4 ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC BASELINE

4.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter provides a description of the current environmental and socio- economic situation against which the potential impacts of the Jubilee Field Phase 1 development can be assessed and future changes monitored. The chapter presents an overview of the aspects of the environment relating to the surrounding area in which the Jubilee Field Phase 1 development will take place and which may be directly or indirectly affected by the proposed project. This includes the Jubilee Unit Area, the Ghana marine environment at a wider scale and the six districts of the Western Region bordering the marine environment.

The Jubilee Unit Area and its regional setting are shown in Figure 4.1. The project area is approximately 132 km west-southwest of the city of Takoradi, 60 km from the nearest shoreline of Ghana, and 75 km from the nearest shoreline of Côte d’Ivoire.

Figure 4.1 Project Location and Regional Setting

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-1 The baseline description draws on a number of primary and secondary data sources. Primary data sources include recent hydrographic studies undertaken as part of the exploration well drilling programme in the Jubilee field area, as well as an Environmental Baseline Survey (EBS) which was commissioned by Tullow and undertaken by TDI Brooks (2008). An electronic copy of the EBS is attached to this EIS. It is noted that information on the offshore distribution and ecology of marine mammals, turtles and offshore pelagic fish is more limited due to limited historic research in offshore areas.

Secondary data sources include various research studies and published literature including socio-economic data from the District profiles provided by the District administrations, the latest published population and housing census, and living standards surveys. It is noted that many of these sources are not totally current and are currently under revision.

This chapter is structured in three main parts including a separate section on fisheries given its importance and potential interactions with the project. The chapter is organised as follows:

Environmental Baseline: • Climate and Meteorology; • Hydrography and Oceanography; • Bathymetry and Seabed Topography; • Water and Sediment Quality; • Fauna and Flora; • Habitat Types; • Nature Conservation and Protected Areas.

Fisheries Baseline: • Fisheries Regulatory Framework; • Fish Landings; • Fisheries Infrastructure; • Industrial Fleets; • Fish Biomass.

Socio-economic Baseline: • Administrative Structures; • Demographics; • Livelihoods; • Education; • Health; • Social Infrastructure and Services.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-2 4.2 ENVIRONMENTAL BASELINE

4.2.1 Climate and Meteorology

The regional climate in the Gulf of Guinea is influenced by two air masses, one over the Sahara desert (tropical continental) and the other over the Atlantic Ocean (maritime). These two air masses meet at the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and the characteristics of weather and climate in the region are influenced by the seasonal migration of the ITCZ (Figure 4.2).

During the boreal winter months, the tropical continental air from the northern anticyclone over the Sahara brings in north-easterly trade winds which are dry and have a high dust load (on occasion these penetrate over the Atlantic as far south as 2°N in January). These winds bring a period of dry weather over the region.

The northward migration of the ITCZ (during boreal summer) results in warm humid maritime air reaching further inland over the region. In March, the ITCZ is located between 9°N and 12°N and by May-June, it is located approximately between 15°N and 16°N. During these periods, the region generally experiences the rainy seasons. The most northerly limit of the ITCZ is approximately 18-24°N and occurs between July and August.

In general, two seasons are characteristic of the climate in the region, namely the dry and wet seasons. The occurrence of these seasons corresponds with periods when the tropical continental and maritime air masses, and their associated winds, influence the region. The peak of the rainy season occurs from May to July and again between September and November. The maximum northern location of the ITCZ between July and August creates an irregular dry season over the region, whereby rainfall and temperatures decline. Meso-scale disturbances which also influence weather patterns in the region include thermal convections, resulting in showery weather over large areas and line squalls (storms) which usually move from east to west or north- east to south-west.

Annual rainfall in the region ranges from 730 mm to 3,500 mm with rainfall figures decreasing from the coast inland. The annual percentage of rainy days is generally greater than 60 percent. Solar radiation in the region generally varies between 275 and 300 Langley units (ly) per day during the rainy season and about 300 and 350 ly per day during the dry season. The distribution of solar radiation and temperature follow the same pattern in the region. Diurnal temperature range in the region is between 26°C and 33°C while the annual variation in temperature ranges is relatively small, ranging between 2°C and 4°C. Mean values of relative humidity for the region are high, generally more than 60 percent throughout the year but may be as greater than 80 percent in the mornings.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-3 Figure 4.2 Location of the Intertropical Convergence Zone during January and July

Source: Noble Denton, 2008

Specific climate and weather information for the Jubilee Field is drawn from Noble-Denton(1) (2008) metocean report and from Ghana meteorological recording stations located in Takoradi and Axim in the Western Region. Takoradi and Axim are the only coastal towns with long term climatic data within the vicinity of the Jubilee Field. The coastal parts of the Western Region are influenced by the dry North-East Trade Winds and the wet South- West Monsoon Winds of West Africa.

(1) Noble-Denton was appointed by Tullow to undertake a broad scale desk study of the meteorology and oceanography of the area in line with the appropriate recommended practice. Wind, wave and current data was available from a variety of

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-4 Rainfall

Takoradi and Axim experience rainfall throughout the year. A bi-modal pattern is observed with peaks in May-June and October (Figure 4.3). Axim, however, records twice as much precipitation as Takoradi during the peak periods. Mean peak value for Takoradi in May-June is about 210 mm and the mean peak value for Axim is about 460 mm, normally in June. Both stations experience lowest rainfall in January of 23 mm and 51 mm for Takoradi and Axim respectively. Rainfall over the sea is similar to that over land with the months of highest observed rainfall in May-June and September-October (Noble-Denton, 2008). Table 4.1 below shows monthly percentages of rainfall over the sea.

Figure 4.3 Average Monthly Rainfall for Takoradi and Axim from 1999 to 2008.

Takoradi Rainfall Axim Rainfall

250 500 450 200 400 350 150 300 250 100 200

Avg. rainfall (mm) 150 Avg. rainfall (mm) rainfall Avg. 50 100 50 0 0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Months Months

Source: Ghana Meteorological Service Department

Table 4.1 Monthly Percentage of Rainfall over the Sea

Month % rainfall Month % rainfall Observations observations January 2 July 8 February 4 August 5 March 7 September 14 April 10 October 21 May 14 November 11 June 13 December 9 Source: Noble-Denton, 2008

Temperature and Relative Humidity

Temperature patterns in Takoradi and Axim are generally similar and annual temperatures range between 24 and 30°C (Figure 4.4). Temperature is generally high from February to May and from November to December with peak temperatures recorded in March. Lower temperatures for the two areas were recorded between June and October with the coolest month usually

sources leading to reasonably reliable results. Data sources included satellite measurements, computer simulations (Global Wave Model), Voluntary Observing Fleet (VOF), atlases and publications (average conditions and extremes).

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-5 being August. The 10 year average for Takoradi and Axim was 24.9ºC and 28.3°C respectively between 1998 and 2008.

Figure 4.4 Monthly Average Temperature for Takoradi and Axim from 1999 to 2008

Takoradi Temperature Axim Temperature 29 29 29 28 28 28

) 27 27 27 26 26 26

25 Temp (oC) Avg. Avg. Temp (oC 25

24 25 24 23 24 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Months Months

Source: Ghana Meteorological Service Department

Mean monthly relative humidity (RH) values for early morning (at 0600 GMT) and mid-afternoon (at 1500 GMT) for Takoradi and Axim are presented in Figure 4.5. The morning values range from 89.7 percent to 93.7 percent and 94.0 percent to 96.6 percent for Axim and Takoradi respectively. This suggests a westward decrease in morning humidity regimes.

Figure 4.5 Average Monthly Relative Humidity for Takoradi and Axim from 1999 to 2008

Relative Humidity for Takoradi Axim Relative Humidity

120 120 0600 GMT 1500 GMT 0600 GMT 1500 GMT 100 100

80 80

60 60

40 40 AvgRel Humididy (%) Avg Rel Humididy (%) 20 20

0 0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Months Months

Source: Ghana Meteorological Service Department

Humidity showed an inverse relationship with temperature whereby an increase in temperature resulted in decreased humidity (Figure 4.6). Humidity over the sea, according to the US Navy Marine Climatic Atlas of the World, varies between 80 and 85 percent throughout the year.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-6 Figure 4.6 Relationship Between Average Monthly Humidity (Columns) and Temperature (Line) for Takoradi and Axim from 1999 to 2008

Takoradi Humidity versus Temperature Axim Humidity versus Temperature

84 29.0 84 29.0 82 82 28.0 28.0 80 80 78 78 27.0 27.0 76 76 26.0 74 26.0 74 72 25.0 72 25.0 70 Avg. Humidity (%) Avg. Humidity (%)

70 68 (oC) Temperature Avg. Avg. Temperature (oC) Temperature Avg. 24.0 24.0 68 66 64 23.0 66 23.0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Months Months Humidity Temperature Humidity Temperature Source: Ghana Meteorological Service Department

Wind

Surface atmospheric circulation in the region is largely influenced by north and south trade winds and the position of the ITCZ. Extreme winds are caused by squalls (storms), associated with the leading edge of multi-cell thunderstorms.

Offshore wind data sources included two hindcast models, NOAA’s NCEP(1) atmospheric model re-analysis as well as WANE (2) data from three locations in the vicinity of the Jubilee field. These datasets show the same predominant south-western wind direction, with average wind speeds of 3.7 - 4.0 m/s and maximum winds speeds of 8.8 - 10.8 m/s. There is very little difference in wind speeds and directions over the course of the year. Monthly wind roses generated using the WANE dataset is provided in Figure 4.7 (see Annex D for further details).

Onshore wind direction for Takoradi and Axim are generally south-westerly. However, inter-annual variability in direction occurs for some months. The average monthly wind speed for the two areas ranges between 2 and 4 knots (Figure 4.8).

(1) Hindcast wind data was obtained at a 10 m height for the Ghana offshore region from NOAA’s National Centres for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) atmospheric model re-analysis. Two NCEP stations are located in the in the vicinity of the Jubilee Unit area and provide winds for the time period of 1985 to 2009. (2) West Africa Met-Ocean Normals and Extremes wind file (WANE 28780). WANE, an Oceanweather product, is a South Atlantic wind, wave and current database of model-generated time series data. It comprises a continuous, 10-year (18 years for the wind and wave data) hindcast study, as well as summary reports and statistics.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-7 Figure 4.7 Wind Rose of Monthly Averaged WANE Wind Data Offshore Ghana

2009/4/17 WO028780.WNE Lon(Deg) Lat(deg) Start Date End Date days Sample Time -3.13 4.38 1985/1/1 1999/12/31 5477 3hrs (wind from) LEGEND speed North 0.1 knots 0.3 40 20 Period Percentage Yearly 50 30 10 % Calm 0.5 % Calm 0 0.7 1 5 0.9 2010 43817 Sample Count 17.0 Max.Speed(knots) 7.7 Ave.Speed(knots)

January February March % Calm % Calm % Calm 0 0 0

3720 3384 3720 16.0 16.0 17.0 8.2 8.8 8.4

April May June % Calm % Calm % Calm 0 0 0

3600 3720 3600 15.0 15.0 15.0 8.0 7.4 7.6

July August September % Calm % Calm % Calm 0 0 0

3720 3720 3600 15.0 15.0 14.0 8.1 7.5 7.4

October November December % Calm % Calm % Calm 0 0 0

3720 3600 3713 14.0 13.0 16.0 7.6 6.9 7.2 Source: ASA 2009

Figure 4.8 Average Monthly Wind Speed for Takoradi and Axim from 1999 to 2008

Takoradi wind speed Axim wind speed

5 4 4.5 4 4 3 3.5 3 3 2.5 2

2 2 1.5 1

Avg. windAvg. (knots) speed 1 Avg. wind speed (knots) 1 0.5 0 0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Months Months

Source: Ghana Meteorological Service Department

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-8 4.2.2 Hydrography and Oceanography

The oceanography of the Gulf of Guinea comprises the principal water types of the South Atlantic, but is largely influenced by the meteorological and oceanographic processes of the South and North Atlantic Oceans, principally their oceanic gyral currents (Fontaine et al, 1999; Merle and Arnault, 1985). Surface waters are warm (24 - 29 ºC) with the daily sea surface temperature (SST) cycle showing annual variability. Hydrographic data collected in the Gulf of Guinea indicate that a thermal cycle occurs only in the upper two elements of the water column which together comprise the tropical surface water mass. The oceanic gyral currents of the North and South Atlantic Oceans spurn a counter current, the Equatorial Counter Current (ECC) which flows in an eastward direction. This ECC becomes known as the Guinea Current as it runs from Senegal to Nigeria.

Stratification of Water Masses

Water masses offshore the Ghanaian coast consist of five principal layers (Longhurst, 1962). The topmost layer is the Tropical Surface Water (TSW), warm and of variable salinity which extends down to a maximum of about 45 m depending on the seasonal position of the thermocline. Below the thermocline (which varies from 5 to 35 m) occurs the South Atlantic Central Water (SACW, cool and high salinity) down to a depth of about 700 m. Below this are consecutively, three cold layers, namely the Antarctic Deep Water (ADP, 700-1,500 m), the North Atlantic Deep Water (NADP, 1,500-3,500 m) and the Antarctic Bottom Water (ABW, 3,500-3,800). SSTs typically vary between 27 - 29°C, although strong seasonal cooling occurs during the season related to coastal upwelling processes.

Data available from the World Ocean Atlas and the US Navy Marine Climatic Atlas of the World (NOCD, 1995) shows the mean monthly water temperature at various water depths in Ghana waters (Figure 4.9). Surface waters are generally much warmer than waters at greater depths.

Upwelling

Upwelling is the term used when cold, nutrient-rich, water moves from depth up to the surface, resulting in increased plankton productivity in the surface waters. The major upwelling season along the Ghana coast occurs from July through to September/October, while a minor upwelling occurs between December and January/February (see Figure 4.9 for water temperature profiles). The rest of the year is characterised by a strong thermocline, which fluctuates in depth between 10 and 40 m. The increased plankton productivity during the periods of major and minor upwelling attract pelagic fish species into the upper layers of the water column, thereby increasing fish catch (eg Sardinella fishery). The effect of upwelling on primary productivity is illustrated in Figure 4.10, which shows productivity as estimated from satellite imagery during upwelling (August) and non-upwelling (April) seasons. It is noted that this upwelling is widespread throughout the Gulf of Guinea.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-9 Figure 4.9 Vertical Profile of Water Temperature Offshore Ghana

Source: Adapted from Noble-Denton, 2008

Figure 4.10 Primary Productivity (mg C m-2 d-1) Offshore Ghana During August and April

Source: Sea Around Us Project, 2008

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-10 An upwelling index has been developed which is a product of the upwelling duration (change in time) and intensity (change in temperature) which shows a strong positive correlation with fish catches in the region. Regular beach temperature monitoring has revealed that the upwelling intensity is greater within the vicinity of Takoradi where sea surface temperatures are usually lower than elsewhere in Ghanaian waters.

Currents

The principal current along the Ghana coastline is the Guinea Current, which is an offshoot of the Equatorial Counter Current (EEC). The ECC (Figure 4.11) is driven by westward wind stress. When this subsides during February to April and October to November, the direction of the ECC is reversed. A small westward flowing counter current lies beneath the Guinea Current. Below 40 m depth the westward flowing counter current turns to the south-west with velocities ranging between 0.5 m/s to 1.0 m/s and 0.05 m/s to 1.02 m/s near the bottom. The cold subsurface water could be a branch of the Benguela Current that penetrates and dominates the ECC.

Figure 4.11 Equatorial Counter Current

Source: Noble-Denton, 2008

The Guinea Current (Figure 4.12) reaches a maximum strength between May and July during the strongest South-West Monsoon Winds when it peaks at 1 to 2 knots [approximately 1 m/s]. For the rest and greater part of the year, the current is weaker. Near the coast, the strength of the current is attenuated by locally generated currents and winds. The current is less persistent near-shore than farther offshore. Geotropic effects(1) induce the tendency of the Guinea Current to drift away from the coast especially during its maximum strength.

(1) Geotropic currents result from the balance between gravitational forces and the Coriolis Effect.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-11 Figure 4.12 The Guinea Current

Source: Noble-Denton, 2008

The coastal surface currents are predominantly wind-driven and are confined to a layer of 10 to 40 m thickness. The direction of tidal current around the coast of Ghana is mostly north or north-east. The velocity of the tidal current is generally less than 0.1 m/s and the maximum velocity of tidal current observed in a day of strong winds is about 0.5 m/s. The wave induced longshore currents are generally in the west to east direction which is an indication of the direction the waves impinge the shoreline. The longshore currents average approximately 1 m/s and vary between 0.5 and 1.5 m/s. The magnitude increases during rough sea conditions.

Local currents were assessed from data collected using Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler (ADCP) and WANE predicted currents. ADCP current data was collected at two sites located in the Jubilee Field during two deployment periods, covering one continuous time span of approximately six months from September 2008 to March 2009. Observations near the surface were only available for one of the ADCP sites. Between September and November, surface currents exhibited a strong westward component while surface currents become generally weaker and have a more eastward orientation from December. The WANE currents data exhibit a strong easterly component near the surface and do not show the westward trend in the surface currents noted in the ADCP data.

Currents at depths greater than 50 m were weaker than surface currents and did not display any consistent directional trends. Similar to the ADCP currents, the WANE currents also show decreasing speed with depth. The exception to this is the strong north-northeast to south-southwest orientation of currents near the bottom, particularly noticeable at the Mahogany-1 well

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-12 site. It is thought that these anomalous observations may be related to tidal currents in the deep waters.

Waves

Waves reaching the shores of Ghana consist of swells originating from the oceanic area around the Antarctica Continent and seas generated by locally occurring winds (Noble-Denton, 2008). The significant height (Figure 4.13) of the waves generally lies between 0.9 m and 1.4 m and rarely attains 2.5 m or more. The most common amplitude of waves in the region is 1.0 m but annual significant swells could reach 3.3 m in some instances. Swells attaining heights of approximately five to six meters occur infrequently with a 10 to 20 year periodicity. The peak wave period for the swells generally falls in the range of seven to fourteen. The swell wave direction is almost always from the south or south-west. Other observations on the wave climate include a long swell of distant origin with wavelengths varying between 160 and 220 m. This swell has a primary period of 12 seconds and a relatively regular averaged height between 1 to 2 m. The swells generally travel from south- west to north-east.

Figure 4.13 Significant Wave Height Offshore Ghana

Note: Outline of Cape Three Points and Deepwater Tano concession blocks are shown in Figure. Source: Noble-Denton, 2008

Tides

The tide on the coast of Ghana is regular and semi-diurnal (Figure 4.14). The average range varies along the coast, as shown in Table 4.2 for the main cities. As can be seen, the tidal wave has virtually the same phase across the coast of the country. The average range of Neap and Spring tides increases from west

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-13 to east. Tidal currents are low and have an insignificant influence on coastal processes except within tidal inlets. Other possible sources of intermittent increases of local water levels include line squalls and the transfer of energy from internal to surface tides. These processes could result in additional increases of about 0. 30 m.

Figure 4.14 Astronomical Tide in 4°N 2.5°W in October 2007

Source: Noble-Denton 2008

Table 4.2 Tidal Range for the Coast of Ghana

Location Tidal Range (m) Phase Neap Mean Spring Takoradi 0.58 0.90 1.22 107° Accra 0.62 0.94 1.26 107° Tema 0.64 0.96 1.28 107° Aflao 0.68 1.00 1.32 108°

4.2.3 Bathymetry and Seabed Topography

The Jubilee Field is located on the continental shelf offshore Ghana in water depths of 1,100 to 1,700 metres. The continental shelf (200 m water depth contour) has a generally regular bathymetry with isobaths running parallel to the coast. The continental shelf is at its narrowest (20 km wide) off Cape St. Paul in the east and at its widest (90 km) between Takoradi and Cape Coast in the west (Armah and Amlalo, 1998). The shelf drops off sharply at about the 75 m depth contour.

Ghana’s nearshore area comprises various sediment types, varying from soft sediment (mud and sandy-mud), sandy bottom to hard bottoms (Martos et al, 1991) (Figure 4.15). On the continental shelf, seabed sediments range from coarse sand on the inner shelf to fine sand and dark gray mud on the outer shelf (Armah et al, 2004).

Sediments on the shelf and upper continental slope are predominantly terrigenous (derived from erosion of rocks from land), with smaller amounts

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-14 of glauconite-rich (iron silicate) sediments, and biogenic carbonate from mollusc shells. Offshore the mouth of the Volta River is a large submarine delta formed by river deposits. This is incised by a radial canyon system consisting of eight canyons (Nibbelink and Huggard, 2002). The delta is located a away from the Jubilee Field.

Seabed surveys undertaken by Gardline Surveys(1) (2008) indicated that the seabed in the Jubilee Field comprise of soft to firm clays and silts that form a generally smooth and sloping seabed to the south-west (Figure 4.16). The Jubilee Unit is crossed by three submarine channels, which appear to be localised drainage points of the continental shelf. All three channels exhibit an active central gulley which meanders within each channel.

Key seabed features in the area include the following.

• Channels: The most significant features are two broad seabed canyons occurring in the western portion of the West Cape Three Points block. The seabed slope is generally between 1° and 6° in the area outside the seabed canyons. Within the canyons, gradients range from 7° to 20°. Isolated seabed gradients reaching up to 25° occur along the flanks of channels in the north-west of the study area. Otherwise, the seabed is featureless. The proposed FPSO location is above the confluence of the western and central channel.

• Large Sediment Waves. Large sediment waves are mainly found on the western and eastern ridges. These waves are 1,500 to 2,500 m long and occur at a frequency of approximately 500 m and 10 - 50 m height. These waves are most notable in the central portion of the survey area, surrounding the central channel. Sediment waves also exist within the southern regions of the central and eastern channels. These sediment waves create localised dams, which pond sediments flowing down the channels.

• Mega Ripples. Along the channel banks, semi-parallel mega ripples exist probably formed during high flow events. These mega ripples are isolated to the channel banks that display relatively lower gradients, and steeper banks have no mega ripples.

(1) A pinnacle summary of the Geophysical surveys (C&C Technologies in June 2008 together with some preliminary 3D Geohazards survey) is presented in Summary of Geophysical Survey Data (10-01-INT-G15-0001) ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-15 Figure 4.15 Distribution of Seafloor Types Offshore Ghana

4-16 Figure 4.16 High Resolution Geophysical Map of Jubilee Field Area Showing 20 m Contour Intervals

Source: Tullow 2009 4-17 Key seabed features in the area include the following (continued).

• Depressions. Two large depressions exist in the southern central survey area on the ridges. The western ridge depression has a compound feature measuring approximately 550 m across north to south, and 350 m across east to west. The primary depression is 17 m deep, and the smaller depression is 4 m deep. The Eastern Ridge depression measures 200 m across, and is 12 m deep. These features are likely a result of expelled fluids or gasses.

• Faults. One fault displaying seafloor displacement of 1.5 m exists in the northern central survey area adjacent to the central channel. Numerous small, buried faults or fractures were mapped. Most of the zones are located deeper than 10 to 20 m below the seafloor.

Chemosynthetic Communities

Chemosynthesis is the biological conversion of one or more carbon molecules and nutrients into organic matter using the oxidation of inorganic molecules (eg hydrogen sulphide) or methane as a source of energy, rather than sunlight, as used in photosynthesis. In water depths where there is no light penetration and where seepage of hydrocarbons, venting of hydrothermal fluids or other geological processes supply abundant reduced compounds, microorganisms can use chemosynthesis to produce biomass and can become the dominant component of the ecosystem. Chemosynthetic communities can have unusually high biomass (MacDonald, 2002).

The potential for chemosynthetic communities exists in the Gulf of Guinea (Figure 4.17). Brooks and Bernard (2006) reported finding two sites with chemosynthetic communities using coring samplers over small mounds associated with presumed deeper faulting in water depths of between 1,600 and 2,200 m offshore Nigeria. The communities comprised a high density of mussels and associated tubeworms, clams, shrimps, limpets, crabs, brittle stars, heart urchins and sponges.

In a study of submarine canyons offshore the Volta River Delta in Ghana, Nibbelink and Huggard (2002) noted evidence of gas seeps on seismic data and oil slicks on radar images. They interpreted the flat floors of the canyons as carbonate formed by chemosynthetic communities that feed on hydrocarbons seeping from the depleted free gas zones below the canyons. Studies conducted in the Gulf of Mexico indicate that high-density chemosynthetic sites typically are associated with recognisable features such as mounds, faults and craters.

A geohazard study in the Jubilee field undertaken by Gardine Surveys (2008) indicated there are no features likely to support chemosynthetic communities in the project area. Sediment sampling undertaken as part of the EBS also did not indicate the presence of any chemosynthetic communities in the survey area.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-18 Figure 4.17 Atlantic Equatorial Belt (AEB) Deep-water Chemosynthetic Ecosystems

Source: ChEss AEB, 2006

4.2.4 Water and Sediment Quality

Generally, there is scarcity of data and published information on the water and sediment quality within the Jubilee Field area. As a result, a principal source of information for the project area is the Jubilee Field EBS (1) (TDI Brooks 2008). The survey was conducted off the R/V JW Powel from 9 to 13 September 2008 (Figure 4.18). A map of the sampling locations in relation to the Phase 1 Jubilee wells is presented in Figure 4.19.

Figure 4.18 EBS Survey Vessel R/V JW Powell

(1) Details of the survey, including station location and coordinates, sampling and analytical protocols and parameters are presented in the Ghana Jubilee Field Technical Report TDI-Brooks International #08-2161 (2008)..

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-19 Figure 4.19 Environmental Baseline Survey Stations and Previously Drilled Wells

Water and sediment samples were collected in the vicinity of the Jubilee field. Additional samples were taken along two potential gas pipeline routes, from the field to the onshore location of the power barge at Effasu and the other from the field to Takoradi. Water depths varied from 16 m to more than 1,800 m. The objective of the survey was to characterise water and sediment quality parameters, including sediment physico-chemical and benthic faunal community data and physico-chemical characteristics of the water column.

Water Quality

Conductivity, Temperature and Depth (CTD) profiles of water quality and water samples were acquired using a 2,000 m SeaBird Instrument, SBE-19 SeaCat (Figure 4.20). CTD profiles were taken approximately 1 m below the surface to close to the seabed. Salinity was derived from the conductivity and temperature measurements. In addition, the CTD unit measured dissolved oxygen along depth profiles. Water column samples were taken at two depths, namely at sub-surface and at 100 m depth. Water alkalinity (pH) was measured on a subsample. Water samples were collected for metal analyses, nutrients, total dissolved solids and suspended solids. All samples were preserved and stored appropriately and shipped to College Station, Texas for analyses.

A CTD profile is shown in Figure 4.21 for a sampling station J9 at the Jubilee field. Similar CTD profiles were plotted for all the sampling stations. The results show salinity decreasing slightly with depth. Maximum change in salinity values were observed between the surface and 400 m water depth. The dissolved oxygen profile at all the stations exhibited a minimum value between 200 m and 300 m depth where after it increased with depth. It is observed that stations with depth greater than 1,200 m recorded the highest concentrations of dissolved oxygen, generally more than 4 ml/l, possibly as a function of water temperature among others. There is an abrupt change in temperature between the surface and 600 m depth for all the samples.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-20 Water samples were analysed for alkalinity (pH). Generally, pH values decreased from the surface to 100 m water depth. The only exception was station J-3 where the reverse occurred. The pH of the water column was slightly alkaline, ranging from pH 7.33 to pH 8.22.

Water samples were analysed for a range of determinants including metals and nutrients and the results are discussed below.

Mercury (Hg). Most stations had Hg concentrations (Figure 4.23-A) below the detection limit (ie below 0.2 mg/l). The exceptions were samples from stations J-1, J-2 and J-7 where Hg was detected. Hg concentrations ranged between 0.22 mg/l (100 m only) at station J-2 and 0.28 mg/L at stations J-1 and J-7.

Barium (Ba). Figure 4.23-B shows Ba concentration at the stations. Ba was higher in the surface samples and ranged from 5.96 ppb (J-2) to 5.43 ppb (J-4) for the surface samples, and between 5.43 ppb (J-1) and 5.00 ppb (J-8). There was very little variation in Ba concentrations between the sampling sites.

Figure 4.20 SeaBird SBE 32-C Carousel Water Sampler

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-21 Figure 4.21 Temperature, Salinity, Oxygen Profile for Station J9

Cadmium (Cd) and Lead (Pb). Neither Cd nor Pb was detected in any of the samples.

Total Nitrogen (TN). Generally, TN concentrations were higher for the 100 m depth samples than for the sub-surface samples except at station J-3 where the reverse occurred (Figure 4.23-C). TN concentrations for the surface samples ranged between 0.190 mg/l (J-3) and 0.044 mg/l (J-8). TN concentrations for the 100 m samples ranged from 0.437 mg/l (J-6) to 0.181 mg/l (J-3).

Total Phosphorus (TP). The concentrations of total phosphorus were higher for samples from the 100 m depth than for samples from sub-surface for all the stations (Figure 4.23-D). The highest TP concentration recorded for the sub- surface samples was 0.0192 mg/l (J-6) and the lowest concentrations was 0.0145 mg/l (J-2). At 100 m depth, phosphorus concentration was highest at J- 4 (0.0455 mg/l).

Total Suspended Solid (TSS): Total suspended solids were highest for station J-5 (45.23 mg/l) and lowest for station J-3 (6.3 mg/l) for sub-surface samples. Station J-7 recorded the highest amount of suspended solids (30.26 mg/l) at the 100 m depth whilst station J-2 recorded the least amount of suspended solids (11.22 mg/l) at the 100m depth (Figure 4.23-E).

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-22 Sediment Quality

Sediment samples were analysed for and range of determinants including metals, organics and nutrients and the results are discussed in the following sections. Sediment samples were collected using a 50 by 50 cm box corer. Digital photographs were taken of the surface of each core sample and subsamples were taken using a 22 by 22 cm template pushed into the box core and two 8 cm diameter push cores (Figure 4.22). Chemistry samples were collected outside the sub-sampling equipment.

Figure 4.22 Boxcore (right) and Template and Sub-sampling for Boxcore (left)

Sediment grain size analysis was carried out on sub-samples for the various stations (J-1 to J-9). Sediment type was classified based on the mean size of the sand grains. Generally, three main sediment types were identified in the area, namely; sand, silt and clay. Most stations were dominated by clays and silts with the exception of station J-5 where sand fractions dominated (Figure 4.23- F).

Sediment oxidation-reduction potential (ORP) was determined at 3 cm, 6 cm and 9 cm beneath the surface of sediment in the box corer for each station. The results are presented graphically in Figure 4.23-G. From the results, the sediment samples were reduced at 9 cm depth except for station J-2 and J-8. The sediment samples were also largely oxidised at 3 cm depth except samples from station J-6 and J-9 which showed reduced conditions at all depths.

Barium and Lead: Ba was present in all the samples from the stations, ranging from 144 ppb to 291 ppb. The highest value was recorded from Station J-8 and the lowest value was Station J-5. Comparison with samples taken in shallow coastal waters as part of the EBS (TDI Brooks 2008) showed that all the offshore stations sampled within and close to the Jubilee field had elevated concentrations of barium compared to the stations closer to shore (Ba range 23 to 42 ppb). Pb concentrations were similar at all the stations within the field (Figure 4.23-H).

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-23 Mercury and Cadmium: Hg was not detected in any of the samples (method detection limit = 0.1 ppb) for all the stations within the Jubilee field. Cadmium concentrations were also not detected in the samples (method detection limit = 0.1 ppb) except at stations J-2, J-4 and J-7 where a concentration of 0.2 ppb was recorded for each station (Figure 4.23-I).

Organics analyses included determination of Total Organic Carbon (TOC) and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH). TOC values were low and ranged from 1.21 percent (J-5) to 2.99 percent (J-4) (Figure 4.23-J). PAH concentrations recorded varied between the stations and ranged from 81 ng/dry g (J-5) to 176 ng/dry g (J-2 and J-4) (Figure 4.23-K).

The sediment samples were analysed for Total Phosphorus (TP) and Total Nitrogen (TN). TP ranged from 400 mg/kg (J-9) to 690 mg/kg (J-1). TN ranged from 570 mg/kg (J-5 and J-8) to 960 mg/kg (J-3) (Figure 4.23-L).

4.2.5 Plankton

Information on plankton (phytoplankton and zooplankton) was sourced from previously documented surveys in the Gulf of Guinea including EIAs for the West Africa Gas Pipeline Project (WAPC 2004) and other research programmes (eg Guinea Current Large Marine Ecosystem project Fisheries Resource Surveys, 2006-2007) and available published sources (eg Wiafe 2002). Phytoplankton and zooplankton form a fundamental link in the food chain. Plankton community composition and abundance is variable and depends upon water circulation into and around the Gulf of Guinea, the time of year, nutrient availability, depth, and temperature stratification.

Phytoplankton

Phytoplankton, grouped as diatoms, dinoflagellates and coccolithophores, are microscopic and range between 30 mm and 60 mm in size. Primary production is linked to the amount of inorganic carbon assimilated by phytoplankton via the process of photosynthesis. Primary production determined for the Gulf of Guinea is about 4,305 to 5,956 mg C/m2/day (see Figure 4.10). Typically, productivity in the offshore ecosystems (100-200 m water depth) range from 10 mg C/m3/day to 100 mgC/m3/day in terms of volume, or from 75 mgC/m2/day to 1,000 mg C/m2/day in terms of area. Thus, the values obtained within the nearshore areas indicate a system of relatively high productivity. This is not unexpected since the coastal ecosystem of the area undergoes seasonal upwelling that commences in July which coincided with the WAPC survey period.

The phytoplankton biomass concentrations in the eastern tropical Atlantic is low compared to some other coastal upwelling systems, however, the spatial extent and temporal stability of the enrichment processes allows the development of large phytoplankton cells, consequently there is high zooplankton concentration and this is conducive to high fish production (Jones and Henderson, 1987).

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-24 Figure 4.23 Water and Sediment Quality Graphs 7.0 A: Variations0.30 in the Concentrations of Mercury at Different Depths of the Stations B: Variations in the Concentrations of Barium at Different Depths of the Stations 6.0 0.25 5.0 0.20 4.0

0.15 3.0

0.10 2.0 Barium conc.(ppb) Mecury conc. (ng/L) 0.05 1.0

0.00 0.0 J-1 J-2 J-3 J-4 J-5 J-6 J-7 J-8 J-9 J-1 J-2 J-3 J-4 J-5 J-6 J-7 J-8 J-9

Stations Stations 1m depth 100m depth 1m depth 100m depth

C: Variations in Total Nitrogen Concentration at Different Depths D: Variations in Phosphorus Concentration at Different Depths between the Stations 0.50 0.050 0.45 0.045 0.40 0.040 0.35 0.035 0.30 0.030 0.25 0.025 0.20 0.020 0.15 0.015 0.10 0.010 0.05 0.005 Total Nitrogen conc. (mg/L) Total conc. Nitrogen

0.00 (mg/L) conc. Total Phosphorus 0.000 J-1J-2J-3J-4J-5J-6J-7J-8J-9 J-1 J-2 J-3 J-4 J-5 J-6 J-7 J-8 J-9

Stations Stations 1m depth 100m depth 1m depth 100m depth

4-25 E: Variations in TSS Concentration at Different Depths F: Grain Classification Analysis for the Jubilee Field 50.0

45.0 70 40.0 60 35.0 50 30.0 40 25.0 20.0 30

15.0 20 10.0 10

5.0 (%) Weight Percentage 0 Total Suspended Solids (mg/L) Solids Total Suspended 0.0 J-1 J-2 J-3 J-4 J-5 J-6 J-7 J-8 J-9 J-1 J-2 J-3 J-4 J-5 J-6 J-7 J-8 J-9 Stations Stations 1m depth 100m depth Sand Silt Clay

G: Oxidation Reduction Potential (ORP) of Sediments at the Stations taken at H: Variations in the concentrations of Barium (striped bar) and Lead (open bars) at the three depths (3cm, 6cm and 9cm) stations 350

300

250

200

150

100

Concentrations (ppb) 50

0 J-1 J-2 J-3 J-4 J-5 J-6 J-7 J-8 J-9

Stations Barium lead

4-26 I: Variations in the Concentrations of Mercury (Striped Bars) and Cadmium J: Variations in Total Organic Carbon (TOC) between the Stations (Open Bars)0.25 at the Various Stations 3.5

0.20 3.0 2.5 0.15 2.0

0.10 1.5 TOC (%) TOC 0.05 1.0 Concentrations (ppb) 0.5 0.00 J-1 J-2 J-3 J-4 J-5 J-6 J-7 J-8 J-9 0.0 J-1 J-2 J-3 J-4 J-5 J-6 J-7 J-8 J-9 Stations Mercury Cadmium Stations

K: Variations in Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons between the stations L: Variation in the Concentrations of Phosphorus (Striped Bars) and Nitrogen (open 200.0 bars) in the Sediment Samples from the Station 1200

160.0 1000

800 120.0 600

80.0 400 PAH (ng/dry g)

Concentrations (mg/kg) 200 40.0 0 J-1 J-2 J-3 J-4 J-5 J-6 J-7 J-8 J-9 0.0 Stations J-1 J-2 J-3 J-4 J-5 J-6 J-7 J-8 J-9

Stations Phosphorus Nitrogen

4-27 The environmental baseline study for the West African Gas Pipeline project (WAPC, 2004) was carried out within the nearshore area (15-65 m depth) of the Gulf, between Nigeria and Ghana, and identified 69 species of phytoplankton. The phytoplankton community was dominated by Chaetoceros spp. possibly a result of planktonic responses to seasonality of the hydrographic regime (Wiafe, 2002). Other planktonic species included Dinophysis acuta, which is a harmful microalgae with the potential to cause diarrhetic shellfish poisoning in bloom condition at high concentrations (Anderson et al, 2001). Distribution of the species indicated that Penilia avirostris, a cladoceran, dominated the community in terms of number of individuals. However, a dinoflagellate species, Chaetoceros spp., occurred in high numbers at all locations sampled. The diversity of phytoplankton species for the WAGP study ranked highest off the shelf of Ghana compared to the other locations studied (ie Togo, Benin, and Nigeria).

Studies within the nearshore areas of the Western Region of Ghana (ie, Saltpond, Elmina, Takoradi and Half Assini) show that the dominant phytoplankton species were Ceratium, Cheatoceros, Rhizosolinia, and Peridinium with the Ceritium spp. being the dominant taxa.

Zooplankton

Offshore zooplankton assemblages are dominated by copepods, followed by Ostracods(1), Appendicularians(2) and Chaetognaths(3). Maximun abundance is during the primary upwelling although they are also abundant during the secondary upwelling(4).

WAGP 2004 surveys identified 52 zooplankton species. Penilia avirostris, Temora stylifera and Para-Clausocalanus spp. dominated the zooplankton community. Species of zooplankton recorded in the nearshore environment in the Western Region of Ghana included Cyclopoid: Oncaea, Corycaeus, Farranula; Calanoids: Acartia, Clausocalanus, Calanoides, Temora, Centropages, cirripid nauplius, Podon, Evadne, Penilia, Lucifer protozoa, Appendicularia/Oikopleuara, Pontellia nauplius and Sagitta.

Benthic decapod larvae and large crustacean numbers are at their highest between February-June and October -December. Carnivorous species dominate the plankton during the warm season and diversity is high but abundance low. Herbivorous zooplankton, dominated by Calanoides carinatus is highly abundant in upwelling conditions. These are later replaced by omnivorous species (eg Temora turbinate and Centropages chierchise).

(1) Ostracoda is a class of the Crustacea, sometimes known as the seed shrimp because of their appearance. (2) Larvaceans (Class Appendicularia) are solitary, free-swimming underwater saclike filter feeders found throughout the world's oceans. (3) Chaetognatha is a phylum of predatory marine worms that are a major component of plankton worldwide. (4) The major upwelling begins between late June or early July when sea surface temperatures (SST) fall below 25°C and ends between late September or early October. The minor upwelling occurs either in December, January or February and rarely lasts for more

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-29 4.2.6 Benthic Invertebrates

Benthic fauna forms an important part of the marine ecosystem, providing a food source for other invertebrates, fish, birds and mammals as well as cycling nutrients and materials between the water column and underlying sediments. The benthos is made up of diverse species which are relatively long-lived and sedentary, and which exhibit different tolerances to stress, making them useful indicators of environmental conditions. The Ghana marine environment has not been extensively studied for its macrobenthos, particularly in deeper waters. This section is mainly based on information obtained on marine macrobenthic faunal assemblages from the Jubilee field and surrounding area during the EBS (TDI Brooks, 2008). The survey assessed macrobenthic fauna from 15 sediment sample grabs in deep water stations within the Jubilee field and at site closer to shore along potential future pipeline routes (Figure 4.24). The EBS report attached to this EIS on CD provides details on sampling methodology and analytical laboratory procedures.

The sediment samples were collected with a 50 by 50 cm box corer. A 22 by 22 cm template (surface area = 0.484 m2) was inserted into the box corer to about 0.15 m to subsample the macrobenthic infauna. The subsamples were screened through a sieve of mesh size 0.5 mm (Figure 4.25). The samples were washed into a jar and subsequently fixed with 10 percent buffered formalin.

The results of the macrobenthic faunal community from the baseline study yielded a total of 1,415 individuals (mean density of 195±1.5 individuals per m2) comprising 252 species belonging to polychaetes, crustacean, molluscs and echinoderms.

Figure 4.24 Grab Sample Locations and Community

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-30 Figure 4.25 EBS Survey: Sieving of Boxcore

The number of macro benthic taxa recorded per station ranged from 20 to 78 with a mean of 39.1. The species density (ie number of individuals per m2) ranged from 25 to 385 with a mean of 102. Station T6, located along the Takoradi line, had the highest abundance, as well as the highest number of taxa. The biological community within and around the Jubilee Field was only moderately rich compared to samples taken along the Takoradi and Efasu lines. The calculated values of the Shannon-Wiener diversity index (1) varied between 2.97 and 3.95, with a mean of 3.3. Pielou’s Evenness (2) ranged from 0.8 to 0.98, with a mean of 0.93, which suggest high diversity without over- dominance by any particular taxa.

The station cluster dendrogram using macrobenthic fauna abundance data from each station is shown in Figure 4.26, along with overlays to indicate the proportions of different sediment fractions at each station. The samples as a whole grouped together at about 15 percent similarity and five cluster groups (A-E) were recognised at 30 percent similarity. Of these, Groups C-E were broadly similar and are considered together in some of the following discussions. The spatial distribution of the samples assigned to different cluster groups is shown in Figure 4.24 above. The characteristics of the cluster groups are discussed in Table 4.3.

(1) Shannon-Wiener diversity index is one of several diversity indices used to measure diversity in categorical data. The advantage of this index is that it takes into account the number of species and the evenness of the species. The index is increased either by having additional unique species, or by having a greater species evenness. (2) Pielou's Eveness Index is the ratio of observed diversity to the maximum possible diversity of a community with the same species richness.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-31 Table 4.3 Fauna Community Cluster Groups

Cluster Group Samples Description Group A – Thyasirid T1, T2, T3 Group A had the highest diversity and abundance of the Community cluster groups, with large numbers of thyasirid bivalves, brittlestars (Ophiuroidea) and spionid worms (Prionospio). Many other infaunal taxa were present in moderate numbers. The stations are about 10 km offshore at between 39 and 52 m water depth, with sediment dominated by silt.

Group B E1, E2, E3 The diversity and abundance of fauna in Group B was semelid/ampeliscid higher than for stations near the Jubilee field but less so community than for Group A. Semelid bivalves and ampeliscid amphipods were almost equally dominant and there were moderate numbers of several other infaunal taxa. The sediment was characterised by high dominance of medium sand.

Group C Prionospio J5, J6 The most common taxon, the sedentary polychaete community Prionospio, was more abundant in Group A and the other taxa present were mostly also found in other groups. The sediment was a mixture of clay, silt and medium sand, with depths of 1346 m and 943 m, respectively.

Group D J1, J3 The most common taxon, sedentary polychaetes in the maldanid/spionid family Maldanidae (‘bamboo worms’) were more common community in Group C and the second taxon, spionid polychaetes, include Prionospio, also abundant in Group C and the other taxa present were mostly also found in other groups. The sediment was mainly clay, with moderate amounts of silt and medium sand. The samples were at depths of 1264 m and 1386 m, respectively.

Group E ‘bivalve’ J2, J4, J7, Unidentified bivalves were the most common taxon and community J8, J9 these were also widespread in other groups. Similarly, Prionospio was common in Groups C-E but the third most common taxon, Thyasiridae, was more typical of Group A. The sediment was mainly clay, with a secondary dominance of silt; depths were between 985 m and 1767 m.

The samples shows a clear three-way divide on the basis of fauna, which relates to depth and sediment composition. Samples from the Takoradi line (cluster Group A) belong to a relatively rich, shallow water community dominated by thyasirid bivalves in silt. Those from the Effasu line (cluster Group B) are relatively deeper and a little less rich, with semelid bivalves and ampeliscid amphipods in medium sand. The biological community within and around the Jubilee Field (cluster Groups C-E) was only moderately rich, with varying mixtures of maldanids, spionids and bivalves in mainly silt- dominated sediments in much deeper water. This depicts a clear distinction of shallow and deep water macrobenthic community with community structure being a function of water depth and sediment textural properties.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-32 Figure 4.26 Cluster Dendrogram of Macrofaunal Data

The density and frequency of occurrence (F) of macrobenthic taxa encountered in the EBS survey is presented in Table 4.4. The reported taxa were selected based on a frequency of more than 25 percent (Guille 1970). Those taxa with frequency of less than 25 percent were considered rare taxa as they seldom offer any critical information.

Sixteen (16) taxa (contributed 31.03 percent to the total abundance) had F>25 percent. Only five macrobenthic taxa occurred in 50 percent of the sample locations. The polychaete Prionospio sp. ranked highest for species abundance and density.

Table 4.4 Abundance, Density and Frequency of Occurrence (F) of Macrobenthos from the EBS survey

Taxa (Family/Genus/ Abundance Density F species) (No. of individuals) (individuals.m-2) (%) Bivalvia 58 7.98898 75 Cirratulidae 28 3.85675 60 Nuculana 21 2.89256 55 Prionospio sp. 66 9.09091 55 Maldanidae 28 3.85675 50 Rhynchocoela 18 2.47934 45 Nucula 31 4.26997 45 Levinsenia gracilis 23 3.16804 45 Sipuncula 26 3.58127 40 Ophiuroidea 32 4.40771 40 Nepthyidae 10 1.37741 35 Terebellidae 9 1.23967 30 Aplacophora 13 1.79063 30 Campylaspis 9 1.23967 30 Ampharetidae 33 4.54545 30 Ampelisca sp. 34 4.6832 30

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-33 In summary, the macrobenthos revealed a diverse community assemblage in shallow water areas compared to the deep waters in the Jubilee field. The community assemblage was a function of water depth and sediment granulometric properties. A total of 252 species were recorded belonging to polychaetes, crustacean, molluscs and echinoderms, with a total mean density of 195 (±1.5). The polychaete, Prionospio sp. and an unidentified bivalve occurred in a number of the sampling locations in notable densities.

Within the Jubilee field, a total of 414 individuals (mean density: 95.04 indiv/m2) belonging to 124 macrobenthic faunal taxa were identified. Of this number, polychaetes constituted 36 percent, molluscs 31 percent, and crustaceans 24 percent, echinoderms 3 percent and other taxa constituted 6 percent. In terms of density and frequency of occurrence, the taxon bivalvia ranked first, followed by the polychaete Prionospio sp.

4.2.7 Fish Ecology

The composition and distribution of fish species found in Ghanaian waters, and the wider Gulf of Guinea, is influenced by the seasonal upwelling that occurs between Nigeria and the Ivory Coast mainly in July to September and to a lesser extent in December to February. The transport of colder, dense and nutrient-rich deep waters to the warmer, usually nutrient-depleted surface water during periods of upwelling stimulates high levels of primary production in phytoplankton. This primary productivity in turn increases production zooplankton and fish. The fish species found in Ghanaian waters can be divided into four main groups, namely:

• small pelagic species; • large pelagic species (tuna and billfish); • demersal (bottom dwelling) species; and • deep sea species.

These groups are discussed in more detail below followed by a list of protected species expected in the area.

Small Pelagic Species

The pelagic fish assemblage consists of a number of species that are exploited commercially but are also important members of the pelagic ecosystem, providing food for a number of large predators, particularly large pelagic fish such as tuna, billfish and sharks. The most important pelagic fish species found in the coastal and offshore waters of Ghana are:

• round sardinella (Sardinella aurita); • flat sardinella (S. maderensis); • European anchovy (Engraulis encrasicolus); and • chub mackerel (Scomber japonicus).

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-34 These species are important commercially as they represent approximately 80% of the total catch landed in the country (approximately 200,000 tonnes per annum). In terms of biomass, acoustic surveys have shown that the two sardinella species and the European anchovy represent almost 60% of the total biomass in Ghanaian waters (FAO & UNDP, 2006).

Sardinella. Both sardinella species are found throughout Ghanaian coastal waters and the local population is part of the Central Upwelling Zone stock which is one of three stocks along the West African coast. The eggs and larvae of the sardinellas are found all year but distinct peaks in spawning are seen between July and August during the upwelling periods. The eggs are planktonic and found in the upper mixed layer and upon hatching the larvae feed on plankton in the upper layers. Adults exhibit seasonal migration towards the shore (see Figure 4.27). Juveniles remain in shallow water until maturation when they migrate into deeper shelf waters to join the adult stock.

Figure 4.27 Migratory pattern of the Sardinellas (Ansa-Emmim 1972)

European Anchovy. The European anchovy is found throughout European waters and all along the West African coast as far as Angola. European anchovy are mainly a coastal marine species but they can tolerates a wide range of salinities and may be found in lagoons, estuaries and lakes, especially during spawning. This species shows a tendency to extend into more waters further north in summer where it moves into the surface water layers. During the winter the populations retreat and descend to deeper water where they can be found as deep as 400 m in West Africa and deeper in more northerly areas. This species forms large schools and feeds on planktonic organisms, especially copepods and mollusc larvae and the eggs and larvae of fish. Spawning takes place over an extended period from April to November with peaks usually in the warmest months.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-35 Chub Mackerel. Chub mackerel are a cosmopolitan species and inhabit the warm and temperate transition waters of the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific oceans and adjacent seas. They are primarily coastal pelagic species and are found from the surface down to depths of 300 m. However, they may extend into the epipelagic(1) (to 200 m) or mesopelagic (200 to 1,000 m) waters over the continental slope. Seasonal migrations may be very extended, with entire populations in the northern hemisphere moving further northward with increased summer temperatures and southwards for overwintering and spawning. In Ghanaian waters spawning, in common with most pelagic species, coincides with the seasonal upwelling. The chub mackerel is an opportunistic and non-selective predator, feeding on copepods and other crustaceans, fish and squid. Its predators include tuna, billfish and other fishes, as well as sharks and pelicans.

Other Pelagic Species. Other pelagic species found in Ghanaian water which are commercially important to local fisheries include:

• horse mackerel (Trachurus sp.); • little tunny (Euthynnus alletteratus); • bonga shad (Ethmalosa fimbriata); • African moonfish (Selene dorsalis); • West African Ilisha (Ilisha africana); • largehead hairtail (Triciurus lepturus); • crevalle jack (Caranx hippos); • Atlantic bumper (Chloroscombrus chrysurus); and • Barracuda (Sphyraena sp.).

The distribution of these fish generally extends to the south as far as Angola.

Large Pelagic Species

Large pelagic fish stocks off the coast of Ghana include tuna and billfish. These species are highly migratory and occupy the surface waters of the entire tropical and sub-tropical Atlantic Ocean. They are important species in the ecosystem as both predators and prey for sharks, other tuna and cetaceans as well as providing an important commercial resource for industrial fisheries. The tuna species are:

• skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis); • yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares); and • bigeye tuna (Thunnus obesus).

Billfish species occur in much lower numbers and comprise:

• swordfish (Xiphias gladius); • Atlantic blue marlin (Makaira nigricans); and • Atlantic sailfish (Istiophorus albicans).

(1) Of or relating to the part of the oceanic zone into which enough sunlight enters for photosynthesis to take place.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-36 Skipjack Tuna. Skipjack tuna is a cosmopolitan species found in schools in tropical and subtropical waters. This wide distribution accounts for the number and variety of fisheries that have developed all around the world. The species is epipelagic generally inhabiting open waters with aggregations associated with convergences, boundaries between cold and warm water masses, and other hydrographic discontinuities. Depth distribution ranges from the surface to about 260 m during the day, however, they remain close to the surface during the night.

In the Eastern Atlantic skipjack tuna spawn over a wide area on either side of the equator, from the Gulf of Guinea to 20º to 30ºW. Spawning seasons differ according to the zone, in the southern part of their range (Liberia, Ivory Coast, Ghana and Cape Lopez) spawning mainly takes place during the first and fourth quarters of the year (Cayré and Farrugio, 1986).

In common with other tuna species, skipjack tuna is an opportunistic predator with the principal prey being fish (mainly mackerels and pilchards), cephalopods and crustaceans.

Yellowfin Tuna. Yellowfin are found in open waters of tropical and subtropical seas worldwide where they are generally confined to the upper 100 m of the water column with their vertical distribution being influenced by the thermal structure of the water column.

Yellowfin tuna found in Ghana form part of an Atlantic population which spawns off Brazil and in the Gulf of Guinea and migrates to the Equatorial East Atlantic in the austral summer. The Gulf of Guinea is one of the most important areas for yellowfin tuna in the Atlantic population and large aggregations are found in near-surface waters, often associated with floating debris. Yellowfin tuna feed near the surface, mainly on epipelagic fish.

Bigeye Tuna. Bigeye tuna form part of an Eastern Atlantic population whose core distribution extends from north-west Africa to southern Angola. Generally this species is epipelagic and mesopelagic in oceanic waters, occurring from the surface to about 250 m in depth. Vertical distribution is influenced water temperature and thermocline depth, although their range differs from yellowfin tuna.

Spawning takes place throughout the year in a vast zone in the vicinity of the equator with temperatures above 24ºC. The Gulf of Guinea is one of the most important spawning areas for this species.

The diet of bigeye tuna includes a variety of fish species, cephalopods and crustaceans, however, they forage over a greater vertical range and feed on a wider range of fish and cephalopod species than yellowfin tuna, due to the latter’s more narrow temperature range.

Atlantic Blue Marlin. Atlantic blue marlin is an epipelagic oceanic species, found in wide open waters. Adults spends over 80% of their time in the

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-37 surface water, however, they undergo frequent, short duration dives to depths of between 100 and 200 m. Blue marlin display extensive migratory patterns, making trans-equatorial movements between the eastern and western Atlantic, although they are less abundant in the eastern Atlantic than the western Atlantic. Off the west coast of Africa they mostly occur between 25°N and 25°S, with important concentrations being found within the Gulf of Guinea. Spawning takes place during austral spring-summer and boreal summer. Most spawning takes place in the western Atlantic.

Blue marlin feed near the surface and in deep water where they feed opportunistically on schooling stocks of flyingfish, small tunas, dolphinfish and squid.

Swordfish. Swordfish are a cosmopolitan species found in tropical, temperate and sometimes cold waters of all oceans, including the Mediterranean Sea. They are mainly found in open oceanic waters but may occasionally be found in coastal waters, generally above the thermocline (Colette, 1995). Migrations consist of movements toward temperate or cold waters for feeding in summer, and back to warm waters in autumn for spawning and overwintering.

Swordfish spawning grounds are known to be present in the western Atlantic and the Mediterranean and spawning takes place throughout the year in the western Atlantic with a peak from April to September.

Adult swordfish are opportunistic feeders. Over deep water, they feed primarily on pelagic fish, including tuna, dolphinfish, flyingfish, barracuda and pelagic squid. In shallower waters their diet consists mainly of mackerel, herring, anchovy, sardines and needlefish. Large adults often make feeding trips to the bottom to feed on demersal fish including hake, redfish and lanternfish.

Sailfish. Sailfish are found throughout the tropical and temperate Atlantic Ocean. In the eastern Atlantic its distribution extends from the Bay of Biscay to the Cape of Good Hope. It is an epipelagic and coastal to oceanic species, often found above the thermocline, although it is known to frequently make short dives to depths of up to 250 m.

Sailfish spawning areas in the Atlantic are mainly found in the tropical areas of both hemispheres. In the eastern Atlantic, spawning has been observed in West African shelf waters throughout the year. Sailfish migration routes are not fully understood, however, it is thought that most adults remain in the same location and there are few, if any, trans-Atlantic migrations. Adult sailfish feed opportunistically on schooling stocks of halfbeaks, jacks, small tunas, and cephalopods. Larvae sailfish feed on copepods.

Juveniles and small adults of skipjack, yellowfin and bigeye tuna school at the surface either in mono-species groups or together and these schools are often associated with floating objects such as floating seaweed, pieces of wood and stationary, anchored or drifting vessels (Røstad, Kaartvedt, Klevjer and Melle,

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-38 2006). The attraction is likely to be linked to predator avoidance and a focus of aggregation behaviour. Marlin, swordfish and sailfish are also attracted to floating objects probably for the same reason as tuna but also to feed on readily available prey that is attracted to floating objects. Fishermen exploit this by using floating aggregation devices (FADs) to attract schools of tuna.

Demersal Species

Trawl surveys have shown that demersal fish are widespread on the continental shelf along the entire length of the Ghanaian coastline. Species composition is a typical tropical assemblage including the following families:

• Three Porgies or seabreams (Sparidae), eg Pagellus bellottii, Pagrus caeruleostictus, Dentex canariensis, Dentex gibbosus, Dentex angolensis and Dentex congoensis; • Two Grunts (Haemulidae), eg Pomadasys incisus, P. jubelini and Brachydeuterus auritus; • One Croakers or drums (Sciaenidae), eg Pseudotolithus senegalensis; • Goatfishes (Mullidae), eg Pseudupeneus prayensis; • Snappers (Lutjanidae), eg Lutjanus fulgens and L. goreensis; • Groupers (Serranidae), eg Epinephelus aeneus; • Threadfins (Polynemidae), eg Galeoides decadactylus; and • Emperors (Lethrinidae), eg Lethrinus atlanticus.

The seasonal upwelling of cold and saline waters over the Ghanaian shelf provokes changes in the geographical distribution of many of the demersal fish species. During the upwelling season, the bathymetric extension of the croakers is reduced to a minimum, while the deep water porgies are found nearer the coast than at other times of the year.

The demersal species that are most important commercially (in terms of catch volumes) are cassava croaker (Pseudotolithus senegalensis), bigeye grunt (Brachydeuterus auritus), red pandora (Pellagus bellottii), Angola dentex (Dentex angolensis), Congo dentex (Dentex congoensis) and West African Goatfish (Pseudupeneus prayensis). These species are discussed further below.

Cassava croaker (Pseudotolithus senegalensis) is considered to be the most economically important demersal fish in West African waters, although it is reported (Froese and Pauly, 2009) that in recent years in Ghana their importance has declined. They are distributed along the west coast of Africa as far south as Namibia and as far north as Morocco. They are a demersal species occupying both marine and brackish water down to a depth of 70 m. They are mainly found in coastal waters over muddy, sandy or rocky bottoms. Smaller individuals are found in shallow waters, occasionally entering estuaries. Their diet includes fish, shrimps and crabs. Spawning in the Gulf of Guinea takes place between November and March in waters of 22 to 25°C.

Big eye grunt (Brachydeuterus auritus) are common along the coast of West Africa and may also extend into the waters of Morocco. In Ghana, big eye

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-39 grunt inhabit coastal waters with sandy and / or muddy bottoms at depths of between 10 and 100 m, but are mostly found between 30 and 50 m. This species remains near the bottom during the day and migrates vertically at night, feeding on invertebrates and small fishes. Other important grunt species of this group include sompat grunt (Pomadasys jubelini) and the bastard grunt (Pomadasys incisus).

Red pandora (Pellagus bellottii) are found along the west African coast from the Canaries to Angola. They are mainly benthopelagic(1) but demonstrate demersal behaviour. Red Pandora inhabit inshore waters, with hard or sandy bottoms, to a depth of 250 m, with their preferred depth being greater than 120 m. Their diet is omnivorous, with benthic invertebrates, cephalopods, small fish, amphioxus (lancelets) and worms dominating. Once fish are mature (at 1 to 4 years) they migrate to the coast and intermittent spawning occurs between May and November.

Angola dentex (Dentex angolensis) occur along the West Coast of Africa from Morocco to Angola. In common with the large eye dentex, this species is benthopelagic with a predominantly demersal behaviour. They are found on varied substrates but mainly occupy sandy mud substrates on the shelf and upper slope between 15 and 700 m. Adults feed predominantly on crustaceans, but fish, molluscs and worms also form part of their diet.

Congo dentex (Dentex congoensis) are distributed along the West African coastline from Senegal to Angola. Congo dentex is a benthopelagic species that inhabits various bottoms types on the continental shelf and upper slope, to a depth of at least 200 m. The species is carnivorous feeding chiefly on fish, and to a lesser extent on tunicates and molluscs.

West African goatfish are distributed along the West African coast between Morocco and Angola. They inhabit the coastal waters of the continental shelf, over sandy and muddy bottoms, where they feed on benthic invertebrates such as amphipods and polychaetes.

Deep Sea Species

Froese and Pauly (2009) lists over 180 species of deep-sea fish, including 51 bathydemersal species that are associated with the bottom and a further 106 are listed as bathypelagic (1000 to 4000 m). The remaining species are generally considered to occupy depths to 1000 m (ie epipelagic or mesopelagic) but may venture into deeper water during part of their lifecycle.

Froese and Pauly (2009) lists 89 species from 28 families that are likely to be found in Ghanaian waters within the depth range in the Jubilee field (1,100 and 1,700 m). Table 4.5 provides a list of the families and representative species that potentially occur on the seabed in the project area.

(1) Living in the water column just above the seabed

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-40 There is little information on the distribution of these species within the project area and within Ghanaian waters generally. However, studies have been conducted elsewhere in West Africa (Mauritania, Nigeria and Angola) by the SERPENT project which uses Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROVs) around oil and gas installations to investigate deep sea fauna (see serpentproject.com). In Nigerian waters, which have similar fish fauna to that of Ghana, sharks (squalidae), chimaera (chimaeridae), grenadiers (macrouridae), rays (rajidae) and Guentherus altivela (Ateleopodidae) were observed in deep water. In Angola, at depths only slightly below those of the Jubilee field Portuguese dogfish (Centroscymnus coelolepis), arrowtooth eel (Synaphobranchus kaupii), white-head hagfish (Myxine ios), several species of snailfish, snub-nosed eel (Simenchelys parasitica) and eelpout Pachycara crassiceps were recorded.

Table 4.5 Deep Water Fish Families Potentially Present in the Project Area

Family Species Alepocephalidae Asquamiceps caeruleus, Bathytroctes microlepis, Xenodermichthys copei, Herwigia kreffti, Einara macrolepis, Alepocephalus rostratus, Talismania antillarum, Leptoderma macrops, Talismania homoptera, Talismania mekistonema, Talismania longifilis Bathysauridae Bathysaurus mollis Carapidae Snyderidia canina Centrophoridae Centrophorus lusitanicus Congridae Bathyuroconger vicinus Dalatiidae Dalatias licha Gempylidae Lepidocybium flavobrunneum, Nesiarchus nasutus, Nealotus tripes Gonostomatidae Diplophos taenia, Cyclothone braueri, Bonapartia pedaliota, Cyclothone pallida, Cyclothone microdon, Cyclothone alba, Cyclothone livida, Gonostoma atlanticum, Sigmops bathyphilus, Cyclothone obscura Halosauridae Halosaurus ovenii Ipnopidae Bathymicrops regis, Bathytyphlops sewelli, Bathypterois atricolor , Bathypterois quadrifilis, Bathypterois grallator Macrouridae Malacocephalus occidentalis, Malacocephalus laevis, Nezumia aequalis, Nezumia duodecim, Nezumia micronychodon, Bathygadus melanobranchus Myctophidae Diaphus perspicillatus, Ceratoscopelus warmingii, Notoscopelus resplendens, Diaphus lucidus, Lobianchia dofleini, Diaphus splendidus, Lampadena anomala, Lampanyctus alatus, Benthosema suborbitale Nemichthyidae Nemichthys scolopaceus, Nemichthys curvirostris Neoscopelidae Scopelengys tristis Nettastomatidae Nettastoma melanurum, Venefica proboscidea Notosudidae Ahliesaurus berryi Ogcocephalidae Dibranchus atlanticus Ophidiidae Monomitopus metriostoma Opisthoproctidae Dolichopteryx binocularis, Winteria telescopa Paralepididae Dolichosudis fuliginosa Phosichthyidae Vinciguerria nimbaria Platytroctidae Barbantus curvifrons, Holtbyrnia innesi, Sagamichthys schnakenbecki, Platytroctes apus, Maulisia mauli, Searsia koefoedi Rajidae Bathyraja hesperafricana, Rajella barnardi, Dipturus doutrei Serrivomeridae Serrivomer beanie Squalidae Squalus uyato Sternoptychidae Sternoptyx pseudobscura, Argyropelecus hemigymnus, Argyropelecus sladeni, Argyropelecus affinis, Sternoptyx diaphana Stomiidae Astronesthes macropogon, Flagellostomias boureei, Stomias affinis, Stomias longibarbatus, Borostomias elucens, Malacosteus niger, Pachystomias microdon, Bathophilus brevis, Heterophotus ophistoma Source: Froese and Pauly (2009)

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-41 Maintenance of deep-sea fish communities depends on the presence of large fish to break up the bulk of the carrion falls, allowing the majority of fish species to access a vital food source and the presence of small amphipods (small crustaceans) at the basis of the food chain that support many of the larger fish.

Protected or Endangered Species

The sensitive species in Ghanaian waters according to the IUCN red list (IUCN, 2008) are presented in Table 4.6. Of these only the tuna and swordfish species are likely to occur in the water depths found in the Jubilee field area. A number of these species are commercially important and are subjected to heavy exploitation, particularly Albacore tuna and swordfish. It should be noted that Albacore catches in Ghanaian waters are not currently recorded (ICCAT Fishstat data). Of the listed species, bigeye tuna, yellowfin tuna and swordfish are recorded as being present in the project area. These species are all found within the surface waters of the area (the first 100 m below the surface). Swordfish and bigeye may also be found at depths up to 250 m.

In the global context there is concern about the bigeye tuna stocks. The International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) has listed it as the species of greatest concern, after the bluefin, in terms of its population status and the unsustainable levels of exploitation exacted on this species.

Table 4.6 Threatened Fish Species in Ghanaian Waters (IUCN Red List 2008)

Scientific name Common name Red List Category Epinephelus itajara Goliath Grouper Critically Endangered Epinephelus marginatus Dusky Grouper Endangered Thunnus obesus Bigeye Tuna Vulnerable Epinephelus aeneus White Grouper Near Threatened Thunnus albacares Yellowfin tuna Lower Risk Cephalopholis taeniops African Hind Data Deficient Epinephelus caninus Dogtooth Grouper Data Deficient Epinephelus costae Goldblotch Grouper Data Deficient Epinephelus goreensis Dungat Grouper Data Deficient Epinephelus haifensis Haifa Grouper Data Deficient Hippocampus algiricus West African Seahorse Data Deficient Thunnus alalunga Albacore Tuna Data Deficient Xiphius gladius Swordfish Data Deficient

4.2.8 Marine Mammals

The ecological significance of Ghana’s coastal waters for dolphins and whales has only recently become the subject of scientific studies, which partially explains the lack of population abundance estimates and why their natural history remains largely unknown. The conditions created by the seasonal upwelling in the northern Gulf of Guinea is likely to create conditions favourable for marine mammals as well as for fisheries.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-42 Small cetaceans of Ghana are documented to suffer considerable pressure from frequent by-catches in mostly drift gillnet fisheries and perhaps also in industrial purse-seine fisheries although the latter remain largely unmonitored. While total mortality is unknown, it is significant and potentially increasing with intensifying fishing effort. Monitoring of landings over a few years has shown the presence of at least 17 different species of dolphins and small whales and all are affected to varying degrees. Researchers at the University of Ghana at Legon and the Wildlife Department have pressed for the adoption of conservation strategies for marine mammals offshore Ghana.

In 2008, the Conference of the Parties of the Convention for the Conservation of Migratory Species (CMS/UNEP) included the West African population of Clymene dolphin (Stenella clymene) (Ghana’s principal dolphin species) on its Appendix II, thus formally recognising its vulnerable status. The Atlantic humpback dolphin, a species endemic to West Africa, has not yet been found in Ghana even though good habitat exists. Rudimentary knowledge of the presence of large whales in Ghana waters may result equally problematic as potential conservation issues may also go unrecognised. For instance, the Gulf of Guinea humpback whale population seasonally occupies Ghana’s shelf zone as a calving and breeding area, ie during a period when they are most vulnerable to disturbance. The global threat of large ships colliding with whales and killing or injuring them is well-documented. Shipping is known to affect at least humpback whales and Bryde’s whales worldwide but also in West Africa and especially near large ports. In West Africa, a number of unexplained whale deaths are suspected to be due to ship strikes.

Current knowledge of the distribution, natural history, population structure and ecology of dolphins and whales in the Gulf of Guinea is rudimentary and fragmentary in the scientific literature. All information on cetaceans in Ghana is the result of land-based field research, mainly monitoring of fishing port for landings of small cetacean by-catches as well as the study of stranded animals. Capture locations and thus habitat (neritic, slope, pelagic) are unknown, as fishermen may operate both shorewards and offshore of Ghana’s continental shelf and operate at considerable distances to the east or west of the ports where they landed catches. No shipboard surveys for marine mammals have been implemented so far, therefore it is not presently possible to provide distribution maps for Ghana or adjacent states. Scientists who study aquatic mammals are based at the University of Ghana at Legon and the Faculty of Sciences at the University of Cape Coast.

Figure 4.28 shows artisanal fishing ports and fish landing beaches where cetaceans have been landed (Van Waerebeek et al, 2009). Specimens derived from by-catches and stranding shows that the cetacean fauna of Ghana is moderately diverse, essentially tropical and predominantly pelagic. It comprises 18 species belonging to 5 families: 14 species of Delphinidae (dolphins) and one species each of families Ziphiidae (beaked whales), Physeteridae (sperm whales), Kogiidae (pygmy sperm whales) and

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-43 Balaenopteridae (rorquals). Summary information on these species is contained in Table 4.7.

Figure 4.28 Fishing Ports on the Ghanaian Coast

References to cetaceans in West Africa include Wilson et al (1987) for a striped dolphin Stenella coeruleoalba record from Côte d’Ivoire, but no voucher material is identifiable. However, striped dolphins are not uncommon offshore Angola (Weir, 2007) and this delphinid and the short-snouted common dolphin Delphinus delphis are expected to occur in the Gulf in deep waters. Among beaked whales, the Gervais’ beaked whale Mesoplodon europaeus has been documented from Ascension and Guinea-Bissau (Rice, 1998), so may also be present offshore, as well as Blainville’s beaked whale Mesoplodon densirostris which is a pantropical cetacean. Another widely distributed (sub)tropical cetacean that may be present within the survey area is the pygmy sperm whale Kogia breviceps. All these species have a pelagic distribution in common and may be present in the Gulf. The presence of long- snouted common dolphin in Ghana, Côte d’Ivoire (Cadenat, 1959) and Gabon (Van Waerebeek, 1997) points to a wide distribution in the Gulf, perhaps partly related to the seasonal upwelling over the continental shelf (Adamec and O’Brien, 1978). The listing of D. delphis in Ofori-Danson et al (2003) was premature, but the species may be present offshore. The skull of a confirmed D. delphis was collected in Mayoumba, Gabon (van Bree and Purves, 1972; Van Waerebeek, 1997).

Among baleen whales, pictures of Bryde’s whales Balaenoptera brydei/edeni were taken as far north as Gabon (Ruud,1952) and it is likely that Bryde’s whale occurs in Ghana’s Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) waters. B. brydei was originally described from South Africa (Olsen 1913) and is the most likely species involved. Other rorquals (Balaenoptera spp.) could also occur. No Atlantic humpback dolphins (Sousa teuszii) have so far been confirmed in Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Togo, Benin or Nigeria (Debrah, 2000; Ofori-Danson et al, 2003; Van Waerebeek et al, 2004, 2009; Perrin and Van Waerebeek, 2007),

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-44 despite suitable coastal habitat. Also, since the holotype was collected in the port of Douala (Kükenthal, 1892), it has not been reported again from Cameroon. Possible explanations may include local extirpation through intense pressure from coastal fisheries (by-catch), disturbance and other habitat encroachment or insufficient research effort.

There are unconfirmed fishermen’s reports that humpback dolphins may occasionally be seen between the Volta River delta and Lomé, Togo. In recent years, Atlantic humpback dolphins have been encountered with some regularity in Gabon (Schepers and Marteijn, 1993; Collins et al, 2004; Van Waerebeek et al, 2004). In 2008, the species was listed on Appendix I of CMS reflecting mounting international concern about its population status. Other rorquals such as minke whales (Balaenoptera acutorostrata), sei whales (Balaenoptera borealis), blue whales (Balaenoptera musculus) and fin whales (Balaenoptera physalus) have very wide distributions globally. Of these, the blue, fin and sei whales are classified as Endangered on the IUCN’s Red Data List. The primary and secondary ranges of blue whales and the secondary ranges of fin whales potentially extend into the Gulf of Guinea. Sei whale are not generally found in equatorial waters as they occupy areas northern and southern oceans (Jefferson et al, 2008).

Regular landings in several Ghana ports of Clymene dolphin, pantropical spotted dolphin, common bottlenose dolphin and, to a lesser degree, short- finned pilot whale, Risso’s dolphin, Atlantic spotted dolphin, rough-toothed dolphin and melon-headed whale suggest that these species are not rare in the northern Gulf of Guinea, although any estimate of population abundance is lacking. Rarely captured species may be characterised by a lower abundance in the areas that are near the continental shelf and slope. Landed cetaceans are often used as ‘marine bush meat (Clapham and Van Waerebeek 2007), which is defined as meat and other edible parts derived from wild-caught marine mammals, sea turtles and seabirds.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-45 Table 4.7 Baseline Marine Mammal Information

Species Baseline Information Common bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops Distribution Inshore and offshore truncatus)

Bottlenose dolphins have been recorded landed at Jamestown, Senya Beraku (05°23’N,00°29’W) and Tema. A small group has been recorded foraging around artisanal encircling gillnets set in nearshore waters west of Cotonou, Benin. Four bottlenose dolphins of an undetermined population, possibly offshore, were taken 10-16nm south of Vridi (ca. 05°14.5’N, 04°02.3’W), Ivory Coast, in 1957-1958 (Cadenat and Lassarat, 1959a). Both inshore and offshore populations occur off Angola year-round (Weir, 2007), as well as off western South Africa and Namibia (Ross,1977; Findlay et al, 1992).

Bottlenose dolphin is the third-most frequently (15.5%) landed small cetacean in Ghana (Ofori- Danson et al, 2003). The location of the usual drift-gillnetting grounds suggests an offshore population, although this has not been confirmed. A total of 11 live-capture attempts were made in Walvis Bay, Namibia, in 1975, 1976 and 1983 (Findlay et al, 1992). Best and Ross (1984) warned against capture operations on small coastal populations on South Africa’s west coast as ‘potentially of more consequence’.

Clymene dolphin (Stenella clymene) Shelf (zone) and offshore

Robineau et al (1994) provided a first review of the presence of Clymene dolphin in West Africa, but did not indicate records for Ghana. Ghanaian fishermen however are most familiar with the Clymene dolphin, some calling it ‘true dolphin’ or ‘Etsui Papa’ because the species is so frequently found entangled in fishing gear. Many specimens have been landed at Keta (05°55' N, 00°59' E), Winneba, Apam and Dixcove (Debrah, 2000; Ofori-Danson et al, 2003). A sighting was registered in deep oceanic water at 02°10'N,02°30'W, some 160nm south of the Ghana coast (Perrin et al, 1981). From temporal distribution of captures, Clymene dolphins seem to be present year-round in Ghanaian waters. South of the Gulf, credible sightings were reported from Congo and Angola (Weir, 2006a, 2007). Being a tropical species, it is absent from the cool Benguela system off southwestern Africa (Findlay et al, 1992).

Some 34.5 percent of captured cetaceans have been Clymene dolphins, more than of any other species (Ofori-Danson et al, 2003). Most catches were by drift-gillnet fishermen operating out of Apam and Dixcove. The COREWAM-Ghana database holds photographic evidence for at least 35 net-entangled specimens. In 2007, concern about the observed take led the CMS Scientific Council to unanimously endorse an Appendix II listing proposal for the West African population (Van Waerebeek, 2007). The population was added to Appendix II by the Conference of the Parties in December 2008.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-46 Spinner dolphin (Stenella longirostris) Offshore

Spinner dolphins have been offloaded at Dixcove and Axim in 2000. Skulls exist from specimens collected at Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire (van Bree, 1971) and in Liberia. (Broekema, 1983). Weir (2007) reported sightings in deep pelagic areas off Angola. Spinner dolphins, typically wide-ranging and oceanic, are likely to occur throughout the deeper waters of the study area and the entire eastern tropical Atlantic.

Morphology points to the pantropical subspecies S. longirostris longirostris (see Perrin, 1990). Conservation status is unknown. Spinner dolphins are only infrequently captured (3.5% of dolphin takes) by Ghana’s artisanal fishermen (Ofori-Danson et al, 2003). The claim that tuna- dolphin associations are rare in this ocean province and tuna purse-seiners rarely set upon dolphins is not properly supported and stands in sharp contrast with the situation in the eastern tropical Pacific (e.g. Perrin, 2004). If the captures by small-scale drift-gillnet boats in Ghana are any indication, several species of tuna, billfish and sharks are habitually taken with dolphins in the same nets (Debrah, 2000; Ofori-Danson et al, 2003).

Pantropical spotted dolphin (Stenella attenuata) Shelf (zone) and offshore

The first supported record in Ghana was a juvenile examined at Apam in 1998; since then many more have been collected from the main study sites. The species has been documented from Côte d’Ivoire (Cadenat and Lassarat, 1959b; van Bree, 1971), Gabon (Fraser, 1950a) and offshore waters of the eastern tropical Atlantic (Perrin et al, 1987). No records exist from the Atlantic coast of South Africa (Findlay et al, 1992). A group was encountered off Pointe Pongara, southern shore of the Gabon River estuary (Fraser, 1950a).

An high percentage (17.2%) of small cetaceans offloaded in Ghana ports were pantropical spotted dolphins, making it the second-most frequently captured species (Ofori-Danson et al, 2003). Spinner and pantropical spotted dolphins are the main marine mammal indicator species for the presence of tuna in the eastern tropical Pacific (Perrin, 2004). For tuna fisheries in the eastern Atlantic such associations have not yet been studied. Information on levels of incidental dolphin mortality in these fisheries is scarce and of questionable credibility.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-47

Atlantic spotted dolphin (Stenella frontalis) Shelf (zone) and offshore

Atlantic spotted dolphin is endemic to the eastern and western tropical Atlantic (Perrin et al, 1987). The earliest reports of Atlantic spotted dolphin in Ghana refer to two bycatch victims at Dixcove, one in 2000 and another in 2003. Two specimens were captured off Vridi, Côte d’Ivoire, in 1958 (Cadenat and Lassarat, 1959b). Off Benin, a group of 10 individuals was sighted in coastal waters (Van Waerebeek, 2003). Gabon has also been cited as a range state (Perrin and Van Waerebeek, 2007). Atlantic spotted dolphin is reported from Angola (Weir, 2008), but the species avoids the cold Benguela Current off Namibia and western South Africa (Findlay et al, 1992). As noted above, the spotted dolphin collected off Gabon and reported by Fraser (1950a) as Stenella frontalis was actually a pantropical spotted dolphin.

In Ghana in 1998-2000, Atlantic spotted dolphins accounted for 5.2 percent of the small cetacean bycatch (Ofori-Danson et al, 2003). Two specimens were captured for research in Côte d’Ivoire (Cadenat, 1959). The largest recorded mortality was attributed to fisheries in Mauritania involving 140 stranded dolphins of which at least 125 died (Nieri et al, 1999). Off Angola, Weir (2008) detected negative responses in Atlantic spotted dolphins to seismic surveying off Angola.

Long-beaked common dolphin ( Delphinus Shelf (zone) and offshore capensis)

This species is often confused with the short-beaked common dolphin D. delphis. Fishermen landed two long-beaked common dolphins at Dixcove in 1999 and a third was landed at Axim in 2000. For the Gulf, Cadenat (1959) provided body measurements for 24 long-beaked common dolphins from Côte d’Ivoire. Van Waerebeek (1997) re-examined nine West African dolphin skulls considered D. delphis (van Bree and Purves, 1972) but assigned only two specimens to D. delphis, one from Mayoumba, Gabon and another from Angola. Four skulls from Gabon, two from Angola and one from Congo were assigned to D. capensis. Most common dolphins occurring within the 200-m isobath shelf in South African waters are D. capensis (Samaai et al, 2005).

Common dolphin records, perhaps of both species, exist as far north as Walvis Bay, Namibia (Findlay et al, 1992). Photographs off Gabon (in Rosenbaum and Collins, 2004) show a colouration pattern consistent with that of D. capensis. It supports an earlier claim that long- beaked common dolphins are widely distributed in the Gulf of Guinea as well as off central Africa (Van Waerebeek, 1997).

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-48 Long-beaked common dolphins are avid bowriders and can easily be targeted with hand-held harpoons. However, so far only a few have been recorded landed in Ghana ports. Simmons (1968) reported the take of ‘common dolphins’ with tuna in the Gulf of Guinea.

Fraser's dolphin (Lagenodelphis hosei) Offshore

Records of Fraser’s dolphin in West Africa were recently reviewed (Weir et al, 2008). For Ghana, only bycatch specimens are known: one in Axim in 2000 (Ofori-Danson et al, 2003), three at Dixcove and Axim in 2000 (Debrah, 2000). One probable sighting is known from Nigeria and two confirmed sightings from Angola (Weir et al, 2008). To the west, the closest record is Ile de Sangomar (13°50'N, 16°46'W), Senegal (Van Waerebeek et al, 2000). However, Fraser’s dolphin may be widely distributed in deep waters of the Gulf and the tropical SE Atlantic Ocean. In South Africa all records are from the warm Agulhas Current-influenced SE coast (Ross, 1984; Findlay et al, 1992).

Of unknown status, Fraser’s dolphin is only occasionally taken in Ghana’s artisanal fisheries, explainable by its preference for far offshore waters. The potential of bycatches by large pelagic or foreign fishing vessels remains to be assessed.

Rough-toothed dolphin (Steno bredanensis) Offshore

Jefferson et al (1997) reported two undocumented sightings ‘off Ghana’ in 1972. At least four catches are recorded in Ghana at Apam: one in 1999, two in 1998, and another one in 2002 (Debrah, 2000; Van Waerebeek et al, 1999). Rough-toothed dolphins are confirmed from Côte d’Ivoire when 3 were taken 15-18nm south of Vridi in 1958 (Cadenat, 1959), a fourth (a skull) with reported origin ‘Abidjan’ is at the US National Museum of Natural History. Only one specimen record exists for Namibia (Möwe Bay, 19°20S,12°35’E) in 1986 (Findlay et al, 1992). Rough-toothed dolphins plausibly range in deep waters throughout the eastern tropical Atlantic.

In Ghana, rough-toothed dolphins are occasional victims of gillnet entanglement (3.5% of cetacean catches). Apparently the Vridi specimens (Cadenat, 1959) were taken for research purposes. Little else is known on the species’ status in the eastern tropical Atlantic.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-49 Risso's dolphin (Grampus griseus) Offshore

Ghana’s Fanti fishermen have long been familiar with the Risso’s dolphin and call it ‘Eko tui’, the parrot dolphin, in reference to its peculiar head shape. Confirmed landings are known at Apam in 1999, at Dixcove in 2000, and one at Axim in 2000 (Ofori-Danson et al , 2003). A crew chased a small group of Risso's dolphins ca. 25nm off Côte d’Ivoire in 1958, in a failed harpooning attempt (Cadenat, 1959). The species almost certainly occurs throughout the Gulf, but Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire are the only confirmed range states. The Risso’s dolphin inhabits tropical to cool-temperate waters which is in concordance with its presence off Angola (Weir, 2007), Namibia and South Africa where it is associated with the shelf edge and pelagic waters (Findlay et al, 1992).

Risso's dolphins are regularly captured (6.9% of catches) in Ghana’s artisanal fisheries (Ofori- Danson et al, 2003), but we know little else on the species’ status.

Melon-headed whale (Peponocephala electra) Offshore

The melon-headed whale is known in the Gulf solely from bycatches in Ghana. Geographically most adjacent records are, to the northwest, a skull from Guinea-Bissau (van Bree and Cadenat, 1968) and, to the south, three sightings in deep oceanic waters off Angola (Weir, 2007) plus a stranding at Hout Bay (34°03' S,18°21'E), South Africa (Best and Shaughnessy, 1981). Nonetheless, melon-headed whale may be widely distributed in the eastern tropical Atlantic but it is probably fairly rare.

Melon-headed whales are accidentally netted with some regularity in Ghana waters. Specimens have been landed in Shama in 1994 and at least four in Dixcove in 2000 and 2002. No other information is available.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-50

Pygmy killer whale (Feresa attenuata) Offshore

An adult-sized pygmy killer whale landed at Dixcove in 2007 is the first and only documented record in the Gulf of Guinea. Records to the south from Annobon Island (01°24.2'S,05°36.8' E) were reported by Tormosov et al (1980) however there is no voucher information and the records cannot be verified. Indeed, confusion with melon-headed whales is very common. Off southwestern Africa, pygmy killer whales have stranded in Cape Town and as far north as 23°S, Namibia (Best, 1970; Findlay et al, 1992). Best (1970) documented in great detail four animals stranded at Lüderitz Lagoon, but little other information is published.

An adult-sized pygmy killer whale was landed at Dixcove in December 2007, the only case detected during our port monitoring (Van Waerebeek et al, 2009). Status is unknown but, as elsewhere, pygmy killer whales are probably rare.

Short-finned pilot whale (Globicephala Offshore macrorhynchus)

Short-finned pilot whales seem to be fairly common in Ghana waters, and also occur off Côte d’Ivoire (Cadenat, 1959). Pilot whales are also reported off Cap López, Gabon (Walsh et al, 2000). Fraser (1950b) summarized the morphology of pilot whales in NW Africa. Distribution boundaries to the south and SE are unclear. On South Africa’s Atlantic coast the cool-water- adapted long-finned pilot whale G. melas edwardii is found but no short-finned pilot whales have been recorded (van Bree et al, 1978; Findlay et al, 1992).

Short-finned pilot whales are irregular bycatch victims in drift gillnets off Ghana (3.5% of cetacean catches, Ofori-Danson et al, 2003) and have been landed at Shama, Axim and Dixcove. Most specimens are too big to haul onboard artisanal fishing boats and are towed to port. The Vridi specimen was harpooned for research purposes (Cadenat, 1959). A significant conservation problem exists around the Canary Islands where animals are frequently hit by small boat propellers during whale-watching (Heimlich-Boran,1990; Carwardine, 1994; Van Waerebeek et al, 2007).

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-51

Killer whale (Orcinus orca) Inshore and offshore

A single skeletal specimen is known for Ghana, possibly collected in 1956. A killer whale was harpooned some 15-20nm south of Abidjan in 1958 but the animal sank. Cadenat (1959) claimed that killer whales are regularly present in the region. Observers on industrial tuna purse-seiners reported a few sightings off the coast of Liberia, Ivory Coast and Ghana (Hammond and Lockyer, 1988). Other sighting reports exist for Gabon (Reeves and Mitchell, 1988; Jefferson et al, 1997; Rosenbaum and Collins, 2004). The presence of humpback whales with calves in many areas of the Gulf may attract killer whales to prey on them.

The status in the region is unknown but no conservation problems have been identified. The only killer whale reported taken in the Gulf was in 1958 (Cadenat, 1959).

False killer whale (Pseudorca crassidens) Offshore

The first record in Ghana comprises three false killer whales landed at Apam in 2003. Skulls were collected from a false killer whale stranded near Assini (05°07'25"N, 03°06'40"W), Côte d’Ivoire, in 1970 (van Bree, 1972) and from a specimen in Benin (Van Waerebeek et al, 2001; Tchibozo and Van Waerebeek, 2007). An animal live-stranded at Cap Esterias (00°37’N, 09°29’E), Gabon, in 1992 (Van Waerebeek and De Smet, 1996). Mörzer-Bruyns (1969) described a group of 30 off Liberia at 04°48’N,11°24’W in 1961. Nine sightings off Angola, in eight months of the year, were all located over deep-water areas seaward of 1467m (Weir, 2007) in accordance with the species’ usual habitat elsewhere. Findlay et al (1992) reported a mass stranding near Lüderitz, Namibia.

The conservation status of false killer whale in the Gulf is unknown. In Ghana, the species is infrequently captured in drift gillnets. The animal that live-stranded in Gabon was butchered for food (Van Waerebeek and De Smet, 1996).

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-52

Cuvier's beaked whale (Ziphius cavirostris) Offshore

Cuvier's beaked whale is a cosmopolitan ziphiid found in pelagic tropical to warm temperate waters. A juvenile landed at Axim in 1994 is the first documented beaked whale in the Gulf of Guinea. Weir (2006b) described a group of 3 Cuvier’s beaked whales SW of Luanda, Angola, at 07°15.84’S,11°07.79’E, and reported a group of 3-4 ‘likely Cuvier’s beaked whales’ NW of Luanda. Four other beaked whale sightings off Angola were not identified, but Cuvier’s beaked whale was possible in three cases. The fourth was a Mesoplodon sp. All encounters were over deep water seaward of the continental shelf (Weir, 2006b). Three stranded Cuvier’s beaked whales are known from Namibia (21°-23°S) and another two from the Atlantic coast of South Africa (Findlay et al, 1992).

The status of Cuvier’s beaked whale is unknown, but no threats are identified. The single capture in Ghana among hundreds of other small cetaceans (Debrah, 2000; Ofori-Danson et al, 2003) suggests that impact from bycatch is probably negligible.

Dwarf sperm whale (Kogia sima) Offshore

In Ghana, a dwarf sperm whale was taken by fishermen from Apam in 1998. Two unidentified Kogia sp. were landed, one at Shama in 1994 and another at Apam in 2003. No sightings exist for the Gulf. In South Africa dwarf sperm whale distribution is limited to the South Coast between Cape Columbine and c. 28°E. Stranded dwarf sperm whale specimens are recorded north to at least 22°S at Cape Cross, Namibia (Ross 1984, Findlay et al 1992). Maigret and Robineau (1981) reviewed the genus Kogia in Senegal and West Africa.

Although all three kogiid specimens, one K. sima and two Kogia sp. were captured in drift gillnets, impact of fisheries cannot yet be evaluated. While entanglement rate seems low, populations may also be small.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-53

Sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus) Offshore Found in all worlds oceans

Hardly any information is available on sperm whales in the Gulf of Guinea, however at least females and juveniles are thought to be present year-round beyond the continental shelf. In Ghana, two dead sperm whales washed ashore, one near Accra in 1994 and a second at Dixcove in 2002. Off Gabon, sperm whales were hunted from August till October (Slijper et al, 1964). Off Angola, their density peaked between January and May (Weir, 2007a). As expected, sperm whales were sighted exclusively seaward of the shelf break.

A notable cluster occurred west of the Congo River mouth. Natural history information is available only for sperm whales off the southwest coast of South Africa (e.g. Best 1967, 1969, 1970). Sperm whales are ‘Vulnerable’ according to the 2008 IUCN Red List and are listed in Appendix I of CMS. Long-line fishermen targeting tuna and sharks in equatorial waters of the Gulf and farther south complain about regular predation of hooked fish by sperm whales.

Humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) Offshore and inshore Found in all worlds oceans

Irvine (1947) recorded a possible humpback whale at Prampram in September 1938. Van Waerebeek and Ofori-Danson (1999) first confirmed the species from Ghana based on a fresh neonate stranded at Ada (05°48.5’N,00°38'E) in September 1997. An adult-sized humpback whale stranded at Ada Foah (05°46’33”N,0°36’58”E) in October 2006. Humpback whales are regularly sighted inshore, e.g. from the Dixcove castle, from September till December. A neonate stranded in Lomé, Togo, in August 2005 (Tchibozo and Van Waerebeek, 2007). Rasmussen et al (2007) encountered several pods including a mother and possible newborn calf in Ghanaian waters in October 2006.

From the presence of humpback whales exclusively from early August till late November, and the frequent observations of neonates and ‘competitive groups’, it is evident that the continental shelf of Benin, Togo, Ghana, and western Nigeria hosts a breeding/calving population with a Southern Hemisphere seasonality (Van Waerebeek et al, 2001; Van Waerebeek, 2003), referred to as the ‘Gulf of Guinea stock’. Its parapatric distribution suggests it may be related to the IWC- defined breeding stock ‘B’ from central-west Africa (IWC, 1997, 2006). Mother/calf pairs have been sighted exclusively nearshore in Benin, sometimes just beyond the surf-zone. The westernmost authenticated record is a stranding at Assini Mafia (05°7’25”N, 03°16’40”W), eastern Côte d’Ivoire in August 2007 (Van Waerebeek et al, 2007). For many years, small-scale, seasonal humpback whale-watching sorties have been conducted from the ports of Sekondi- Takoradi, Lomé and Cotonou (Van Waerebeek et al, 2001). The breeding stock off Gabon and Angola is the subject of long-tem dedicated studies (e.g. Best et al, 1999; Walsh et al 2000;

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-54 Rosenbaum and Collins, 2004).

No abundance estimate is available for the Bight of Benin population, but encounter rate in October 2000 was 0.109 humpback whales/nmile surveyed (Van Waerebeek et al, 2001). The reported neonates stranded in unknown circumstances, both natural and anthropogenic causes are possible. At least some humpback whale strandings in the area are thought to be animals killed in vessel collisions, which may be far more common in African waters than scarce reports suggest (Félix and Van Waerebeek, 2005; Van Waerebeek et al, 2007). Humpback whales near Cotonou’s harbour entrance and crossing the main shipping lanes, incur obvious risk. The individual that stranded at Assini Mafia was reported with external trauma consistent with a propeller hit (see Van Waerebeek et al, 2007).

West African manatee (Trichechus senegalensis) Fluviatile/inshore In Ghana as in the rest of the Gulf, manatees are present almost exclusively in continental waters, including freshwater or brackish environments. In Ghana this includes Abi, Tano and Ehy Lagoons (Roth and Waitkuwait, 1986, Powell, 1996), Volta River and in the Volta lake above the Akosomba Dam and Digya National Park (Ofori-Danson, 1995). Manatees also seem to occur in Keta Lagoon and associated waterways. Powell (1996) referred to ‘Happold, 1975’ who claimed that manatees were present along the coast, but Nishiwaki et al (1982) found no evidence of their occurrence. Powell (1996) indicates that manatees require sheltered water with access to food and freshwater. They may transit areas of unsheltered coast, but they are usually rare in these areas. There are no reports of West African manatee offshore, and it is very unlikely that they occur in deep pelagic waters. Main source: Van Waerebeek et al, 2009

4.2.9 Turtles

The Gulf of Guinea serves as an important migration route, feeding ground, and nesting site for sea turtles. Five species of sea turtles have been confirmed for Ghana, namely the loggerhead (Caretta caretta), the olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea), the hawksbill (Erectmochelys imbricata), the green turtle (Chelonia mydas), and the leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea) (Armah et al, 1997, Fretey, 2001). Summaries of the biology of these turtles, including distribution, size and reproduction are provided in Tables 4.9 to 4.13. All five species of sea turtles are listed by the CITES and National Wildlife Conservation Regulations under Schedule I. The olive ridley is listed by the World Conservation Union (IUCN) as vulnerable while the loggerhead and green turtles are listed as endangered. The hawksbill and the leatherback are listed as critically endangered.

All species except the hawksbill are captured with some regularity in fishing nets set off Ghana. Although fully protected by national and international legislation, sea turtles that are landed are sold locally for human consumption. The EEZ waters of Ghana constitute a known feeding area for at least the green turtle. However, there is no published information on the spatial and temporal distribution of turtles in both nearshore and offshore waters. Recent sea turtle telemetry tagging undertaken by a team from the Department of Oceanography and Fisheries, University of Ghana and Galathea II team from Denmark indicated that sea turtles from Ghana migrate as far west as the inshore areas of Liberia.

Marine turtles spend most of their life at sea, but during the breeding season they go ashore and lay their eggs on sandy beaches. The beaches of Ghana

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-55 from Keta to Half-Assini are important nesting areas for sea turtle species. Approximately 70 percent of Ghana’s coastline is found suitable as nesting habitat for sea turtles, and three species; the green turtle, olive ridley and leatherback turtles are actually known to nest (Armah et al, 1997; Amiteye, 2002). The olive ridley is the most abundant turtle species in Ghana. Population estimates from four previous surveys of these turtle species are provided in Table 4.8. The nesting period stretches from July to December, with a peak in November (Armah et al, 1997). In Ghana, the majority nests observed (86.3 percent) are those of the olive ridley.

Table 4.8 Population of the three sea turtle species that nest on the beaches of Ghana

Author, year Leatherback Olive ridley Green Turtle Amiteye, 2002 46 412 32 Agyemang, 2005 30 190 10 Allman, 2007 418 134 0 Agyekumhene, 2009 74 103 0 Average 142 210 21

In the Western region, the beaches at Kengen, Metika Lagoon, Elonyi, Anochi, Atuabo and Benyin are important nesting sites for sea turtles. The locations of these nesting beaches are shown in Figure 4.29. The prime nesting sites have been identified as the coastline from Prampram (about 10 to 15 km east of Tema) to Ada and the areas beyond the Volta estuary to Denu, in the Volta region. It is also evident that moderate nesting occurs from Winneba through Bortianor and on some beaches around Accra such as Gbegbeyise and Sakumono (Amiteye, 2002). These nesting sites are located along the eastern coast of Ghana away from the Jubilee Field.

Despite their protected status, marine turtles continue to face various forms of threat on Ghanaian beaches. The major threat to marine turtle population in Ghana is predation on eggs and juveniles by domestic animals especially pigs and dogs (Billes, 2003). Human exploitation also contributes significantly to the decline in turtle population in Ghana. Female turtles which come to the beaches to lay eggs are normally ambushed and killed as soon as they start laying because they become weak and hence easy to capture. Where the female succeeds to complete laying the eggs, the local people walk the beaches at dawn to look for the tracks and dig up the eggs. Special fishing nets are used by local fishermen for capturing the turtles. The turtle meat and eggs obtained by the above methods are eaten or traded for cash income.

The Ghana Wildlife Society has been carrying out sea turtle research and monitoring activities, conservation education and enforcement of legislation since 1995. The marine turtle conservation project is a contribution towards the achievement of Ghana’s national goal of sustainable management of coastal resources and wetland habitats. The objective of the project is to promote the socio-economic development of coastal communities through marine turtle conservation.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-56 Area A KEY:

][ Crocodiles ¶[ Turtles \ Lagoon, River Mouth 9 or Estuary ! Cities and Towns

Belibangara Lagoon Ndumamaka Lagoon

Ndumamaka Akyi Lagoon Burantini Lagoon Metika Lagoon Amanzule Lagoon Efasu Lagoon Anwiane Anluonu Lagoon \9 \ Kafoda Lagoon \9\9\9 Epokeazule Lagoon \9\99][\9 \\99 Kelapinli Lagoon ! \9 . \9 Ndombura Lagoon ¶[\9 0 5 \9\9\ Mankyea Lagoon 9\9 \9 \9 Kilometres \9 \9 Demona Lagoon Ekpukyi Lagoon Akpanyibula Lagoon Ehuletile Lagoon Ahobrenum Lagoon ¶[ Nzamasu Lagoon Domini Lagoons ¶[ Ghana ¶[ Côte d'Ivoire ¶[ ¶[ ¶[ ¶[ Am A \ B

Area B TITLE: Figure 4.29 Marine Turtle Nesting Beaches \9\9 along the Western Coastline of Ghana

CLIENT: SIZE: Asukutia Lagoon Tullow Ghana A4 Onolimeleme Lagoon

][ DATE: 06/08/2009 CHECKED: MI PROJECT: 0096867

DRAWN: CO APPROVED: MI SCALE: As Scale Bar Butre River Mouth DRAWING: REV: ocs_remargind.mxd EnvSnstvs_TurtlesandCrocs_remargind.mxd 0

\9 ERM Norloch House 36 King's Stables Road Edinburgh, EH1 2EU 0 5 Tel: 0131 478 6000 Fax: 0131 487 3636

Kilometres SOURCE: EPA Ghana: Environmental Sensitivity Map for Coastal Areas of Ghana, Volume 1, Atlas PROJECTION: GCS WGS 1984 File: 0096867Ghana_CO_MI\MAPS\EnvSnstvs_TurtlesandCr Table 4.9 Loggerhead Turtle

Scientific name Caretta caretta Status: Endangered Size: Adults Length 70-100 cm Mass up to 200 kg

Hatchlings Length 25 mm Mass 15-20 g

Distribution: • Nesting areas in tropical to sub-tropical regions; Non-nesting range extends to temperate regions • Loggerheads exhibit trans-oceanic developmental migrations from nesting beaches to immature foraging areas on opposite sides of ocean basins. Reproduction: • Reproduce every 2-4 years • Lay 2-5 clutches of eggs per season • Lay 80-120 eggs per clutch • Large ping-pong ball size eggs weigh 30-40 grams • Can take 20-30 years to reach sexual maturity

Nesting Sites and Distribution of Loggerhead Turtles

Source: http://seaturtlestatus.org/

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-58 Table 4.10 Olive Ridley Turtle

Scientific name: Lepidochelys olivacea

Status: Vulnerable

Size: Adults Length 60-70 cm Mass up to 70 kg

Hatchlings Length 25 mm Mass 15-20 g

Distribution: Circumglobal Nesting areas in tropical to sub-tropical regions Non-nesting range extends to temperate regions Reproduction: Reproduce every 1-3 years Lay 1-3 clutches of eggs per season Lay 90-130 eggs per clutch; ~ Ping-pong ball size eggs weigh approximately 30 grams each Incubation period approximately 60 days long

Nesting Sites and Distribution of Olive Ridley's Turtles

Source: http://seaturtlestatus.org/

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-59 Table 4.11 Hawksbill Sea Turtle

Scientific name: Eretmochelys imbricata

Status: Critically Endangered

Size: Adults Length 75-90 cm Mass up to 150 kg

Hatchlings Length 30 mm Mass 5 g Distribution: Nesting areas in tropics Non-nesting range is generally restricted to tropical regions, although during immature stages it extends to sub-tropical regions Reproduction: Reproduce every 2-4 years Lay 2-5 clutches of eggs per season Lay 120-200 eggs per clutch Ping-pong ball size eggs with approximately 25-30 Incubation period is approximately 60 days long

Native/Resident Range of Olive Ridley Turtles (IUCN, 2009)

Source: http://seaturtlestatus.org/

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-60 Table 4.12 Green Turtle

Scientific name: Chelonia mydas

Status: Endangered

Size: Adults Length 80-120 cm Mass up to 300 kg

Hatchlings Length 30-40 mm Mass 25-30 g Distribution: Nesting areas throughout tropical regions are often on islands and coral atolls in addition to mainland beaches Non-nesting range extends to temperate regions during immature stages Reproduction: Reproduce every 2-4 years Lay 2-5 clutches of eggs per season Lay 80-120 eggs per clutch Large ball size eggs weigh approximately 40-50 grams Incubation period approximately 60 days long Can take 20-40 years to reach sexual maturity

Nesting sites and distribution of Green Turtle

Source: http://seaturtlestatus.org/

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-61 Table 4.13 Leatherback Turtle

Scientific name: Dermochelys coriacea

Status: Critically Endangered

Size: Adult Length 140-160 cm Mass 300-1000 kg

Hatchling Length 50 mm Mass 40-50 g Distribution: Present in all world’s oceans except Arctic and Antarctic Nesting areas in tropics Non-nesting range extends to sub-polar regions Reproduction: Reproduce every 2-4 years Lay 4-7 clutches of eggs per season Lay 50-90 eggs per clutch Billiard ball size eggs weigh roughly 80 grams Incubation period is approximately 60 days long

Nesting sites of the Leatherback Turtle

Source: http://seaturtlestatus.org/

4.2.10 Birds

The west coast of Africa forms an important section of the East Atlantic Flyway, an internationally-important migration route for a range of bird species, especially shore birds and seabirds (Boere et al, 2006, Flegg 2004). A number of species breed in higher northern latitudes winter along the West African coast and many fly along the coast on migration. Seabirds known to follow this migration route include a number of tern species (Sterna sp.), skuas (Stercorarius and Catharacta spp.) and petrels (Hydrobatidae).

The distance of the migration routes of these species from the shore depends on prey distribution and availability (eg the abundance and distribution of shoals of anchovies or sardines) (Flegg 2004). Species of waders known to migrate along the flyway include sanderling (Calidris alba) and knott (Calidris canuta). The highest concentrations of seabirds are experienced during the spring and autumn migrations, around March and April, and September and October. Waders are present during the winter months between October and

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-62 March. The marine birds of Ghana include storm petrels (Oceanodroma castro) and Ascension frigatebirds (Fregata aquila). Records dating back to the 1960s reveal only limited sightings of a few species (Elgood et al, 1994). The rarity of oceanic birds may be attributable to the absence of suitable breeding sites (eg remote islands and rocky cliffs) off the Ghana coast and in the Gulf of Guinea.

During the environmental baseline studies research cruse for the West African Gas Pipeline (WAGP, 2004) in 2002/2003, the survey crew recorded several sightings of black tern (Chlidonias niger), White winged black tern (Chlidonias leucopterus), royal tern (Sterna maxima), common tern (Sterna hirundo), sandwich tern (Sterna sandvicensis), great black-back gull (Larus marinus), lesser black-back gull (Larus fuscus), pomarine skua (Stercorarius pomarinus) and great skua (Catharacta skua). The two species of skua are predominant in the Western offshore environment. Black terns were mainly recorded at nearshore locations close to estuaries and/or lagoons. These species leave the onshore areas to feed at sea during the afternoon. The general low diversity of marine birds may be ascribed to lack of suitable habitats and availability of food resources in the offshore area. There are 40 Important Bird Areas (IBAs) designated by Birdlife International within Ghana (Birdlife International, 2009). Six IBAs are located along the coastine of Ghana, namely:

• Amansuri wetland; • Densu Delta Ramsar Site; • Keta Lagoon Ramsar Site; • Muni-Pomadze Ramsar Site; • Sakumo Lagoon Ramsar Site; and • Songor Ramsar Site Greater.

A map showing the locations of these IBAs is provided in Figure 4.30. Five of these are designated Ramsar sites, however, only one, the Amansuri wetland, is located along the western coastline within the project sphere of influence. Further information on this IBA is provided in Box 4.1.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-63 &RWH G ,YRLUH 0RXQW$IDGMDWR±$JXPDWVD5DQJHIRUHVW!( 7RJR

!(7DQR2IILQ)RUHVW5HVHUYH *KDQD %LD1DWLRQDO3DUNDQG5HVRXUFH5HVHUYH !( !(%RVRPWZH5DQJH)RUHVW5HVHUYH

1VXHQVD)RUHVW5HVHUYH 'DGLHVR)RUHVW5HVHUYH !( !( !( $WHZD5DQJH )RUHVW5HVHUYH .HWD/DJRRQ 6KDL+LOOV5HVRXUFH5HVHUYH 5DPVDU6LWH 7DQR(KXUR)RUHVW5HVHUYH !( !( !( Nkroful Axim !\9 !( ! \9 Elmina \9 ! !!( \9 Shama &DSH7KUHH3RLQWV)RUHVW5HVHUYH \9 ! ! \\ Sekondi $PDQVXULZHWODQG \\9 99 9 \9 Takoradi \9 Agona Nkwanta

CLIENT: SIZE: TITLE: KEY: A4 Figure 4.30 mxd (! IBAs Tullow Ghana Important Bird Areas along \ Lagoon, River Mouth ERM the Coast of Ghana 9 or Estuary Norloch House 36 King's Stables Road . Edinburgh, EH1 2EU SensitivePlacenames Tel: 0131 478 6000 DATE: 06/08/2009 CHECKED: MI PROJECT: 0096867 0 50 Fax: 0131 487 3636 ! Cities and Towns DRAWN: CO APPROVED: MI SCALE: As Scale Bar Kilometres SOURCE: Data obtained from www.birdlife.org 15/06/09 DRAWING: REV: PROJECTION: GCS WGS 1984 IBAs_labelld_remargnd.mxd 0 File: 0096867Ghana_CO_MI\MAPS\IBAs_labelld_remargnd. Box 4.1 Amansuri Wetland Important Bird Area

Location: 4deg 55' N 2o 15' W

Extent: 38,050 ha

Site description: The site lies c.360 km west of Accra, near the town of Axim. It includes the freshwater Amansuri lagoon (including the village of Nzulenso which is built on stilts in the lagoon), the flood-plains of the Amansuri River, the coastal Amansuri lagoon and estuary, and the sandy Esiama beach, between the Amansuri and Ankobra Rivers. The site covers c.40 percent of the total catchment of the Amansuri River. The wetland is a blackwater system. The vegetation in the catchment is Wet Evergreen Forest, with swamp-forest in wetter parts. The most common tree in the swamps is the Raffia Palm Raphia vinifera, which grows in almost pure stands. The large spiny aroid Cyrtosperma senegalense grows along the edge of the raffia while the drier patches support mainly sedges and grasses. The area is subject to seasonal flooding and the nature of the terrain is such that access is very difficult and, as a consequence, large areas are largely untouched.

Birds: Key bird species include the Sanderling (Calidris alba) and Royal Tern (Sterna maxima). The coastal areas of the Amansuri catchment, including the coastal lagoon, estuary and Esiama beach, support appreciable numbers of waterbirds. Other common species occurring at the site include Pluvialis squatarola, Charadrius hiaticula, Tringa hypoleucos and Arenaria interpres. Up to 30 Haematopus ostralegus are regularly seen on the beach, the only site along the Ghana coast where the species is seen with any degree of frequency. In addition to Sterna maxima, small flocks of S. sandvicensis, S. hirundo and Chlidonias niger also regularly roost on sandbanks in the estuary. Species occurring in the inland freshwater lagoon and swamp areas include gallinules, crakes and jacanas. The avifauna of the rest of the catchment has not been studied.

Conservation issues: Amansuri wetland is the largest stand of intact swamp-forest in Ghana and its value is further enhanced by the fact that large areas are still in a relatively pristine condition. The fauna of the site, as with most blackwater areas, is species-poor; however, the communities present are distinctive. With current rates of population growth and development, unless action is taken now to safeguard this unique area, it is likely to suffer the fate of numerous other coastal wetlands, which have become completely degraded. The area is being considered as a Community Nature Reserve, with the possibility of Ramsar designation, under a project being implemented by the Ghana Wildlife Society, with funding from the Netherlands Government. Because of the large size of the catchment and the high population density in some parts, a zonation system will be necessary to focus conservation action on the most biologically important and intact areas. The freshwater lagoon is fished by the Nzulenso community; the fishing is regulated by a wide range of well-enforced taboos, aimed at ensuring sustainability and preventing pollution of the lagoon waters.

Source: Birdlife International, 2009

In addition to designated IBAs, there are a number of estuaries, lagoons and wetland along the western coastline that are importation habitats for shore birds, gulls and terns, waders and waterfowl. These locations are shown in Figure 4.31.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-65 Area A Area B KEY: Ehuletile Lagoon Birds Kafoda Lagoon «[ Shorebirds Metika Lagoon oon Amanzule Lagoon on [ on Anwiane Anluonu Lagoon ¢ Gulls and Terns kyea Lagoon ombura Lagoon Epokeazule Lagoon ®[ Waders ! \9 Kelapinli Lagoon Nkroful Half Assini\9 \9 ®[\9 ®[ ! \9\ ®[®[ °[ Waterfowl 9\\99\®[9 ®[\9 «[«[«[ Lagoon, River Mouth ®[\®[9 ®[\9 Axim \9 ®[ Amunsure Lagoon ! or Estuary Ekpukyi Lagoon ®[ \9 ! Cities and Towns Ahobrenum Lagoon Domini Lagoons

Ankobra (Ankwao) Estuary

Awangazule Lagoon \9

Ahumen Lagoon \9 «[ Area C Area D «[ Susu Lagoon ®[ Agona Nkwanta Takoradi \9 ! Onolimeleme Lagoon ! «[\®[9 Asukutia Lagoon «[ ®[ ®[\9 Abrobeano Lagoon Ahumen Lagoon Shama ! ®[ Pra River Mouth . \ \9\9 9 \9 0 10 Sekondi Ehunli Lagoon ®[ ! \9 Pukye Lagoon Kilometres «[ «[ \®[9 \®[9 Côte d'Ivoire Ghana ®[\«[9 Esai Lagoon

F Butre River Mouth E Takoradi A ! B D ®[ C

\9\9Onolimeleme Lagoon

Area E Area F TITLE: Winneba Atufa Lagoon ! Figure 4.31 Sensitive Bird Habitats along the Western Coastline of Ghana Etsi Lagoon \9 \9 «[ \9 ®[ CLIENT: SIZE: «[\9«[\9 Eyas Lagoon Ayesu Lagoon Tullow Ghana A4 Opum Lagoon Apam Cape Coast Sumina Lagoon ! ! DATE: 06/08/2009 CHECKED: MI PROJECT: 0096867 \ Wankami Lagoon ®[\9 9 Saase Lagoon DRAWN: CO APPROVED: MI SCALE: As Scale Bar \9 Apa Lagoon Atufa Lagoon ®[ Nfoa Lagoon Amisa Lagoon ®[\9 DRAWING: REV: Mumford remargnd.mxd \®[9 ! EnvSensitivites_Birds_remargnd.mxd 0 Elmina «[ ®[ ! ®[ \9 ®[ \ ®[\ °[®[ Fosu Lagoon °[\®[¢[9 9 9 ®[\ «[®[®[ ERM \9 ®[9 «[ Sefara Lagoon ®[®[ \9 Norloch House «[ \9 Bosom Muna Lagoon 36 King's Stables Road ®[\9 Lagoon Edinburgh, EH1 2EU ®[ Nsuneda Lagoon Narkwa Lagoon Tel: 0131 478 6000 u Lagoon Fax: 0131 487 3636 Mbopro Lagoon

SOURCE: EPA Ghana: Environmental Sensitivity Map for Coastal Areas of Ghana, Volume 1, Atlas PROJECTION: GCS WGS 1984 File: 0096867Ghana_CO_MI\MAPS\EnvSensitivites_Birds_ 4.2.11 Habitat Types

The coastal area of Ghana is situated at latitude 5.5° north. The coastline is approximately 550 km long and is generally low-lying, with a maximum elevation of 200 m above sea level. It has a narrow continental shelf extending outwards to between 20 and 35 km, except off Takoradi where it extends up to 90 km.

In 2004, the UNDP with financial assistance from the Fund for Danish Consultancy Services, supported the EPA to compile environmental sensitivity maps for the coastal area of Ghana. The coastal sensitivity map is a Geographic Information System (GIS) based environmental planning tool for coastal zone management use in planning and implementation of oil spill response. This section draws largely on information from this document.

Approximately 70 percent of the coastline consists of sandy beaches. Over 90 coastal lagoons are located in the back-shore areas, most of which are small and less than 5 km2 in surface area (Armah et al, 2004). The Ghanaian coastal zone can be divided into the following three geomorphic zones according to Ly, 1980. The locations of these zones are shown in Figure 4.32 and a brief outline is provided below.

• The Western Coast: Covers 95 km of stable shoreline and extends from the Cote d’Ivoire border to the estuary of the Ankobra River. These are basically composed of fine sand with gentle beaches backed by coastal lagoons.

• The Central Coast: Extends approximately 321 km from the estuary of the Ankobra River near Axim to Prampram, located to the east of Accra. It represents an embayment coast of rocky headland, rocky shores and littoral sand barriers enclosing coastal lagoons.

• The Eastern Coast: Extends approximately 149 km of shoreline from Prampram, eastwards to Aflao at the border with Togo. It is characterised by sandy beaches with the deltaic estuary of the Volta River situated halfway in-between.

Major rivers draining the coastal zone are the Tano, Ankobra, Butre, Pra, Kakum, Amisa, Nakwa, Ayens, Densu and the Volta (Figure 4.33).

This section focuses on the habitat types within the immediate sphere of influence of the Phase 1 Jubilee project (mainly the western coast) but includes descriptions for other areas along the Ghana coast, where information is lacking for the western coast.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-67 Figure 4.32 Western, Central and Eastern Coastlines of Ghana

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-68 Figure 4.33 Major Rivers and Lagoons along the Coast of Ghana

Source: Biney, 1986

4-69 Sandy Shores

Sandy shores are the most prominent coast type in Ghana and most of the West Coast coastline comprises sandy beaches. Limited detailed ecological studies have been undertaken for the sandy shores along the western coast of Ghana. Generally, species diversity on the sandy beaches is low, especially on beaches with coarse sand and a steep profile. Figure 4.34 shows a typical sandy shore with fine-grained sand gentle profile.

Figure 4.34 Sandy Beach with Fine-Grained Sand and Low Slope (Near Essia-mah)

Species diversity is higher on fine grained sandy beaches with a gentle profile, which are predominant along the western coastline. The dominant species along such beaches are summarised in Table 4.14 (Gauld and Buchanan, 1956, E. Lamptey, pers. comm., 2009).

The sandy shores along the western coast also serve as important nesting sites for marine turtles (Armah et al, 2004). Epifauna on the sandy shores along the West Coast are literally non-existent. However, strand vegetation occurs above the high tide mark and typically comprises creepers (Canavalia rosea and Ipomea pes-caprae) in association with some grasses (Cyperus maritimus and Diodia vaginalis). The prickly cactus (Opuntia vulgaris) is occasionally found (Armah et al, 2004) in this zone. The back shore vegetation is generally characterised by coconut palms, the dwarf palm Phoenix reclinata and the shrubs Baphia nitida, Grewia spp., Sophora occidetalis, Thespesia populnea and Triumfetta rhombaidea (Taylor, 1960).

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-70 Table 4.14 Common Species on Fine Grained Sandy Beaches

Common name Species Ghost crab Ocypoda cursa

Isopods Excirolana latipes

Amphipods Urothoe grimaldi Pontharpinia intermedia

Mysids Gastrosuccus spinifer

Mole crabs Hippa cubensi

Polychaetes Narine cirratulus Glycera convolut

Bivalves Lumbrinereis impatiense Donax pulchellus Donax rogusus

Gastropods Terebra micans Olivancilaria hiatula Olivia sp.

Rocky Shores

Rocky shores within the potentially affected coastline occur primarily at Axim. Along the western coastline, other significant sections of rocky shoreline occur at Eqyembra, Cape Three Points, west of Busua, west of Takoradi Port and at Abuesi. The rocky shore in this area occurs as rocky outcrops alternating with sandy bays (Lawson, 1956). A steep exposed rocky coastline is shown in Figure 4.35. Rocky outcrops serve as suitable substrate for a wide variety of macroalgae, barnacles, littorinid snails (Armah et al, 2004) and limpets. The algal mat on the rocks serves as important micro-habitat for several species of epifauna and fish. Common algal species include Sargassum vulgare, Dictyopteris delicatula, Ulva fasciata, Chaetomorpha sp. and Lithothamnia sp. (Evans et al, 1993; Lawson, 2003, 1956).

Fauna along the rocky coast include barnacles (Chthamalus dentate, Balanus tintinnabulum), snails (Echinolittorina pulchella - formally Littorina puctata, Nodolittorina meleagis, Nerita senengalensis), the whelk Thais haemastoma and limpets (Siphonaria pectinata, Fissurella nuecula and Patella safiana), Thais nodosa, and Palythos sp (Evans et al, 1993; Lawson 2003, 1956).

Tidal pools occurring on rocky coasts also serve as important micro-habitats for fauna and flora. Important tidepool flora on Ghanaian rocky coasts includes Sargassum vulgare, Dictyopteris delicatula, Dictyotta spp. Pardina durvillei and Galaxaura marginata (Lawson, 1956). The fauna include the damselfish Microspathodon frontatus, Rupescartes atlanticus and juveniles of

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-71 Abdefduf hamyi, the seargent major fish Abdefduf saxatilis and the parrot fish Pseudoscarus hoefler (Armah et al, 2004).

Figure 4.35 Steep Exposed Rock

Source: Environmental Sensitivity Atlas, 2004

Coastal Lagoons

Coastal lagoons along the Ghanaian coastline range from brackish to hypersaline and are separated from the sea by barriers of sand that run parallel to the shore. They are important ecosystems, housing a wide variety of fish, shrimp, crabs, mollusc and other benthic form. They are important nursery areas for juveniles of marine fish and shrimp and may serve as wintering sites for Palaearctic birds as well as roosting sites for local waterfowls.

Five of the lagoons along the Ghanaian coastline are designated as Ramsar sites (Sakumo, Densu, Muni-Pomadze, Keta and Songor), however, none of these occur within the immediate sphere of influence of the Phase 1 Jubilee project. Fourty coastal lagoons are located along the western coast between New Town (on the border of Cote d’Ivoire) and Winneba(1). The locations of these lagoons are shown in Figure 4.36.

The coastal lagoons along the coastline of Ghana may be designated as open, closed or semi-closed depending on their connectivity with the adjacent sea.

(1) Ehuletile, Kafoda, Metika, Amanzule, Anwiane, Epokeazule, Kelapinili, Ekpukyi, Ahbrenum, Domini, Amunsure, Awangazule, Ahumen, Ehulni, Butre, Asukutia, Onolimeleme, Esai, Pukye, Abrobeano, Susu, Mbopro, Nsuneda, Fosu, Nfoa, Apa, Wankami, Opum, Eyas, Etsi, Atufa, Amisa, Narkwa, Bosom Muna, Sefara, Saase, Sumina, Ayesu.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-72 The hydrology and hence the ecology of the lagoons depend on inflow of freshwater into the lagoon and its connectivity with the adjacent ocean (ie whether it is closed or otherwise). Ecological studies on two coastal lagoon in Ghana (Muni and Sakumo (Figure 4.37)), which are not within the immediate sphere of influence of the project, indicate that the fauna is dominated by tilapine species with Sarotherodon melanotheron dominating catch (Koranteng, 1995a; 1995b). The open lagoons generally tend to have a higher diversity than the closed lagoons. Invertebrate species found in the closed lagoons (Muni) include the crustaceans Uca tangeri, Callinectes latimanus, Cardiosoma armatum and the molluscs Tympanotonus fuscatus, Macoma cumana and Turitella meta. The fish species were S. melanotheron, Tilapia zillii and Liza falcipinnis (Koranteng, 1995a; 1995b).

Species found in the open lagoon (Sakumo II) were the crabs Uca tangerii, Callinectes latimanus, Cardiosoma armatum, Sesarmia africana, juveniles of the shrimps Parapenenaeopsis atlantica and Penaeus duorarum, and the molluscs Tympanotons fuscatus, Macoma cumana, Semifusis morio, Turritella ungulina, Turitella meta, Tivela tripla, Anadara senilis and Crassostrea tulipa. Fish species in the open lagoons include brackish water species Sarotherondon melanotheron, Tilapia zillii, Gobious ansorgii, Periothalmus spp., the freshwater species Oreochromis niloticus, Claria anguillaris, Hemichromis bimaculatus, marine forms Gerres melanopterus, Lethrinus atlanticus, Lutjanus fulgens, Albula vulpes and the juvenile forms of Liza falcipinnis and Mugil sp. Pauly (1975) defined the following four groups of fish and shrimps encountered in open coastal lagoons in Ghana.

1. Freshwater fish which swim into the lagoon during the rainy season (e.g. Clarias anguillaris, Hemichromis bimaculatus, Oreochromis niloticus, Tilapia zillii). 2. Fish species that spend all or most of their lives in the lagoon (e.g. Sarotherodon melanotheron, Priopthalms kaelruti and some gobid species). 3. Marine fish species that come into the lagoon for short incursions (e.g. Albula vulpes, Lutjanus fulgens, Lethrinus sp.). 4. Species that spawn at sea but have their juvenile forms washed into the lagoon just after the rainy seasons (e.g. Mugil sp. Gerres melanopterus, Penaeus duorarum, Parapenaepsis atlantica).

Other important biota of the coastal lagoon ecosystem include the avifaunal population, small mammal and reptile populations and lagoon flora including mangrove stands and associated vegetation.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-73 .(< $UHD$ $UHD% \ /DJRRQ5LYHU0RXWK 9 RU(VWXDU\ .DIRGD/DJRRQ 0HWLND/DJRRQ Z[0 0DQJURYH $PDQ]XOH/DJRRQ ! &LWLHVDQG7RZQV D/DJRRQ $QZLDQH$QOXRQX/DJRRQ EXUD/DJRRQ Z[0 ! \9 (SRNHD]XOH/DJRRQ Z[0 1NURIXO \9 \9 \9 ! \9\ Z[0 9\\99\9 (KXOHWLOH/DJRRQ \9 $PXQVXUH/DJRRQ Z[\09 Z[\09 $[LP .HODSLQOL/DJRRQ Z[0 ! (NSXN\L/DJRRQ \9

$KREUHQXP/DJRRQ 'RPLQL/DJRRQV $QNREUD $QNZDR (VWXDU\

$ZDQJD]XOH /DJRRQ \9

$KXPHQ/DJRRQ \9

$UHD& $UHD' 6XVX/DJRRQ Z[0

$JRQD1NZDQWD 7DNRUDGL \9 ! 2QROLPHOHPH/DJRRQ ! \9 $VXNXWLD/DJRRQ Z[0Z[0 Z[0 \9 $EUREHDQR/DJRRQ $KXPHQ/DJRRQ 6KDPD ! 3UD5LYHU0RXWK . \ \9\9 9 \9   6HNRQGL ! (KXQOL/DJRRQ \9 3XN\H/DJRRQ .LORPHWUHV

Z[\09 \9 Côte d'Ivoire Ghana \9 (VDL/DJRRQ

F %XWUH5LYHU0RXWK E 7DNRUDGL A ! B D Z[0 C

\9\92QROLPHOHPH/DJRRQ

$UHD( $UHD) 7,7/( :LQQHED ! )LJXUH $WXID/DJRRQ 6HQVLWLYH+DELWDWVDORQJ (WVL/DJRRQ WKH:HVWHUQ&RDVWOLQHRI*KDQD±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

6285&( (3$*KDQD(QYLURQPHQWDO6HQVLWLYLW\0DSIRU&RDVWDO$UHDVRI*KDQD 9ROXPH$WODV 352-(&7,21 *&6:*6 )LOH*KDQDB&2B0,?0$36?(QY6QVWYVB0DQJURYHVP Figure 4.37 Open coastal Lagoon (Sakumo Lagoon West of Tema). The lagoon is Cnnected to the sea via a Culvert

Source: Environmental Sensitivity Atlas, 2004

Mangrove and Tidal Forests

Mangroves along the coastline of Ghana tend to be associated with coastal lagoons and estuaries (see Figure 4.38). The distribution is sparse and mangrove populations have also been degraded through over-cutting and conversion of mangrove areas to salt pans. The total area of land occupied by mangroves along the Ghanaian coastline in 1995 is estimated to be around 10,000 ha (Saenager and Bellan, 1995). Most of these mangroves occur along the eastern coast of Ghana out of the sphere of influence of the Phase 1 Jubilee project. A few smaller mangrove areas occur along the western coastline and are shown in Figure 4.39 above.

The species of mangrove found along the Ghana coast are the red mangroves Rhizophora racemosa, Rhizophora mangle and Rhizophora harrisonii, the white mangroves Avicennia germinans and Laguncularia racemosa. The mangrove species show zonation within the lagoons with the red mangroves being the primary colonists in open lagoons with regular tidal exchange, and the white mangroves being the primary colonists in closed lagoons (Sackey et al, 1993). Other associated vegetation found within mangrove habitats includes Conocarpus erectus, Thespeia populnea, Acrostichum aureum, Phoenix reclinata, Sessuvium portulacrastrum and Phylloxerus vermicularis (Armah et al, 2004). The drier areas of mangrove habitats with less saline or normal soils may have other species such as Dahlbergia escastophyllum, Drepanocarpus lunatus, Hibiscus tiliaceous and Terminalia catappa (Armah et al, 2004).

Mangrove habitats along the Ghana coast also tend to host a wide variety of fauna species such as oysters, gastropods, crabs, invertebrates, birds and fish.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-75 They also play an important role as nursery areas for many species of fish and crustaceans.

Figure 4.38 Mangroves

Estuarine and Depression Wetlands

Armah et al (2004) defined estuarine wetlands as all wetlands which are exposed when the tide is out, as well as plains of estuaries, which are seasonally inundated during the rainy season. They define depression wetlands as those wetlands not linked to any significant watercourse, but are small in size and confined mostly to low-lying areas.

There is a paucity of information on the wetland types, especially along the western coast of Ghana. However, it is known that depression wetlands predominate along the western coast as a result of high rainfall and poor drainage. Examples of estuarine wetlands along the western coast include Butre, Ankrobra, Kpani-Nyila and Hwin while depression wetlands include Belibangara, Ndumakaka, Efasu and Ehuli (Armah et al, 2004). Estuaries and river mouths along the western coastline are shown in Figure 4.39 above.

According to Armah et al (2004), the wetlands have diverse and extensive vegetation with mangrove stands and species of swamp forest vegetation. Several species of fish, crustaceans and other invertebrates also occur in these habitats.

4.2.12 Nature Conservation and Protected Areas

Several coastal habitats are important for their biodiversity as well as for rare and endangered species. However, only five protected areas currently exist within the country. These areas are all located onshore and are protected

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-76 under the Ramsar convention. They are the Muni-Pomadze, Densu Delta, Sakumo Lagoon, Songor Lagoon and the Anglo-Keta Lagoon complex Ramsar sites (Table 4.15). None of these protected areas occur along the western coast, which is within the sphere of influence of the Jubilee field project (1). The locations of these Ramsar sites are shown in Figure 4.33 above along with the International Bird Areas.

Table 4.15 Coastal Ramsar Sites in Ghana

Name and Site Location Area Comments Numebr (km2) Muni Lagoon(563) 5°22′N, 86.7 Sand dunes, open lagoon, degraded forest 0°40′E and scrubland. Lagoon opens into the sea during the rainy season.

Densu Delta 5°31′N, 58.9 Sand dunes, lagoons, salt pans, marsh, and (564) 0°20′E scrub. Scattered stands of mangrove with extensive areas of open water.

Sakumo Lagoon 5°30′N, 13.6 Brackish lagoon with narrow connection to (565) 0°08′E the sea. Main habitats are the open lagoon, surrounding flood plains, freshwater marsh, and coastal savanna grasslands.

Songor Lagoon 5°45′N– 6°00N, 287.4 Closed lagoon with high salinity, and a (566) 0°20’E–0°35′E large mudflat with scattered mangroves.

Anlo-Keta 5°55′N, 1,277.8 Open lagoon with brackish water influx Lagoon complex 0°50′E from Volta River. Coastal savannah grasses (567) with patches of trees and shrubs. Largest seabird populations of all coastal wetlands of Ghana.

Ghana has not declared any marine protected area with the exception of the Ramsar sites. Currently, coastal lagoons and mangrove stands are identified as breeding and nursery areas for a wide variety of marine species. However, none of these are under any protection by state legislation, with the exception of the Ramsar designated areas.

Traditional methods of conservation exist for a number of lagoons and wetlands within the country. These methods (mainly taboos), however are poorly documented and lack legislative backing. The traditional methods include days, periods and seasons of closed fishing, and restrictions on fishing methods and gear, and fishers.

(1) Oil spill modelling undertaken as part of this EIA showed that for a very large spill (ie 20,000 tonnes) oil would beach on the stretch of coastline (40 to 50%) approximately 100 km west of Cape Three Points. It is therefore unlikely that any of these protected areas would be affected even in a worse case oil spill scenario. Oil spill impacts are assessed in detail in Chapter 5, Section 5.6.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-77 4.3 FISHERIES

Ghana is located in the western Gulf of Guinea sub-region, about 750 km north off the equator between latitudes 4° and 12° N and longitudes 3° W and 1° E. The fishing industry in Ghana is based on resources from both marine and inland (freshwater) waters and from coastal lagoons and aquaculture (Quaatey, 1997; NAFAG, 2007). Within the marine sector target species include pelagic, demersal and shellfish resources.

The agricultural Gross Domestic Product (GDP) which contributes about 45-50 percent of Ghanaian GDP and about 75 percent of export earnings. The fisheries sector accounts for approximately 5 percent of the agricultural GDP. Fish and fish products provide the greatest proportion of animal protein in Ghana and contribute approximately 60 percent of the total animal protein intake. About 75 percent of the total domestic production of fish is consumed locally and the per capita consumption is estimated to be about 25 kg annually. Fish is the country’s most important non-traditional export commodity. In 2002, export earnings from fish and fishery products amounted to over $95 million.

There is a long tradition of both artisanal and distant-water fishing fleets, the latter a unique feature amongst West African countries (Alder and Sumaila 2004). Ghana has a coastline of 550 km and relatively narrow continental shelf to a depth of 75–120 m with a total area of approximately 24,300 km2. Most commercial marine fishing undertaken by Ghanaian vessels takes place within the Ghanaian 200 miles Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ).

The traditional artisanal inshore fishery in Ghana is well developed and provides about 70 percent of the total marine fisheries production in the country. Fishing occurs year round but shows some seasonality, with periods of higher landings and periods of reduced catches through the year. The fish landings from coastal lagoons or estuaries, although comparatively small, provide reasonable quantities of fish products for subsistence purposes. Fishing in lagoons and estuaries involves substantial number of fishers using small scale gear such as gill nets, throw nets and weirs.

Marine fishing activity in Ghana is strongly linked with the seasonal upwellings (1) that occur in coastal waters. Two upwelling seasons (major and minor) occur annually in Ghanaian coastal waters. The major upwelling begins between late June or early July when sea surface temperatures (SST) fall below 25°C and ends between late September or early October. The minor upwelling occurs either in December, January or February and rarely lasts for more than three weeks. During the upwelling periods, biological activity is increased due to greater concentrations of nutrients in the water column that have been drawn up from deeper waters. Most fish spawn during this period

(1) An upwelling involves wind-driven motion of dense, cooler, and usually nutrient-rich water towards the ocean surface, replacing the warmer, usually nutrient-depleted surface water.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-78 and stocks are more readily available to the fishers. For the rest of the year, catches are lower and more sporadic.

The fishing industry in Ghana consists of three main sectors:

• small scale (or artisanal); • semi-industrial (or inshore); and • industrial fisheries.

Table 4.16 shows the number of operational vessels in each fleet between 1997 and 2007.

Table 4.16 Number of Vessels Operating in Ghanaian Fleets

Fleet 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Canoe * 8,895 9,981 11,219 Inshore 241 239 239 236 244 230 233 253 240 235 230 Industrial 48 47 38 46 45 34 47 56 48 61 73 Shrimpers 14 11 6 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 Tuna baitboats 36 35 39 34 33 33 28 28 26 25 23 Tuna Purse seiners 5 6 8 10 10 10 9 9 10 10 10 *Numbers enumerated during canoe frame surveys in the indicated years.

4.3.1 Fisheries Regulatory Framework

The fishing Industry of Ghana is regulated by the Fisheries Act 2002 (Act 625 of 2002). The Act provides for the regulation and management of fisheries, development of the fishing industry and the sustainable exploitation of fisheries resources. The development of fisheries policy has generally followed the development of the industry, as new methods and fishing strategies have appeared the legislation has generally followed.

The legal basis for fisheries management in Ghana involves ordinances, laws and regulations. Over the years, these have been consolidated, improved upon and revised to meet the challenges of the fast-developing and changing fishing industry into the Fisheries Act (2002). The law was continuously reformed to:

• improve regulation of and sustain the national fishery resource; • improve Ghana’s access to international markets within the domain of the international fish trade; • obtain optimum benefits for Ghanaians as owners of fish-related enterprises, as employers, as consumers of fish products and as beneficiaries of foreign exchange earnings from fish trade; • enhance investment in a private sector-driven industry; and • improve the fishery management system.

With reference to fish production and fisheries management, it is important to note that the Fisheries Act (2002) conforms to the relevant sectors of the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries with particular emphasis on gear selectivity and an

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-79 effective institutional framework. The Fisheries Act (2002) also gives legislative backing to the recently established Monitoring, Control and Surveillance Division with clearly defined legal powers to regulate fishing operations. The membership of the Division includes the Ghanaian Navy.

The Directorate of Fisheries under the Ministry of Food and Agriculture has also developed fishery management plans for marine fisheries. A new set of Fisheries Regulations to give effect to the Fisheries Act (2002) is currently being developed. Some of the management measures and policies in use include the following.

• Minimum Mesh Size Regulation. It is illegal to use the following:

• gill nets with a mesh size of less than 50 mm for multifilament nets or 75 mm for monofilament nets when fishing in marine waters; • seine nets with a mesh size of less than 25 mm when fishing in marine waters; • bottom trawl nets with a mesh size of less than 60 mm when fishing in marine waters; and • shrimp trawl nets with a mesh size of less than 40 mm when shrimp fishing in marine waters.

• Regulation on Crustaceans. The Fisheries Law prohibits the catching of gravid lobsters and/or young lobsters or any other gravid crustaceans and/or young crustaceans during fishing operations. Where any such gravid lobsters and/or young lobsters or gravid crustaceans and/or young lobsters are accidentally caught, they shall be immediately returned into the sea.

• Regulation on Fishing with Explosives and Chemicals. The Fisheries Law prohibits the use of dynamite and/or any other explosive substances or poisonous substances to fish.

• Restriction on the Size and Area of Operation of Vessels. The Fisheries Law prohibits the use of fishing vessel of 50 Gross Registered Tonnage (GRT) or more to use bottom trawls in waters of depth less than 30 m. Bottom trawlers and shrimpers are restricted to sizes of GRT 450 or less.

• Limited Entry for Industrial Trawlers. A ban on licensing of new bottom trawlers due to the current high levels of exploitation of the demersal resources is now in force.

4.3.2 Fish Landings

Overall landings in the last decade (1998 to 2007) have shown a declining trend with a number of the most important species showing particularly marked declines particularly the main pelagic resources such as anchovies and sardinellas (Figure 4.). Declines in less important pelagic resources, such as chub mackerel, Cunene horse mackerel and crevelle jack have also

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-80 contributed to the overall downward trend. However, demersal species show some increases, with grunts, Atlantic bumper, Red Pandora, crustaceans and demersal resources in general showing marked increases over the last ten years. Tuna and billfish landings have remained fairly stable, showing some interannual variability but no continuous trends.

Figure 4.39 Total Landings of Major Target Groups by Ghanaian Fisheries 1998 to 2007 (FAO 2007)

West African ilisha 450,000 Seabreams Largehead hairtail 400,000 Red pandora Cunene horse mackerel 350,000 Crevalle jack 300,000 Atlantic bumper Dentex 250,000 Chub mackerel European anchovy 200,000 Sardinellas Grunts Landings (tonnes) 150,000 Elasmobranchs Tuna 100,000 Billfish Crustaceans 50,000 Cephalopods

0 Other demersal Other pelagic 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Other fish

Fish landings for each fleet in the Ghanaian fishing industry over the last ten years are shown in Figure 4.40. The artisanal sector on average land 221,000 tonnes of fish annually, approximately 70 percent of the total annual marine fish catch. This is made up of mainly small pelagic fish species such as sardinellas, mackerels and anchovy.

The semi-industrial fleet exploits sardinellas, mackerels and a number of different demersal species. The average annual total landing from this fleet over this period was about 8,200 tonnes, representing less than 3 percent of the total annual marine fish catch from Ghanaian waters.

The industrial fleet (including trawlers, shrimpers and pair trawls) lands an average of 16,300 tonnes each year, 5 percent of the total annual marine fish catch. About 60 percent of the fish landed by the industrial vessels are demersal species such as seabream, cuttlefish and cassava croakers. Shrimp catches during the last ten years have been a relatively minimal proportion of the total catch (0.16 percent). The majority of shrimp landings are exported to Europe and the Far East. Shrimp production has recently declined and some of the shrimping companies are now converting their vessels into trawlers.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-81 Figure 4.40 Total Landings for Ghanaian Fleets 1998 to 2007 (Tonnes)

400,000

350,000

300,000

250,000

200,000

150,000 Landings (tonnes) Landings

100,000

50,000

0 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Artisanal Inshore Industrial Shrimpers Tuna

On average tuna landings in the past decade have been in the region of 70,000 tonnes each year. This represents 22 percent of the total annual marine fish catch. The Fisheries Act (2002) stipulates that at least 10 percent of landings of commercial tuna vessels must be sold on the local market (ie not to be exported). About 70 percent of the landed tuna is processed into loins or canned for export.

4.3.3 Fisheries Infrastructure

Landing Facilities

There are three deep-water ports and harbours in Ghana at Tema, Sekondi and Takoradi that provide berthing facilities for both industrial fishing vessels and inshore vessels. There are four other ports at Apam, Mumford, Elmina and Axim that provide reasonably good landing facilities for inshore vessels. The Ghana Ports and Harbours Authority manages all ports and harbours in Ghana and provides facilities for bunkering, stevedoring and handling, electricity and water supplies.

Physical landing facilities for artisanal fishing crafts are not as well developed. Canoes usually operate from open beaches. Occasionally canoes have to move through violent surf which may result in damage to canoes or injuries to fishermen. There are about 300 landing centres along the coast for marine canoes. Each landing site is under the control of a Chief Fisherman. Fish landing sites along the western coastline of Ghana is shown in Figure 4.41.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-82 KEY: Area A Area B Ehuletile Lagoon µ[ Nursery Areas Kafoda Lagoon Z[FL Metika Lagoon Landing Site Z[FL agoon L ngoon Z[F L Lagoon, River Mouth goon Z[F \ ankyea Lagoon Z[FL 9 Kelapinli Lagoon FL L or Estuary NdomburaL Lagoon Z[Z[F L L Z[F FL Z[F Z[Z[FL L !FL Ekpukyi Lagoon Z[F ! Z[ FL Nkroful Cities and Towns \9 Z[FL L Z[ Z[\F9FL Ahobrenum Lagoon \µ[Z[FL ! Z[\9 9 FL µ[ \µ[FL Z[µ[ Half Assini Z[9\µ[9\Z[FL \9µ[9\µ[ FL FL 9Z[Z[FLZ[FL Z[ \µ[Z[FL FL L 9 Z[ Z[FL µ[ Amunsure Lagoon Z[F µ[\9µ[\9 Axim L FL ! Amanzule Lagoon Z[F Z[FL Z[ Z[FL Z[\Fµ[L 9 Anwiane Anluonu Lagoon Domini Lagoons Z[FL Z[FL Ankobra (Ankwao) Estuary L Z[FL Epokeazule Lagoon Z[F FL Z[ Z[FL Z[FL Awangazule Lagoon \9 FL Z[Z[FLL Ahumen Lagoon \ 9Z[FL Z[FL

Area C Area D Susu Lagoon Z[Fµ[LZ[FL Agona Nkwanta Takoradi \Z[FL9 ! Onolimeleme Lagoon ! \ Z[FL FLµ[9 Asukutia Lagoon Z[FL Z[ Z[FL Z[FL \9 Abrobeano Lagoon Z[FL µ[ Ahumen Lagoon FL Shama Z[ ! Z[FL Pra River Mouth . \9\9 \9 FL Z[ \Z[F9L 0 10 Z[FL Z[FLL FL Sekondi Z[ µ[Z[FL Z[ ! Ehunli Lagoon Z[FL Z[FL Kilometres \9 L Pukye Lagoon Z[F Z[FL Z[FL Z[FL Z[FL µ[µ[µ[ Z[FL \9 Z[FL Z[FL Z[FL \µ[9Z[FL Z[FL Côte d'Ivoire Ghana Z[FL µ[ Z[FL Esai Lagoon Z[FL \Z[FL9 Z[FL Z[FL F Butre River Mouth E Takoradi A ! B D µ[ C FL µ[ Z[FL Z[ Z[FL Z[FL Z[FL \9\9Onolimeleme Lagoon

Area E Area F TITLE: Atufa Lagoon Winneba ! Figure 4.41 Etsi Lagoon Fish Landing Sites located along the Western Coastline of Ghana

FL Z[FL Z[FL Z[\µ[9 Z[FL Z[F\µ[L 9 Wankami Lagoon µ[ \Z[Fµ[L 9 Ayesu Lagoon CLIENT: SIZE: Z[FL \µ[9\µ[ZFL9 Tullow Ghana A4 Z[FL Eyas Lagoon Apam Cape Coast Sumina Lagoon ! ! Opum Lagoon Z[FL DATE: 06/08/2009 CHECKED: MI PROJECT: 0096867 \ Saase Lagoon \µ[9 9 DRAWN: CO APPROVED: MI SCALE: As Scale Bar \ Atufa Lagoon FL9 Z[ Apa Lagoon Amisa Lagoon \µ[9 DRAWING: REV: dSites.mxd Z[FL Z[FL Mumford Nfoa Lagoon \µ[9 ! EnvSnstvs_NursAreasLandSites.mxd 0 Elmina Z[FL ! \µ[9FL µ[ Z[FL L Z[FL Z[ L \FL Z[\FL µ[ZFL Z[F L µ[\ Z[FL Z[F 9Z[ 9 L FL µ[Z[F 9 FL Z[FL Z[FL \9Z[FLµ[ Z[F Z[ Sefara Lagoon ERM Z[FL Z[\µ[9 Z[FL Fosu Lagoon \µ[L 9 Norloch House FLZ[FLµ[L Z[ Bosom Muna Lagoon \9 Z[ 36 King's Stables Road \Z[9FL Lagoon Narkwa Lagoon Edinburgh, EH1 2EU Z[Fµ[LZ[FL Nsuneda Lagoon Tel: 0131 478 6000 Lagoon Fax: 0131 487 3636 Mbopro Lagoon

SOURCE: EPA Ghana: Environmental Sensitivity Map for Coastal Areas of Ghana, Volume 1, Atlas PROJECTION: GCS WGS 1984 File: 0096867Ghana_CO_MI\MAPS\EnvSnstvs_NursAreasLan Storage and Processing Facilities

There are 170 cold stores with a total capacity of about 140,000 tonnes spread throughout the country for storage of fish and meat products. Over 75 percent of these cold stores are located in major fishing towns, notably in Accra, Tema, Cape Coast, Elmina, Sekondi and Takoradi. A few of the cold stores have facilities also for ice production, for example Sekondi and Tema.

There are three fish processing plants and fish canneries in Ghana; namely Pioneer Food Cannery (PFC), Ghana Agro-Food Company (GAFCO) and MYIOC Food Cannery all located at Tema. The companies only process tuna and are currently processing approximately 180 tonnes of tuna per day. PFC accounts for over 90 percent of this total.

Boatbuilding, Repairs and Maintenance

There are two boatbuilding companies located in Tema and Sekondi that construct inshore vessels (Tema Boatyards Corporation and Sekondi Boatyards Corporation). These companies were Government owned until the early 1990s when they were privatised. Due to the high cost of materials and the low demand for fishing vessels the current capacity for boatbuilding is low.

These two boatyards also provide dry-docking and repair facilities for inshore vessels. The Tema Shipyard and Drydock Corporation also provides dry- docking and repair facilities for all categories of fishing vessels. A number of engineering and fabrication workshops are also located in Tema, which is the hub of the fishing industry in Ghana. A number of private companies in Tema, Accra and Takoradi operate engineering workshops and a foundry for repairs.

Presently, fish production, processing, storage, marketing, trading, boat building and maintenance services provision are dominated by the private sector which employs approximately 500,000 people. Fisheries Associations in Ghana represent the interest of fishers, fish processors and fish exporters. Some of these associations have national representation while others are more regional or local. The principal associations are:

• Ghana Inshore Fisheries Association. • Ghana Tuna Association. • Ghana National Canoe Fishermen Council.

The National Fisheries Association of Ghana (NAFAG) is the umbrella association for these associations.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-84 4.3.4 Industrial Fleets

The major industrial fleets operating in Ghana are as follows.

• small scale; • artisanal fishing (in lagoons and estuaries); • artisanal fishing (in open water from canoes); • semi-industrial; • inshore trawling; • shrimping; • industrial; • offshore trawling or distant water fleet; and • tuna fishing with poles and lines, and purse seines.

Artisanal Fishery

The artisanal sector of the industry accounts for over 70 percent of annual marine fish production and dominates the Ghanaian fishing industry (Mensah and Koranteng, 1988). There are over 8,000 canoes, of which approximately half are motorised by low powered out-board engines. These vessels use a wide variety of fishing gear and target a number of different species. Over one hundred thousand fishermen are engaged in this sector. This sector provides both employment in coastal communities and a relatively cheap but rich source of protein. Although most fishermen operate in coastal waters and do not venture out into the deeper offshore waters, there are no available maps of traditional fishing grounds.

The main types of fishing gears used by the artisanal fishermen are encircling nets, beach seines, purse seines, set nets, hook and line and drift gill nets. Each gear has very different geographical distributions along the coast and the dominance of any particular gear type in an area is influenced by the target species sought. For example, the beach seine is widely used in the Volta Region, particularly around the mouth of the Volta River and other estuarine areas, to exploit juvenile fish. These areas are nursery grounds for several important fish species such as shrimp, mullet, carangid and cassava croaker. Purse seine nets are prominent in the Greater Accra and Central regions where small pelagics (particulary sardinellas and horse mackerel) are heavily exploited, whilst drift gill nets and set-nets are the most common gear used in the Western and Central regions.

The most important fish species caught by the Ghanaian artisanal fleet are the round sardinella (Sardinella aurita), flat sardinella (Sardinella maderensis), the anchovy (Engraulis encrasicolus), chub mackerel (Scomber japonicus), sparids (Pagellus bellottii and Sparus caeruleostictus) and big-eye grunt (Brachydeuterus auritus). There are a wide range of small pelagic species in the Gulf of Guinea and they are the most abundant marine resources exploited by fishing fleets operating in Ghanaian waters. The four species of the highest economic value are the round sardinella, flat sardinella, anchovy and chub mackerel. Annually, these four species account for over 80 percent of the total landings

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-85 of small pelagic resources and the potential annual yield of these species is estimated to be in the region of 200,000 tonnes.

The bulk of small pelagic species are most abundant between July and September. In the past, fishing for sardinellas was localised. As the Ghanaian population increased the demand for fish became greater leading to increased development. The use of paddles and sails for the canoes led to seine nets and outboard motors to this meet this increased demand.

Seasonal increases in the abundance of small pelagic fish species are influenced by low sea-surface temperatures (less than 23º C), high salinities (less than 35 ppt), and the movement of cold water, rich in nutrients, into surface layers of the water column. The cold, deep, nutrient rich water replaces the warm layers on the surface due to a break in the thermocline caused by wind forces acting on the sea surface. The eggs and larvae of the sardinellas are found all year round with peaks of spawning during the upwelling periods (Mensah and Koranteng 1988). Seasonal migrations towards the shore occur between the months of July and October (Section 4.2.7) where spawning adults (that continue to feed) become vulnerable to artisanal fishing gear. The small pelagic fish are mainly caught by encircling gear such as purse seine nets and beach seines.

Over the past two decades from 1986, the annual landings of the round sardinella fluctuated widely from a peak catch of 126,000 tonnes in 1992 to 22,000 tonnes in 2008. During the same period the anchovy catch has fallen by almost 50 percent from 88,000 tonnes in 1987 to 42,500 in 2008. The trend is that of a general decline from 1992 to 2008 for the both sardinella and anchovies. During the same time span, the catch levels of the other two key small pelagics, flat sardinella and the chub mackerel, have been under 20,000 tonnes, with the exception of the 1987, 2004 and 2006 catches of the latter. Catches of the chub mackerel have been lower on the average and have shown consistent decline from the year 2000. See Figure 4.42 for annual catches of small pelagics from 1986 to 2008.

The Inshore Fishery

There are approximately 350 semi-industrial vessels presently involved in this sector of the fishing industry. According to Bernacsek (1986), the inshore fishery consists of medium to large sized motorised vessels of between 8 and 30 metres. The majority of these semi-industrial vessels are wooden, built locally, and fitted with inboard engines of up to 400 hp. Most vessels carry both purse seine and trawl gear. Between July and September vessels use their purse seine gear to target pelagic species whose number increase with the onset of the upwelling during this period.

Trawling is carried out for the remaining part of the year when pelagic resources are less numerous. Most purse seine nets measure 400-800 m long, are 40-70 m deep and have a mesh size of approximately 25-40 mm. Bottom

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-86 trawl gear has a mesh of 40 mm at the end of the net (codend), 45 m head rope and 40 m foot rope.

Figure 4.42 Annual Landings of Small Pelagic Fish Species in Tonnes (MFRD, 2008)

The dimensions of trawl gear vary considerably, depending on a range of factors including the amount of fish available and the main species targeted. Harbour facilities for large trawlers are available at two landing sites located along the coastline; Tema and Takoradi while mooring for smaller trawlers is available at Winneba, Apam, Mumford, Elmina and Sekondi. The most important fish species caught are the sardinellas, chub mackerel, sparids, big- eye grunt, cassava croaker (Pseudotolithus senegalensis), lesser African threadfin (Galeoides decadactylus) and common cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis). The inshore pelagic fishery targets species in the relatively shallow coastal waters and do not venture into deeper offshore waters.

Offshore Trawling/Distant Water Fleet

Fishermen of the industrial sector use imported steel fishing vessels. The fleet consists of trawlers, shrimpers and tuna boats. Fishing trips may last up to one month. The industrial trawlers are usually over 35 m in length and have engines of over 600 hp. There are over 70 industrial trawlers operating in Ghana comprising 12 single and pair trawlers, 40 shrimpers and the rest are made up of set nets. The most important target species are the sparids, carangids (Caranx rhonchus), cuttlefish, West African goatfish (Pseudupeneus prayensis) and cassava croaker.

The industrial shrimpers are normally up to 30 m in length with engines up to 400 hp. Shrimp vessels operate in designated areas within Ghanaian waters between Shama and Axim. Seventeen shrimp vessels operated in 1994 but in

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-87 2007 the numbers were reduced to 2 vessels. In a normal trip, significant proportions of bycatch comprising small inshore fishes such as Atlantic bumper (Chloroscombus chrysurus) and big-eye grunt are taken.

The depths of the Jubilee Field benthic environment (up to depths of 1100 m to 1700 m) make assessment of benthic fish assemblages by trawling difficult. The shallower continental shelf and slope areas (below 200 m depth) are more accessible to trawling vessels and as a result more is known about the fish assemblages in these areas. Studies have shown that the composition and abundance of demersal fish fauna of the western Gulf of Guinea change with depth (William, 1968). In addition, environmental factors such as nature of the bottom (i.e. sediment type), total organic matter content, temperature, salinity and dissolved oxygen have been shown to determine the distribution of the different demersal fish species within the Gulf of Guinea (Longhurst and Pauly, 1987; Koranteng, 2001).

A survey undertaken as part of the West African Gas Pipeline Ghana EIA (WAPC, 2004) reported a total of 115 commercially exploited marine species from 62 families along the Ghanaian coast at depths between 10 m – 70 m on the east and central parts of Ghana. The species comprised 16 species of crustaceans, 4 species of molluscs, 4 species of invertebrates and 84 species of fish. The depth and nature of the seabed were considered to be the most important factors in the differences in catch composition and weight. Catch rates increased with depth with the most productive fishing found at 45 m. The dominant species in the catches were the common cuttlefish and the channel flounder (Syacium micrurum). The channel flounder, Guinea flathead (Grammoplites gruveli), African wide-eyed flounder (Bothus podas), common cuttlefish, West African goatfish, and piper gurnard (Trigla Iyra) were recorded in the catches taken from the majority of survey stations within Ghanaian waters. Other species include Steaked gurnard (Chelidonichthys lastoviza) and Ghanaian comber (Serranus accraensis). The composition of species in the hauls varied from each station.

The most important demersal fish species are of the families Sparidae (Porgies, mainly Pagellus bellottii, Pagrus caeruleostictus, Dentex canariensis, Dentex gibbosus, Dentex angolensis and Dentex congoensis), Haemulidae (Grunts, Pomadasys incisus, P. jubelini and Brachydeuterus auritus), Sciaenidae (Croakers or drums, eg Pseudotolithus senegalensis), Mullidae (Goatfishes, Pseudupeneus prayensis) Lutjanidae (Snappers, Lutjanus fulgens and L. goreensis) Serranidae (Groupers, Epinephelus aeneus) Polynemidae (Threadfins, Galeoides decadactylus) and Lethrinidae (Emperors, Lethrinus atlanticus).

The potential yield of demersal fishes on Ghana’s continental shelf is estimated to be up to 55,000 tonnes annually. The total annual demersal landings by all fleets from 2000-2007 is shown in Figure 4.43. The trend indicates a progressive increase in demersal landings since 2000 and show catches in the region of 70,000 tonnes in 2007, above the estimated total yield of demersal fish species of approximately 50,000 tonnes annually. This data

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-88 represents the total annual catches and does not indicate fishing effort which will influence the total catches.

Figure 4.43 Total Annual Demersal Landings by all Fleets from 2000-2007

Information regarding the demersal resources of the Gulf of Guinea (CECAF Area 34 – approximately from Sierra Leone to Benin) is generally limited. Williams (1968) and Longhurst (1969) indicated that the demersal fish within the tropical West African region exhibit strong depth stratification. This stratification is partly due to substrate and food preference, and partly due to temperature preferences. In general, two distinct groups or demersal assemblages are noted, namely the Sciaenid and Sparid communities. The Sciaenid communities (eg Galeoides, Pseudotolithus, Pomadasys) inhabit soft to muddy bottoms and are usually above the base of the thermocline. The Sparid (eg Epinephelus, Lutjanus, Pagrus, Dentex, Pagellus, Pseudupeneus, Decapterus) communities are found on hard bottoms, above the base of the thermocline at approximately 50 m, while below the thermocline they inhabit a much wider variety of habitats.

According to the FAO (1995), fishing pressure on demersals in this region has been concentrated on the inshore zone and mainly targets juveniles. This has the potential to be detrimental to the spawning potential of most species.

Catches of molluscs and crustaceans are dominated by cuttle-fish, squid (Loligo vulgaris), octopus (Octopus vulgaris) lobster (Panulirus regius) and shrimps (mainly Penaeus notialis, Penaeus kerathurus, Parapeneopsis atlantica and Parapenaeus longistrostris). These species contribute to demersal catches and constitute another important component of the demersal resources targeted in Ghanaian waters. Of these cuttlefish are the most important. However, annual landings of cuttlefish have shown a general decline since 2003

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-89 (Figure 4.44). This data represents the total annual catches and does not indicate fishing effort which will influence the total catches.

Figure 4.44 Total Annual Landings of Cuttlefish 2000-2007

Tuna Fleet

Yellowfin tuna are fished throughout tropical Atlantic Ocean, between 45º N and 40º S with surface gear (purse seine, live bait and hand-line), and with longlines. Seine and live bait fisheries in the tropical Eastern Atlantic are the most important in terms of catch and effort. Bigeye tuna are distributed in the Eastern Atlantic from Ireland to South Africa and are mainly caught using longline, bait boat and purse seine gear. Longlines account for the greatest proportion of the total catch (around 65 percent of the total Atlantic catch). Skipjack tuna are mostly caught with surface gear all over the Atlantic, chiefly by baitboat and purse seine vessels, although there are small numbers of chance longline catches.

Purse seine fishing began in the Eastern Atlantic in the early 1960s and saw rapid growth in the 1970s, during which fishing gradually expanded to the high seas, especially at the equator. From 1991, purse seine fleets fishing in the Eastern Atlantic, including Ghana began to alternate traditional yellowfin and skipjack fishing with catches from schools associated with artificial floating objects. In the Eastern Atlantic Ocean the purse seine fishery dominates and in 2004 accounted for 64.5 percent of total catches in the Eastern Atlantic.

The second most important fishery is baitboat fishing, the principal target being bigeye tuna, in which the rod-and-line vessel acts as bait, locating and fishing a school which may be composed of bigeye, yellowfin and skipjack. From the 1980s through to 2004, catches in the Eastern Atlantic exhibited no

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-90 particular trend, fluctuating between 48,000 tonnes in 1988 and 24,000 tonnes in 2004, with an annual average of 37,000 tonnes for the period.

The tuna and billfish species that occur in Ghanaian waters are part of a wider population found throughout the Atlantic Ocean. Tuna baitboats are the main exploiters of tuna in Ghanaian waters, using live anchovy and other small pelagics as the main bait for their operations. In addition, the use of bamboo rafts as Fish Aggregating Devices (FADs) is common. However this practice is currently banned during a Moratorium period introduced by ICCAT to examine the impacts of FAD fishing on tuna populations.

Baitboats and purse seiners exploit the tuna resources off the EEZ of Ghana. The total number of vessels in operation in 2007 is 37, comprised of 25 baitboats, 10 purse seiners and 2 longliners. The pole and line operators are the main exploiters of tuna in Ghanaian waters, using bait in their fishing operations. In addition, numerous bamboo rafts (fitted with radio buoys) are used as fish aggregating devices (FADs) to enhance the capture of tuna species. These vessels mainly target offshore populations of skipjack (Katsuwonus pelamis), yellowfin (Thunnus albacores) and bigeye (Thunnus obesus) tuna species. Some billfish, in particular swordfish (Xiphias gladius) and blue marlin (Makaira nigricans) are also caught.

In Ghanaian waters fishing is chiefly carried out by purse seine and bait boat vessels although a number of longline vessels targeting bigeye tuna, may also operate. In the early 1990s, techniques such as the use of bird radar to find birds feeding on fish shoals and the use of FADs(1) were employed to enhance the capture of targeted tuna species (Kwei and Bannerman, 1993). In the bait boat fishery (which uses poles and line to catch tuna) anchovies (Engraulis encrasicolus) are used as bait. The purse seine fishery was reintroduced in 1995 and increased to a maximum of 10 vessels in 2006. These vessels are the largest operating in Ghanaian waters with a GRT(2) between 500 and 1000 tonnes. Purse seine vessels target yellowfin, bigeye and skipjack tuna and collaborate extensively with baitboats to target tuna and often share their catch at sea.

Management of the tuna and billfish populations in the Atlantic ocean is coordinated by the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT). ICCAT carry out regular population assessments of exploited populations within their convention area and assess the status of the entire Atlantic populations of each species. The most recent population assessments indicate that yellowfin and bigeye tuna resources in the Atlantic are being fully exploited and any increase in catches would be detrimental to the fish populations. The status of skipjack tuna populations is currently unknown. Total annual landings of the three species are between 60,000 and 80,000 tonnes. Catches of skipjack reached an historic high at 45,709 tonnes in 2007,

(1) Fish Aggregation Devices are constructed of debris and floating objects and are placed on the waters surface to attract large shoals of tuna. The FAD and the tuna shoal underneath are then surrounded by a net and the entire shoal caught. (2) Gross Registered Tonnage

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-91 followed by yellowfin at 12,955 tonnes and bigeye at 4,634 tonnes. Since 2001 there have been steady declines in catches, although in 2005 catches of skipjack showed a degree of variability, while catches of yellowfin and bigeye have continued to decline (Figure 4.45).

Figure 4.45 Catches of Tuna in Ghanaian EEZ from 1988 to 2007

50,000

45,000

40,000

35,000

30,000

25,000

20,000

Landings (tonnes) 15,000

10,000

5,000

0 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Skipjack Yellowfin Bigeye

There are three main gear types operated in Ghanaian waters to target tuna. These are purse seine, bait boat (pole and line) and longline gears. The largest proportion of effort is expended by the bait boat vessels followed by purse seine vessels. Longlines are relatively rare in Ghanaian waters. The level of effort in targeting different species is very different for each tuna species. Baitboat catches are greatest for skipjack, followed by purse seine vessels. For yellowfin the highest catches are taken by purse seine vessels, followed by bait boat vessels. Longline vessel catches are relatively low in comparison. Bigeye catches are mostly taken by bait boat and purse seine vessels. Longline vessels take some catches but are highest outside the Ghanaian EEZ. Other minor tuna-like species especially the little tunny (Euthynnus alletaratus) are also exploited by the fleets.

Figure 4.46 shows the distribution of catches in the Gulf of Guinea between 1998 and 2007 in relation to the Jubilee field project area. Tuna are caught throughout the survey area with the highest catches generally offshore and south of the Jubilee field. The Gulf of Guinea is one of the most productive tuna fishing areas in the Atlantic Ocean due to the presence of spawning areas for yellowfin and bigeye tuna, high densities of prey and water temperatures that suit the tuna species. Concentrations of spawning adults are found within the equatorial zone of the Gulf of Guinea, and occur throughout the Atlantic Ocean. Spawning takes place all year round, although yellowfin tuna tend to show peaks in spawning between January and April. Growth rates

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-92 have been described as relatively slow initially but increase when the juvenile fish join the adult population. These tuna species do not have specific spawning grounds that have been identified within the Gulf of Guinea.

Shark Fishing

Some shark fishing has been reported during consultation but little data is available. The exploitation of shark fins has become a widespread business in Ghana. The sharks are caught using driftnet (locally known as Anifa-anifa or Nifa-nifa) and species mostly comprise of silky shark (Carcharhinus falsiformis), black tip shark (Carcharhinus limbatus), oceanic whitetip shark (Carcharhinus longimanus), sandbar shark (Carcharhinus plumbeus) and night shark (Carcharhinus signatus). In Ghana, shark fishing is a year-round operation with a peak season in October and December (Ghana, Post Harvest Fisheries Overview, 2003). Since shark fishing is conducted by different types of vessels, including artisanal, semi industrial and industrial) and as many as 150,000 fishermen might be involved in it (Mensah, et al, 2006).

4.3.5 Fish Biomass

Table 4.17 shows the biomass estimates of small pelagic species from NANSEN surveys conducted in Ghanaian waters from 1981 to 2006 and presents the estimated biomass of the main pelagic fish species groups (NANSES/FAO 2005, 2006). The potential yield of the four most important pelagic species (round sardinella, flat sardinella chub mackerel and anchovy) was estimated to be 200,000 tonnes per annum.

Table 4.17 Pelagic I (Sardinellas and Anchovies) and Pelagic II (Carangids, Scombrids Hairtails etc) Biomass Estimates from Fridtjof Nansen Surveys

Year Biomass Pelagic I Biomass Pelagic II (Tonnes) (Tonnes) 1981 40 000 57,000 1989 41 000 50,000 1999 40,000 50,000 2000 56,500 61,000 2002 73,000 52,000 2004 68,000 37,000 2005 54,000 46,000 2006 57,000 37,000

Table 4.18 shows the biomass estimates for demersal species from the Fridtjof Nansen surveys between 1999 and 2006. In recent years (2002 – 2006), the total demersal biomass has been stable at around 17,000 tonnes, despite increased pressure from fishing activities.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-93 Niger Niger Niger Mali Mali Mali Burkina Faso Burkina Faso Mali Burkina Faso Mali

Benin Benin Benin Nigeria Nigeria Nigeria Togo Togo Togo Ghana Ghana Ghana Côte d'Ivoire Côte d'Ivoire Côte d'Ivoire

KEY: CLIENT: SIZE: TITLE: Figure 4.46 Jubilee Field Unit Area Bigeye Yellowfin Tullow Ghana Ltd. A4 Total (Tonnes) Aggregate Catch Skipjack 0 - 50 0 - 700 (1997 - 2007) of Skipjack, Bigeye 2 - 320 51 - 150 701 - 2100 ERM and Yellowfin Tuna in the Gulf Norloch House 321 - 900 151 - 300 2101 - 4100 of Guinea (1 x 1 degree grid) . 36 King's Stables Road 901 - 1500 301 - 600 4101 - 5500 Edinburgh, EH1 2EU DATE: 06/08/2009 CHECKED: MI PROJECT: 0096867 Tel: 0131 478 6000 1501 - 2600 601 - 1200 5501 - 16000 0 250 Fax: 0131 487 3636 DRAWN: CO APPROVED: MI SCALE: As Scale Bar 2601 - 5300 >1201 >16001 SOURCE: ©Collins World Atlas DRAWING: REV: >5301 Kilometres PROJECTION: GCS WGS 1984 TunaCatch.mxd 0 File: 0096867Ghana_CO_MI\MAPS\TunaCatch.mxd Table 4.18 Biomass Estimates (tonnes) of Valuable Demersal Species and some other groups from bottom trawls (0 – 100 m).

Group / Species 1999 2001 2002 2004 2005 2006 Seabreams 8,478 13,346 14,181 16,187 15,690 15,166 Grunts 1,431 4,397 1,168 326 2,261 140 Croakers 125 1,046 850 286 821 664 Groupers 557 1,921 254 220 235 674 Snappers 151 5,322 422 200 413 1,366 Sub-total demersals 10,743 26,032 16,876 17,219 19,420 18,010

Bigeye grunt 70,314 9,120 21,182 13,866 27,896 7,296 Carangids 6,860 47,054 45,332 7,405 19,226 11,831 Barracudas 1,084 915 1,999 1,589 2,201 2,554 Cephalopods 4,400 4,900 2,000 2,600 2,181 3,208 Totals 93,401 88,021 86,732 42,679 70,924 42,899

Mean catch rates of demersal species during these surveys are quite similar. In 1999 the catch rate was higher due to one large catch of big-eye grunt. Pelagic fish had similar high mean catch rates in 2000 and 2002, but much lower in other years, especially in 1999. The biomass of these species is very much determined by the strength of the upwelling and a number of other environmental factors. Thus, the biomass estimates of the small pelagics are generally more variable than those of the demersal species. From the 2008 survey the biomass distribution indicates that the largest proportion of valuable demersal species is estimated to be higher in the outer shelf of the coast (ie between 51 and 100 m water depth) (Table 4.19).

Table 4.19 Biomass Estimates (tonnes) of Important Species/Groups on the Shelf, in 2008 by Depth.

Group/species 0-30 m 31-50 m 51-100m Total Seabreams 551 1,631 12,985 15,166 Grunts 99 41 0 140 Croakers 127 41 495 664 Groupers 14 248 413 674 Snappers 155 0 1,210 1,366 Sub-total demersals 946 1,961 15,103 18,010

Bigeye grunt 4,208 1,878 1,210 7,296 Carangids 1,878 3,488 6,465 11,831 Barracudas 890 1,032 633 2,554 Cephalopods 99 991 2,118 3,208 Totals 8,021 9,350 25,529 42,899

Shrimps are caught by all fleets (except tuna fishing vessels), mainly from shallow waters and close to estuaries in the Western shelf of Ghana. The shrimp species available in Ghanaian waters are Penaeus notialis and Parapeneopsis atlanticus with a potential yield of up to 800 tonnes.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-95 Stock assessments for the three tuna species in Ghanaian waters are currently in development and only the biomass for yellowfin is currently reported (Table 4.20). However, estimates of the catches that will sustain the population are currently available and indicate catch levels should not increase above current levels. For yellowfin there are some indications that catch levels have decreased in recent years. In addition the stocks for yellowfin and bigeye are currently considered to be fully exploited and increases in catch levels would adversely affect the whole population. The stock status of skipjack is currently unknown as skipjack tuna stocks worldwide show very peculiar characteristics which makes assessment of populations a very complex task.

Table 4.20 Stock Status of Eastern Atlantic Tuna Species

Current Maximum ICCAT Stock IUCN Red Species Sustainable FAO Recommendation Biomass Status list status Yield estimate 130,000 to ~370,000 Fully Sustained catch increases Lower Yellowfin 146,000 tonnes exploited not possible Risk tonnes 143,000 to Catch increases should not Not Skipjack Unavailable 156,000 be considered until stock known tonnes status is known 90,000 - 93,000 Fully Sustained catch increases Bigeye Unavailable Vulnerable tonnes exploited not possible

Generally these problems are associated with indexes essential for stock assessment and are intrinsic to the biology of this species and the fisheries that target them, particularly in the Atlantic. The following problems have been indicated by the ICCAT scientific committee (ICCAR 1999).

• Recruitment is continuous in time, but heterogeneous in space and time so that no singular cohort can easily be identified (Cayre and Farrugio 1986).

• Growth is variable in space, depending on the region considered so that fish of the same age will exhibit different sizes (Bard and Antoine 1986).

• Continuous movements of fish do occur at many different geographical scales, so that the different regions interact differently with each other depending on the type of movement of fish (size-dependent diffusion and migration).

• Many different fleets with heterogeneous and changing catchabilities are exploiting the same population; for many of these fisheries, skipjack tuna is often a secondary or by-catch species, depending on the relative prices, and on the availability of other target species. Thus it is problematic to estimate the effective fishing effort for skipjack in the eastern Atlantic.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-96 4.3.6 Commercially Important Shellfish

A variety of invertebrate species known from the wider/coastal study area are:

• cuttle-fish (Sepia officinalis), • squid (Loligo vulgaris), • octopus (Octopus vulgaris) • lobster (Panulirus regius) and • deep-sea rose prawn (Parapenaeus longistrostris); and • shrimps (mainly Penaeus notialis, Penaeus kerathurus, Parapeneopsis atlantica).

Of these species the highest catches are of the cuttlefish species, followed by the crustaceans, particularly decapod crustaceans such as Panulirus regius. Prawns are of lesser importance and catches in recent years have shown some decline. However, these species are important food items for a number of fish species and other predators within the Ghanaian coastal and marine ecosystem.

The cuttlefish species, the common cuttlefish (Sepia officinalis) and the pink cuttlefish (Sepia orbignyana), are both caught in Ghanaian waters and are both eastern Atlantic species. However, the latter is restricted to a distribution from 17 °S to 55 °N within the Eastern Atlantic, whereas the distribution of S. officinalis is more widespread; from the Baltic and North Seas to South Africa.

The pink cuttlefish (S. orbignyana) is a free swimming species occurring over muddy and detritus-rich continental shelf and slope areas between 50 and 450 m depth, but is most abundant between 80 and 150 m. No onshore spawning migrations have been reported. Spawning occurs at temperatures of 13 to 16°C from early summer to autumn. Mature males, aged 6 or 7 months, carry about 100 spermatophores(1); females of 9 or 10 months, some 400 eggs. Egg diameter increases with the size of the females. The eggs (7 to 8.5 mm diameter) are laid in clusters of 30 to 40 and attached to sponges on muddy bottoms.

Sepia officinalis is a demersal, shallow coast waters species occurring predominantly on sandy to muddy bottoms from the coastline to about 200 m depth, but most abundant in the upper 100 m. Larger individuals are encountered in the deeper part of the range. Seasonal migrations (mainly vertical) have been shown to occur in all stocks. Spawning occurs in shallow waters, throughout the year, with peaks at water temperatures from 13 to 15°C off Senegal and on the Sahara Banks between January and April (primarily large adults); there is a second minor spawning peak of medium and small-sized individuals in late summer and early autumn.

(1) A spermatophore is a capsule or mass created by males of various animal species, containing sperm cells and transferred to the female during copulation.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-97 Eggs measure from 8 to 10 mm in diameter and are attached in grape-like clusters to seaweeds, debris, shells and other substrates. They hatch after 30 to 90 days depending on temperature (21.5 to 15 °C, respectively). Larvae hatched in early summer from the spring brood usually participate in the autumn spawning of the following year, while those from the autumn brood spawn in spring in their second year of life. Thus, the two cycles alternate. Males predominate in the adult phase because of very large post spawning mortality among large females.

Prey items consist of small molluscs, crabs, shrimps, other cuttlefishes, and juvenile demersal fishes. Predators of common cuttlefish include sharks, sparids and other demersal fishes and cuttlefishes.

The deep-sea rose prawn (Parapenaeus longirostris) is found on the continental shelf and upper slope, between 50 and 400 m depth over sandy seabeds. The size of individuals increases with depth. The rose prawn is essentially an Atlantic Ocean prawn, found from Portugal to Angola in the east, and from Massachusetts, USA, to French Guiana in the west. The rose prawn spawns throughout the year, with peaks in July and December. Eggs are demersal and the larvae are planktonic. The larvae enter the post-larval phase at a length of 12 mm. Juveniles are concentrated between depths of 50 and 70 m, where recruitment into the adult population takes place.

The shrimp species, southern pink shrimp (Penaeus notialis), Caramote prawn (Penaeus kerathurus) and Guinea shrimp (Parapenaeopsis atlantica) constitute the majority of the shrimp catch in Ghanaian waters. They are generally associated with sandy and muddy bottoms on the continental shelf, southern pink shrimp to a depth of 100 m, Caramot prawn to 75 m, and Guinea shrimp to 60 m. Each species is found throughout the west Coast of Africa. The biology of these species, in comparison to the rose prawn, is less well understood and little is know of their spawning grounds or seasons.

4.4 SOCIO-ECONOMIC BASELINE

This section presents information on the key socio-economic issues and activities relevant to the project. It includes an overview of administrative structures, demographics, economics, health and education. Infrastructure and services are provided at a national level and relevant socio-economic information for the Western Region and the coastal districts is provided.

It should be noted that detailed information on a number of these issues was limited and some sources were a number of years old, such as data from the 2000 Population and Housing Census. The Jubilee Phase 1 Development project is primarily an offshore project, however, with relatively limited direct interactions with onshore communities and their associated socio-economic activities.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-98 4.4.1 Administrative Structures

The government administration in Ghana’s is made up of ten administrative regions subdivided into 170 metropolitan, municipal and districts areas, each with an administrative assembly comprised of a combination of appointed and elected officials. Each is area has a District Chief Executives (DCEs) who heads the local assembly. The DCE is nominated by the President of the country and is confirmed by the assembly through balloting.

The local government system under the Local Government Act 462 of 1993 is made up of the Regional Coordinating Council (RCC), four-tier Metropolitan and three-tier Municipal/District Assemblies with Urban/Town/Area/Zonal Councils Unit Committees. The RCC is the apex of the local government system. There are ten RCCs corresponding to ten regions in the country. The Council is made up of the Regional Minister as Chairman and his deputies, the Presiding Member of each district assembly and the District Chief Executive of each district in the region, two Chiefs from the Regional House of Chiefs, Regional Coordinating Director and the Regional Heads of decentralised ministries.

The RCCs under Act 462 are non-executive bodies responsible for monitoring, coordinating and evaluating the performance of the district assemblies and any Agency of the central government. The RCC is an administrative/ coordinating system rather than a political and policy making body.

The Paramount Chiefs are the traditional heads of the people and carry great influence. They are the traditional custodians of the land. This position is recognised by the administrative structures. The chiefs are not supposed to be politically aligned as they are responsible for supporting every member of the community. The chiefs are influential and need to understand government policies and decisions.

The Western Region (the Region closest to the project) currently comprises 14 districts, two municipalities, and one metropolis, the latter being Sekondi Takoradi Metropolitan Assembly (STMA). The districts and their district capitals are presented in Table 4.21 and Figure 4.47. In 2005, a number of new districts were created, including Shama District, Ellembele District and Ahanta West District. There is very little data available for these newly created districts.

The STMA was established during redistricting in 2008. It was formed when the former Shama Ahanta East Metropolitan Assembly (SAEMA) was split into Shama District and STMA. Its administrative capital is Sekondi. It is comprised of a number of electoral areas. The STMA has three representatives in the national assembly.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-99 Table 4.21 Districts and Capitals of the Western Region

Districts Administration Type Capitals Jomoro * District Half Assini Nzema East * Municipality Axim Shama * District Shama Sekondi Takoradi (Shama Ahanta East) * Metropolis Sekondi Ellembele * District Nkroful Ahanta West * District Agona Nkwanta Tarkwa Nsuaem (Wassa West) Municipality Tarkwa Wassa Amenfi West District Asankragua Aowin-Suaman District Enchi Juabeso District Juabeso Sefwi-Wiawso District Sefwi-Wiawso Bibiani-Anhwiaso-Bekwai District Bibiani Bia District Essam Wassa Amenfi East District Wassa Akropong Pristea Huni Valley District Bogoso Sefwi Akontombra District Sefwi Akontombra Mpohor-Wassa-East District Daboase * Coastal districts that form part of this study Source: 2000 Population and Housing Census Western Region

4.4.2 Demographics

Population Structure and Distribution

The population of Ghana is approximately 23 million (July 2008 estimate) with the Western Region having approximately 2.5 million people (Ministry of Health, Ghana, 2008). The Western Region has average population density of 80.5 persons per square kilometre, making it the sixth densest region out of the ten regions in the country, and has experienced accelerated population growth over the years. Between 1960 and 1970, the population grew by 23 percent, between 1970 and 1984 it more than doubled, while between 1984 and 2000, it increased by 66 percent. Population growth from 1960-1970 and 1984-2000 is similar to national figures; however, population growth between 1970 and 1984 was high in comparison with the national average. This rapidly increasing growth in population may be attributable to several factors, including an increase in the birth rate and a decrease in the mortality rate over the period. The growth would also have been linked to in-migration resulting from increased economic activity, particularly between 1984 and 2000, when the region experienced a boom in both the mining and the cocoa industries (Population and Housing Census, 2000).

Over one third (36 percent) of the Western Region is urbanised with the remaining 64 percent being rural.

Table 4.22 provides an overview of some of the key demographic data of the coastal districts of the Western Region.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-100 Figure 4.47 Map showing the Coastal Districts and Capitals of the Western Region

4-101 Table 4.22 Overview of Population and Distribution Based on 2000 Data

Districts Population % Regional Population % Land area % Urban Population Density All Districts in 1,924577 100.0 80.5 100 36.3 Western Region Jomoro 111,348 5.8 82.8 5.6 29.6 Nzema East 142,871 7.4 65.1 9.2 26.6 Ahanta West 95,140 4.9 161.0 2.5 20.0 Shama-Ahanta East* 369,166 19.2 958.9 1.6 100.0 * Note: Shama-Ahanta East is now STMA and Shama District Source: Population and Housing Census (2000) Note: Statistics unavailable for newly created districts.

The population of the combined STMA and Shama District was reported as approximately 370,000 in the year 2000. There is a floating population of approximately 80,000 comprised people from neighbouring districts who commute to the area for work. It is the most populated area in the Western Region and comprised about 15% of the regions total population. Population density was 959 people per km2, the highest in the Western Region. The entire area is defined as ‘urban’ by the Ghana census (ie all towns are greater than 5,000 people).

Age and Gender

The population of the Western Region is relatively young, with approximately 43 percent of the population falling between the ages of 0 and 15 years. Shama-Ahanta East has the lowest proportion of people between 0 and 15 years (38 percent) compared with the other districts with between 42 percent and 44 percent. Nearly five percent of the population in the Region are older than 64 years. The age structure follows the known trend of a developing economy with a broad base (many young people) that gradually tapers off with increasing age. Shama Ahanta–East has the largest proportion of the population (58 percent) in the working age group (15-64 years) in the Region. Jomoro (53 percent) also has a significant proportion of the population in this age group. These figures may be due to migration of young adults to the commercial and mining towns in these districts.

There is a relatively high dependency ratio in the Region. This is attributable to the high proportion of the population who are not economically active; primarily due to age (younger than 15 years or older than 64 years) and high levels of unemployment. This dependency places a heavy burden on the economically active sector of the population in the district and can lead to low standards of living.

On average, slightly less than 50 percent of the population are female. This may also be linked to the in-migration of male workers into the area in search of opportunities for employment. The age distribution of males and females follows a similar pattern (Population and Housing Census, 2000).

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-102 Ethnicity and Language

The Western Region consists of various ethnic groups which in Ghana is characterised by one’s language or mother tongue. Most of the region’s inhabitants are either Ghanaians by birth (92 percent) or by naturalisation (4 percent), with a few immigrants from other neighbouring West African countries (Population and Housing Census, 2000).

Nationally, the Akans constitute the largest ethnic group representing 49 percent of the population. This pattern is reflected in the Western Region. The Akan speaking groups constitute more than two-thirds of Ghanaians in every district; with Ahanta West having the highest percentage (93 percent) and Juabeso-Bia having the lowest (65 percent).

There are five major indigenous ethnic groups in the Region. These are the Ahantas (6 percent), the Nzemas including the Evalue (11 percent), the Wassa (12 percent), the Sefwis (11 percent) and the Aowins (3 percent). These ethnic groupings also represent the major languages spoken in Region.

Other ethnic groups who have migrated into the Region are the Mole-Dagbon (8 percent), the Asantes (7 percent), the Ewes (6 percent), the Ga-Dangme (4 percent), the Brongs (3 percent) and the Kusasis (3 percent). There are a number of other ethnic groups of smaller percentages; namely the Guans, Gurma, Grusi, and Mande, amongst others.

Religion

There are a variety of religious affiliations in the Western Region which depicts the nature of religious pluralism in Ghana. Christianity is the most commonly practiced religion in all the districts (81 percent), comprising a range of denominations including Catholics, Protestants, and Pentecostals. Islam is practiced by 9 percent of the population, traditional African religion is practised by 2 percent of the population, whilst eight percent of the population profess no religion (Population and Housing Census, 2000).

4.4.3 Economic Activity

Overview

Ghana’s domestic economy currently revolves around agriculture (which includes fishing), which employs about 55 percent of the work force, mainly small landholders and artisanal fishers. Other major sources of employment include mining and quarrying (employing approximately 15 percent of the population), and manufacturing, employing approximately 11 percent of the population (Ghana Districts, 2009).

Table 4.23 provides an overview of the various occupations in the coastal districts of the Western Region. Fishing activities dominate in these districts and this activity is described in detail in Section 4.3. Other economic activities in the coastal districts are described below.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-103 Table 4.23 Occupation by Coastal District in the Western Region

District All Jomoro Nzema Ahanta Shama- Districts East West Ahanta East in Region Working Population 856,830 49,315 62,500 43,734 158,304

Agriculture, animal husbandry and 58.1 52.3 60.9 55.6 19.2 fisheries Production, transport, operators 14.5 18.8 14.4 16.0 25.5 and laboratory

Sales 10.2 12.1 9.8 11.7 23.4 Professional and technical 5.4 4.7 5.5 4.3 9.6 Service 4.8 6.0 4.5 4.5 9.1 Clerical 4.1 4.3 3.3 4.1 9.2 Others 2.8 1.7 1.6 3.5 3.3 Administration and managerial 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.6

Source: Population and Housing Census, (2000). Note: Statistics unavailable for newly created districts.

The major economic activities in STMA are related to the port (see Section 4.4.7). The area is the third largest industrialised centre in the country and there are other significant industrial and commercial activities in the manufacturing sector (food processing, spirits production, textiles, metal fabrication) and resources sector (timber, clay). The area has a large food and goods market which is a centre for small and medium size trading.

Agriculture and Processing of Agricultural Products

In the Western Region both commercial and subsistence farming is practiced. The region is the largest commercial producer of cocoa and timber and has the largest rubber plantation in the country and its only rubber-processing factory which processes the rubber into a semi finished product for export. Coconut and oil palm are cultivated on a large scale for commercial production of vegetable oil. Major districts where coconut, rubber and cocoa are produced include the Nzema East, Jomoro and Ahanta West. Cocoa products are manufactured at a factory in Takoradi and timber is largely processed in Sekondi-Takoradi (Population and Housing Census, 2000).

Subsistence farming is practiced to produce food crops such as cassava, maize, rice, cocoyam, plantain, pepper and tomatoes, and rice is grown in some low- lying areas.

Mining

Mineral mining is extensively practiced in the Western Region. Minerals mined, include gold, diamonds, manganese and bauxite. The Region is the second highest producer of gold in the country. There are five major gold mines in the district namely Teberebie and Iduaprem, Prestea/Bogoso, Tarkwa and Aboso gold fields. Mining is undertaken by multinational

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-104 companies. There are also some artisanal miners operating in the Region. The countries only bauxite mine currently in production is located at Awaso in the Sefwi District. There are other potential deposits in the Region however these have not as yet been fully explored for exploitation. Deposits of alluvial diamonds in the Bonsa River Basin were exploited by small-scale miners in the 1940s and 1950s. There is however potential that the river basin could still be prospected for diamonds in the future.

Import/ Export

The deep-water port at Takoradi handles about 62 percent of total national export and 20 percent of total national imports annually. The main exports are manganese, bauxite, cocoa beans and forest products (mainly sawn timber). The main imports are clinker (for cement production), containerised cargo, lime products, petroleum products and wheat. The main West African shipping lanes and the approaches to Ghana are shown in Chapter5: Figure 5.7.

Tourism and Cultural Heritage

Tourism in Ghana has become a major socio-economic activity and one of the most important and fastest growing sectors of the Ghanaian economy (GSS, 2007). Since the late 1980s tourism has received considerable attention in the economic development strategy of Ghana. The number of tourist arrivals and amount of tourists’ expenditure has steadily increased, while both public and private investment activity in various tourism sub-sectors have expanded. In 2004, the sector attracted more than 500,000 foreign tourists with the corresponding tourist receipts of US$ 640 million.

Ghana has a wide range of natural, cultural and historical attractions, which provides the basis for the growing tourism industry. Emphasis is placed on tourism to help in the conservation of the country’s historical and environmental heritage. Apart from the economic benefits, tourism is used to present Ghana’s unique cultural, historical and environmental heritage to the international community and to educate Ghanaians about their own heritage. The Government of Ghana intends to use tourism as an alternative development strategy to help address broad national issues.

The tourism potential in the Western Region is related to the number and extent of pristine tropical beaches as well as wildlife parks and forest and game reserves featuring tropical rainforests, inland lakes and rivers. Bathing or recreational beaches along the western coastline are shown in Figure 4.48. Some of the most popular recreational beaches along the western coastline are located at Biriwa, Brenu Akyinim, Busua, Butre, Cape Coast, Egyembra, Elmina, Komeda, Sekondi and Takoradi. Hotels are generally located at popular beach destination and at commercial centres. Along the western coastline, hotels and resorts are located at Axim, Birwa, Busua, Cape Coast, Elmina and Takoradi. Wildlife and nature reserves in the Western Region include Ankasa Conservation Area including Nini-Suhien National Park, Amansuri Conservation Area and Bia National Park.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-105 KEY: Area B Area A ¾[9 Ehuletile Lagoon Industrial Water Intake Kafoda Lagoon m[ Public/Bathing Beach Amanzule Lagoon o[ onLagoon y[ oonLagoon Anwiane Anluonu Lagoon o[ Aquaculture Lagoon o[ Mankyea Lagoon Epokeazule Lagoon o[ o[ Ndombura Lagoon o[o[ Beach Seine o[ o[ Kelapinli Lagoon o[o[o[ !o[\ o[ Nkroful 9 o[\o[9o[ o[ \9 ! Lagoon, River Mouth Half Assini \9 \9 \o[9\9\o[ or Estuary \99\9o[o[o[ o[ \9 o[ o[ ! Metika Lagoon o[ \9 \9 Amunsure Lagoon Axim Cities and Towns ! Ekpukyi Lagoon o[ o[ o[ o[ \o[9 Ahobrenum Lagoon Domini Lagoons o[ o[ Ankobra (Ankwao) Estuary o[ o[

Awangazule o[ Lagoon \9

Ahumen Lagoon \9 m[

Area C Area D ¾[9 Susu Lagoon o[ m[ m[ Agona Nkwanta Takoradi \o[¾[99 ! Onolimeleme Lagoon ! \9 Asukutia Lagoon ¾[9 o[ \¾[9 Abrobeano Lagoon Ahumen Lagoon Shama ! o[ Pra River Mouth . \ \9\9 9 \9 0 10 o[ Sekondi Ehunli Lagoon m[ ! \9 m[ Pukye Lagoon Kilometres m[ \9 m[ o[ \m[9 o[ Côte d'Ivoire Ghana \9 Esai Lagoon

m[ F Butre River Mouth E Takoradi A ! B D m[ C ¾[9 o[

\9\9Onolimeleme Lagoon

Area E Area F TITLE: Atufa Lagoon Winneba ! Figure 4.48 Etsi Lagoon Human Use includign Recreational Opum Lagoon Beaches along the Western Coasline o[ m[\o[9 o[ of Ghana Wankami Lagoon \9 ¾[9 \9 CLIENT: SIZE: \9\o[9 m[ Tullow Ghana A4 Apam Cape Coast m[ Eyas Lagoon ! ! o[ DATE: 06/08/2009 CHECKED: MI PROJECT: 0096867 Ayesu Lagoon \ ¾[9 \9 9 Saase Lagoon DRAWN: CO APPROVED: MI SCALE: As Scale Bar \ Atufa Lagoon 9 ¾[9 o[ Apa Lagoon Amisa Lagoon \9 Sumina Lagoon DRAWING: REV: o[ Mumford m[ Nfoa Lagoon \9 ! EnvSnstvs_HumanUse.mxd 0 Elmina ¾[9 o[ \y[ ¾[9 ! ¾[9 9o[ o[o[ o[ y[\9 o[ o[ \9o[o[\9 \ o[ o[ o[ ERM ¾[9 m[\o[9 o[ 9 y[ Sefara Lagoon m[ Fosu Lagoon \9o[ Norloch House \¾[9 o[ ¾[9 ¾[99 Bosom Muna Lagoon 36 King's Stables Road m[ \m[9 Lagoon Edinburgh, EH1 2EU o[ Nsuneda Lagoon Narkwa Lagoon Tel: 0131 478 6000 u Lagoon Fax: 0131 487 3636 Mbopro Lagoon

SOURCE: EPA Ghana: Environmental Sensitivity Map for Coastal Areas of Ghana, Volume 1, Atlas PROJECTION: GCS WGS 1984 File: 0096867Ghana_CO_MI\MAPS\EnvSnstvs_HumanUse.mxd A number of public sector priority investment projects and areas have been identified along the western coastline (GTB, 2009). Public sector investment projects include beach resort developments at waterfronts such as Axim, Beyin, Busua, Butre, Cape Coast, Dixcove, Elmina, Sekondi, Shama and Takoradi.

The Western Region also has the second largest concentration of historic forts and castles in the country, accounting for seven out of the country’s fifteen selected tourist forts under the Museums and Monuments Board. In total, there are 15 historical monuments along the western coast of Ghana. These monuments are listed in Table 4.24.

Table 4.24 Historical Monuments along the Western Coastline

Town Monuments Beyin Fort Appolonia built in 1770 by Britain Sawoma Monument Axim Fort Antonio built in 1515 by Portuguese Princess Town Fort Gross Fredericksburg built in 1683 by Brandenburg-Prussians Akoda Ruins of an old Fort Dorothea Dixcove Fort Metal Cross built in 1692 by British Butre Fort Batenstein built in 1656 by the Dutch Sekondi Fort of Orange built in 1656 by the Dutch Shama Fort St Sebastian built in 1523 by the Portuguese Komeda Ruins of Fort Vredenburg built by the Dutch in 1682 Fort English built by Dutch in 1687 Elmina Elmina Castle (St George’s Castle) built in 1482 by Dutch Fort St Jago built in 1665 by Portuguese Cape Coast Cape Coast Castle built in 1653 by Swedes Moree Fort Nassau built in 1612 by the Dutch Anamabo Fort Charles built in 1630 by Dutch Abandze Fort Amsterdam built in 1631 by English

Salt Production

It is estimated that salt production occurs in approximately 14 coastal lagoons along the Ghanaian coast and provides employment opportunities to coastal villages. Salt is collected from lagoon flats in the dry season when salt crystallises out of the super-saturated lagoon water. In addition, dedicated man-made saltpans with low dikes are used (Armah et al, 2004).

4.4.4 Poverty

Table 4.25 illustrates the poverty profile in Ghana. The poverty incidence in the Western Region of Ghana ranked third highest and contributed about 6.5 percent to the national poverty level. The levels of unemployment in the Western Region are also considered to be high.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-107 Table 4.25 Poverty Profile in Ghana 2005/2006

Region Pop. Share (%) Avg. Income Poverty incidence (%) (000’s cedis) Western 10.1 7,813.3 18.4 Central 8.8 8,394.3 19.9 Gt. Accra 13.9 1,0871.2 11.8 Volta 7.5 9,590.9 31.4 Eastern 13.4 7,805.7 15.1 Ashanti 16.8 8,284.9 20.3 Brong Ahafo 9.2 6,718.2 29.5 Northern 12.2 4,779.8 52.3 Upper East 4.8 3,409.3 70.4 Upper West 3.6 2,354.4 87.9 Source: Etsey, Y.K.A. 2009.

4.4.5 Education

Ghana has a free basic education system that is compulsory up to age 15. There are six years of primary education, three years junior secondary school education, three years of secondary education and four years of tertiary level education.

According to the 2000 census, 53 percent of the population of Ghana above 15 years of age is literate in either English or a major Ghanaian language and this is higher amongst males than females (Ghanadistricts.com, 2006). In the Western Region the literacy rate is about 58 percent with males having a higher literacy rate (68 percent) than females (48 percent).

The government implemented a National Education Strategy Plan and increased education spending in 53 districts. This resulted in an increase in the school attendance rate from 71 percent in 2002 to 80 percent in 2004. In the same period access to education by girls has also improved from 66 percent to 72 percent (Ghana: Accelerating Growth to Halve Poverty, 2007). The secondary school enrolment rates tend to be lower than that of primary schools and amongst the overall population 43 percent of Ghanaians have never attended school and 19 percent have primary schooling as their highest level of education (Ghana: Accelerating Growth to Halve Poverty, 2007).

In the Western Region, nearly two-thirds (64 percent) of those currently in school are at the primary level, while 21 percent are in junior secondary school. Literacy in English and a Ghanaian language is highest in Sekondi Takoradi (42 percent) and lowest in Ahanta West (29 percent) (Population and Housing Census, 2000).

The lack of junior secondary schools within many rural communities, affordability and poor infrastructural facilities are factors that contribute towards the high dropout rate from primary school and low levels of attendance at secondary and tertiary educational facilities. In the Western Region, Shama Ahanta East has the highest number of teaching staff.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-108 Approximately, 15 percent of teaching staff is based in this district because of the high number of schools and pupils. The lowest number of primary teaching staff was recorded in Ahanta West district and the lowest numbers for secondary teaching staff occur in Juaboso.

4.4.6 Health

Improvements to health and nutritional status remain a national focus, with the major causes of morbidity and mortality being malaria, skin diseases, diarrhoeal diseases, intestinal worms, measles, onchocerciasis and HIV/AIDS. Overall there is declining infant mortality (120 per 1,000 live births in 1965 to 68 per 1,000 in 2005) and increasing life expectancy (from 44 years in 1993 to 58 years in 2005) (WHO Core Health Statistics, 2007). In rural areas only 64 percent of the population have regular access to improved drinking water sources.

In the Western Region data collected from the Effia Nkwanta Regional Hospital from January to December 2008 showed that malaria was the most common disease. Complications related to pregnancies, dental and acute ear infections were also common. Table 4.26 provides a summary of these and other conditions requiring medical attention at the hospital. Malaria is prevalent in the Western Region as a result of poor sanitation (stagnant pools of water) and exposure to mosquitoes. Pregnancy complications appear to be due to a lack of awareness and ignorance of the importance of pre-natal health care.

Table 4.26 Medical Condition Treated at the Effia Nkwanta Regional Hospital, January to December 2008

Diseases No. of Cases Percentage Malaria 9,383 23 Pregnancy related complication 3,124 7.3 Dental 2,576 6.3 Acute ear infection 2,349 5.8 Gynaecological conditions 1,153 2.8 Hypertension 1,085 2.7 Diarrhoea 1,043 2.6 Skin diseases and ulcers 887 2.2 Respiratory infection 841 2.1 Road Traffic accident 340 0.8 Source: Effia Nkwanta Regional Hospital Report, 2008

4.4.7 Social Infrastructure and Services

Education Facilities

There are a broad range of educational facilities in all of the districts, including pre-schools, primary schools, junior high schools, senior high schools and tertiary institutions. These facilities fall into public and private categories that are run by the government, individuals or religious organisations. There are 1,320 primary schools in the Region, 1,240 of these are public and 80 are

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-109 private schools. There are half as many junior secondary schools as there are primary school, which indicates that access to these schools would be more difficult for some of the children in the Region. Consequently children living in localities where junior secondary schools are not within reasonable distances are likely to drop out of school after primary school (Ghana Districts, 2009). Access to senior secondary school in the Region is poor compared to the primary schools and junior secondary schools. There are 42 senior secondary schools in the Region, with most concentrated in the Sekondi-Takoradi area.

Health-Care Facilities

The health care facilities available in the Region include hospitals, clinics and traditional health facilities. Hospitals (in and out patients) in the Western Region can be categorised into private and publicly owned. Public hospitals in the Western Region are available at the Effia Nkwanta Regional Hospital, European Hospital, and Takoradi Hospital. Private health care facilities, including company, mission and NGO-owned facilities are fairly well represented in the Region. Almost every mining company operating in the Region has such a facility (Population and Housing Census, 2000).

A clinic is mainly an out patient unit that provides several of the medical services provided by a hospital, but has limited facilities for patients requiring periods of confinement, observation and complicated medical interventions. While over 80 percent of localities in Shama-Ahanta East have easy access to a clinic facility within 10km radius, 60 percent of localities in Ahanta West have access to clinics within the same radius (Population and Housing Census, 2000). Ten percent of localities in these two districts are located more than 30km from the nearest clinic.

Sekondi-Takoradi has the highest concentration of health delivery facilities and services in the region. There are 31 private hospitals, 5 government health centres, and a further 5 community clinics/maternities, some of which offer 24-hour maternity and casualty services. The metropolitan area also has a rehabilitation clinic for mentally ill patients. In addition to these, there are 18 private general medical practitioners, 5 private registered midwives, a total of 186 Traditional Birth Attendants (TBA), and three private medical laboratories. Substantial success has been achieved in delivering healthcare to the populace and in eradicating endemic diseases (Ghana Districts, 2009). In the Region the estimated doctor-to-patient ratio is very low, at about 1 to 18,500. This makes the work of traditional healers very important. Traditional healers are health practitioners who use herbs and herbal preparations in healing. In Ghana, it is estimated that between 60 percent and 80 percent of the population rely on traditional healers for primary health care. In the Western Region they are in almost every community in the region and in every district. In all the districts between 60 percent and 92 percent of the localities have traditional healers within the locality (Population and Housing Census, 2000).

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-110 Water

There are three major sources of drinking water namely, piped (inside, outside, tanker supply), well (well, borehole) and natural (spring, river, stream, lakes, rainwater, dugout). In the western region only 32 percent of houses have access to treated piped water with 8.5 percent having this available within their dwelling places. The highly urbanised districts have almost 100 percent availability of, or accessibility to piped water. This is in contrast to rural districts where over 60 percent of households use rivers, streams, dugouts, spring or rain water as their main source of water, with only approximately 9 percent having access to processed piped water. Others use wells as their main source of water. An overview of the water sources is presented in Table 4.27.

Table 4.27 Overview of Water Resources

Water Access Type All Districts Jomoro Nzema East Ahanta West Shama- Ahanta East Total Households 409,282 22,137 29,591 23,064 86,511 Piped -Outside 23.2% 15.5% 10.6% 14.4% 59.7% Piped Inside 8.5% 1.3% 2.2% 2.9% 27.3% Tanker Supply 0.7% 0.5% 0.3% 2.2% 0.7% Well 23.2% 32.9% 32.1% 28.5% 7.8% Borehole 14.2% 14.8% 14.5% 28.6% 1.2% River/Stream 24.1% 31.2% 36.3% 16.0% 1.3% Spring/Rain 4.4% 3.1% 3.4% 5.7% 1.4% Dugout 1.5% 0.7% 0.6% 1.5% 0.3% Other 0.2% 0.0% 0.0% 0.1% 0.3% Source: Population and Housing Census, (2000) Note: Statistics unavailable for newly created districts.

Sanitation

The indiscriminate disposal of solid waste in gutters, open spaces and the sea has led to unsanitary conditions in some districts. Added to this is the unavailability of toilet facilities with over 40 percent of dwellings in the Western Region having either no toilet facilities or having to use a public toilet. The environs of these public toilets are being turned into solid waste dumps with serious health hazards in many of the urban and peri-urban localities (Population and Housing Census, 2000). Where facilities do exist in the region, the most common types are Kumasi Ventilated-Improved Pit (KVIP), pit latrine or a bucket/pan system. Where no facilities exist, people are forced to make use of the beaches, outlying bushes and gutters.

Energy Sources

Electricity and kerosene lamps are used as the main sources of lighting in the Western Region, providing about 99 percent of the lighting needs of households. In the urban areas, the majority of households use electricity while in the rural districts, kerosene lamps are the main source of lighting. Rural households are also gradually gaining access to electricity through a rural electrification programme.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-111 Charcoal and fuel wood are the main sources of cooking fuel in the Region (even for quite a sizeable number of urban dwellers), however liquid petroleum gas (LPG) and coconut husks are also used in some districts as a source of cooking fuel. The use of electricity for cooking is minimal being limited to Sekondi-Takoradi with its highly urbanised status and access to electricity.

The Takoradi Thermal Power Plant lies on the coast approximately 17 km east of Sekondi-Takoradi, and relies on marine water for cooling purposes (Figure 4.49). The Thermal Plant started operation in 1997, and was initiated by the Volta River Authority to complement the existing Hydro Plant at Akosombo and Kpong. The Takoradi Thermal Power Plant is therefore a facility of strategic importance for meeting Ghana’s energy needs (Volta River Authority, 2006). The plant has historically been fuelled by crude or fuel oil but conversion to use of natural gas from the West Africa Gas Pipeline (WAGP) occurred in 2008 though initial flows have been intermittent.

Figure 4.49 Takoradi Thermal Power Plant

Land and Housing

The ownership of land in Ghana is based on the fundamental principle that land is owned by the community or group. Under the existing arrangement, traditional land-owning authorities (stool chiefs, clan heads and skins) hold allodial (absolute ownership) title to land on behalf of their people. Thus outright ownership of land is still a rare form of land tenure in Ghana. Leases and rentals over a satisfactory period of time for economic/commercial activities are possible and involve permission by the allodial titleholders to use the land. However, the land must revert to the community or the allodial titleholder at the end of the lease or at cessation of the activity for which the lease was granted (Asumadu, 2003).

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-112 The land tenure system in Ghana makes it easier for rural households to acquire and own land than those living in urban areas. The fact that building houses in rural areas is easier than in urban areas also contributes to making house ownership more prevalent in the rural areas. People living and working in urban areas tend to rent houses in the area close to where they work, and then build their own houses in their home towns or villages where they either visit every weekend, or expect to retire. Districts with high migrant labour have a high number of people renting dwelling units as opposed to owning houses. Rent-free housing is common, due to the extended family system, this happens in situations where the owners of these houses may have moved to live in the city to work and may allow relatives to stay in their houses for free.

The population living in urban areas accounts for 36 percent of the Region’s population (2000 Population and Housing Census), and has been attributed primarily to a steady drift of rural migrants to the urban areas, and also as a result of the growth of previously rural communities into urban centres.

The 2000 Population and Housing Census gives the number of dwelling units, including vacant units, in the Western Region as 430,180. Compound houses constitute the greater number of dwelling units. Flats or apartments are common in Sekondi Takoradi whereas huts and other types are common in many rural districts. Other types of dwellings include uncompleted or temporary shelter or farm houses constructed with coconut branches or clay, which are used seasonally.

4.4.8 Transport

The Ghana Private Road Transport Union (GPRTU) and other transport organisations provide transport services within the districts in the Region. The most common means of transport is by road where there are privately owned or state owned buses. The state owned buses usually operate within the urban areas. In the villages, private taxis and small buses owned by private individuals are operational. The road network in the Western Region is limited and the conditions of the roads can be very poor, particularly in the rainy season. Goods such as bauxite, manganese, timber and timber products and cocoa are transported by rail on the Western Line which runs from Takoradi to Kumasi and Awaso.

The Port of Takoradi was built as the first commercial port of Ghana in 1928 to handle imports and exports to and from the country. The port currently has a covered storage area of 140,000 m2 and has an open storage area of 250,000m2. It has a wide range of vessels supporting its operations including tugboats, lighter tugs, a water barge and a patrol boat. The Port handles both domestic and transit cargoes and currently handles about 600 vessels annually, which is 37 percent of the total national seaborne traffic, 62 percent of total national export and 20 percent of total national imports annually. Almost 160,000 tonnes of cargo are handled annually at the port. The Port of Takoradi also has a fishing harbour located at Sekondi, which has an ice plant that can

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-113 accommodate vessels with up to 3 m draft. Other ship traffic in the area is associated with ports such as Abidjan (Côte d’Ivoire) and Lagos (Nigeria).

4.4.9 Waste Management

Waste management is a serious issue in the Western Region like many others in Ghana. The predominant means of waste disposal is either by dumping; this may be at specified sites; or indiscriminately burning or burying. Approximately 60 percent of all households in all the districts use a specified public dump while an additional 29 percent use unauthorised dump sites to dispose of waste. The waste from these open dumps washes into streams and rivers which often serve as sources of water for local communities. Collection and disposal of waste by the local authorities accounts for only about 2 percent of all households. Households in Sekondi Takoradi, more than any other district, use collection agencies and public dumping sites. A site visit of to visit the existing waste handling facilities was undertaken in May 2009 to determine the suitability of these facilities for the wastes from the Jubilee Project. A report o that visit, along with an outline of the waste management options available to Tullow is presented in Annex F.

4.4.10 Police Services

Police services in the Region are those offered by the Ghana Police Service. Virtually every community has a Police Station and every district capital has a District Police Headquarter with a Regional Police Headquarter in the regional capital. The Western Region Command of the Ghana Police Service is located in Takoradi. Apart from the Police Service, chiefs and elders in the communities are responsible for settling disputes.

4.4.11 Fire Service

Fire response capability in Takoradi exists through the National Fire Service and the Ghana Ports and Harbours Authority Fire Service Department. There are reportedly a total of five fire tenders at the National Fire Station’s disposal in case of emergencies. The port has two fire tenders.

4.4.12 Telecommunications

Two main types of telephone systems are in operation in the country. These are the fixed line telephones and the mobile telephone systems. Other systems being operated are wireless, radio telephone and satellite communication systems. Vodafone Ghana Telecom Company operates over 95 percent of the fixed line telephones in the country. Teledensity of fixed line telephones in the Western Region is 0.3 telephones per 100 persons, which is below the national average of 0.7. Of the 12,985 fixed lines the Region recorded in the year 2000, 11,046 or 86 percent served the Sekondi Takoradi metropolis. The Western Region is extensively covered by the following mobile telephone operators: MTN, Vodafone, Ghana operators of Vodafone, Tigo, Kasapa and Zain. The Region has the second highest locality coverage by MTN, which is the largest mobile telephone system in the country.

ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT TULLOW GHANA LIMITED 4-114