearing vyalas, characteristic of Rajasimha pillars. The first tala

(tier) carries a hara of four karnakutas and four bhadrasalas. The second tala (tier) is devoid of the haras, the bhutas or nandis at the corner. The adhisthana is raised over an upapitha with pilaster decorations and top granite slab and consists of the upana. Jagatai, tripattakumuda kantha and

Pattika, which again is of granite slabs. The kantha, projected forward at intervals below the wall pilasters, a feature rather rare in Rajasimha's time, is truly the imitation of the basal wooder support for the broad based and pillar bases100.

The shrine walls have niches (Devakosthas) with toranas above.

The devakostha to the South contains the Dakahinamurhti form, on north and east are the forms of Siva with Brahma and Vishnu as attendants. The ardhamandapa also has Devakosthas. The northern niche contains the image of Durga, whereas the southern niche has the image of Gajalakshmi.

Ganesa also appears on the superstructure of this temple and was a new creation of Rajasimha in the Pallava iconography or sculpture. The sanctum rear wall has a bas-relief of Somaskanda. Stylistically this temple can be dated as earlier to all the temples of Rajasimha at Kanchipuram101.

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3-12 Airavateswara temple

Airavateswara temple, also built out of sandstone, has lost its superstructure. The adhistana of thesquare sikara body resting on upapitha with a granite pattika on the top. Like other temples of

Rajasimha, the wall of this temple is also embellished with rearing vyala based pilasters. The cordinal niches have the images of Brahma on the north, Vishnu on the east and Dakshnamurthi on the south. An image of

Durga appears on the north ardhamandapa wall and a form of Siva is found on the southern wall. Interior of the ardhamandapa is also decorated with panels like Kalari and a Natamurti of Siva. A Somaskanda panel is carved on the back wall of the garbhagraha102.

I have enclosed table showing the important rock – cut caves, monolithic rathas and structural temples of the Pallava periods in the succeeding pages.

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3-13 TABLE OF SHOWING THE IMPORTANT ROCK – CUT CAVES MONOLITHIC RATHAS AND STRUCTURAL TEMPLES. 1. ROCK – CUT CAVES

Sl. Phase Name of the cave Location Style No 1 I Lakshitthan Mandagapathu Mahendravarman

2 ,, Panchapandaavar Pallavaram ,,

3 ,, Uruthiravaleeshnar Mamandur –II ,,

4 ,, Mamandur – cave Mamandur –I ,,

5 ,, Kalmandapa koil Kuranganilmuttam ,,

6 ,, Vasantheswaram koil Vallam – I ,,

7 ,, Mahendravishnugragam Mahedravadi ,,

8 ,, Sathrumallan koil Thalavanoor ,,

9 ,, Avanipasanan koil Seeyamangalam ,,

10 ,, Lalithanguran koil Trichirappalli ,,

11 ,, Punchapandavar koil Vilappakkam ,,

12 ,, Unifished Mandapa Aragandanallur ,,

13 ,, Jaina koil Siththannavasal ,,

14 ,, Sivan koil Thirukokarnam ,,

15 ,, Monolithic mandapa Thirukalukuntram Mamalla

16 II Kodikal mandapa Mamallapuram ,,

17 ,, Darmaraja mandapa Mamallapuram ,,

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18 ,, Narasimhan koil Singapermal koil Mahendravarman

19 II Aranganathar koil Singavaram Mahendravarman

20 ,, Sigari palleeswaram Melaicheri Parames varavarman 21 ,, Unfinished small caves Mamandur -IV ,,

22 ,, Unfinished Big cave Mamandur -III ,,

23 ,, Adirana santha Saluvankuppam ,, mandapam 24 ,, Vishnumandapa Keelmaa vilangai ,,

25 ,, Sivamandapa Vallam –II ,,

26 ,, Vishnumandapa Vallam –III ,,

27 ,, Konerimandapa Mamallapuram ,,

28 ,, Varahamandapa ,, ,,

29 ,, Mahisasuramardini ,, ,, mandapa 30 ,, Thirumurthimandapa ,, ,,

31 ,, Unfinished Tigercave ,, ,,

32 ,, Unfinished cave –I ,, ,,

33 ,, Unfinished cave – II ,, ,,

34 ,, Adivaragan cave ,, ,,

35 ,, Ramanuja mandapa ,, ,,

36 ,, Yazhi cave ,, ,,

37 ,, Small Yazhi mandapa ,, ,,

38 ,, Mahishasuran cave ,, ,,

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II MONOLITHIC RATHAS

Sl. Name of the Rathas Location Style No. 1 Draupatha rathas Mamallapuram Mamalla

2 Arjuna ratha ’’ ’’

3 Bima ratha ’’ ’’

4 Dharmaraja ratha ’’ ’’

5 Ganesa ratha ’’ ’’

6 Valayankuttai ratha ’’ ’’

7 Pitari ratha I - II ’’ ’’

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III. STRUCTURAL TEMPLE

S.No Name of the Temple Location Style 1 Dhalagireeswarar Temple Panaimalai Rajasimhan

2 Siva Temple Mamallapuram ’’

3 Mukuntanayanar Temple ’’ ’’

4 Shore Temple ’’ ’’

5 Kailasanatha Temple Kanchipuram ’’

6 Vaikunthperumal Temple ’’ ’’

7 Perumal Temple Kuram Nandivarman

8 Vadamalleeswaran Temple Orakadam ’’

9 Verrattaneswaran Temple Thiruthani ’’

10 Parasurameswar Temple Gudimallam ’’

11 Mukteswara Temple Kanchipuram ’’

12 Madankesnaran Temple ’’ ’’

13 Triparantakeswaran Temple ’’ ’’

14 Iravadeswaran Temple ’’ ’’