NDUD BANK

-4GR Technical Note No. 2 Public Disclosure Authorized

A STUDY OF TREE CROP F-42MING SYSTEM

IN THE L.C%ZAND HUMID TROPICS

Public Disclosure Authorized VOLUME I1

June 1980 Public Disclosure Authorized

iculture and Rural Development Department tral Projects Staff

Public Disclosure Authorized Thjs paper is one of a series issued by the and Rural Develop- ' meqt Department primarily for the information- and guidance of Bank staff wo-bking in the agriculture and rural dewlogmat sectors. It may not be pu4lished or quoted as representing the views of the h3rld Bank. The World Bai dces not accept responsibility for its accuracy or completeness. A STUDY OF TREE CRL)F FARMING SYS'I'ENS IN 'IRE LOlVAhTD HrJbiID TRDPICS

Abstract

This Note presents a revizw of the cur~nttechnical situation regarding tree crop farming systems of the hwnid tropics. Based on a tour of countries in Asia, \Vest Africa and Latin Amrica, the Note considers policies and trends in the cultivaticn of rubber, oil palm, coconut, cocoa and coffee, together with subsidiary food crops, in the three main farming sub-sectors: the large industrial plantation, the land development schems with srnallho lder participation, and the individual smallholders.

The first is concerned almost exclusively with regims ; the development schemes may incorporate sme element of multiple cropping; while the smallholder sector exhibits a wide variety of cropping systems. There are major differences between the regions, with Latin America at a much earlier stage than Asia and West Africa. Productivity of the major com- modity crops is being continually enhanced by adoption of new techniques and planting systems, and new emphasis is being given to indigenous food tree species. The Note is confined to technical aspects and does not consider socio-economic factors in any detail, the priqaly ~bjectivebekg to establish a data base of technical inaterial for use during preparation of tree crop projects . The Note presents a general Review and %comxzndations, supported by detailed reports on the countries visited, suggestions on tree crop system models, and by a 14anual givir?g basic characteristics of the various crop species.

Prepared by: Dr. G.A. Watson (Consultant) Agriculture and. Rural Development 3epartmnt, CPS

The views and interpretations in this doment are those of the author and should not be attributed to the World Bank, to its affiliated organizations, or to any individual acting LI their behalf. A STUDY OF TREE CROP FARMING SYSTEMS IN ?HE L€NLAND HUMID TROPICS VOLUME I1

Table of Contents Page No . VI . NOTESONAVISITTOTHAILAND(June4.10. 1979) ...... 1 A . Rubber Monoculture ...... 1 B . Rubber Multiple Cropping ...... 1 C . Coconuts ...... 3 D . Coconuts and (with inclusion of experience from South India) ...... 4 VII . NOTESONAVISITTOWESTMALAYSIA(June11.15. 1979) ...... 7 A . Introduction ...... 7 B . Rubber Monoculture ...... 8 C . Rubber Multiple Cropping ...... 8 D . Oil Palm ...... 10 E . Coconuts ...... 11 F . Coconuts and Multiple Cropping ...... 12 G . Cocoa Mnoculture ...... 13 H . Discussion ...... 15 VIII . NOTES CPIJ A VISIT TO -IA (June 16.25. 1979) ...... 17 A . Introduction ...... 17 B . Rubber ...... 17 C . Coconuts ...... 20 D . Coconuts and Multiple Cropping ...... 20 E . Cocoa ...... 21 IX . NOTES a AVISIT TO SRI LANKA (June 26-July 1. 1979) ...... 21 A . Introduction ...... 21 B . Rubber ...... 22 C . The Kandy "" ...... 23 D . Cocoa ...... 24 X . NOTES CPIJ A VISIT TO IVORY CQAST (September 3.13. 1979) ..... 25 A . Introduction ...... 25 B . Coffee ...... 25 C . Cocoa ...... 27 D . Rubber ...... 28 E . Oil Palm and Coconut ...... XI . NOTES ONAVISIT TO NIGERIA (September 13.26. 1979) ...... 31 A . Introduction ...... 31 B . Taungya in Southern Nigeria ...... 33 C . Industrial Plantations and Food Cropping ...... 38 D . Oil Palm ...... 39 E . Cocoa ...... 40 F . Traditional Tree Crop Fanning ...... 41 G . Integrated Faming Systems Including Mulching and Zero Tillage Techniques ...... 42 Page No . NOTES ON A VISIT TO THE UNITED REPlIBLIC OF CAMEROON (September 27-October 2. 1979) ...... A . Introduction ...... B . CA?W ...... C . SOCAPALM ...... D . HEVECAM ...... NOTES ON A VISIT TO BRAZIL (October 20-November 7. 1979) .... A . Introduction ...... B . Coffee and Cocoa ...... C . Rubber ...... D . Oil Palm ...... E . Indigenous Tree Crop Species ...... F . Agro-Forestry ...... NOTES ON A VISIT TO COSTA RICA (November 8.13. 1979) ...... A . Introduction ...... B . CATIE ...... C . The Pejibaye Palm. Guilielma asi aes (H.B.K.) L.H. Bailey syn . Bact ris !gasipae- .%&a& Palm ...... D . Macadma Nuts (Macadamia integrifolia and M- . tetraphylla) E . General ...... XV . NOTES ONAVISIT TO GUAm(Xovember 13.16. 1979) ...... 62 A . Introduction ...... 62 B . InA (Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnolog.l'a Agricolas) ...... 62 C . INTA (Institute Nacional de Transformacik Agraria) ...... 63 D . AUACAFE (Asociacih Nacimal del CaG) ...... 63 E . General ...... 64 XVI . NOTES ON A VISIT TO 'IHE COCONUT INDUSrW BOARD. KINGTON. JAMAICA (November 19. 1979) ...... 64 A . Introduction ...... 64 B . Planting Densities ...... 65 C . Intercropping ...... 65 BIBLIOGRAPHY TABLE 2 . 43 BRAZ IL CEPLAC ~omiss20Executiva do Plano da Lavoura Cacaueira mse Centro Nacional de Pesquisa da Seringueira CPATU Centro cle Pesquisa Agropecuzria do ~r6~ico&nido mASA Iknd; do Para S.A. EMB WA Empresa Brasileira de pesquisa. ~~r~ecdria ENBRAER Empresa Brasileira de Assistzncia Tecnica e ~xtenskRural INCRA Instituto Nacional para ~01onizac;ioe Reforma Agr'aria DiiA Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amaz6nia PROBOR Programa da Borracha SWI SuperintenGncia do Desenvolvimnto da Amazznia UEPAE Unidade de ~xecus> de Pesquisa de jtnbito Estadual

COSTA RIU ASBAR! ~sociaci6nBananera Nacional CAT IE Centxu Amonomico Tropical de hvestigacizn y ~nsefianza I ICA 1nstitut6 Interamex-icano de Ciencias &r?colas UMJ University of the United Nations

Crrmeroon Development Corporation Soci'etg Gvea - Cameroun Ins titut cmerounais de reche rches agronomiques e t forestiEres Institut francais de recherd~essur les fruits et ag-~mes ~oci'etgcameromaise de palmeraies ~oci'etgde &veloppement du cacao

ANAm Asociacih Nacional del CaG CIAT Centro Intemacional de Agricxltura Tmpical CDfilrT International Maize adWheat Impmvement Center m Franca Transversal del Norte IDA Ins tituto de Ciencia y Tecno:.ogTa Ag6colas m Ins tituto Nacional de Trans fomaci6n Agraria

INDONESIA

NSSDP North Sumatra Smallholder Developmnt Project IVOm COAST IFCC Institut fran~aisdu cafg et du cacao I RAT Institut de recherches agronomiques tropicales IRCA Institut de recherches sur le caoutchouc IIWO Institut de recherches pour les huiles et olgagineux SAPH Socigtg africaine de plantations d'hgvea SAmACI Socigtg d' assistance technique pow la modernisation agricole de la CCte d' Ivoire Socie'te' de de'veloppement du palmier Z huile

MALAYSIA Coconut Replanting and Rehabilitation Scheme Coconut Smallholders Development Scheme Federal Land Consolidation and Rehabilitation Authorit.- Food Industry Manufacturers ' Association Rubber Industry Smallholders Development Authorit-- Rubber Research Institute of bhlaysia

NIGERIA Cross River Estates Ltd. International Ins ti tute of Tropical Agriculture Nigerian Institute for Oil Palm Research Nation21 Science and Technical Development Agency

SRI LPllVKA

NAbSA National Agricultural Diversification and Settlement Authority

Gntral Plantation Crops Research Institute (India) Office of the Ihrbber Replanting Aid Fund VI. NOTES ON A VISIT TO 'l'HAILAND (June 4-10, 1979) .-

Rubber rvbnocul ture 6.01 Thailand is the world's third largest rubber producer and its production is increasing faster than elsewhere. The industry is dominated by the smallholder and small sector, with no significant estate sector. Rubber yields in the past have been very low, below 300 kg per hectare, but under the ORRAF program the rate of replanting has been stepped up to 50,000 hectares per annum and yields are increasing. In 1977, rubber exports were over 400,000 tons for the first time and it is hoped they will rise to exceed 500,000 tons in 1979 and reach one million tons by 1990. An interesting re- flection of all this development activity is that since 1969 sume 29,500 people have received training in activities related to rubber replanting (3) 1/ and, indicative of a developing sophistication, some 15 training centers cently are being established to train fanners in chemical weed-control techniques. 6.02 Encouraged by a favorable taxation system, interest in replanting and even new planting is spreading. The Development Division of the Rubber Research Center at Hat Yai, together with the Extension Se~cesof the Department of Agriculture, are establishing demonstration units of approxi- mately 3 hectares each in the northern centers of Buriram, Prasart, Nong Khay, Nan, Chiang Mai and Chiang Rai, to determine by how far the northern limit of rubber cultivation can be extended. So far in these units tree growth is good, and if eventual yields prove satisfactory the implications for rubber cultivation in the poorer areas north of Chanthaburi, currently devoted to cassava production, could be very important.

B. Rubber - Multiple Cropping 6.03 I)ue to the composition of the Thai rubber industry, greater attention is being paid to intercropping in that country than in Malaysia. In a souo- economic survey of 131 holdings in 1973/74 (a time of low rubber prices), Speirs f.9) reported that a majority of smallholders grew some cash crops in the first two to three years after planting. Because of the nature of the terrain in his sample, this was often wet paddy grown in areas apart from the rubber, but intercropped upland was also cornmanly grown in the first two years. Bananas were comn, together with smaller areas of water melons, cucumbers, pineapples and mung beans. Only a proportion of these crops were sold off the farm, the majority being used for home consunption. rvbst smallholders had access to coconuts and grown around the home, all for home consumption. 6.04 In a mre detailed economic sumy of actual intercropping on 324 holdings (2), the Rubber Research Center in 1974 found that crop yields were in general low and exhibited a wide range in performance (Table 2). These low yields were attributed to low densities, the use of low yielding varieties, high pest and disease incidence and an almost complete lack of use.

-1/ Figures in brackets refer to the bibliography. 6.05 The 1974 survey emphasized the need for returns from intercropping to at least compensate for the loss of income during the unproductive establish- ment years of a replanting. It concluded that yields of all crops would need to be improved, and that alternate more profitable crops should be considered; also that labor requirements and the necessity for satisfactory marketing ar- rangements for production surplus to family requirements might present con- straints.

6.06 In concurrent field studies, over a number of sites (6, 7, 8) , the Rubber Research Center showed that satisfactory yields of maize, soya bean, mung beans and sorghum could be obtained (Tables 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7) and proposed intercropping systems for an accelerated program of rubber replanting (10).

6.07 This proposal took into account topography, drainage, climate, soil suitability and rainfall, and suggested crops included upland rice, sweet and glutinous maize, groundnut, mmg bean, soya bean, water melon, sweet po tat0 , sunflower, dwarf castor and bananas. Planting times, seeding rates and spacings were specified, and the following support inputs were recomnded in order to ensure satisfactory yields : i. Standard for the different crops. ii. bchanical cultivation through contractor services, in order to amid the limitations imposed by manual cultivation. iii. Provision of planting material, including good quality seed, dressed with Rhizobim in the case of soya bean and mgbean. iv. Pre-emergence herbicides, with alachlor particularly recom- mended for soya bean, groundnuts and maize. v. Insecticides to control stem and cob borers of maize, and fungicides to control Cercospora leaf spot in groundnuts. vi. Marketing assistance, particularly for those crops needing a national rather than a local outlet -- soya bean, mg bean, sunflower, castor and possibly groundnut. 6.08 This list of inputs, necessary to achieve satisfactory crop yields, is a little forbidding when considering frapnted areas of smallholdings. Taken together with the requiremnts for successful establishment of the main tree crop itself, it helps to highlight the problems associated with small- holding intercropping, and explains the reservations of plantation managers in this field. 6.09 Another problem of intercropping systems such as those proposed above is the difficulty of reconciling agronomic with economic factors. The Economics Division of the Rubber Research Center at Hat Yai, for instance, has published a paper detailing optimum intercropping patterns established by the use of linear programming (11) . The paper concludes that should be discouraged from gming upland rice as an intercrop, in contradiction to the technical recammendations for such cropping supporting rice as being out- standingly suited to the local environment (10) ; mre profitable crops would be preferred, but the difficulty of opposing deep-rooted preferences is ahowledged. 6.10 Perhaps the most important item of information coming from Thai- land is a demonstration that intercropping need not harm the growth of the re- planted rubber (8). Various crop rotations were practised in comparison with standard legume covers, and also with natural covers (not quoted but probably grasses and small shrubs) with and without ploughing -- a comon practice in Thailand. Results are given in Tables 8 and 9 and demonstrate that growing of intercrops has not led to any important reduction in the growth of the rubber tree, and that in some instances growth has actually been improved.

6 .ll The principle demonstrated in this latter experiment is that legume and non-legume crops can both be included in the rotation, preferably alternating, and that there should not be mre than two non-legume crops consecutively during the first two years of intercropping. While interim results only are so far available, it seems unlikely that intercropping sup- ported by proper use of fertilizers and good maintenance will adversely affect the eventual tree growth and yield. This finding is confirmed by work of the Rubber Research Institute of Malaysia, comparing leguminous with non- leguminous covers in the presence of varying levels of fertilizers (43).

C. Coconuts 6.12 Of all plantation crops, coconuts possibly present the best op- portunity for an early and significant increase in the smallholding economy of , for the following reasons: i. The crop is well hown and grows over a wide range of soil and climatic conditions. ii. Improved upkeep of a large proportion of existing holdings, aided particularly by the introduction of intercropping, and associated use of fertilizers and , can be ex- pected to raise production by anything up to 100%. iii. The recent development of new hybrid varieties, typified by the klaysian Dwarf 0)and West African Tall (WAT) hybrids (MAWA hybrids) shows promise of tripling production as com- pared with existing material, and bringing oil production to a level approaching that of oil palm. iv. Because of the light shade cast by palms in their early and later years, coconuts can be intercropped successfully with a wide variety of annual and perennial crops . This diver- sifies the smallholder1s income, and increases productivity per unit area, of major consequence considering the small area available to many farmers. v. Processing of the coconut by-products, i.e. wood, shell and fiber components, is only practised extensively in the Philippines, India and Sri Lanka, but if developed elsewhere would materially improve profit and employment possibilities in the smallholding communities.

D. Coconuts and Intercropping (with in- clusion of experience from S . India) 6.13 'Ihe concept of multicropping in association with coconuts has received a stimulus from the work of Nair and his colleagues of the Central Plantation Crops Research Institute, Kerala, India. 'Ihe subject is thought of sufficient importance to justify inclusion of their analysis of the bio- logical situation, summarized in the following excerpt from a paper by Nair, Bavappa and Nelliat (4) : 6.14 Growth habits and crown shape of native, tall coconut palms necessitate a spacing of 7.5 x 7.5 meters, giving about 175 palms per hec- tare. However, studies conducted at the BCRI , have shown that the two basic resources of crop production, soil and solar energy, are not being utilized to the fullest extent possible in a pure stand of coconut palms. Soil. The effective mot zone of an adult coconut palm under Kerala conditions is confined laterally within a radius of 2 meters around the base of the palm and vertically within 30 to 120 centimeters depth from the soil surface. This mans that at a planting distance of 7.5 x 7.5 meters, about 77% of the total soil area is not effectively utilized by the coconut roots (work elsewhere suggests this may not be generally applicable (142)) . ii. Solar ener . Studies on the light profile within coconut p* antations and changes in the apparent coverage of ground by coconut canopy with increase in age of the palms, have shown that during the early years of pwth the percentage of sunlight transmitted through the coconut leaves decreases gradually with increase in age until about eight years after planting, when the palm attains steady bearing. At this stage, the percentage transmission of light decreases to about 20% of the incident light and this remains almost constant up until about 25 years of age. The profitable cultivation of long-lived, perennial crops becorns possible in mature coconuts of mre than about 25 years old. iii. Water use. The total imigation requirement of any crop at potential production level is decided primarily by the evap- orative demand of the local climate. In other words, ir- respective of the number of crops grown in an area, the water requirement of the area depends primarily on the potential evapo- transpiration and the water use efficiency of a mixed community of crops is superior to that of a pure plantation occupying only a proportion of the available space. iv. The balanced plant/animal/human eco-system. This proposes an integrated system of husbandry suited to the special con- ditions of small farm size. A fanner with a smllholding of around half a hectare of coconut can maintain one or two milk animals, on pasture legumes and grasses grown within the coconuts. The coconuts benefit from the return of dung, urine, etc. Gn the other hand, gas plant working with cow dung will meet the energy requiremnt of the 's family, and an efficient organic recycling involving the whole eco-system is possible. 6.15 With the above principles in view a few cropping systems have been evolved and put to trial at the CPCRI. . Short-term crops tested included tuber crops, vizome spices, upland rice, cucumbers, bananas, pineapples, etc . bbst promisiig among them were tubers and rhizom spices, with yield and economic conclusions given in Table 10. Other crops tried included green gram, black gram, horse gram as well as soya bean. However, the performance of these pulses was not satisfactory, probably because of inadequate light conditions.

ii. Mixed cropping. Perennial crops tried have been cocoa, cin-

namon, nutmg, clove and black pepper.- -- All grew well but cocoa showed the greatest promise. In one experiment, inter- cropping coconut with cocoa gave a considerable increase in coconut yield over the pre-treabnent yields. Details are given in Table 11 and the increase in productivity has been attributed to a synergistic effect between the two crops with some of the biological components identified by Nair et al. (5). At the same time, these results must be interp- with caution, for the coconuts where high yielding genotypes, 16 years old, and were receiving irrigation as well as regular fertilizer applications. iii . blul ti -storey cropping. Multi -storey crop comb inations cons ist of crops of varying canopy orientations and rooting habits. Such combinations enable interception and utilization of light at different vertical intervals and facilitate "soil harvesting" by the root system in distinct layers and columns. Cne such combination is coconut with black pepper, cocoa and pineapple. In a coconut plantation of 175 palms per hectare, 800 cocoa and 3,500 pineapple plants can be accommodated, in ad- dition to black pepper vines trained on to each coconut palm. Table 12 gives the yield of some of these crops in an observa- tion trial carried out in 1970. Mixed fannin . An experiment on mixed farming was initiated mm?dthe main objective of determining the optimum size of a variable . A dairy unit of a few milk animals was maintained with the animals fed on Napier grass and St losanthes gracilis cultivated in the interspaces. Bla *pepper vlnes were trained on to the coconut trunk. Results over two years have indicated that yield of coconut palms in the experimental plot increased by 29%. 6.16 The CPCRI experiments were only on a small scale, and gave no economic assessment of intercropping, but the general concepts are now finding wide acceptance, and examples of successful multi-crop associations with coco- nuts have been seen in most countries visited. 6.17 In 1967, in South Thailand, there were some 111,840 hectares of coconuts (40%of the Thai total) . Plantings were in scattered smallholdings , generally on poor soils, and the South Thailand Regional Planning Study (Sector Studies 2. Coconuts) recomnded that there should be no replanting with existing varletles. Rather it was recomnded that new material should first be introduced, and subsequently developed in association with intercropping.

6.18 At the Sawi Coconut Experiment Station plans are in hand for establishing seed gardens of dwarf palms for crossing with imported pollen. Reservations exist concerning the possibility of introducing disease through imported pollen, however, and this problem is still to be resolved. 6.19 At Sawi Coconut Experimnt Station there are three mixed cropping trials : Plot 1, with coffee under mature coconuts. Plot 3, an observation plot of cocoa and pepper grown under mature coconuts. Plot 7, involving cropping with limes, bananas, upland rice and cucumbers in mature coconuts. With reports in the Thai language (I), these trials are not easy to assess, but the first appears to give the best data. 6.20 From Table 13 it seems that coconut yields have been adversely af - fected by the coffee intercropping, and that even after four years the coffee has not been in cropping long enough to recoup the costs of establishment, a situation that would not met the needs of a smallholder seeking a rapid sup- plement to his income. 6.21 Plot 7 involves intercropping of mature coconuts with Tahitian lime, Gros Michel bananas, pineapples, cucumbers and upland rice. Respective plant stands for the first five crops are 22, 44, 350, 2500 and 30,000 per rai (0.16 ha). Yield data are not available, but it was said that nut production had increased following the introduction of intercropping -- possibly as a result of weed control. Alternatively, as the Sawi soils are poorly drained and of poor structure, the cultivation involved in intercropping may have been beneficial in improvement of physical conditions. 6.22 In Plot 3 there is a planting of hybrid F1 cocoa seedlings. Growth and production is very variable between trees and concern was ex- pressed at the sale of seed from this . This is a subject that de- serves close consideration, for while F2 seed will still give reasonable yields under good soil conditions, plant populations will be variable and it would be preferable to establish proper seed gardens for the production of F1 seed. 6.23 The South Thailand Regional Planning Study concluded that fer- tilizer use and weed control would increase coconut production, but not profitably so. Rather the study reconmended the integration of pasture and with the coconuts, and intercmpping where appropriate. 6.24 Coffee might be well suited for mixed cropping in the western regions of South Thailand, where a well-defined alternation of wet and dry periods would favor flowering. Ginger, vanilla, durian, mango and mango- steen would be suitable for growing together with coconut, but cocoa is not reconnnended except on the islands, because of generally unsuitable soil conditions.

6.25 In view of the profitability of the cocoa/coconut combination, a second opinion on this latter point would be appropriate.

VII. NOTES ON A VISIT TO WEST MALAYSIA (June 11-15, 1979)

A. Introduction 7.01 In West klaysia, attention is concentrated on optimizing pro- duction of the main crops, rubber, oil palm, coconut and cocoa, with little regard paid to interplanting with food cmps, except in the individual small- holder sector. It is thought better to maximize the productivity and wages of the estate worker (or smallholder in developmnt schemes) so that he may be able to buy his fwd, rather than dissipate his and management's effort on food cropping. Exceptions to this practice are likely to develop in certain FELCRA schemes, where food crops may be grown by individual settlers in areas adjacent to the main plantation crop, with the latter being managed cooperatively on an estate basis.

7.02 An important aspect of this Malaysian scene is the shortage of labor in both the estate and smallholding sector. Rubber and oil palm estates are experiencing a grave shortage of experienced workers and in the rural areas the average age of the smallholder is rising as young people leave the land for urban centers. Increasingly the trend is tuwards specialization, for instance with FIMA and RXSDA planning the production of cashew and fruit crops on a plantation basis, rather. than relying on any increase in the pro- duction of fruits by the home-plot owner. 7.03 As a consequence of the above and other historical factors, Maysian rubber production my now be reaching a plateau, but oil palm, coconut and particularly cocoa production is increas ing . Food imports are rising, but this is not of great concern while the economy, supported by the plantation industry, mining, oil extraction and developing indus- trialization, remains healthy.

7.04 In Malaysia, rubber is still looked on by the Gommnt as a good long-term inmstmnt, but after cocoa/coconuts and oil palm in order of profitability (34, 53) and preferably restricted to the poorer class of soils (17). Attention in the estate sector has been focussed on the use of advanced planting material such as polybag buddings and large stumped buddings to shorten the time of immaturity, and also on the use of clones, such as PR 255, PR 261, PB 235, RIUM 614 and 703, which will give high yields at an early age of tapping. Used together, these two factors can help shorten the period of eqloitation to twenty years (35), giving an earlier return on capital investmnt, permitting the earlier introduction of improved planting material and lending flexibility to the cropping pattern. 7.05 In the smallholding sector, increases in profitability are being sought by the use in low-yielding rubber of intensive tapping system., in- cluding stirmilation; replanting of old stands by high-yielding cultivars; the use of advanced planting material to shorten the time to commencement of tapping; a higher density of planting to increase yields per unit area (600 trees per hectare as compared with an estate average of 400-450 trees per hectare) ; and during maturity the use of fertilizers and optimum tapping systems, including stimulation, to maximize yields. With this combination of techniques it is hoped to improve smallholder yields from the present national average of 800 kg dry rubber per hectare to over 1,500 kg (14, 42).

7.06 Labor costs in Malaysia are relatively high and, in view of the increasing costs of establishment, FELCRA has recently recormnded that in their schemes an allotmnt of 10 acres of rubber per settler will be neces- sary to achieve a satisfactory level of incane. Ten acres of rubber is more than can be handled properly by available family labor, at least in the establishment phase, and accordingly it is being recomnded that this rubber be managed on a share system basis, with the family effectimly re- ceiving a wage for their labor rather than a land entitlement (40). This concept is being tested experimentally on a field scale by the RRIM (48) and reflects Malaysian confidence in centralized managemnt of its planta- tion crops.

C. Wber Mdtiple Cropping 7.07 When first cultivated in Malaysia, rubber was grown under bare soil conditions, but soil deterioration was such that for a time planters reverted to growing the crop under "forestry" conditions, with rubber seed- lings selectively retained to ensure continuation of the plantation. However, the system proved impractical and eventually the best practice came to depend upon the cultivation of mixed creeping legumes, Pueraria haseoloides, Centrosema ubescens and Calo o onium mucunoides between as a groundea cover uring ?4-gTe years o imnaturity. A. the tree canopies close over, from the third year onwards, these legumes are shaded out to leave only a thin scattering of mixed, shade-tolerant, grasses and ferns to protect the ground (52). 7.08 In the major planting programs of the ' 50's and ' 60's, estates concentrated on rubber production and grew nothing between the tree rows other than leguminous creeping covers. Practice in the government FELDA schemes has been similar, with management concentrating on the establish- ment of well-grown rubber for handing over to settlers at two years after planting rather than on any more diversified system. However, in the in- dividual smallholding sector not dependent on any single administrative authority, multiple cropping in the early years with pineapples and ba- nanas has been comnon and is currently reconnnended by the RRIM and the Departmnt of Agriculture. Other crops include maize, groundnuts and soya beans, but cassava is not a permitted crop under assisted replanting schemes. 7 -09 Guha and Soong (25) have published a review of soil suitabil- ity for intercropping in rubber, and a number of papers have appeared quoting results of field trials (13, 16, 22, 50) . Of particular interest, Pushparaj ah and Tan (44) have suggested that cassava may not have as ham- ful an effect on rubber as was feared, at least in the presence of heavy fertilizer dressings. bst recently, Abraham (14) and Wan and Chee (50) confirmed that maize, groundnut and soya bean can be successfully grown in rotation in the inter-rows of rubber on gently undulating land. The eco- nomic returns from these three crops are given in Table 14. In more dif- ficult terrain, banana is a suitable mixed crop for small fanners, and yields and net family income from four varieties grown over two seasons are given in Table 15. All information from this work confirms the Thai work, in that satisfactory yields from these crops can only be obtained following the proper use of fertilizers, herbicides and insecti- cides. Skilled attention from the smallholders is required, and if this is not available, then both the main and subsidiary crops may suffer. 7.10 After the rubber tree canopy has closed over, at between three and four years from planting, intercropping is no longer pssible, and some workers have considered the possibility of rearing livestock as a more pennanent venture. bst recently, the RRIM have concluded that poultry produced under rubber can be economically viable and technically feasible, provided that satisfactory bulk prices can be obtained for the produce (50). Despite quoted advantages in terms of weed control by the freely ranging birds, and nutrient supply via the droppings, it is doubt - ful whether such units could compete with large-scale- specialized poultry units. 7.11 The RRIM is conducting studies with sheep under rubber, grazing on the permanent vegetation after canopy closure (51). A grazing intensity of 1-1%sheep per hectare is intended, but again the competitiveness of such projects compared with specialized ranching operations in open country or under mature coconuts, with purpose-grmn forage, must be open to doubt.

D. Oil Palm 7.12 In Malaysia, oil palm, because of its general and need for heavy cqital investment, is almst completely grown under mno- cul ture plantation conditions. Even smallholder settlement schemes run by FELRA, for instance, are managed on very similar lines to those in the com- mercial sector. All efforts are concentrated on optimizing oil production and this factor, together with the short period of two to three yearst im- maturity, in which conditions might permit some degree of intercropping, results in a complete absence of intercropping on any significant scale. 7.13 One development taking place in Malaysia is the establishment of small famr areas of oil palm, selling fruit to either independent mills or to estate mills. The practice seems profitable to both parties, but time did not pennit inspection of such areas to determine attitudes towards intercropping. There would seem to be no reason why such cropping should not be done, as oil palms are generally gmwn on the better class of soils, and everything will depend upon the circumstances and the needs of the individual grower. 7.14 From the private sector, Chandapillai and Yeow (21) report yields of 1,717-3,400 lb fresh groundnuts per acre after intercropping a young oil palm area, but give no comment on interactim between the main and subsidiary crops. 7.15 Of probably greater significance is a report from FELRA by Lee and Hanafi (33) on a feasibility study for mixed cropping, oil palm with cocoa. Five-month old hybrid cocoa seedlings were transplanted with a one-year old oil palm planting, in plots comparing monocmp cocoa (1,111 plants/hectare) with cocoa stands of 400, 667 and 761 per hectare in single and double row plantings of palms. Initial shade was provided by a com- bination of Gliricidia, Mghania and Parkia, with normal leguminous creep- ing covers planted in the control plonisshade was thinned out pro- gressively over succeeding years and eventually kept under control by ~rlmiJv2 7.16 The most promising treatrent appeared to be one with single row oil palm at 10 m x 7 m (143 palrns/hectare) interplanted with a single row of cocoa at 10 m x 2.5 m (400 trees/hectare). The hedge planting of oil palm gave no depression in yield, but the yield of cocoa corresponded almost proportionally to its planting density. A simple cost-benefit analysis in the 7th year indicated that monocropping of cocoa gave a better return than monoculture oil palm, but that returns could be comparable when the latter is suitably intercropped with cocoa [at ex farm prices of $1.50/kg raw cocoa bean ; $333/ ton ; and $319/ ton kernel, see Table 16) . -1/

-1/ Currency - Mdaysian $. Progress with this trial will be watched with interest, to see whether cocoa yields can be maintained as the oil palms grow and develop their shade. 7.17 Thailand and Sri Lanka have only small interests in oil palm, while in Indonesia oil palm cultivation practice follows that in Mdlaysia although in a smaller scale.

E. Coconuts 7.18 In Peninsular Malaysia, coconut is predominantly a smallholder's crop, but yields are generally low and there is much scope for improverent through better husbandry, drainage improverent and replanting. There is great variation in yields, not only between estates and smallholdings , but also between States and even Districts. Overall yields of smallholdings average less than 0.3 tons of copra per acre, with an average estate yield of 0.5 tons per acre. In a 1963 survey,. the highest smallholder yields were recorded in Selangor, with 0.5 tons of copra per acre, while in Johore and Kelantan the average was 0.2 tons. 7.19 In 1963, a Coconut Replanting and Rehabilitation Scheme (CWRS) was established and in the subsequent fourteen years more than 120,000 acres of coconut were rehabilitated and replanted. An evaluation survey carried out in 1971 found that yields from rehabilitated holdings averaged 0.6 tons of copra per acre. 7.20 This CWRS program has been renamd the Coconut Smallholders Development Schere (CSE, see Appraisal Report No. 1906-M) and has the following basic objectives : i. Replanting and/or rehabilitation of coconut palms. ii. Crop diversification. iii . Improvement of extens ion services . 7.21 Coconut varieties grown belong to two main types -- the Talls Ws) and the barfs @IDS) . The majority of nuts and copra is derived pre - dminantly from the MTs, which grow and produce better than the MDs under a wide range of soil conditions. Almst all smallholdings are still planted with unselected MTs averaging a yearly yield of 1,150 nuts per acre or 20 nuts per tree. Better yielding tall varieties, producing up to 1 ton of copra per acre per annum, selected from the estates sector, becarne available to the smallholders with the introduction of the CWRS in 1963. The introduction of MAW hybrids, however, would facilitate production of up to 2 tons of copra an acre (under estate conditions), a production potential in terms of oil equivalent approaching commercial levels of palm oil production and offering new possibilities for the coconut industry. 7.22 To obtain the full economic benefit of MAYA hybrids, field planting and management have to be supenrised to ensure that the follow- ing practices are implemented: i. Old palms must be completely disposed of by burning (a difficult task), as a basic pest control measure. ii. Drains must be imp roved and maintained. iii. Noxious weeds must be completely eradicated.

iv. Triangular spacing of polybagged palms, with an optirnum 65 palms to the acre (160/ha), is necessary. v. Fertilizers must be regularly applied. vi. Phytosanitary control is essential. vii. Intercrops must care fully managed. 7.23 With improved field management, MAWA hybrids introduced under the scheme are assumed to come into bearing in year five and reach an average yield of 6,525 nuts (3,000 lb copra) per acre, i .e. 3 tons of copra per hectare (see Table 17) .

Coconuts and Multiple Cropping 7.24 Malaysia has taken a very positive approach to the possibilities of coconut multiple cropping, notably in the area of cocoa/coconut cornbi- nations. After early disappointments, when planting cocoa under partially cleared jungle, success was achieved when planting cocoa under mature coco- nuts in the Telok Anson area on marine and riverine alluvial clays. Early performance was impressive and the private sector has since accepted that the MAWA coconut hybrid/cocoa combination promises to be the most profitable Malaysian cropping system for the future (53) . 7.25 In the smallholding sector there has always been an element of multiple cropping, particularly on the coastal alluvial clays of Selangor and Perak, and of livestock husbandry under coconuts in the longer dry season areas of the eastern states. Since the inception of CSE, records show that the most popular perennial crops cultivated under MTs are cocoa, coffee, bananas and fruit. Under the Scheme, cocoa is planted as a mixed crop in all west coast areas where soils are suitable. Coffee can be planted as an alternative on less fertile soils, and cashew and fruits would be the main mixed crops on the east coast soils. Progress to date is given in Table 18, showing the growing importance of cocoa since 1969. 7.20 In the Staff Appraisal Report No. 1906-MA, Upper Amazon hybrid cocoa is expected to be yielding about 100 lb per acre of dry beans in year four, reaching 600 lb dry beans an acre in year ten. In general, smallholder yields are expected to be lower than those of estates, mainly because of inadequate fertilization, non-optimal shade regirnes and poorer management. Yields could be greatly improved by eliminating these deficiencies as well as by exploiting clonal plantings, and Kamil and Ahmad (28) recommended that the level of both financial subsidy and of technical extension should be raised in order to optimize the yield and income. 7.27 Further information on coconut multiple cropping will be found in papers by Denamany et al. (23) and the Ministry of Agriculture, Malaysia (37)

Cocoa bbnoculture 7.28 Cocoa has been gmin Malaysia for many years, but has re- ceived much greater attention over the last 15 years. Four aspects have been of particular importance: the type of planting material used; the type and degree of shade needed, particularly during the early years of establishmnt; nutritional requirements of the tree; and pest and disease incidence. Because of the importance of the crop to other regions, this subject will be dealt with in some detail. 7.29 In early work, Blencowe and Templeton (19) reported on the ps- sibility of interplanting cocoa in the shade of a rubber planting. With seedlings of Fl Upper Amazon hybrid progenies, they obtained good early growth when planting in a clean-weeded old rubber stand of 90 trees per acre, intended to be thinned out progressively over a period of four years. This work has not been followed up, but related studies by Black and Hubbard (18) show great promise in the replacement of old rubber with monoculture cocoa. 7.30 Black and Hubbard compared two plantings, one in an area clean- felled from old rubber (Field A), and the other in a planting with origi- nally 135 trees per acre in which alternate tree rows were poisoned and felled, giving the equivalent of approximately 81 trees per acre (Field B). In Field A bananas and Gliricidia maculata were planted as shade species, and grew sufficiently to permit cocoa planting at 15 months after the ori- ginal felling. subsequent damage to the bananas by leaf-eating caterpillars, hawever, reduced the shade so much as to check the growth of the cocoa. 7.31 In Field B, the shade of the rubber trees permitted immediate planting of the cocoa seedlings. Subsequent poisoning of the old rubber reduced its stand to 35-40 trees per acre, but supplementary shade was introduced by planting Indi ofera te smanii and Parkia javanica. In those early years the rubber +-k-contmue to e tapped, p-g an mcome, until initial harvesting of the cocoa began at 22 mnths after field planting and 25 mnths after first thinning the rubber. In Field A, on the other hand, it was estimated that cropping could only comnce at 24 months after field planting and 38 months after clearing was completed. 7.32 This technique of replacing old rubber with another highly profitable crop, while still taking a crop from the rubber, is an example of the flexibility of cropping that can be developed using good manage- ment, to be taken into account when considering recomndations on maximizing profitability (35).

7.33 In Malaysia, the most successful cocoa plantings have been on the riverine and marine alluvium soils of the west coast district, but future plans call for larger-scale planting on inland soils. In order to determine the areas most suited to such soils, several progeny trials were laid down in 1970. 7.34 In one trial, late establishnt of the shade plants provided an opportunity to test under exposed conditions (32) . Twenty-three hybrid progenies were tested against the common Sabah seed garden hybrids, all at a $acing of 4 m x 3 m.- Gliricidia maculata cuttings were planted at 8 m x 6 m rectangular spacing, and Pk'eciosa at 16 m x 12 m; in ad- dition, hb ania macro h lla seeds werear lasown =-k at 4 g/hectare in drills between ++t e cocoa rows: a at 1-3 months after cocoa ~lantinn. All these shade plants, except for som sparsely established ~a

7.37 With regard to nutritional requirements, data from a trial interplanted in coconut on coastal alluvium (35) showed that the cocoa responded to applications of N, K and Ca but not P. However, on an inland sandy clay loam, monocrop cocoa shaded principally with Albizzia chinensis and Gliricidia maculata showed response to N, P and K, wmrticularly important (~ableZ1).~heneed for magnesium was not established, but in- dications were that on inlmd soils cocoa will require all four nutrients (36). 7.38 . The above reports give useful detail on gmwth aspects of cocoa as affected by nutrient supply, and are complemented by a detailed study, using destructive analysis, of the growth and nutrient composition of monocrop cocoa on inland Malaysian soils, by Thong and Ng (47) . This study confirmed the importance of N and K in cocoa nutrition: for instance, the amount of nutrient required to sustain growth and yield of mature cocoa yielding 1,000 kg dry beans/hectare/per year includes 687 kg/hectare of K (Table 22).

7.39 As cocoa plantings extend in Malaysia and Indonesia, diseases are likely to become of greater significance. The situation has been sum- marized by Turner and Shepherd (49). Root disease incidence is presently Phellinus noxius been locally- senous, distribution of almivora. Pink disease (Corticium salmonicolor is sometimes important =ereP. % ram all is high. Various threadr , including Marasmiellius scandens and Marasmius e uicrinis, but are of minor sfgnificance. Th e most 'hportant disease in same+ p antlngs is vascular streak dieback (hcobasidium theobromae , necessitating use of planting material which has been selected +r resistance or tolerance to the disease. 7.40 Insect pests can be a problem, not only on the cocoa but also on the associated shade crops (18). Blencowe and Templeton (19) found leaf-eaters (specially cater- pillars) and the coffee Capsid darnage by an unidentified proper use of insecticides these problems could be contained.

H . Discuss ion 7.41 On the tour of S.E. Asia examples of all types of tree crop fanning systems were seen: from the backward rubber smallholdings of Sri Lanka to the highly motivated and specialized plantations of Malaysia; from neglected coconut to the richly diverse tree gardens of Wdy and Java.

7.42 The over-riding impression gained in Malaysia was one of a process of intensification, affecting both estate and smallholder sectors. Despite local successes in early intercropping, monoculture has become the norm for both rubber and oil palm, with generalized schemes for intercropping in the early years being swept aside because of the need to concentrate upon good crop establishment and early maturity.

7.43 Even smallholder development schemes cannot withstand the pres- sure. br instance, up until 1970 the average time from planting to com- mencement of tapping in Malaysian smllholder developmnt schemes was 7.5 years (Table 23). With costs of replanting increasing at up to 50%per annum, this delay would now be quite unacceptable, and in consequence RISDA has adopted a "Dynamic Production Policyll with which advanced planting material will be supplied to smallholders and best estate practice used in order to optimize growth and production. This will include centralized management, the offering of shares instead of land titles, and inter- cropping with food crops only where a market opportunity has been iden- tified (38). 7.44 This latter point highlights a great deficiency in work on intercropping to date. Much of the data quoted in this report are of a technical nature, emanating from research organizations; there is com- paratively little information on the labor available for intercropping and even less on the marketing of what crops are produced. There are no reports on competition between food marketed as the result of inter- cropping with that produced by small or large specialist cmp famrs in the private sector, nor on the respective social valws of the two systems. 7.45 In addition, much of what data are available must be redundant in the face of changes taking place. There is a clear need to update views on intercropping, taking into account the impact of improved planting material, shorter times of immaturity, more productive tapping systems and shorter, more intensive crop replanting schedules, not to mention the in- creasing labor and machinery costs involved in intercropping. 7.46 At their present levels of sophistication, the more advanced rubber and oil palm sectors can well be called high technology industries. Coconut so far can hardly have claimed such a position, but with the development of the newer hybrids the crop is entering a more dynamic phase. 7.47 As a high-yielding mnoculture, coconut is likely to become comparable with oil palm in profitability. At the same time, its shade characteristics permit coconuts to be grown as possibly the most highly profitable crop combination in association with cocoa, coffee and others. This latter fact is now being exploited commercially by both estate and smallholder sectors in Malaysia and Indonesia. 7.48 From the socio-economic view, coconut is also the backbone of that other crop combination that, because of its high productivity per unit area, is of particular value to the very small famr and the upland famr -- the forest or home gardens as seen in Sri Lanka and Java. These gardens are now becoming the focus of major developmnt schemes, and will need the same input as the more developed oil palm and rubber industries -- improved planting material; greater use of ferti- lizers and agrichemicals in general ; an understanding of the interaction between the different crop species concerned; organized storage, process- ing and marketing of the produce. 7.49 It is often assumed that the multi-species fanning system will be largely self-perpetuating, with its own integrated pest control and "life-support" systems. This may have been generally true of those systems in the past (with the exception of disasters such as coffee rust disease which wiped coffee out in Sri Lanka), but it is unlikely to be true of the more intensive cropping patterns now being developed for the future. . Experience teaches us that as input and crop production rise so do agronomic problems, and these gardens will be no exception. Agro- nomists concerned with these schemes will need to be no less skilled than those associated with the specialized plantation crops.

VIII. NOTES ON A VISIT TO INDONESIA (June 16-25, 1979)

A. Introduction 8.01 In Indonesia, there is a diverse situation compounded of all aspects of tree crop fanning. The estate sector, mainly in Smatra, is engaged on a large-scale rubber replanting program and its production of rubber is increasing sharply. Much of the best practice in rubber, oil palm, coconuts and cocoa is being aggressively adopted by the better units. On the other hand, growth of production of the smallholder sector has been small and more effort is needed to get the replanting program under way. Even now, however, it might be speculated that once the ex- tensive rubber industry of Indonesia really takes off, backed by the land and labor resources available, it could yet provide the third major surge of production of cheap natural rubber, after Malaysia and Thailand -- by the year 2010, thirty years hence? Useful work on intercropping of rubber in the early years after the planting has been done by the Government- owned estates and this might find application in the transmigration schemes and other Government -aided plant ings . 8.02 In Java, there is great scope for rehabilitation of the coco- nut industry. Here, the traditional multiple cropping practised by the Javanese smallholder will find expression, to the benefit of both coco- nuts and associated food crops. Prompted by population pressure on the land, the Javanese smallholder has become highly skilled and intensively crops upland rice, maize, groundnuts, beans, cassava, bananas, coffee, spices and fruits under coconuts. Extension of this practice, aided by the supply of improved planting material, should not be difficult, provided that food surplus to the smallholder's need can be satisfactorily marketed.

8.03 Practice in Indonesia follows that in Malaysia. The better estates are working with the newer clonal materials and also improved tapping systems. Limited work is in hand with advanced planting material (58) and with puncture tapping systems, but so far no large-scale com- mercial application is reported.

8.04 As in bialaysia, the Indonesian estate sector displays little interest in the cultivation of intercrops during the early years of rubber planting. Some years ago, under Government edict, estates proved the feasibility of intercropping with upland rice, but as theft deprived them of any production, they are now concentrating on growing the, main crop using mixed leguminous covers to maintain ground conditions. 8.05 In the smallholding sector, however, there is keen interest. At Aek Nebara, in the North Sumatra Smallholder Develoument Proiect (NSSDP), large-scale intercropping of upland rice in &ber durhg the first two to three years after planting has been successfully accomplished (57) . Over the years 1974/77 the area of main crop intercropped annually with rice increased from 447 to 8,133 hectares for a total production of 25,555 tons, and with an.average yield of about 1,500 kg/ha in the later years. It was concluded that the full rice requirements of smallholders involved in future replanting programs could be met by intercropping. 8 .0:6 It must not be assumed from the foregoing that intercropping with rice is trouble free. In the first place, the inter-row areas were mechanically cultivated prior to sowing in October of the year of plant- ing. The first crop was harvested in Februaxy/?&rch and followed with second and third cro~sat the a~~ro~riatetimes. Mechanical cultivation was necessary betwee; crops, bit*at* the cessation of cropping in the third year of planting,. invasion by "lalangtl (I erata 1indrica)presented a major problem (54). The cost of eradication=d?+z- y emc s 1s estimated at ~$63/-ha,and to avoid this in the future some- method of establishing a beneficial ground cover that will compete with the lalang must be developed. 8.07 In small- scale experimental work by Sunarwidi and Hutagalung (61), intercrops of rice and maize were grown in the first year after plant- ing rubber, with NPK and Mg fertilizers each at five levels. Rice yields benefited from the fertilizer and manuring of the intercrops had a favorable effect on rubber gmrth. 8.08 Reed and Sumana (59) have studied the subject fully, and give data on possible cropping sys terns taking into account local and export markets. 'Ihey consider that continuous intercropping presents the follow- ing disadvantages : i. If only one is planted each year there is a problem of what to do with the land in the off-season. Should it be planted to leguminous cover plants or left fallow? If the land is left fallow, there is a danger of lalang becoming established, which would be difficult and costly to eradicate. On the other hand, the planting and maintenance of a leguminous ground cover is hardly worthwhile in the limited time available.

ii. If mre than one crop is grown per year, the choice of crops is more difficult, for pressure on the land is intensified and in unsuitable locations this could lead to a decline in soil fertility and possibly a build-up of pest and disease. iii. The greater nunber of crops there are in a rotation the more difficult it is to market them and/or use them for family consumption. .Also, a much larger research effort must be mounted to determine the ~mstsuitable crops and cultural practices. iv. The only way to maintain intercropping over a nunber of years is to minimize shading by phase planting, so that part of the fann is planted either annually or every second year until the first year's planting is tapped. Annual or bi-annual phasing will, however, not eliminate shading in an individual small farm replant or new plant- ing, and the only solution is to encourage group replant- ing so that adjacent faxms are planted in blocks. 8.09 Reed and Sumana also quote the results of a survey of 100 fanners in NSSDP (not Aek Nebara) and a further 20 in the same area, in the village of Babussalam. All fanners in NSSDP had one hectare of rubber planted at a density of 500 trees per hectare, and in the wet season inter- cropped the whole area, but in the dry season only a proportion. Yields and net income are given in Table 24. 8.10 Yields of wet season rice and rice interplanted with maize were satisfactory but there was a great deal of variation between fam. Yields and net income for both rice alone, and the rice/maize combination, were higher at Babussalam than in the NSSDP holdings. 8.11 Yields for dry season crops were in general poor. The average yield of maize in 45 NSSDP blocks was only 462 kg/ha of rubber planted, whereas yields of 1.5-2.0 tons should be possible. The average yield of green gram (mung bean) was 261 kg/ha of rubber planted on the NSSDP blocks and only 114 kg/ha on the at Babussalam; yields of 400-600 kg should be possible. The fact that local, unimproved varieties of green gram were used, and that only a low proportion of fanners used significant quantities of fertilizer, could partly account for the low yields. Reed and Sma calculate that for costs and income to break even yields of maize would have to rise to 942 kg/ha of rubber planted (1,077 kg/ha of intercrops) and of green gram, in Babussalam to 449 kg/ha of rubber, and in NSSDP to 342 kg/ha of rubber; these levels should be achievable using good quality seed and adequate quantities of fertilizer.

8.12 In a further development of the multicrop concept, Suryatna and McIntosh (62) propose systems of cropping rubber with coffee, pepper, cas- sava and upland rice. The combination proposed offers a useful income, while at the same time supressing the growth of lalang. Coupled with the use of adequate levels of fertilizer, growth of the tree crop should not be affected. Brandt et al. (55) have suggested the use of Pueraria thung- bergiana as a fodder 'intercrop, but no application is yet reported. C. Coconuts 8.13 According to the latest figures the total area under coconuts in Indonesia is 2,203,900 hectares yielding an average of only 685 kg copra per hectare. In 1970, the country was the world's second major ex- porter of copra and coconut oil with a 13.6% share of the market: in suc- ceeding yea& the situation changed sharply so that by 1975 it shred only 2.7% of the external market, with a decline in volume from 193,100 metric tons to 53,000 tons, due to increased domestic consumption. 8.14 In an effort to reverse the decline in the coconut industry, the W/FAO Proj ect , Coconut Research Improvement (INS/72/007) has been introduced and Breeding and Agronomy Programs are now in being (INS/72/007, Ibcmnts 3 and 4 respectively). 8.15 The breeding program is to concentrate on production of seed- lings derived from high yielding Talls planted at Kima Atas in North Sulawesi. Mean production of a population of 986 palms in 1975/77 was 123 nuts or 32.29 kg copra per palm per year, equivalent to 15,000 nuts/ 4,000 kg copra per hectare at a low density of 123 palms per hectare. 8.16 Parallel work to the above, although with a greater emphasis on MAWA type hybrids, is being carried out by Government-owned and private sector estates in North Sumatra. Seed-nuts will become available from PNPX of South Sumatra in 1979, from Bone Bone in South Sulawesi in 1980/81, and from Government Estate Group PTP VI of North Sumatra in 1981.

D. Coconuts and Multiple Cropping 8.17 In the Transmigration Planning Manual, Vol. 7, for the Planning and Development of Transmigration Schemes, UNDP/FAO Project INS/72/005, the value of intercropping in coconuts is questioned (p. 46) , yet Indonesia is the scene of both a long-established tradition of intercropping in its home-gardens and a vigorous, developing estate industry, establishing coco- nuts/cocoa plantings from scratch using Gliricidia and Leucaena spp. as temporary shade trees. 8.18 In the smallholding sector, fanners, partly because of better soil and climatic factors and partly because of pressure on the land, appear to generally cultivate more intensively than in Malaysia. In the horn gardens seen around &clan in North Sumatra, and Semarang and Bogor in Java, a wide variety of crops is grown. With mature coconuts as the main crop, intercrops include well -cultivated upland rice, maize, cassava, groundnuts, beans, ginger, patchouli and chillie, with coffee and bananas as a mid- storey crop and cloves (60), cinnamon, jak and other fruit trees at the higher level, all with pepper trailing up the coconut stems. 8.19 In the Coconut Agronomy Program (Cocument No. 4) of Project INS/72/007, detailed information is given on the different crops, and plans outlined for a study of their characteristics whm grown together. One experiment aims to study the effect on root systems of intercropping cocoa and cloves at different age levels of coconut while another is to study the physiological interaction between coconut, cloves, coffee, pineapple and pepper. 8.20 Eventually, data from these and other trials will help the extension services to offer the smallholders greater support than is presently possible. In the meantime, help consists principally of the provision of improved planting material to the smallholders (see Working Paper C-4A of the Yogyakarta hral Development Project).

E. Cocoa 8.21 Full descriptions of cocoa production and plans for development in Indonesia are given in reports by Wessel (65) and by Toxopeus and Hutomo C64). Cocoa is grown both in monoculture and also as an interplant in coco- nut, and the country has ambitious plans*to increase production. For the present, research is concentrating on the propagation of high-yielding and pest-resistant material. The cocoa mth, Acrocerco s cramerella, is Identified as the major pest. This pest has---F certaln y limited cocoa pro- duction in Java in the past, and whether the recomended periodic removal of all pods ("rampassen") can offer a practicable method of control in smallholder areas, by preventing population build-up, must be open to doubt .

IX. NCTES ON A VISIT TO SRI LAM (June 26-July 1, 1979)

A. Introduction

9.01 In Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia rehabilitation and extension of the smallholding and estates sectors generally is well under way, but a different situation pertains in Sri Lanka. Here, the fragmented rubber, tea and coconut plantations pose major problems; a study of the rubber in- dustry is in hand, while in the tea industry two approaches currently are being developed. The better areas are to be rehabilitated on traditional lines, but the poorer areas are to be diversified, progressively replacing old tea with new multi-species crop associations based on the traditional Kandy gardens and on South Indian experience. These will not only be suitable environmentally, but it is hoped will also produce a diverse and adequate income for the smallholders concerned.

9.02 The Sri Lanka coconut industry will not be easy to rehabilitate. However, plans are being developed and first steps will include the estab- lishment of diversification schemes involving cinnamon, nutmeg, cloves, pepper, bananas, coffee, cocoa and fruit trees mng the coconuts, on the lines of the Kandy gardens, but probably with the inclusion of lowland food crops. 9.03 There are both similarities and distinctions between the Kandy garden tree-crop association, the Javanese hme-lot and the typical home- lot of a Malaysian kqong dweller. In the latter case, the smallholder generally is not dependent on his home-lot; he has an alternative income off the holding, often on a nearby plantation, and regards it as an amnity providing only a portion of his food requirements. The Javanese grows a wide variety of annual and perennial food crops and relies very much upon them for both food and income. In the Kandy situation, the fanner is again largely dependent on his holding for fwd and income, but relies more com- pletely on perennial tree crops as being better suited to his upland situation; he is also fortunate in that the terrain and climate permit sup- plementary paddy cropping in many localities.

B. Rubber 9.04 Fonnerly of mixed estate and smallholding composition, the Sri Lankan rubber industry is now dominated by smallholdings and small fam, many of which are in urgent need of rehabilitation. This is the subject of a FAOmorld Bank Smallholder Rubber Replanting Project and the following excerpts are taken fmm the Project Preparation Report: i. Since 1973 the Department of Rubber Control has permitted the interplanting of fwd crops under young rubber for the first three years. RRISL experiments have since shown that coffee, cocoa, banana, chillie, vegetables, passion fruit, upland rice, soya bean and cowpea can be success- fully interplanted with rubber at a spacing of 30 ft x 8 ft on flat land. Of these, banana, cocoa, coffee, pas- sion fruit and pineapple have been found particularly suitable as they do not require overall tillage, but only weeding round each plant, and hence have less erosion risk and can be planted on somewhat steeper slopes. ii. Although intercropping has been allowed, response has been poor. Main constraints appear to have been lack of capital, prevention of theft and uncertainty of market for some of the crops. iii. Experiments suggest that gmth of rubber will not be adversely affected if: - only one row of perennial intercrop is grown between the ms of rubber; - annual cmps are not planted closer than 4 ft to the rubber row in the first year, 6 ft in the second and 10 ft in the third; - the intercrops receive fertilizer at recornended doses. iv. While experimental work with intercrops has so far con- centrated on a rubber spacing of 30 x 8 ft, with the agreement of the extension officer for the area inter- ckpping of pineapples and annual crops would be per- mitted in rubber replanted at 20 x 12 ft. v. On almst flat to gently sloping land, vegetables, up- land rice and pulses and chillie would be permitted, but no cash support would be given. Larger areas of annual crops would not be allowed, lest their demand for family labor interfered with proper care of the young rubber. vi. Due to their lower labor requirements and suitability to a wider range of slopes, support under the project would be given only for the interplanting of coffee, bananas and pineapples. Passion fruit is excluded because the cost of supporting wires and stakes is considered too great. vii. The most important extension message from the point of view of the rubber crop is that the intercrops should be adequately manured. Bananas and pineapples would be up- rooted before the rubber comes into tapping, but coffee would be allowed to remain. viii. Few data are available on yields that will be obtained from these crops interplanted in rubber, but yields obtainable under rmnocrop conditions are hown and estimated costs, yields and return per acre of land are given in the Report.

The Kandy "Gardens1'

9.05 It is possible in Sri Lanka that tree crop fanning systems find their fullest expression in the multi-species "forest gardens" of Kandy. Evolved over many generations, these gardens include a wide variety of ground, creeping, middle and upper storey crops growing gener- ally in association with coconuts. They produce a large proportion of the farmers ' daily needs and income.

9.06 McConnell and Dhaxmapala (69) have described the gardens in detail, emphasizing their value as a stable eco-system, in the erosion- susceptible uplands of Kandy, that offers a diverse and steady income to the fanners. The system is attractive and has proved its great value in the past, so is being adopted as a model for the Tree Crop Diversification Project (Tea) I, now established around Kandy . 9.07 With the guidance of the Minor Exports Research Station, Matale, plans are being implemented for the replanting of old, abandoned and sub- standard tea under the auspices of NADSA. Following the schemes drawn up in Chapter 111, multicrop plantings of coconut, cloves, cinnamon, nutmeg, j ak, bananas, mango, bread fruit, amcado, citrus, durian, rambutan and pepper are being established in farms of about 2.5 acres each. Also, a dlarea is being set aside round the home for vegetables and other food crops, and the maintenance of one milk cow per family. 9.08 One feature not brought out in the McConnell report is that, because of the variability in planting materials within any one garden, most of the present incom mafbe derived from only a relatively-few high- yielding individuals (Private Conmnmication, Bavappa) . The breeding program of the Mbor Export Crops Research Station aims at a significant raising of yield in most crops: for example, the introduced Panniyur-1 hybrid pepper variety is three to four times more productive than other comercia1 varieties in India; the yield potential of 11,500 hectares new- ly diversified gardens sc!eduled in this project will be significantly greater than a similar area of traditional gardens. 9.09 This NAEA scheme represents an imaginative effort to resettle the old areas and diversify production. The authority's next challenge is to bring diversity to the coconut triangle of West-Central Sri Lanka. Here, the old coconuts are in a very neglected condition and the open and rela- tively flat, lowland conditions present a different situation to the Kandy highlands. Experimts on intercropping of coconuts with cocoa, coffee, bananas, pepper, cassava, vegetables and pasture with were seen at the Coconut Research Institute, Lunwila, and the Institute has detailed recomndations for crop mixes with coconut in its publications (67).

D. Cocoa 9.10 The situation in the Sri Lankan cocoa industry has been sum- marized recently by Ariyaratnam (68). In brief, the cocoa plantings are neglected, senile and unproductive. A project has been outlined to replant 18,000 acres of cocoa and to establish 2,000 acres of new plantings with coconut on a pilot scale. 9.11 The project is located in the Mtale, Kandy and Kurunegala upland districts. Of the 10,000 acres of cocoa in these areas almost half is in smallholdings averaging 3.5 acres and the other half in estates averaging 200 acres. In smallholdings, cocoa is grown mixed with other perennial crops (Table 25), but in the plantations it is mostly under old rubber retained mainly as a shade at about 50-150 trees per acre. 9.12 It is planned that the cocoa will be underplanted in old stands, that will be progressively thinned out as the young cocoa develops. Obvious- ly this project will benefit greatly from the experience being gained by NADSA, and also by the work under way in Malaysia, where old rubber is being replaced with cocoa. X. NOTES ON A VISIT TO IVORY COAST (September 9-13, 1979)

A. Introduction 10.01 The present and future wealth of Ivory Coast depends primarily on agriculture, of which the tree and bush crops are an important component. There are large rubber and oil palm plantations, operated by development corporations, but the majority of the areas involved are cultivated by small fanners. Development plans make provision for small fann schemes grouped around nucleus estates m in association with the private sector. 10.02 The plantation industry enjoys the support of strong, technical institutions, primarily IFCC, IRHO, IRCA with extension work being carried out by SA'IMACI, SODEPALM and SAPH. The work of the latter is made difficult by several constraints. All work in a situation where much of the labor is innnigrant from the Upper Volta, Guinea and Mi, and is little concerned with the long-term management of agricultural land. In addition, in the smallholding sector there is no local tradition of rubber cultivation. Over the country as a whole there is ample land available for cultivation, al- though soils are only of moderate fertility.

B. Coffee 10.03 The Ivory Coast crop is composed entirely of RDbusta coffee and plans are to stabilize production at the present level of 300,000 tons per annum dry berries, with only a moderate expansion of up to 20,000 tons of Arabusta hybrid coffee when approved material becomes available. It is of interest that, while the average level of coffee production in Ivory Coast is between 250-350 kg per hectare per annum, in experimental plant- ings with fertilized, clonal material the IFCC has achieved levels of 1,800-2,800 kg per hectare, so that there is ample potential for increas- ing production should it ever be necessary.

10.04 Maintenance at present production levels can be done in two ways. By the establishment of a smaller area of new plantations using selected clonal material, or by the regeneration (Scepage) of existing old stands with declining yields. The fonner would involve smaller areas and lower maintenance costs, and facilitate the diffusion of improved cultural techniques, while the latter has the advantage of being possible at a lower cost and with a rapid increase in yields within two to three years. How- ever, regeneration is only recanmended for coffee of between 8-20 years old in reasonably good condition and with a stand of at least 1,000 plants per hectare.

10.05 In the establishment of new coffee stands, upland rice and maize are recommended as intercrops in the first year after planting; they can also be grown as a pre-crop before establishment of the coffee with advantages in terms of land clearing, weed control and subsequent ease of establishment of the coffee. Yams can also be grown among the trees, pro- vided that care is taken with spacing and that recumbent varieties are used rather than climbing varieties. Upland rice and maize are recomnded for the second year of planting, with groundnuts for the third and final year of intercropping. After this period the coffee must be grown as a monoculture.

10.06 Bananas are an important traditional crop in the coffee areas, but are liable to be planted too densely and so shade the coffee to an excessive degree. Where fanners demand to grow bananas, SATMACI recomnend that the coffee be initially planted at 5.5 mters hedge spacing, with the banana planted midway in the inter-rows, at 2.75 meters from the coffee. After harvest the bananas must be cut out and replaced with new coffee plants, so that the final coffee stand is in lines spaced at 2.75 mters. Cocoyams and cassava are proscribed crops in these develo~anentareas because of the competition they may offer. 10.07 When carrying out the alternative policy of regeneration of an old coffee planting, a careful procedure m~~tbe followed. In the first place, all stems are remved except one or two that can provide a small crop during the first year after cutting back. Young shoots spring from the base of this stem, with five or six of the most vigorous being re- tained to form the new bush. All other shade trees are removed and weed growth developing in the cleared conditions, particularly grasses, nut be regularly controlled or othelwise this would check the new coffee growth. To assist in this process, fanners are encouraged to grow one crop of maize or rice in the inter-row areas, and to apply fertilizer to the coffee. 10.08 In the first year of regeneration, a small crop of coffee can be taken from the parent stem, and in the following year an initial yield of 300-500 kg/ha of beans can be expected from the new shoots, production doubling in the following year. In order to lessen the ef- fect on the fanner's income, it is recomnded that this process of rege- neration be carried out in two stages, with only half his farm being out of production at any one time. lO.09 Systems of planting for the different crops have been detailed (74). Unfortunately, none were seen in the field, but it is believed that in implementing their policies SA'IMACI found the traditional dual respon- sibility for work between man and woman an obstacle. One further point of interest is that SA'IMACI has no hand in marketing of any surplus food crops, this all being left to traditional channels ; these may need support if ever food cropping becomes important. C. Cocoa

10.10 Ivory Coast has been a producer of cocoa since the early 19001s, and current plans aim at an increase from present production of 300,000 tons per mum to 500,000 tons. To assist in the program the IFCC is establish- ing 165 hectares of cocoa seed gardens around the country, using rooted cuttings of selected clones for the purpose.

10 .ll Traditi,onally, cocoa has been grown together with cocoyams and bananas on a permanent basis, but the ideal conditions as laid down by IFCC define the following priorities : i. Clean clearing of forest (to eliminate tall, persistent shade) . ii. Allow natural regeneration of secondary growth (1-2 years). iii. Plant cocoa. iv. At two years after planting comnce selectively to thin out the shade plants. v. Maintain control of Earias, mirids and capsids using insecticides. vi. Maintain good ground conditions.

vii. As a last priority, apply fertilizers. 10.12 The low priority given to fertilizers may seem surprising in view of the fact that increases in yield of over 100%due to fertilizers have been recorded (71). However, such responses are keyed to the degree of shade present, and with the average level of smallholder maintenance shade is likely to be too dense for economic responses to fertilizers to appear. Currently the average level of smallholder yields is around 600 kg/ha; if ever yields were to approach 1,500 kg/ha due to good manage- ment, including the remval of shade, then the use of fertilizers would be reconsidered. 10.13 SATMACI, the extension body, has taken an initiative in trying to introduce cash cropping in cocoa, planting a pre-crop of rice, maize or yams after clearing, then establishing plantains at 3 x 5 m spacing. As these become established (with plantings scheduled according to the seasonal rains), the cocoa is planted as polybag seedlings along the plantain rows, together with yams planted at approximately 8 m spacing on the inter line. By the second and third years, the bananas will have been harvested and are cut out to leave monoculture cocoa. Systems of planting are given in Chapter 111. D. Rubber

10.14 Ivory Coast has only a short history of rubber planting. First plantings were in 1954 and presently som 30,000 hectares exist, practically all estate planting, with half in tapping. There are only 100 hectares of smallholding plantings , the earliest established in 1968/70, so there is no real tradition of rubber cultivation within the small farmer sector.

10.15 The scene is dominated by three big corporations: SAPH - 65% Govemt, 35% private, that controls more than half the acreage. CCP - a private company with som 4,000 hectares in tapping. SOGB - with a total area of 13,500 hectares, managed by Miche1i.n. Re IBRD is supporting a new development at Be'tie' under the SAPH group, in which 200 hectares are to be planted in 1980, rising to a total of 1,500 hectares of smallholdings and 1,500 hectares of nucleus estates by 1983. This reflects Government policy in encouraging smallholder production of rubber by associating plantings with nucleus estates. 10.16 General policy in the smallholding sector is to clean clear forests by hand, then plant budded stmps of GT1, PB5/51 and Ams 2037. Fertilizer is used and, on the estates, a policy of using pure leguminous ground covers is followed. Ri ido orus li osus root disease is an important problem, and IRCA have found-3- at certain c ones, PR261, PR251 and PR255 cannot be grown because of heavy attack by Gloeos rim and Helminthosporium leaf diseases. They have also found that dsare enhanced when cassava is grown as an intercrop between the rubber. 10.17 In the estate sector, IRCA has encouraged the use of S/2.d/4.d/3 tapping systems with three applications of 2.5% Ethrel in the first year. With this system GTl is giving 600 kg per hectare in the first year of tapping. After five to six years, four applications of Ethrel are given, the object being to save labor by making tapping more effective rather than to maximize yields. Polybag latex collection is being experimented with, again in order to save labor, but there is a problem in tern of rubber qua1i ty . 10.18 In the smallholding sector, SAPH have experienced great trouble in implementing the policy of innoculture with pure leguminous ~ creeping covers. Around Anguededou the farmers, who may come from a diversity of background, prefer-to plant a variety of food crops in the inter-row areas, including yarns, tomatoes, aubergines , sugar cane, maize and cassava. This results in a variety of problems. In one holding, for instance, Pueraria has been smn in a tieht circle round the rubber stum~s.with the inter- rows dented to cash ;rops. Eventually the Pueraria kiil have to be cut out or it will smother the rubber. 10.19 These holdings are sited on a very sandy loam, prone to drought, and soil had been munded up round the young plants in an effort to enhance water catchment. In one or two places the necessary work had caused root damage, and it may be preferable instead to leave the soil undisturbed but mulched around the young plants with material from the inter-rows. Pos- sibly because of the dry weather the young rubber showed signs of severe nitrogen deficiency, but it seemed likely that plants will recover with the onset of the rains, as adjacent plantings some eighteen months of age showed good growth and healthy leaf color. 10.20 In these holdings leaf disease was common and in mycases the buddings had failed and seedling root stock shoots allowed to develop. 10.21 Obviously, under such circumstances, the extension staff of SAPH have a difficult task, and it would seem advisable for them to con- centrate on the following priority items: i . Establish good nurseries. ii. Ensure that only stumps from well -grown and vigorous plants are issued to the smallholders and that these are planted at the commencement of a rainy period. iii. these plants as soon as possible. iv. lk not insist on pure leguminous creeping covers, but maintain good weed control (E atorium odoratum and LI erata cylindrica are prob-if the iamr Insists on lntercropping make sure that competition with the rubber is minimized by keeping crops to the center of the inter-row areas. If possible, fertilizers should be applied to both rubber and intercrops. v. Maintain frequent rounds of root disease inspection, so as to minimize losses. 10.22 There appeared to be a need for more infoxmation on fertilizer require~nentsin the sandy soil areas. On the one hand, fertilizers were not being applied in the early stages of the stump plantings, for fear of before root development had occurred. On the other hand, in a mature planting of perhaps nine years old, fertilizers were not to be applied until, it was said, a foliar diagnosis had been carried out. A clarification of these issules by IRCA would seem necessary, but in view of the poor soil conditions, and competition from cash crops, a regular fertilizer program would seem essential.

10.23 Some limited work has been commenced on intercropping by IRCA over the last five years (73) and this is summarized in Table 26. The object of this work was to throw light on problems concerned with inter- cropping, rather than resolve those problems, and general conclusions were as follows: Yams, cassava and bananas can give satisfactory yields but the time and site of planting r~tbe adjusted care- fully to minimize competition with the mbber. bbreover, cassava may present a hazard by favoring Helminthosporium and Gloeos orim leaf diseases and by acting as a host for Rigi&osus root disease.

ii. Maize, rice and groundnuts proved less robust than the ' former crops, with yields being variable and particularly low when grown in a second season. Insects and fungal attacks were serious and IRCA recognize the need to use crop varieties according to a particular season. 10.24 IRCA hope to continue with this work, and in particular to carry out trials on famr sites. 10.25 It would seem at this stage in rubber that a simple but fin extension message should be given to the small farmer, permitting food cropping on traditional lines, but ensuring the satisfactory establishrrrent of good planting material. As this material comes into bearing, it can be hoped that the resulting cash incomes will encourage the farmers to maintain their plantings in good conditions, and also encourage other famrs to take up the crop as a more specialized operation.

E. Oil Palm and Coconut i0.26 Little was seen of the oil palm and coconut industries in Ivory Coast, but it seems they are largely grown in mcmoculture, with 100,000 ha and 30,000 ha of plantations respectively. Technical support for the crops comes from IRHO with SOIJEPALM acting as the extension agent and PALMINWSTRIE (a public company) buying, collecting and processing the cmp. 10.27 The policy of monoculture has been supported strongly in the past by IRHO, with particular respect to Ivory Coast, in that the country had no shortage of land and hence no need to maximize production per unit area. Consequently, official policy has been to demonstrate the value of monoculture cropping to the small famr and this has been achieved. Never- theless, trials by IRHO in Ivory Coast, Zaire, Benin and Nigeria have all demnstrated that, when properly carried out, intercropping can be done safely in both oil palm and coconut. Perhaps this may yet be achieved by SODEPALM in cooperation with the small planters who would like to inter- crop. 10.28 One warning note is, however, stressed by the fact that in the central areas of Ivory Coast a coconut virus disease is said to be transmitted by a vector with grass as an alternative host -- a warning that weed control will be important when intercropping is carried out. 10.29 In the coconut area around Port Bouet, one coconut planting was seen on poor sandy soil that supports a thin stand of indigenous grass- es. A flock of close-haired sheep was being successfully grazed in this planting, using electric fencing to rotate ten sheep per hectare daily in a six-week cycle. The sheep looked well, but it was not possible to obtain details on the economics of the system. PMNDUSTFUE are doing similar work with cattle under oil palm, but general experience indicates that at normal planting density grass production will be low, incapable of supporting more than 0.3 head/ha, and that profitability will be low. 10.30 IRHO at Port Bouet were, of course, responsible for the initial production of the Malaysian Dwarf x West African Tall hybrids MA). These varieties were first produced in 1962 and the first com- mercial plantings were in 1969, since when they have been planted in many countries. 10.31. Present considerations are that these hybrid coconuts are optimally spaced at 8.5 meters triangular, as compared with 9 meters tri- angular for the local palms, and will normally yield around three to four tons per hectare of copra per annum, or up to four to six tons per hectare under very good conditions, compared with the two to three tons maximum that can be expected with local tall coconuts under best conditions. 10.32 The new hybrids come into yieldinn at five years after plant- ing compared with sevkn years for locai talls; and in the opinion 0% IRHO will have an economic life of thirtv vears com~aredwith the fiftv to sixty years for the older material.' k with high-yielding rubbe;, this should lend a long-term flexibility to plantation cropping patterns.

10.33 Spacing trials have commenced with the WAhybrids but it is too early to quote yields.

10 .34 The IRHO is now comencing field trials in coconuts inter- planted with cocoa, and in one series is growing the coconut in double rows with three rows of cocoa planted between, the object being to develop eventually a labor-saving method of nut harvesting by running a tractor and trailer between the two rows of coconuts. 10.35 In the oil palm industry, theoretical yields range from 12 tons ffb/ha in the Anguededou area to 18 tonslha in the South-West, where there is no rainfall deficit. However, current estimates for the estate sector are for yields of 11 tonslha and for the smallholder sector not more than 7 tons/ha.

XI. NOTES ON A VISIT TO NIGERIA (September 13-26, 1979)

Introduction 11.01 Of Nigeria's 90,000,000 population, some 80%depend for their living on the land. There is, however, a movement of ~eoplefrom the land to the city, prompted both by employmnt opportunities offered particularly by the construction industries, and by the low level of rural amenities such as education, light and water. This is leading to a steady rise in the age of the Nigerian fanner. 11.02 In the southern tree cropping belt of the humid tropics, attention was fomrly concentrated on the export crops of coffee, cocoa and oil palm, but the Sahel drought of the early 1970's checked the pro- duction of groundnuts, and resulted in cessation of oil palm exports, with production being taken up entirely for local use as food. Additionally, experience in the Nigerian civil war highlighted the need for local self- sufficiency, and while developments are in hand to restore the traditional role of the north as food exporters to the south, increased attention is being paid to the traditional tree, bush and annual food crops of the Nigerian "compound farmt'.

11.03 On this tour most time was taken up with visits to research institutes and other organizations, but when driving from Lagos to Ibadan, then on to Benin City and the Calabar, a good cross-section of agriculture was seen. (31 the Lagos to Ibadan stretch, the scene is typified by ex- tensively famed areas of secondary bush associated with low grade mixed farms dominated by old, native oil palm, kola, plantains and a scattering of cocoyams, yams and cassava, with cocoa becomg important towards Ibadan. 11.04 From Ibadan to Benin City the agriculture consists of compound fam with cocoa a dominant element, supplemented by oil palm, kola, citrus, plantain, cassava, yams, cocoyams and maize. From Benin City onwards, as the road passes through progressively poorer and more sandy soils, parti- cularly after Onitsha and Mrri, the agriculture becomes very degraded. High forest is almost completely cleared and replaced by an impoverished association of oil palm with an under-storey of cassava or bush fallow, with Raphia palm conspicuous in the lower lying areas, all of low produc- tivity. Towards Calabar the soil becomes richer and supports good forest and plantings of Gnelina arborea and rubber. 11.05 In visits to official bodies, a remarkable convergence of thought towards the value of multiple cropping became apparent. Faced by shortages of land, food and labor, Forestry Departments and comrcial com- modity plantation companies are thinking towards tree and food crop inte- gration, either in mixed or side-by-side association. Those concerned with cocoa and oil palm are accepting the need for intercropping, in the early years at least, while Research Institutes, the Universities and Departments of Agriculture are working to restore interest in the traditional food tree crops of Nigeria. In background support work, minimum tillage techniques suitable for the small fanner are being developed that will eliminate the danger of soil erosion inherent in multiple cropping. 11.06 One of the most formative contributions to this debate can be found in a paper by J.B. Ball of the W/FM Forest Development Project, Ibadan (76). B. Taungya in Southern Nigeria 11.07 Taungya is the system employed in many tropical countries where labor employed in forestation is permitted to cultivate food crops in between the tree crop rows, during the early years of establishment. In return for this facility, the labor keep the plantation clear of weeds and tend the young trees. In his paper describing the system in Nigeria, Ball collates a great deal of useful information of general reference to the Nigerian agricultural scene. 11 .08 For instance, the age structure of the fanning community is unbalanced and reflects the lack of interest in farming by young people (Table 27) .

Table 2 7 : ESTIMATE OF THE AGE STRUm OF NIGERIA'S FARMERS

& Under 20 21-30 31-40 Over 40 1. Taungya farmers % 1 15 2 3 61

Age 15-24 25-34 35-44 45-54 Over 55 2. Fanners in Western State % 2 17 29 2 2 30

Age Under 25 ----26-35 36-45 46-55 56-65 Over 65 3. Farmers in East~ - - Central State % 3 2 0 2 7 2 3 19 8

Sources: 1. FA0 Forestry Development Project questionnaire. 2. Report of an Agricultural Survey in Western State of Nigeria, Ministry of Economic Planning and Reconstruction, Ibadan. 3. Cassava Benchmark Survey, East-Central State, 1975, Economics Section, IITA, Ibadan.

11.09 Food crops in taungya. The main crops in order of importance in each State are sham in Table 28 below. Table 2 8 : CROPS IN ORIER OF MAGVITUDE BY AREA, GROW IN PRIVATE TAUNGYA IN SOUTHERN NIGERIA

State Crops hambra Yams, cassava, maize, rice. Bendel Yams, maize, cassava, rice, plantains, vegetables, cocoyams , beans.

Cross River Cassava, maize, yams, cocoyams, plantains, vegetables, guinea corn, groundnuts. Imo Yams, cassava, maize, rice.

Kwara Yams, maize, cassava, rice, vegetables, guinea corn.

OW Cassava, yams, maize, vegetables, rice. Ondo Yams, cassava, maize, plantains, vegetables.

Oy0 Maize, yams, vegetables, cassava.

11.10 Yams, maize and vegetables, which make the greatest demands on soil fertility, are grown first, followed by cassava. A second crop of maize may be grown, but it is low-yielding and is generally used for seed the following year. 11.11 In Deparlmental taungya (where any food crops produced are the property of the Forest Department, with settlers being paid for their work), the only two crops grown are maize and cassava. In Cross River State, two crops of maize may be grown, the second being for seed.

11.12 In the past it was forbidden to grow certain crops, such as cocoa, rubber, plantains, etc. because they were permanent and semi- permanent crops which competed with the forestcrop and could lead to the alienation of the forest reserve if they grew for long enough to establish some sort of rights. Crops such as rice or guinea corn were banned because they are aggressive root competitors and tobacco was banned probably because of root eelwonn. Cassava could only be grown if it was the erect and not the spreading variety, but when taungya started in Bendel State forty years ago it was banned completely. These rules have now been considerably relaxed. Plantains may be grown in Ogun, Ondo and Oyo States as boundary markers and in Bendel State throughout the plot. Rice and guinea corn are raised in Bendel, Kwara and the Eastern States. 11.13 The estimated yields of three crops under the two different systems are given in Table 29.

Table 29: ESTIMATED YIELDS OF AGRICULTURAL CROPS FROM TRADITIONAL AND DEPARTMENIAL TAUNGYA IN SOU?HERN NIGERIA (kg/ha crop) L/

Traditional Depamntal ------ng/ha)------

Maize (shelled and dried) 1,200 Cassava (wet) 15,000 Yams (fresh, net of seed yams) 8,000

-1/ These figures refer to well-tended crops, planted and harvested at the optimum tim, and grown &ring a year in which there are no clirnatic extremes.

11.14 Ball quoted the net establishment costs of plantations to the Forest Departments as follows: i. "Departmntal taungya" costs the Department N117per hectare over the two-year establishment period of the tree crop. ii. "Traditional taungya" (where the food crop belongs to the fanner) costs N212.5 per hectare. iii. Direct planting (where no food crops are grown) costs N525 per hectare. 11.15 The system is, therefore, beneficial to the Department, and also to the fanner, judging by the demand for taungya licenses. However, with rising costs there is a need to improve the efficiency of food production, and one serious problem to be overcome is the lack of recruitment of young people. Taungya famrs were asked in a suvey why they thought this was. The most frequent reason given was that too much hard, physical work was involved, 75% of the respondents giving this as the most important reason, followed by too little cash reward (16%), that ymg people are unsuited to taungya fanning because of their education (7%), and that there are no amenities in the villages (2%).

11.16 The famrs were, therefore, also asked what their State Forest Department could do for them to improve their lot. The answers were ranked as follows, in order of priority: i. Credit facilities. ii. Fell large trees on fann.

iii. Do all of the land clearing. iv. Provide amenities such as piped water in their villages. v. Improve rural mads.

vi. Assist with storage of crops. vii. Assist with marketing of crops. viii . Provide agricultural extension facilities.

The order of highest and lowest priorities was clear cut -- 84% of the farmers gave (i) as their first priority and 78% gave (ii) or (iii) as their second. At the other end of the scale, 40% gave (viii) as their lowest priority and 31% gave (vii) . Between the extremes the priorities were less distinct. 11.17 Ball suggests ways in which these requests can be mt with mutual benefit, but in the face of increasing pressure on the land can only see a more fully integrated agri-silviculture as providing a satisfactory system for the future. 11.18 He envisages a system that will provide high and sustained yields of forest and agricultural products, a satisfactory standard of living from permanent employment for people in rural areas, and which will fully utilize all categories of land, both inside and outside Reserves. At first, such a systern would have to be introduced within Forest Reserves because of problems of land tenure elsewhere and also to be able to enforce the new methods proposed. hce the farmers were convinced, however, it might be expected that the new nrethods would quickly spread outside the Reserves. 11.19 The proposed system would be based on villages providing amenities such as piped water, electricity, a dispensary, a school ,good access roads, etc. Existing villages on the edge of the Reserves could be @roved, and this method would result in fewer social problems. Where new villages were planned within the Reserves, then the selection of their inhabitants might have to take account of place of origin and age. The diagram in Figure 1 shows the way in which land around a forest village might be allocated between small farmers and the Forest Authority. Small plots for the villagers would be clustered within walking distance of the village. The produce from these would be minly to supply the family, although the more hard-working farmers would naturally raise some crops for sale. These smallholdings would be farmed intensively for two years, followed by an eight-year pulpwood tree rotation. The tree crop would, on present knowledge, be Clrnelina arborea, but alternative species will amost certainly be developed--g would have to be practised to conserve organic mtter, because the tree ~ulpvoodrotation Village

Tha &wan represents a forest viIbga wit)l private agcicultual plots nearby, which are subsequently plantad with an 8 year pulpwood crop ond large scalr agrictrlturo unkr the cdro\ of tkforest Oapartrnant furthu away from the village, foHowrd by a 15 year aawtimber is probably rather short to restore fertility fully. Beyond the smallholdings , large- scale agriculture would be practised by the controlling authority or even by licensed agricultural companies. Some mechanization would be necessary.

11.20 The land around the village would be classified on the basis of its ability to sustain yields of agricultural or forestry crops or both. The wetter soils of valley bottoms could be under permanent agricultural crops of rice or vegetables. Steep slopes and catchment areas would be re- tained under natural forest which would serve also as a source of tradi- tional products, including mat. Land on slightly sloping sites with deep soils could be cultivated by mechanical means with short fallow periods. Shallow soils on mderate slopes, the bulk of the sites derived fmBase- ment Complex rocks in the high forest zone, would have forest plantation crops with short rotations. Soils derived from sedimentary rocks tend to be on level sites, but are unsuitable for mechanized agriculture; they are sandy, infertile and of low misture holding capacity, and would be suitable for forest plantations with short agricultural cropping periods.

C. Industrial Plantations and Food Cro~~ine

11.21 Ball's suggestions in respect of forestry are similar in some respects to development being considered at Cross River Estates Ltd. (CREL), Calabar. CREL is a rubber estate with 6,000 planted hectares that is con- templating a large development program, but is hampered by a shortage of labor. Labor is not readily available from local villages, but must be hired from mainland Cross River State, where there is over-population and a shortage of land. 11.22 To attract this labor, and hold it in the face of urban attractions in Calabar City, it has been suggested that the estate should set aside suitable land in its reserve areas for the establishment of villages patterned on the traditional compound fann. These villages would have their own integrated perennial and ma'food cropping areas set alongside the rubber that would be grown in monoculture. It is hoped that in this way a mutudlly beneficial situation would be created; the estate would have labor for its plantation operations; the labor force would have a s teady cash income, supplemented by their own food supply plus a local stake in the land (subject to satisfactory performance on the estate) ; and the State would benefit by a redistribution of population (some 30,000 people would be involved) and enhanced food production. 11.23 It is expected that the presence of the estate organization would encourage the development of improved cropping practices on the fanns, including ~e supply of selected planting material, and that this would eventually spill over into the outlying villages. In due course these villages might be drawn in as outgrowers, supplying rubber and oil palm produce to the estate. 11.24 This situation has close similarities to the FELCRA schem in Malaysia, the estate/smallholder association in North Sumatra, and the outgrower projects in Camemon. It is particularly appropriate to Nigeria, in that with land acquired by estates or forest authorities from local clans for tree crop production, the allocation of small plots for food cropping by outsiders may be the means of overcoming traditional land tenure rights problems that have so far obstructed development and popu- lation movement. Annual food cropping by estate labor is already well established, but permission to extend this cropping to fwd trees such as oil palm, kola, citrus, breadfruit and others would be evidence to the farmer of a long-term commitmnt on the part of the estate to his wel- fare (75) .

D. Oil Palm

11.25 The bulk of plantation oil palm is grown in monoculture, yet in Africa the native oil palm is an important constituent of the "compoundt1 farm. It provides a basic foodstuff for the population, and will need to be incorporated in any mixed cropping development in the area. 11.26 It was not possible in the time available to see any field work, but early trials carried out at the Nigerian Institute for Oil Palm Research (NIFOR) have shown that, on the better soils, intercropping of oil palm with food crops may be possible, and even advantageous, and have given an insight into the agronomic complexities that can be involved. 11.27 Sparnaaij (89) has described how in one major experiment inter- cropping for as long as possible with mixed yams, maize and cassava followed by cocoyams as the palm shade developed (similar conditions to the "compound fantt) gave a net increase in yield of palm fruit, as well as significant production of the food crops (Tables 30 and 31). Intercropping stimulated growth in the early years after planting, and thereafter gave increased fruit bunch production over a period of 12 years of harvesting. U.28 Sparnaaij concluded that intercropping may have a lastingly favorable effect on yield through a slight reduction in soil fertility, which increases the percentage of female inflorescences, particularly during the wet season, when assimilation is a limiting factor. He also suggested that the duration of this favorable effect will depend on the initial fertility of the site. 11.29 This fact has been demonstrated very clearly by another experi- ment carried out on a degraded soil at Nkwele in Eastern Nigeria. Here again, continuous intercmpping with yams and cocoyams was included as one treatmnt , with household waste and other fertilizer material including incinerator ash, applied in the second, fifth and seventh years after plant- ing. In the first three years of production (1948/50), the continuously intercropped plots yielded twice as much as the control plots, but the effect was not lasting (Table 32). While the yield of the control plots continued to rise slowly, that for the intercropped treatment declined. In the years 1951/53, the yields of the continuously cropped plots were no longer above those of the control and in the later years they dropped even further. It would seem that the small nutrient reserves in the soil and the original vegetation, which were released by the clearing and cultivation for arable cropping, were quickly exhausted. As a result, soil fertility dropped to such a low level that the intercropped pdlms, although much taller and better developed than the controlled palms, could not maintain their yields. 11.30 Since these experiments were carried out, work has revealed a major requirement for potash on the soils concerned, and the effects described above may have been magnified by a particularly adverse N/K ratio in the control plots with inter-row areas covered by leguminous creepers that would depress yields. However, further work in Nigeria has confirmd the stimulating effect of intercropping on yield, with some indication that it may be the result of the cultivation involved (89). Most recently, intercropping has been noted as giving much better palm growth than when the latter is subject to competition by the invasive Eupatorium odoratum. The general conclusion must be that under small- holding development conditions at least the practice of intercropping with food crops in the early years of establishment is beneficial. On the poorer soils, however, particular care will need to be taken to maintain adequate fertilizer schedules, and there is a need for more study of the nutritional interaction between main and subsidiary crops. U.31 NIFOR has carried out work on the mixed planting of coffee and cocoa with oil palm (83). Experiment 910-4 in Sierra Leone indicates that both crops yielded best when grown in pure stand, but the highest yield of total produce, derived from the combined mean yield per acre for both crops, came from interplanted treatments (Table 33). Obviously, decisions on such mixes must be based on economic as well as technical grounds, but it is worth noting Egger's (91) comnent that the wide front spread of oil palm concentrates rain water on luwer trees, making them more susceptible to fimgal attack.

E. Cocoa 11.32 In discussion with the Cocoa Research Institute, Gambari, it was agreed that local requirements for food, and the traditional part played by women on the farm, make multiple cropping an essential feature of Nigerian agriculture. Som 1,000,000 hectares of the existing cocoa are grown on what effectively are "compound farms", with oil paln, fruit trees and cocoyams scattered through the cocoa area, and other food plants concentrated around the house lot. In rehabilitation of a cocoa area not judged sufficiently poor to be replanted, the planting is cleared of excess shade, sprayed against insect pests and manured. After ten years it is then scheduled for replanting. 11.33 At replanting, the area is clean cleared and planted with cocoa at 10' x 10' giving 1,100 plants/ha, with shading provided by 1,000 plantains per hectare. Similar conditions apply when new planting in cleared forest; in partly cleared forest only 200 plantains per hectare may be required to provide supplementary shade. Yams , cocoyams , maize and cassava are likely to be planted at the same time, independently, by the smallholder, but these will be shaded out as the cocoa canopy closes over. 11 .34 Ball (76) quotes experiences in Cross River and Bendel State growing cocoa under a variety of plantation trees. Experience indicates that with good management satisfactory cocoa yields can be obtained and a variety of timber products obtained for market. It is estimated that if Terminalia ivorensis were gmfor light shade on the present area of cocoa and on a 2s-year rotation, the cocoa fanns could produce 1.3 million cubic meters of peelers and saw logs per year.

F. Traditional Tree Crop Farming

11.35 The cultivation of cocoa and other bush cro~sin association with traditional tree crops is the core of Nigerian agriculture in the tropical tree belt zone. The subject is one of great complexity, involv- ing many score tree, bush and ground storey species, eachwith its own eco- logical, economic and dietary contribution, often coupled with aesthetic, social and religious significance (see Qlapter IV) . 11.36 The subject has become prominent since the Nigerian civil war, when tree crops were abandoned and destroyed on a large scale, and when it became apparent that their replacement relying on natural regeneration would be slow and uncertain. The situation has been compounded by post-war rural development, where road construction, new industries and the establish- ment of mono-specific plantations has led to the destruction of natural forests together with the fruit species contained therein. 11.37 Today, the Indigenous Fruit Trees Project of the Forestry Com- mission, Anambra State, is one of the official projects under the current Third National Developmnt Plan, 1975-1980. A number of bodies are con- tributing to the program, among them the NSTIIA, the Department of Forest Resources Management, lhiversity of Ibadan and the Forestry Commission of Enugu, Anambra State. In support of this applied work, IITA is establish- ing a trial studying tree, shrub and foodcrop intercropping systems together with evaluation nurseries involving the more important and useful tree species.

11.38 The Fanning Systems Program of IITA also involves work on the subject, and one important contribution has been a paper by Lagemann et al. (81) on "Root Crop/Oil Palm Farming Systems: A Case Study from Eastem- Nigeria". This gives considerable detail on the background to the tradi- tional farm, and is essential reading to an understanding of the subject. Further important papers are those by Johnson and Johnson (70) and Okigbo (88) . 11.39 In particular, Okafor (84,85,86) has a fruit tree propagation program in hand at Enugu, and has developed suitable budding techniqws for some important indigenous fruit trees including 1n-h ia abonensis (African man o , Treculia africana (African breadfm&tbacro h lla &?xn 011 beanmoh llm albidum (star apple) . Budde* trees o the first two have pro-3YZ- uce n lefruits in three and a half and four years respectively, and there is an upward trend in demand for these plants. In the case of the fomr, demand in 1977 far outstripped supplies -- another example of the response that famrs can show towards anything of significant advantage to them.

11.40 The author did not have time to consider this program in any depth. However, in view of its direct application to the traditional farming systems of Nigeria, and its importance both economically and ecologically, hg feels that it deserves major support. At present, fmds for research come from a number of bodies, but to achieve a major impact in the shorter term, increased support will be required.

G. Integrated Farming Systems Involving Mulching and Zero Tillage Techniques 11.41' If we consider the increasing shortages of labor on the land, and the fact that many developmnt schemes must be sited on marginal soil areas, the small fanner involved in comnodity plantation or forestry operations will need to use efficient and soil conserving methods for production of his food crops. In this respect, the zero tillage and hit ~afiwork being carried out at IITA will repay attention. 11.42 The work of Wijewardene and his colleaps on mulch tillage and zero tillage systems (90) has demonstrated clearly the great advantage of these techniques for food production in the humid tropics. Properly used, they can eliminate soil erosion, increase crop yields and also the area a man can cultivate and his income. More work is required to develop methods of weed control that the small famr can use without skilled advice, and a detailed assessment of the econcnnics of the new systems is required in order to determine how quickly they are likely to move into field practice. 11.43 The Unit Farm that the Institute is studvinn can be directly related to the integrated farm/plantation operation.' 1; the latter, the farm optimally will be sited in an area that offers opportunity for culti- vation of hydromrphic valley bottoms with rice and Ghia pal., etc . , together with uplands where yams, cocoyams, plantains, malze and other crops can be grown, with tree crops sited on the highest slopes (akin to the model proposed by Ball). Work by IITA shows an almost doubling of in- come under these conditions using improved practices and zero tillage techniques (78). 11.44 Whether the zero tillage techniques can be utilized for inter- cropping between the rows of a tree crop has not yet been tested, but this is certainly an opportunity that should be explored. Both small and large- scale equipment is available, and well-proven techniques exist for maize and soya bean. Further work on minimum tillage techniques for food crops is being carried out at CATIE in Costa Rica, and the whole subject is reviewed currently in a monograph being published by the Weed Science Society of America. XII. NDES ON A VISIT TO ?HE UNITED REPUBLIC OF CAMEROON (Se~tember2 7-October 2. 19791

A. Introduction 12.01 This visit provided an opportunity to see three large State-owned plantation developmnt agencies, and compare their situations and policies. CAMDEV, with 14,000 hectares of rubber and 16,000 hectares of oil palm, and SOCAPALM, with some 9,000 hectares of oil palm, are sited in a developed and well-populated area in the west, around Victoria and Douala. HEVECAM, with 4,200 hectares of imnature rubber, is located near Kribi, in the undeveloped south-westem region of Cameroon.

12 .02 Both CAMaEV and SOCAPAM are developing outgmwers' programs, but HEVECAM is still in the establishment phase and so not involved in such activity. All face problems of local shortages of labor and food, and their different responses to this situation are relevant to rural development problems in general.

12 .03 CAWis an estate complex run on traditional lines. Both rubber and oil palm are grown in monoculture with leguminous creeping covers in the inter-row areas. Similar policies will be conducted in the outgmwer program when this becomes established.

12.04 With the attractions of Douala at near hand, the Corporation has difficulty in maintaining a satisfactory labor force, and to improve this situation estate accomodation is being upgraded and land set aside o provide fwd, or "chop" farms for the labor. Each plot will be 25 mI and labor will be supplied with planting material. An additional area is also being set aside for production by the estate of yams, cocoyams and plantains for sale to the labor, on credit.

12.05 Some traditional fwd fam in the Victoria area were inspected. The soils were of volcanic origin, deep and fertile, and were supporting a diversity of crops : groundnuts, maize, cassava, yams, cocoyams and plantains, with a minor tree component.

12.06 Ch the estate itself, 80 ha of pepper have been established, in monoculture, taking advantage of the good soil conditions. In Asia, pepper would form a valued item in the smallholder's cropping pattern, and although there appeared to be no tradition of such cultivation in the fam that were seen, this could be a useful innovation for the area. 12.07 SOCAPALM produces only oil palm. It maintains a policy of mono- culture using leguminous creeping ground cover plants. 12.08 SOGWALM has had an outgrower program for two years now, but with a target area of 1,200 ha by 1980, progress has been somewhat slow (Table 34) .

Table 34: SOCAPALM OUTGROWER PWGRAM, 1977/79

Location Year No. of outgrowers Area planted enrolled (hectares)

Dibombari 1977/78 36 (financed by FED) 1978/79 71 Ese ka

Edea 1978/79 4 8

Total

12.09 In developing this outgrowerst program, the smallholder section of SOCAPALM is meeting a number of problems. They are finding difficulty in enrolling adequate numbers of outgrowers to meet their schedule within the designated 25 km of the palm factory; potential outgrowers are wary of growing cultivated, as compared with wild, palm and would like to wait on the results obtained by neighbors before committing themselves; cultivation by villages of other cash crops such as cocoa reduces their enthusiasm for the oil palm. hreover, the average age of local smallholders is increasing, and this is a disincentive to the adoption of new ideas as well as of addi- tional areas to be cultivated.

12.10 A further major problem has been the policy of proscribing inter- cropping with food crops in the early years of oil palm establishment. This policy has two main adverse effects: the outgrower must cultivate a greater total area to support both mnoculture oil palm and his traditional food crops, and this can exceed his physical resources. Also, the policy dis- places his wife from her accustomed role of food cropping in between the main crop; cases were quoted of groundnuts and cassava planted by the wife having to be destroyed in order to gain approval by the Scheme's inspectors.

12 .ll Furthemre, in those smallholdings inspected the sown legminous covers have not succeeded, but have becom dominated by aggressive stands of grass and other weeds as in SOCP9ALM's main plantings. Villagers have queried the value of sowing Pueraria seed at 350 CFAF per kilogram and 2,100-3,500 CFAF per hectare in place of established food cmps. A compromise solution has been offered by the smallholder section of SOCAPALM, to the effect that culti- vation of Bambara gromdnuts, groundnuts, cowpea, yams, pineapple and maize, but not cassava, plantains or cocoyams, should be permitted in the inter-row areas, provided that they are restricted to a three meter wide band between the palm rows, and that fertilizer is applied to both oil palm and food crop.

12.12 It is unfortunate that in the Edea area at least the problem is compounded by the fact that many of the village outgrowers are sited on very sandy and erosion-susceptible soils. The poverty of these soils is confirmed by the presence of L co dium fern and other species indicative of low ferti- lity, and one cannot+ e optimistic over the production potential of these P*. 12.13 ?he Nigerian work and eqerience would suggest that on the better soils outgrowers could be permitted to intercrop with cassava, mize, yams, cocoyams and other traditional food cmps for as long as the shade permits. Cn the poorer soils, a suitable policy would be to encourage the development of mixed species farms, possibly involving selected oil palm, but avoiding the wholesale destruction of existing vegetation. Traditional farms in the area were seen to be cultivating cassava, cocoyams, maize, groundnuts, Bambara groundnuts and melons (the latter for their seed and also their weed-smothering effect) under thin stands of oil palm, mango, cocoa, citrus, bamboo and other species. Professor Egger, of Heidelberg, has carried out a detailed study of improved cultivation techniques and erosion control in respect of the Lekie-Mbam Agricultural Development Project (91). His report, with Annexes on the work of SODECAO on eco- farming, is very relevant to this situation, giving valuable comnt on tree farming systems in West Africa, and also useful data on small famr cocoa production.

12.14 HEVECAM provides a rare example of a large monoculture develop- mnt scherne sited in virgin forest and remte from food-producing areas. It rmt attract and satisfy a large and stable labor force and develop the mans to become self-sufficient in food.

12 -15 HEVECAM1s planting program started in 1975 with 18 hectares, and with progressively increasing annual programs has now reached a total of 4,200 hectares, with a current labor force of 2,200, 80% of whom are bachelors and less than 25 years old. By 1985, it is eqected that a final planted total of 15,000 hectares will have been achieved, involving a pement labor force of 7,000 paid staff. Together with immediate dependents, some 20,000 people will be resident on the estate, and with peripheral village communities a grand total of around 30,000/40,000 people could be involved.

12.16 At present, some 5%of the labor force corns from the locality, 50% comes from west and north-west Cwroon, and 45% from the central area around Yaounde' and places to its south. The supply is inadequate. Instead, food is brought in from areas 200 lan to the north and west of the estate. ?he labor receives 500 g of rice per person per day (this being easier to prepare than yams or cassava) and some corned beef and rice, together with soya bean oil, being provided by the UNDP World Food Program during the three to four years it will take for estate food production to be established. 12.17 HEVECAM is preparing to meet this situation in a number of ways. In (the first place, land is being set aside for food production in the vicinity of staff quarters. Staff over 25 years old. as being those most likely stay on &e estate, are each being given parcels oflone-tenth hectare of land on which ta graw food. Cocoyarn planting material is being distributed, mng other crop species, and a major nursery has been establish- ed for the production of selected plantain sets. This latter program is under the supenrision of an agronomist from IFRA in France, attached to IRAF in Cameroon.

12.18 HEVECAM is also establishing a 40 hectare trial area in the 1978 clearing, in which to test the possibility of interplanting food crops in the first four years after establishing rubber, then converting to a rubber/cocoa mixed planting. Coconuts are also being experimnted with, but the presence of 'Xribi disease" is necessitating a preliminary testing program with hybrid and dwarf species in an effort to identify tolerant material.

12.19 ' The estate is then developing a very positive policy in relation to the problem it faces. The task will not be easy, for the area eqeriences a rainfall of 3,000 mrn per annum and the soils are poor, stony and susceptible to erosion. In some areas where there has been severe soil disturbance during roading operations, magnesium deficiency symptoms were apparent in the young rubber; there will be a requirement for generous and long-continued fertilizer programs for both the rubber and any food crops that may be grown. hder these conditions one cannot be optimistic over the possibility of large- scale intercropping. The present policy of mnoculture with leguminous creeping covers gmin the inter-row areas is appropriate, and areas al- located to food crops will need careful attention to produce satisfactory crops over the longer tern.

XIII. NOTES ON A VISIT TO BRAZIL (October 20-November 7, 1979)

A. Introduction

13.01 This visit had two objectives: to participate in the Bank's economic mission to the Northwest, bndonia (reported on separately), and also more generally to study tree crop systems in the humid tropical zone of Brazil as a hole. Because of the distances involved, and because of lost time due to holidays, only brief visits could be paid to the main re- search stations involved, and very little time was spent on studying local fanning patterns. Nevertheless, certain points stand out as being particular to Brazil. 13.02 Over the great bulk of its humid tropical zone, Brazilian tree crop agriculture is at a very early stage of development. Around the smaller hamesteads one sees a haphazard planting of fruit trees and palms, but this is nowhere so developed nor as general as the "compound fann" of Asia and Africa. The commodity tree crop situation is dominated by coffee and cocoa, with rubber collected from the wild, supplemented by commercial plantations totalling some 6,000 hectares. There is only one oil palm plantation of any significance, and the only other important tree crops are monoculture plant- ings of eucalyptus and pine species. Coconuts are a subsistence crop in the eastern states, with intercropping generally practised, including pasture with cattle in the older plantings. 13.03 The great zone of opportunity in the humid tropical zone is thought to lie in the Amazonian high forest. Attempts to exploit its potential have led to imnense controversy. Ecologists have stressed the need to protect the forest until sufficient knowledge has been gained to permit its rational harvesting on a self-sustaining basis (94, 103). Others have gone ahead and cleared large areas of forest with exploitation concen- trating on rice and pasturelcattle production. Expansion of the pastures is now recognized to have been overdone, with 500,000 hectares of the 2,500,000 hectares total cleared being in an advanced state of degradation and requiring rehabilitation (93) . 13.04 There are suggestions that, instead of exploiting the fragile and little-known Amazonia belt, development should be concentrated on the 50,000,000 hectares of "cerrado" available in Mato Grosso State and related areas (Goodland, Private Comication). This would seem to have consider- able merit, for conditions in these areas are better understood and less fragile than in the Amazonian region, and could support very large tree and annual crop production. 13.05 While these arguments continue, colonization schemes are under way in Rondonia and elsewhere, clearing forest and planting coffee, cocoa, rubber and associated crops. In the eastern states there are suggestions for mre extensive planting of oil palm and the introduction of hybrid coconut plantations. 13.06 This overall situation highlights several weaknesses in Brazilian agriculture. There is little detailed knowledge of the vast botanical resources of the Amazonian region and of how the different species involved may be exploited. In the comdity cropping field there is ample local knowledge on production of coffee and cocoa, but there is as yet in- sufficient local tradition and technical knowledge on which to base a rapid expansion of the rubber and oil palm industries. 13.07 In marked contrast to S.E. Asia, there has been no significant contribution by the private sector to tree crops research. DENPASA, in oil palm, and the few rubber plantation companies have been able to solve their own local, technical problems, but there has been no opportunity for this to have an impact on a national scale. There is no significant E!NBRAPA program on oil palm, but fonnal trials on rubber are being initiated at Manaus and elsewhere. EMBRAPA work on perennial crop systems at capit& POCOand other stations will have little practical effect in the field, being designed to study enviromntal effects rather than actual crop production, and presently is under reirision. 13.08 In regard to the rehabilitation of degraded pastures, the subject has not been researched for a lang period, but the Propasto program has produced some initially promising results. Adilson suggests the use of phosphatic fertilizers, together with less demanding pasture species and better grazing management (93). Alternatively, he proposes the planting of black pepper, rubber or cocoa, but on the poorer soils a more likely system of rehabilitation might involve the extensive planting of local leguminous trees and INPA at Manaus is working in this area.

13.09 As far as tree crops are concerned, the whole problem is ccm- pounded by a severe shortage Of labor on the land and by the great distances involved, attenuating what technical support may be available fmm OSe at Mmaus for rubber, from EPLAC at Itabuna for cocoa, and from the different regional EMBRAPA stations.

B. Coffee and Cocoa 13.10 Both coffee and cocoa are in general planted in monoculture, with early shade provided either by bananas or young, regenerating forest trees. Mango, cashew, avocado and citrus are planted as occasional trees. 13.11 All financing bodies are presently against the interplanting of coffee and cocoa within other perennial crops, for instance, rubber. Never- theless, because of twin motivations towards planting rubber and also to obtaining an early income, some 300 hectares of young rubber have been inter- plated with coffee and cocoa at the INCRA projects at Ouro Preto and Guajar5 btirim. 13.12 Attempts by EMBRAP.4 to investigate the agmnomy of such mixed cropping are under way at Ouro Preto, with two field trials, one involving cocoa under rubber, and the other coffee under rubber. 13.13 In the first experiment, the rubber, clone IAN 873, was planted as budded stumps in February 1977, wfiile the cocoa, clone IMC 67, was planted only in January/February 1979, in association with cassava as temporary shade. No legcnninous ground covers were sown, and the area is now covered with a variety of mixed grasses and broad-leaved weeds, inter- spersed with the cassava shade plants. The soil, a latassolo roxo of ba- sically reasonable fertility, displays a harsh, compact nature, and growth of both rubber and cocoa is very poor. 13.14 In this trial rubber is grown in double rows at 6 m x 3 m spacing, with cocoa planted at different spacings in three and four mws. This trial could have given useful information, but after its poor start it must be doubted whether any satisfactory results can be expected. 13.15 The rubber/coffee trial presents a different picture. Here, the rubber, IAN 717, is gram in double or single rows at 4 m x 3 m or 7 m x 3 rn respectively. The coffee, Robusta, Mundo Novo and Catuai Amarelo varieties, is planted in 2, 3 and 4 lines between the double rows of rubber, at various spaces between the coffee bushes, and between the outside coffee line and the rubber line. Maintenance is good and both rubber and coffee are growing satisfactorily. Both crops were planted in February/March 1978, and a first coffee harvest of 40-50 sacks per hectare (40 kg sacks at 1,000 cruzeiros per sack) is expected in 1980. A great deal of valuable information will be obtained from this experiment.

13.16 In Brazil, rubber presents a disappointing picture. Three factors have perhaps combined to inhibit the development of a vigorous natural rubber industry as has happened elsewhere. The traditional supply of cheap "jungle" rubber; the ravages of Micro clus ulei suffered by the few commercial plan- tations in the eastern +states ; an theunattractiveness of long-term invest- ment in rubber plantations compared with investment in other sectors. 13.17 This combination has led to a situation where Brazil's total production of 120,000 tons falls short of self-sufficiency by som 150,000 tons, and to the establishment of a Government PROBOR I program calling for 21,000 hectares of rubber planting, and PflL>BOR I1 program for 50,000 hectares, revis- ed dmnwards from an original goal of 200,000 hectares.

13.18 Plantings are to be in mnoculture, and EMBRAPA is laying dcwn nurseries at several centers for the production of approved clonal materials. In some areas recomndations will, howver, have to be speculative for many years yet, as local clone comparison trials have only recently been laid down (e .g . at Porto Velho and Ouro Preto in Rondonia) . 13.19 Fertilizer trials in nurseries are under way, but there is a need for field trials with young rubber to determine local fertilizer require- ments, and these have not yet reached the planning stage. Such trials pre- ferably should be supported by soil and leaf analysis survey work, so that their results may be extrapolated more easily to field conditions. 13.20 Problems an which the gmwers will need technical support in- clude the control of Microcyclus ulei leaf disease (104), and that of the insect pest E-yis -el10 (92) . %, as the trees approach the time of opening for tappmg, growers will require advice on tapping systems, the use of latex yield stimulants, and on the processing and marketing of his rubber. 13.21 To meet this challenge, a central research station for rubber, CNPSe, has been established at Maus, supported by the extension work of EMBRATER. Their field programs involve trials on associations of rubber with pepper, guaranz and pasture, with the pepper combination looking pro- mising. The overall activities of OPSe have been well chronicled by Templeton (111) and Paardekmper (110) and will not be reiterated here. Rather, attention will be concentrated on how best this effort may be applied. 13.22 To take RDndonia as an example, this state has been allocated some 12,000 hectares of rubber plantings under PROBOR I1 program, divided among some 1,000 cultivators. For each of these cultivators to receive one extension visit per annum, EMBRATER will have to maintain two to three full time extension staff in Rondonia, and these will need occasional support from WSe at Manaus. If, in addition, local clone camparison, husbandry, fertilizer and disease control trials also need to established, it might well be wondered whether such a relatively small area of rubber can justify the level of technical effort that will be required, bearing in mind the distances involved.

13.23 This query faces all the smaller areas of rubber in Brazil and indeed all crops grown on a small scale, and must eventually influence planning authorities towards the adoption of appropriate solutions for the problem. 13.24 In the case of rubber, the situation is dominated by three factors. One is the existence in the country of llescapell areas that, because of climatic factors, are free fmm Micmorclus disease. In these areas, it seems possible that higher-yielding clones can be used than those bred for Micro clus tolerance; costs will be less and one need for technical support is+ remove The second factor is the need to use modern methods for tapping the tree, particularly to save labor, and the third to adopt processing methods that will supply good quality rubber and latex to .industry. 13.25 In the case of the areas, there appear to be two main zones. One is the strip of land bordering Amazon rivers, the l1vSrzeas", where within 600 m of the river the air movement is such that sporulation of Micro clus is minimized. It has been shown that a variety of high yie3zii?+ g c ones (including RRIM and PB clones) can be grown in this strip free from the disease (102). These areas total up to som 2,000,000 hectares and would be suitable for smallholder development, with easy access to markets via the rivers. 13.26 The other "escape" areas are those such as Rondonia, parts of Mato Grosso and Sgo Paulo states, among others, where the presence of a significant dry season breaks the disease cycle and permits normal growth of the rubber. There would seem to be a strong case for concentration of rubber in these areas, and indeed it is understood that Michelin propose to establish a 10,000 hectare plantation in Mato Gmsso, with plans to extend to 30,000 hectares if the "escape" proves to be reality. 13.27 In this latter context, there is a need to consider whether national production targets are to be met by a continuation of smallholder production plus that from major industrial plantations, or whether there is any case for the establishment by them of nucleus plantations associated with smallholder outgrowers. In such associations, the nucleus plantation would act as a base from which EMBRAFA and EMBRATER could conduct their technical assistance programs, while the outgrowers could sell their rubber, either as latex or as coagulum, to the estate for central processing. Such associations would seem particularly appropriate to the Brazilian scene, where the problem of distance emphasizes the need for concentration of effort. 13.28 To complete the picture with regard to Micro clus disease, it is now accepted that control with chemical fungici& , app le either from the air or by fogging machines, is practicable (106) . A number of estates in Salvador are using the techniques with success, bringing the yield of their plantings up to over 1,000 kg per hectare. Another technique used to minimize the ravages of Microcyclus is to top bud a high-yielding trunk with a disease-resistant canopy, say of Hevea auciflora. This is being done on a limited scale, but the consequeZehpwth is limiting use of the technique. On many grounds it would seem preferable to plant rubber in the "escape" areas, rather than plant in the existing areas and necessarily adopt the routine use of these techniques. 13.29 With regard to the exploitation of the rubber tree, traditionally this has been done by tapping native trees and producing bolachas of crude rubber. There has been sm work done on yield stimulation on native trees (107) and on the production of pressed sheet rubber (108) ; but to develop an industry capable of producing the quality of rubber required for modem industries, at a cost that competes with synthetic rubber, will require much more effort.

D. Oil Palm U .30 Only one significant oil palm planting exists in Brazil, that of DENPASA just outside ~elgm. This originally was established by SUDATVI in association with IRHO as advisers, with first plantings in 1968. By 1974, when DENPAS4 was formed following agreement between SUDAM and HVA Ltd., plantings had gxwwn to 1,500 ha and current plans are to expand this area to 5,000 ha by 1982. 13.31 The plantation is on a poor, sandy soil with low nutrient status but good drainage characteris tics. The average annual rainfall over 1968/78 was 3,400 mn, evenly distributed through the year (Table 35). This factor, coupled with regular NPWg and B fertilizer application gives good growth and yields. ,In the fourth year after planting, estimates are for 3 tons ffb/ha, rising to 12, 16 and 20 tonsha in the following three years. Some pollination problems are encountered, because of the ex- cessively wet conditions at some times of the year, and some fruit abortion has been noticed, possibly because of nutrient stress. These problems are expected to be overcome. 13.32 DENPASA is a productive plantation, which suggests that in the Belgm area at least, oil palm could offer an opportunity for large-scale diversification. Plans have indeed been formulated from time to time for very ambitious schemes, but several points will need to be taken into account before any could be undertaken with confidence.

13.33 In the first place, there is no tradition of oil palm culti- vation, and any development of the crop will require the diffusion of technical "how-how", and an expensive training program for the labor force. This need is highlighted by DENPASA's experience with a group of smallholder outpwers established at the time of the original plantings. 13.34 These outgrower plantings totalled several hundred hectares, yet pract.ically no fruit is being obtained from them. They are sited some 25-50 la away from the plantation, on poor soil, and apparently are neglected. The growers themselves are highly independent, and have little interchange with the plantation. 13.35 Oil palm has recently been declared suitable as a crop for re- afforestation, but in the absence of any stipulation regarding the establish- ment of satisfactory processing facilities this could give rise to more problems than profits. 13.36 Ch DENPASA, the palm is grown in monoculture, together with ground cover of Pueraria gbaseoloides. In view of the poor soil conditions this appears the mst satisfactory system, from both the management and agroncmic points of view. 13.37 While oil palm certainly presents a possible major opportunity for those areas in Brazil with a well-distributed rainfall, care would be needed in its development. Planting would have to be done in association with a central, nuclear plantation, with a firm agreement between out- growers and the plantation, covering technical assistance, the supply of good planting material, and sale of fruit to the central factory. Such systems are working in Africa and S.E. Asia, and with proper and detailed preparation could play a part in Brazil. 13.38 One crucially important point in the establishment of any oil palm industry will be the supply of satisfactory planting material. At present, much of the existing plaiitings are based on IRHO material from West Africa, but new plantings now also include selected material from S.E. Asia. The continued supply of such material would have to be guaranteed for any project to be successful. A recent newspaper article, suggesting on very slim grounds that local supplies of inproved material already exist and can eliminate the need for importations, may be symptom- atic of the problems that could arise in this direction (99).

E. Indigenous Tree Cro~S~ecies 13.39 In general, in Brazil there is little detailed howledge of the indigenous tree species that may be of economic value. Loureiro et al. (105), for example, quote that in all of Hileia there are some 4,000 tree species, with only 1,674 catalogued, representing 642 genuses and 114 families. Of the 1,674 hown species, only about 30 are exploited com- mercially for timber, with 20 dominating the market. Goodland et al. (103) quote some of the species thought to be important economically,andArkcoll (Private Communication) cites smallholders as glawing pupunha, ingz, mango, guava, banana, quaqu, tqereb5, jenipapo and mari around their houses, and collecting fruits of tucuma, sorva, castanha, buriti and inga' from the wild. Native pata6 was exploited for oil in Terra Santa in the past, while andi- roma and cumaru are also used for oil (some of these local nams are identified in Goodland et al. (103) and also in a list of species being tested for seed germina-y EhiBRAPA. There is, however, an awareness that the botanical richness of the forests demand and among candidates for early commercialization are the Brazil nut (~ertholettiaexcelsa) , the yaran6 (Paullinia c ana -mica and P. var. sorbilis),aba~u palm (Altalia s eciosa,5 Or 1 a martiana Ba bdr., and 0. Oleifera Barrett) an-pup *palm 7-7 Bactris as1 aes or Guilelma gasipaes) . -- 13.40 The Brazil nut. Traditionally collected wild from the forest, with an annual harvest of some 20,000 tons, the Brazil nut is a valued product. However, clearing of the forest in locations rich in the species is producing a decline in the crop, and attempts are under way to establish commercial plantings. Work by EMBRAPA has shown that bud-grafted trees can come into flowering at four and a half years after planting, with harvesting of nuts at six years, compared with perhaps fifteen to sixteen years for native, seedling trees. Some small plantings of these trees nuw exist, and in its CPATU-1 experiment at Belgm, EMBRAPA is studying its as- sociation with cocoa, pepper and guaranz. Alvim (94) comments that at 15 m x 15 m, the tree gives excessive shade for cocoa, but in due course a satisfactory method of growing these two crops together is likely to be achieved. 13.41 Guarana'. This is a scandent shrub that may reach some 4 m in height and bears quantities of fruit used in the preparation of soft drinks. The fruit contains caffeine, and expression of its juices produces a re- freshing drink. Dried products are also available for reconstitution as a soft drink. 13.42 Normally, the cmp is planted at about 400 plants per hectare, and yield estimates vary from 350 kg of fruits per hectare in the fourth year of planting, rising to 700 kg per hectare in the fifth year, for ef- ficient famrs, to a maximum of 150 kg per hectare for a poorer famr with limited resources (97) . 13.43 In 1972, there was a total production of guarana' fruit of about 137 tons, equivalent to perhaps 350 to 400 hectares of the cwp. Further to the introduction of a law governing the level of natural guaran: in fruit juices, it is estimated that by 1980 this area may grow to between 1,000 to 3,200 hectares, depending qon the yield level assumed (100). There is also optimism that export markets for the drink may be generated, and for the Japanese market alone it is estimated that some 6,500 to 7,000 hectares of the crop will be required (98). 13.44 While these estimates for future production should only be regarded as speculative, they do indicate that a specialized, small market exists for the crop. EMBRAPA has demonstrated that intercropping with rice and cassava is possible (101) and currently at the CPATU station at Belgm there are further experiments under way with guaranz in association with both annual and perennial crops. At the UEPAE station at Manaus, there is a large program of work under way, testing methods of intercropping and also of association with passion fruit on an espaliar system. 13.45 The guaranii finds a local market in the preparation of fresh fruit drinks, but it is noteworthy that for the big Brazilian bottled drinks market the brewing companies, Brahrna and Antarctica, are developing their own plantations. These markets are now out of reach of the smallholder.

13.46 The baba~upalm. ?his palm is a prominent feature in Amazonia, wherever forest has been cleared. The fruit is hard and resistant to fire, and palm seedlings spring up in all cleared areas. l'hey produce heavy racems of large nuts with kernels producing oil of commercial value, while the husk can be processed to give a high quality charcoal. 13.47 l'he palm is exploited commercially in Cearg and in Go&, but it is not an easy undertaking. The nut is extremely hard and difficult to open, and at present this is done largely by hand. Moreover, collection on an industrial basis from the present wild stands will not be easy, and there are doubts whether it can ever be exploited on the large scale.

13.48 However, the baba~u palm is only one of many palms of the Amazon forest (109) of which some are already exploited loCally. The most important of these, and one with possibly a major future, is the pupunha palm (Guilieh asi aes (H. B.K.) L.H. Bailey, syn., Bactris gasipaes ,(H.B .K.) , peach palm or pe%+ j i aye palm) . 13.49 l'he pupunha palm. The pupunha palm occurs naturally over a very large area ot the American tropics. It is exploited for its fruits, and also for its growing shoot for "palmitost', for use in salads. In Brazil this crop is receiving attentio~lfrom the INPA station at bianaus. 13.50 The crop has been eqloited for many years, particularly by the small famrs along the tfviirzeas" or river banks of the Amazonian region. Here it has been found that near Manaus selection has been for an oily fruit, while further up the river the drier, mre starchy fruits have been preferred. l'his results in an enomus variation of selected types; palms have been found with over 70 bunches per palm, and fruit with 50%oil content and 14%protein (96), giving the possibility of comrcial oil extraction to leave a starchy flour with over 20% protein. 13.51 INPA at haus now has a number of emeriments under way with this crop, in particular in association with bregd fruit (~rtocarpusincisa . Incidental ly, it is worth noting that the last mentioned species can yie4 up to one ton of fruit per tree per annum; staff at the station hope to pay a visit to S.E. Asia in 1980, to collect gennplasm material for study.

F. Agro-Forestry 13.52 Some experience has been gained in agro-forestry at the Jari developmnt schem (J. Palmer, Private Communication) . In p1.antation of Pinus caribea var. hondurensis, the pine was planted at 4 x 2.5 m to allow Wg-f grass between the rows, and adequate space for cattle to graze. Little damage occurred when cattle were put in as early as six months after planting, but unfortunately the habit of the local cattle mn to use "stampede techniques" leads to considerable damage by trampling. 13.53 It is evidently not possible to graze cattle in plantations of Gmelina arborea because they eat the bark. However, this may be turned to advantag-e informal trials have shown that bullocks in stalls can gain as much weight from a diet composed largely of fresh-milled helina bark as in pasture under pine. This is a further indication of the poten- tial for growing cattle in association with perennial crops: feeding them off grass and wastes such as Gwlina bark, banana stems, waste cassava and cocoa pods for example. 13.54 Indigenous tree species trials have existed at Cur&-Una (near Santare'm) and at Reserva IXldte for many years, and at Km 60 since 1973. INPA at Manaus currently is working with the leguminous, closed forest Pithecolobium racernosum, Dinizia excelsa, and are slow gmwers. Dipteryx odoratais with the pronuslng tlmber species Cedrelinga catenaefonnis , and others. 13.55 In any attempt to establish timber species on the degraded pastures of the Amazon, the tmpical pines and eucalyptus would be pro- minent, and the following indigenous species should be tested: Cecropia sp., Didpopanax morotofxi, Jacaranda copaia and Schizolobium amazonlcum. Other potentially useful legume species are Acacia sp., specially A. man ium from Queensland, Calliandra spp. from Central America, Cassia %T%ii-India and Sesbania grandiflora from S. and S.E. Asia (J.=r, Private Communication) . 13.56 IBDF's regulations permit intercropping, but it is believed that very few of the re-afforestation companies at present take advantage of the possibility.

m. NOTES CN A VISIT TO COSTA RICA (November 8-13, 1979)

A. Introduction

. - 14.01 Costa Rica is a country of small fanners, and of the perennial tree crops coffee is the most important, with some 80,000 hectares planted on 32,000 "fincas", the majority being of less than 10 hectares in size. Cocoa is also imporant, and CATIE maintains large germplasm collections of both crops, together with active breeding programs.

14.02 There are plans to establish 2,500 hectares of hybrid and dwarf coconuts in addition to the existing area of local varieties, and also of 40,000 hectares of oil palm. There is interest in the peach or pejibaye palm, and a national plan to increase vegetable oil pmduction includes, in addition to the oil palm, development of the castor oil, sunflower, gmund- nut and soya bean crops. 14.03 01 this short visit it was only possible to visit CATIE at Turrialba, and the Ministry of Agriculture and the University of Costa Rica in S& Jose'. Useful information was gained on work concerned with tree crop systems that is of general application to the humid tropics.

B. CATIE 14 .04 CATIE is a non-profit making institution having a special relationship with IICA of San JOG, of which it was formerly a part. In October 1977, CATIE beam the first "Associated Institute'' in the "Program on the Use and Management of Natural Resources", one of the three main subject areas of the UNU of Tokyo (112). As part of the agreement then signed, UMJ pledged funding for the development of a multi-purpose research and demonstration area where traditional agro - forestry systems could be qualitatively and quantitatively studied (115). 14.05 lko item from the longer ten of work of CATIE are of interest to the present study -- the "taungyatt trials and the La hbntana experiment on multiple crop associations. 14 .06 Taun a trials. Since 1962, CATIE (119) has studied the manage- ment and economcs+ o taungya establishment of forest species. Their work shows that production of a-food crop during the first &e or two years of tree establishment can offset substantially the costs of re-afforestation, particularly if fertilizers are not used and if high value annual crops are grown (Tables 36, 37 and 38). 14.07 These exqerirnents have been carefully carried out and give much useful data concerning tree/crop/soil inter-relationships, but because of the scale of operation there must be doubt on the extent to which the economic data can be of practical application to the field. In this respect, the paper by Vega (130) on taungya in Surinam is possibly of more value. He concludes that, indeed, the growing of food crops in the early years of establishment is of real value, but distinguishes between schems run to improve the living standards of the rural fanner, with the latter owning the food crops, and those run under the close control of a state service with the family acting purely as paid workers; the latter being the more economically satisfactory alternative. 14.08 La Mmtana experiment. This is a mjor and complex experiment, very reminiscent ot CPATU-1 and 2 experiments in Be&, Brazil. It aims to compare agricultural system commonly used in Costa Rica, involving both perennial and annual crops, and using both scientific and economic studies to determine how systems my be optimized. 14 .09 Cropping systems compared are : 1. Maize followed by maize and beans. 2. Maize followed by maize and sweet potato. 3. Maize and sweet potato followed by beans and sweet potato. 4. Plantains with cassava and maize. 5. Sugar cane. 6. Pasture with laurel (Cordia alliodora) . 7. Pasture with poro (E-a poeppigiana) . 8. Pasture. 9. Coffee with laurel, plantains and poro. 10. Coffee with poro and beans. 11. Cocoa with laurel, plantains, gandul (Cajanus cajan] and maize. 12. Cocoa with poro, plantains, gandul and maize. 13. Cassava followed by cassava with maize. 14. Laurel with maize and beans. 15. Maize, hand weeded. 16. Maize, chemically weeded. 17. Natural regeneration. 18. kize followed by no-till maize. Plot sizes range from 8 x 10 m for the smaller crops to 18 x 20 m for the perennials. 14.10 Thb experiment is sited on a level patch of uniform soil, and will give good indications of the effect of the different cropping systems on soil conditions. Whether it will give really useful economic data nuit be seriously questioned. It is extremely difficult to produce field con- ditions in small plots: edge effects are large, and while grclwth habits of the plants may not be much affected, microclimatic effects due to wind and insolation will differ appreciably; it is virtually impossible to extra- polate the costs of weeding, pruning, harvesting and other operations in small plots to field conditions; the pasture plots will have no animal interaction, so important in determining productivity; and so on.

14.11 This experiment should be complemented with production -oriented, large-scale field studies of the more promising systems, on a rider of soil types, for it to become meaningful to the famr and to the planner. 14.12 The La Ebntana experiment is , however, being supported indirectly by the "La Suizal' project being developed in CATIE1s Program of Natural Renewable Resources under the UNU agreement. This project involves a study of traditional agro-forestry practices in the La Suiza district, near Turri- alba, and aims to improve land use by encouraging tree planting with and without crops or pasture (115, 127) . 14.13 Prominent among the systems being studied is the traditional practice of growing cocoa and particularly coffee in association with the legminous tree 'poro" (Ji hrina oe i iana as a law storey shade and mulch-providing tree, toge%-w?-) er mt t e naturally regenerating timber species laurel (Cordia alliodora) . 14.14 Caturra, and other short-growing varieties of coffee, are normally planted at around 7,000 to 8,000 plants per hectare, with taller growing varieties, such as &do NOW, at between 3,000 and 4,000 plants per hectare. The "porn" shade trees are planted at about 200 trees per hectare with "laurel" occurring as self-sown trees at densities of up to 300 trees per hectare. This combination proves highly compatible : the "poro" is pruned twice a year, at the time of flowering and at coffee maturation, with the slashed branches and leaves returning up to 80 kg nitrogen per hectare per pruning (125). The "laurel" is a fast-growing species, self pruning and naturally forms a straight tdwith a namw, open crown. It is thus not heavily shading, but will offer strong root competition to the coffee; on the other hand, it is a valuable timber species, and esti- mates of the value of production in typical stands range from $654 per hectare per mum in coffee (119) to $1,000 per hectare per mum in cocoa grown on the Atlantic Coast (122). The trees are generally cut in small numbers as the farmer requires, either for sale, or for construction purposes on his CIWI-I property. 14.15 Early data from the La Suiza program show that the "pro" trees can greatly reduce soil erosion in coffee plantations, but that the "laurelfl at densities of above 100 mature trees per hectare can depress significantly coffee yields. It is suggested that the high value of the "laurel" offsets this loss, but some longer-tern data are needed before definite conclusions can be drawn (112). 14.16 CATIEts Program of Natural Renewable Resources is also looking at other tree crops. The guava (Psidium ava is found to be of value in pasture situations, offering vaZiiZZ virewood as well as shade for cattle and food for animal, poultry or hman consumtion. The rmitite (Acris tus arborescens itab; vucca ele hanti es) ,* madero neg-& (Gliricidia s'- s'- -4rin;pro bertG&iTj%Zdkas living fence posts, and can be useful in checking the soil slqing connnon on the unstable slopes of the La Suiza area (12 7) . 14.17 Among other items of interest in CATIEts work are observations on the value of Alnus acuminata as a firewood and timber-pmducing species in pastures of -gh=country (118). This is complemnted by Fournier 's study (121) showing that Alnus 'orullensis could be a valuable tree crop when grown alongside tracks-h m co ee p antations , of particular applicability to monoculture coffee where objections might be raised to planting within the coffee itself. 14.18 The Spanish Cedar (Cedrela sp.) is a valued timber species in Costa Rica, and Ford (120) recmsoccurrence and growth from two sites, one planted and one of natural regeneration. He estimated that the trees gave gross incoms of $358-$581 per hectare per mum, and although no data are available on their effect on coffee yield, he concludes that their cultivation represents a valuable diversification of land use. 14.19 Another point of particular interest is the recording of pejibaye palm a.of comn occurrence in coffee/Erythrina associations (124). Like the laurel, this palm grows tall and throws a limited shade, and might be considered as more appropriate to multiple crop associations as is the coconut. Interest in the plant, however, is beginning to extend far beyond the coffee plantation. 14.20 I:: an article by D. Stone (126) it is said that there are two distinct Amerindian cultures: one dependent on maize for its staple food, and the other on the pejibaye palm. The latter group live in the humid tropics, and workers in Costa Rica seem well on the way to confirming the importance of this crop. 14.21 The pejibaye palm is indigenous to the entire humid tropical zone of Central and Latin America. A great range of genotypes exist, pro- ducing fruit with varying levels of starch, protein, oil and vitamins, while from basal side shoots can be obtained the '~almitos"or palm heart used principally in salads. The wood is of value for parquet work and the production of canes, fishing rods, etc. 14.22 Work on the pejibaye palm is being financed from the diver- sification funds of ASBANA. the banana comerative. sustaining Dr. J. Mora Urpi and a dlteam at t& University of*C~stagca, San JO;~, together with officers from the Ministry of Agriculture working at the Los Diamantes Research Station, Cuapiles.

14.23 An experimental station exclusively for work with the palm has been established at Los Diamantes, and over the last three years a germ- plasm collection has been established involving more than 250 selections -- mustly from Costa Rica, but some from Panh, Peru, Brazil, Colombia and Ecuador . 14.24 Work is still at the early development stage, but a knowledge of the mechanism of pollination is nw available (128) and breeding work for selected qualities is being initiated. Already, however, it is apparent that the crop has major commercial possibilities, with local and export markets for both main and by-products: i. Fruit Starch, high in protein (more than 20% in some selections) and vitamins, for both human and animal foodstuffs. Production of cocktail '%ocasl' and sweets.

Oil (up to 50% in some selections has been noted in Brazil). Pollen, apiculture. ii. Palmitos Salads, fresh and canned. Soups, mayonnaise. Dried and flaked for breakfast food, cocktail, snacks, etc. iii. Wood- Parquet, fishing rods, canes, perhaps pulp and paper production. 14.25 There are some 300 hectares of small plantations in commercial production, with 200 hectares more being planted. There are plans to establish 1,000-2,000 hectares of the crop with small fanners, and finance has been provided for two processing plants canning palmitos for export. 14.26 The husbandry of the crop is being studied at Los Diamantes. Spacing distances when planting for fruit are 5 x 5 m (460 palms per hectare) and for palmitos 1.5 x 1.5 m (5,130 palms per hectare) . The small famr can go for both by planting at 1.5 x 1.5 m, and thinning down to 4.5 x 4.5 m at two to three years after planting, after taking one or two crops of palmitos. High nitrogen fertilizers are used for palmito pro- duction, and nitrogen and potassium for fruit. 14.27 At the CATIE research station, palms of 15 years old were seen. These were approximately 20 m tall, and harvesting of the fruits using long-handled knives was an arduous task. However, trials at Los Diamantes show that when palms have become too tall for easy harvesting, the main stem can be felled and a small crop taken from the first year's regener- ation, with a full crop in the second. Obviously, with staggered felling a plantation can be kept in continuous cropping for many years. 14.28 This highlights a major advantage of the pejibaye palm, when considered as a potential staple food and commodity crop for the tropics. It can be sown directly into uncultivated ground, if necessary, and can be kept in continuous production without any cultivation at all. This is of major importance when compared with maize, for example, particularly to the small fanners; if the early results on production by this palm can be confirmd, and enhanced by selection of high yielding material, then a major step forward in food production in the tropics will have been achieved. 14.29 Zmra (132) quotes conservative costs of production, as follows : i. Production of pejibaye for fruit: n 4,613.40 colons Y 2 1,684.35 Y3 1,940.50 Y4 3,040.50

Yield in Y4 of 13.67 tons/ha at 1,102.5 colons/ton = 15,000 colons/ha. . (Urpi reports 35 tons/ha fruit from unselected material in the seventh year after planting). ii. Production of pejibaye for palmitos: 12,502 .50 colons (cost of plants) (43.6% of total) 9,213.30

Yield in Y2 of 3,300 palmitos/ha at 6 colonslunit = 19,800 colons/ha. If the farmr buys seed and prepares the young plants himself, the above figures would be considerably improved. 14.30 Of course, cultivation of this crop will present problems as with all others. Vargas and Vilqlana (129) quote the presence of MDnilia, Gra him and-~eratocstis diseases- on the fruits, with Pesta- lotiois, cos aereAtrich* a, and Ph t hthora species on the &As m the hmt showed* e presence of a toxin that appears to stunt the gmwth of swine, but it is believed that all these problems will be amenable to proper husbandry and managerent. 14.31 Mixed plantings of pej ibaye palm with coffee and bananas were seen around Turrialba, but the feeling at the University is that mono- culture will become the preferred practice.

D. bcadamia Nuts (hkcadamia integrifolia and -M. tetraphylla) .- . ------. 14.32 The Macadamia nut is of Australian origin and has found its major exploitation in Hawaii, and to a lesser extent in California. It requires good soil conditions, a minimum rainfall of around 1,150 m per annm and temperatures ranging between 18"and 2g°C -- somewhat similar to conditions required for Arab ica coffee . 14.33 There is a growing interest in the crop in Costa Rica, and near Turrialba one plantation of pung plants spaced at about 10 x 6 m, and interplanted with coffee, was inspected. Growth seemed good, but as there is little local experience with the crop it must be regarded with caution at this stage. With the wide spacing required for the crop, and first harvestings only at six to seven years after planting, interplanting with a food crop is indicated. Whether the interplanting of coffee with the nuts will provide a satisfactory permanent association remains to be seen. 14.34 Further details of this crop in Costa Rica can be found in a paper by Carnacho (116) and in the Crop Manual. E. General 14 .35 In addition to those crops mentioned in the Introduction, there are two other crops of minor interest. Achiote , Anatto or Bixa (Bixa orellana), a small bush gmfor its flowers which contain a colorant of major use in the food industry, and the jojoba nut (Simnondsia chinensis , grown in the drier areas of Costa Rica for its oil and wax. kdave small areas of the latter in production, and adaptation trials are under way with the Ministry of Agriculture.

XV. NOTES ON A VISIT TO GUATFiMALA (November 13-16, 1979)

A. Introduction 15.01 Guatemala has a population of 6,400,000 people, approximately two-thirds of whom live in the rural sector. Eighty-seven percent of the fa= take up only 18%of the fanned land, and 90% of all farm units are of either insufficient size or quality to support a family. With a moun- tainous topography and variable climate across the country, agriculture is diverse, ranging from temperate cropping in the altiplano region to typical tropical systems in the high-rainfall lowland areas. 15.02 There is considerable population pressure on the land in the altiplano regions, with som 0.5 hectares per family. There are plans to diversify agriculture in this area, with extension of the apple, peach and plum tree crops among others. Additionally, there is a plan (Proyecto 520-T-026) ,supported by the AID program, to move a large nuher of these people into the FRJ (Franca Transversal del Norte), a humid, lowland tropical area in the north of the country. For full details of the agricultural sector the reader is referred to the Agricultural Sector kmorandum on Guatemala, January 1978, prepared by the Bank. 15.03 On this short visit, only brief calls could be made on the relevant organizations in Guatemala City, supplerented by a visit to a coffee "fincat'. The information obtained is detailed below.

B. ICTA (Institute de Ciencia v Tecnoloeia Adcolasl 15.04 This Institute is concerned almost completely with annual crops and pasture, and as such could contribute little to the tree c:rops study. According to Ing. Ortez, the Technical Director, it is attempt ing to develop apples, peaches; plums and other temperate crops in the altiplan0 region. A detailed account of its structure and policies is available in the paper by Fumagalli and Waugh (137) . C . INTA (Instituto Nacional de Trans fomciGn Agraria) 15.05 This Institute is responsible for both the FTN project and also the lesser crops involved in the country's diversification program. The Director of Proyecto 520-T-026, Ing. Agr. Estrada, stated that this project lies in an area of high rainfall and poor soils. Plans are to settle people in four main centers, with a total area of 43,600 hectares. Families are to receive 9 hectares each, and overall organization is to be on a cooperative bas is (1 36) . 15 .06 Among the diversification crops are cashew (138) , macadamia nuts, cocoa, rubber, pepper, ginger, anatto, cardamom and cloves. While ICTA has links with CUT and CIW, it lacks 'bow-how" on these crops, and would welcome assistance. In view of the similarity of this crop list with those being developed in Sri Lanka, the latter country would seem an ap- propriate source. 15.07 The situation with regard to cardamm is of interest, in that the local Association of Cardamom Producers is claiming that the world supply may be in excess of demand. Production in Guatemala over the years 1972/77 inkreased from 645 kg to 3,662 kg, and their hope is that dem&d can be stimulated, without having recourse to a production quota system (134) .

15.08 Coffee is the most important tree crop in Guatemala, with 20% of the crop land planted to coffee, and accounting for 30% of the nation's export earnings. ANAC9FE is responsible for technical support of the in- dustry, and also for some of the diversification crops, including oil palm, macadamia and citrus (under Ing. Agr. Velasquez). 15.09 A short visit was paid to a coffee "fincaw in company with two ANACAFE agronomists. Evidently a program of rehabilitation of old plantings is under way, supported by ANACAFE, with young plants established between the rows of old bushes, rather than complete renovation with clearing and replanting. A herbicide trial was in hand in the "finca", necessary in view of increasing cost of labor, together with a trial comparing a number of coffee rust-resistant varieties. 15.10 These rust-resistant varieties were as follows: T5269 - Catimor T2700 - BA16 T2914 - S12 KAFFA T2710 - S6 CIOICCIE T3097 - S17 IRGALEbl 1H217 - Geisha x H66 T2722 - Geisha T2717 - KP423 1H210 - KP423 x Geisha An article on the Catirnor variety appears in the ky issue of "Anacafe'", the Association journal (135) and field work is detailed in the ANACME'S research program 038).

15.11 The young bushes in this latter experiment were shaded with inter-row plantings of pigeon pea (Cajanus ca an), but evidently this crop is not used for food. In general, l+t e mature coffee would have benefitted fmm more control. E thrina- was corn in hedgerows, but was not planted in the coffee, shade+ elng provided by mixed species including legumes and some Grevillia.

15.12 ANACcZFE is responsible for oil palm in the country. At present some 400 hectares are in production, with an additional 1,000 hectares coming into yield shortly and a further 1,000 hectares just planted. Oil palm plantings are in the range 40-200 hectares, and in areas of approxi- mately 2,000 m rainfall per anmm and a- marked three-month dry period are giving yields of around 14 tons ffb per hectare. An eventual total of 6,000 hectares is contemplated, and small mills of 4-5 tons ffb per hour capacity are being established for local processing. 15.13 There is solrre rubber in Guatemala organized by a Rubber Asso- ciation, and clonal collections exist. Recently a group of technicians visited Malaysia.

E. General 15.14 The impression gained on this visit was that Guatemala has a wide ranging diversification program in hand, but that its technical resources will have to be built up to provide adequate support for all the different crops. The general situation was discussed with Ing. Spirallis, Vice Minister of the Elinistry of Agriculture. A national plan is in pre- paration and should be of considerable interest.

XVI . NOTES ON A VISIT TO 'IHE COCONUT INDUSTRY BOARD, KINGS'IXN, JAhN CA (November 19 , 1979)

Introduction 16.01 The Coconut Industry Board of Jamaica exists to promote the interests of the coconut industry, encourage the production of coconuts and regulate the purchase, sales and exportation of coconuts. It is responsible for technical support of the industry and for administration of the coconut replanting subsidy scheme, and derives its finance from a cess on all coconut production. 16.02 The Board finances all its own general breeding and agronomic work, but receives ir~ternationalassistance in its major program on the "lethal yellow" disease, in the form of a technical team from the British Overseas Development Authority and assistance from U.SAID. Other technical work includes field trials on palm density, intercropping systems, ferti.9 lizer use, weed control, pest and disease control. 16.03 . For a short review of problems facing the Board in respect of the production of coconuts and copra, and the local vegetable oil market as a whole, the reader is referred to the 1978 Report of the Board (141).

16.04 QI this visit it was not possible to visit plantings in the field, but data on intercropping were obtained that usefully complement that obtained from Asia in particular.

Planting Densities 16.05 The density comanly in use by Jamaican farmers for Malaysian dwarfs is 114 palms per acre. In the S/4 Pera experiment, comparing plant- ing distances for Malaysian dwarfs and 'MYJAM' hybrids Wlaysian dwarfs x Jamaican talls), the number of nuts per acre with dwarfs increased with increasing planting density, up to 141 palms per acre, yields falling off at 178 palms per acre (Table 39). The Pera site is not completely typical of Jamaican conditions, as it receives a higher than normal level of sun- light. Nevertheless, the Board (140) report increasing evidence for raising the planting density for dwarfs, decreasing planting distances from 21 ft triangular (114 trees per acre) to 20 ft (123 trees per acre) or to 19 ft (136 per acre). 16.06 For the MAYJAM hybrids, although there were significant de- creases in the number of bunches, flowers and nuts per tree at higher densities, there was no significant difference in yield per acre. There were, however, large increases in tdheight and crown diameter with greater density. For example, from the density normally accepted by farmers for hybrids of about 76 palms per acre to a density of say 114 palms per acre, trunk height increases by 3 ft and cruwn spread by 2 ft. It would appear that a planting density of approximately 76 trees per acre is suitable for Fl. hybrids.

16 .07 A further experiment compares spacing ranging from 12.5 ft to 21.5 ft along single rows spaced at 32.5 ft apart, the object being to test systems suitable for contour planting and for intercropping. Closer spacing results in less nuts per tree but a tendency for more nuts per acre or per unit of row length. The number of nuts per acre per year at spacings of 12.5-16.5 ft averaged 5,930, compared with 5,004 at spacings of 17.5-21.5 ft (Table 40).

C. Intercropping 16.08 Intercropping of coconuts with banana is traditional in Jamaica. Bananas have, however, been shown to cause considerable delay in onset of coconut bearing if allowed to shade the cocanuts. Experiment C/T/6 compared several spacing layouts for temporary bananas between dwarf coconuts planted at 114 pdlms per acre. The first year of production for the coconuts was 1976, and the presence of bananas reduced yield from 29 to an average of 14 nuts per palm; there were no significant differences between the different banana layouts (Table 41) . However, at the end of 1976, the bananas had declined and were removed. In 1977, the coconut yields in the plots which had had bananas recovered and were as good as the control plots. Indi- cations are that bananas can be grown between young coconut plants without serious detriment to the coconuts, provided that spacings are such that the bananas do not shade the young palm. 16.09 Cocoa and coffee are not widely grown as intercrops in Jamaica, because of the calcareous nature of soils in most of the coconut areas, but there are situations where conditions are appropriate. Experiment C/T/7 demonstrates that intercropping bearing coconuts (planted 1967) with cocoa (planted 1971) does not significantly reduce coconut yield, yet makes for sharing of maintenance costs (Table 42) . The best cocoa yield was at the closest spacing with cocoa bushes 5.25 ft spaced along a single row down the coconut inter-row, i.e. 427 cocoa trees per acre giving an average of 1,016 lb dried cocoa per acre (Table 43) . Average pmduction of cocoa was lowest for Variety 1 (F'A.150 x ICS3) at the lowest density (19% of ex- pected yield) and highest for Variety 3 (PA169 x ICS60) at the highest density (40%of the expected yield). 16.10 In Experiment C/T/5, after intercropping with coffee, no signi- ficant effects on coconut production had been noted in the early years of bearing. Stands were 600 coffee bushes and 114 dwarf coconuts per acre, with the coffee separately fertilized (139). 16.11 In general, work in Jamaica confirms Asian wrk, to the effect that intercro~~inrrof coconuts with bananas. cocoa and coffee is possible. and indeed of*eco~omicadvantage, if direct-shading of young coc&uts is - avoided and if both crops receive proper maintenancei Work on Pangola grass (Di itaria decunbens) pasture-under coconut has shm that fesi- lizer use-g-6 m11 enefit both palms and pasture; Pueraria haseoloides can also provide useful grazing with benefit to themle LiIRLIOGRrlPHY

Rcfercnces are quoted by country. The majority of these docuinents have been deposited with the Tropical Trce Crops Advisor's Office. L/

A. THAILAND

1. 'Anon. (19731 Annual report of the Coconut Research Station, Sawi, Thai land.

2. Anon. (1374) Report on a survey of intercroppins in immature rubber. Preliminary Tables. Part XI. Cocument No. 48. Rubber Research Centre, Hat Yai, Thailand.

3. FAO/UI*IDP ( 1979) Training of advisory and executive staff and fdrmers for the rubber industry of Thailznd. Evaluation study on Agricultural Training MissPn Report, Jan.1979.

4. P!air, P.K.R., Bavappa, K.V.A. and Nelliat. (1975) . prograrxnes for small-sized coconut plantations. A paper given at the Fourth Session of the FA0 Techrlical Working Party an Coconut Production, Protection and Processing. Kingston, Jamaica, 14-25 September 1975.

5. Nair, P. K.H., Vcxna Rznc, Nelliat, E.V. and Eavappa, K.V. A. (1975) . . Beneficial ef ~ects-o~~crqp~co~@~li.ntion cf .=scc:~:dt and cacao. Indian J. cgric. Sci. 45 (41, 1t55-171.

6. Prawit W~nqsukoll&.ad Gr. Z.K. T~mpleto;, (19?4). Sweet and glutingus coxn as intercrops of rubber. Document No. 28, Rubber Research Centre.

7. Prawit Wongsuko:l, Anan Kongthon and Templetor:, J.K. (1974) . Yields of corn, soya bean, mung bean and sunflower in plots in South Thailand. Document No. 24, Rubber Research Centre, Hat Yai, Thailand.

8. Prawit Wongsuko2, Waiwit Booranatham and Dr. J.K. Templeton (1975) . Girth growth OF rubber and interior manaqsnent. Document No. 56, Rubber Research Centre, Hat Yai. Thailand.

9. Speirs Andrew, 3. (1974). Towards an understandi~qof rubber smallholders. A socio-economic survey of some rubber villaqes in Thailand. Document No. 42, Rubber Research Centre, Hat Yai, Thailand.

-1/ A substantial nunber of additional background documents is also deposited in the same office. 10. Templeton, J.K. (1974). Proposals for intercropping in accelerated programme of rubber replanting. Rubber Research Centre, Hat Yai, Thailand.

11. Vries, David Th.De (1974). Optimum intercropping patterns for rubber- small- holders. EconomFcs Division, Rubber Research Centre, Hat Yai, Thailand.

B. MALAYSIA 12. Abraham, P.D., Anthony, J.L., Gomez, J.B., Sivakumaran, S., and Ismail Harshim. (1980) Towards automated micro tapping of Hevea. Proc. RRIM Planters Conf. 1979.

13. Abraham, P.D. et a1 (1974). Soya bean (Glvcine max. L. ) An intercrop for smallholders. Report pub. by RRIM, Kuala Lumpur.

14. Abraham, P.D. 1978. Improving the productivityof--- rubber- small-- farmers, Paper given at Regional Conf. on Technology for Rural Development. Kuala Lumpur, 24-29 April 1978.

15. Ang, B.B. and Shepherd R. (1978). Cocoa- breeding and selection investigations at Prang Besar research station. Proc. 1978 Int. Conf. on Cocoa and Coconuts. Pub. by Inc. Soc. of Planters, Kuala Lumpur.

16. Anon. (1973). Intercroppinq with annual crops in immature rubber. Planters Bulletin, 126, 5-92.

17. Ariffin bin Mohd. Nor, Chan H.Y. and Chuah A.S.(1980). A comparative study of investments in four major perennial crops. Proc. RRIM Planters Conf. 1979.

18. Black Jamieson J. and Hubbard, F.T.P. (1977). Two methods of replantins rubber with cocoa - a preliminary appreciation. 6 pp.,J. Perak Planters' Association Journal.

19. Blencowe, J.W. and Templeton, J.K. (1970). Establishinq cocoa under rubber, Proc. Conf. Crop Diversification in Malaysia, 286-298. Pub. by Inc. Soc. of Planters, Kuala Lumpur. 20. Chan E. (1978) . Growth and early yield performance of Malavan Dwarf x Tall coconut hybrids on the coastal clays of Peninsular Malaysia, 10pp. Proc. 1978. Int. Conf. on Cocoa and-- Coconuts, Kuala Lumpur. 21. Chandapillai, M.M. and Yeon Kheng Hoe. (1970). Effect of spacins,fertilisers and soil type on the yield of qroundnut. Proc. Conf. Crop Diversification in Malaysia, 1969, 36-45. Pub' by Inc. Soc. of Planters Kuala Lumpur. 22. Cheng Yu Wei et a1 (13751 . Maize (- L.) An intercrop for smallholders. Report pub. by RRIM, Kuala Lumpur.

23. Denamany, G., Md. Sharif bin Ahmed and Nasrun bin Baginda Hamid, (1978). Coconut intercropping systems in Peninsular Malaysia. lapp,Proc. 1978. Int. Conf. on Cocoa and Coconut. Pub. by Inc. Soc. of Planters, Kuala Lumpur.

24. Gray, B.S. (1979). Major technical issues in future development of tree crops in Malaysia. Internal Bank memorandum, 19 June,llpp.

25. Guha, M.M. and Soong Ngin Kwi,(1970). Suitability and prospects of rubber-growing soils for intercropping. Proc. Conf. Diversification in Malaysia, 1969. 15-24. Pub. by Inc. Soc. of Planters, Kuala Lumpur. 26. Ibrahim bin Mat Taib and Liu Sin, (1980). Chemical weed control in legume cover management. Proc. RRIM Planters Conf. 1979. 27. ~amaludinLamin and Perumal, S. (1980) . Settlement and development of FELDA settlers. Proc. RRIM Planters Conf, 1979. 28. Kamil Nik Faud bin Mohd. and Ahmad Mohd. Sharif bin. (1978). The socio-economic status of coconut smallholder^ in Lower Perak. Proc. 1978 Int. Conf. on Cocoa and Coconuts. Pub, by the Inc. Soc. of Planters, Kuala Lumpur. 29. Khera, H.S. (1978) . The future of the coconut industry. 12pp. Proc. 1978. Int. Conf. on Cocoa and Coconuts, Kuala Lumpur.

30. Khoo Kay Thye,Chew Poh Soon and Eddie Chew.(1978). Fertiliser responses of cocoa on coastal clay soils in Peninsular Malaysia. Proc. 1978 Int. Conf. on Cocoa and Coconuts. Pub. by Inc. Soc. of Planters, Kuala Lunpur. 31. Kwiton Jong, Stone B.C. and Soepadmo, E. (1973). Malaysianan underexploited qenetic reservoir of edible fruit tree species. Proc. Symposium on Biological Resources and National Development. Pub. by Malayan Nature Society, Kuala Lumpur, pp 113-121.

32. Lee Aik Kien. (1978). Performance of some cocoa hybrids under exposed conditions. 14pp.Proc. 1978 Int. Conf. on Cocoa and Coconuts. Pub. by Inc. Soc. of Planters, Kuala Lumpur.

33. Lee Aik Kien and Hanafi B. Kasbi. (1978). Jntercropping cocoa and oil wlm. 14 pp. Proc. 1978 Int. Conf. on Cocoa and Coconuts. . Pub. by Inc. Soc. of Planters, Kuala Lumpur.

34. Lim, K.P. and Chai, W. (1978).

Cocoa-coconuts and oil palm as-- possible-. - -- alternatives- -- in replacing old rubber - an economic appraisal. 15pp. Proc. 1978 Int. Conf. on Cocoa and Coconuts. Pub. by Inc. Soc. of Planters, Kuala Lumpur.

35. Lim Son Ching, Ho Ching Yee and Yoon Pooi Kong. (1973) Economics of maximising early yields and shorteg immaturity. 15pp. Proc. %I14 Planters Conf. 1973, pub. by RRIM, Kuala Lumpur.

36. Mainstone, B.J. and Thong, K.C. (1978). Fertiliser responses over 6 years fr-m plantinq of monocrop cocoa on a Bungar Seni soil. Proc. 1978 Int. Conf. on Cocoa and Coconuts. Pub. by Inc. Soc. of Planters, Kuala Lumpur.

37. Ministry of Agriculture, Malaysia (1978). The coconut smallholder in Peninsular Malaysia. Proc. 1978 Int. Conf. on Cocoa and Coconuts. 1Opp. pub. by the Inc. Soc. of Planters, Kuala Lumpur.

38. Mohd. Nor bin Abdullah, (1980). Dynamic Rubber Production Policy - its iaplications for the smallhdlder sector. Proc. RRIM Planters Conf. 1979. 39. Mohd. Tamin Yeop Dato, (1979). Investment opportunities in horticultaral cSQps. 14pp. Conf. on Investment Opportunities in Agriculture, Kuala Lumpur.

40. Mustapha Juman and Gan Teng. (19801. FELCRA's experience in group farming. Proc. RRIM Planters Conf. 1979. 41. Nik Fuad bin Mohd.Kami1 and Mohd. Sharif bin Ahmad.(1978L The socio-economic status of coconut smallholders in Lower Perak. llpp. Proc. 1978. Int. Conf. on Cocoa and Coconuts, Kuala Lumpur.

42. Paardekooper E.C. , and Newall, W. ( 1977) . Considerations of density in Hevs plantations. Planter. , Kuala Lumpur. 53, 143-156.

43. Pushparajah, E. and Chellapah, K. (1969). Manuring of rubber in relation to covers. J. Rubb. Res. Inst. Malaya, 21, 126-139.

44. Pushparajah, E. and Tan See Yeak. (1970). Tapioca as an intercrop in rubber. Proc. Conf. Crop Diversification in Malaysia,l969, 128-138. Pub. by Inc. Soc. of Planters, Kuala Lumpur.

45. Shepherd, R. Gilbert, J.P.. and Cowling, P.G.(1977'). Aspects of cocoa cultivation undey coconu-t on two estates in Peninsular Malaysia. Planter , Kuala L~mp~r,53, 99-117.

46. Teoh, C.H., Adham Abdullah and Reid, W.M.(1980) Critical aspects of legume establishment and- maintenance. Proc. RRIM Planters Conf. 1979.

47. Thong, K.C. amd Ng W.L. (1979). Growth and nutrient composition of mon_ocrop cocoa plants on inland Malaysian soils. 25~~.Proc. 1978 Int. Conf. on Cocoa and Coccnuts. Pub. by Inc. Soc. of Planters, Kuala Lumpur.

48. Ti Teon Chuan(1977) The Rubber Research Institute of Malaysia Experimental Group Farming Scheme. A paper given at the Seminar on The Experience and Potential for Group Farming in Asia, sponsored by Agric. Dev. Council, USA. August 1977, Singapore. 49. Turner, P.D. and Shepherd, R. (1978). Cocoa diseases in Malaysia and Indonesia, their present and potential importance. Proc. 1978 Int. Conf. on Cocoa and Coconuts. Pub. by Inc. Soc. of Planters, Kuala Lumpur.

50. Wan Mohd, bin Wan Embong and Chee Yan Kuan,(1976). Maximising returns in immature rubber smallholdings. Proc. RRIM Planters Conf. 1976. Pub. by RRIM, Kuala Lumpur. 51. Wan Mohd. bin Wan Embong, (1977) . Utilisation of ground vegetation in rubber plantation for animal rearing. Proc. RRIM Planters Conf. 1977, 265-281. Pub. by RRIM, Kuala Lumpur.

52. Watson, G.A. (1957). Cover plants in rubber cultivation. J. Rubb. Res. Inst. Malaya, 15, 2-18.

53. Yaacob Tunku Mansur and St.Clair-George M.A. (1979). Oil palm, rubbe& cocoa - a comparative outlook. 8pp. Proc. 1979 Conf. on Investment Opportunities in Agriculture. Kuala Lumpur.

C. INDONESIA

54. Bevan J. (1979) . Credit. 358- I1JD North Sumatra Smallholders Development Project - Full Supervision Report. 25 June.

55. Brandt Van M., Siahan, M.M. and Sunarwidi (19761. Prospects of intercroppins younq rubber with eyeraria thuhq&ma for fodder and proposals for further research. B.P.P.M. Medan, Indonesia.

56. Hutagalung, 0. and Lubis Sj.(1972) Intercroppinq in younq oil palm. Bull. B.P.P.M. Vol. 111, No. 1, March, 33-38.

57. Matondang Habib and Rangkuti Rahman, A. (1978). Intercroppinq with upland rice in smallholder project. Bull BPP Medan, 9(3), 115-124.

58. Newall, W. and Reed, M.E.D. (1976). An estimate of the costs of preparins advanced planting material in the nursery. Note No. 120 of UNDP/FAO Project INS/72/m.

59. Reed, M.E.D. and Sumana, (1976) . Economic aspects of intercroppins in immature rubber and oil palm in Indonesia. Note No. 131 of the UNDP/FAO Project INS/72/004.

60. SmithI R.W. (1979). Cloves in Indonesia: Socio-economic desk study. ODM, UK Report, 5 July,3pp,

61. Sunarwidi and Hutagalung, 0. (1978). Residual effects of intercrop manurinq on rubber qrowth. Bull. BPP Medan, 9(4), 185-191. 62. Suryatna, E.S. and McIntosh, J.L. (1976). Food crops production and control of on small farms. Paper given at the workshop on Alang-Alang (Imperata cylindrica) . Bogor, Indonesia.

63. Terra, G.J.A. Mixed-garden horticulture in Java. Malayan Journal of Tropical Geography.

64. Toxopeus Hille and Hutomo Tri. (1975) . Bulk cacao in Indonesia and the production of improved planting material. AGP/INS/72/004. Working Paw 35. FAO. Medan.

65. Wessel, M. (1973). Cacao cultivation and cacao resear.ch in North Sumatra. AGP/INS/~~/~~~working Paper 20. FA0 Medan .

66. Yogyakarta Rural Development Project. ~echnicalDevelopment - Homeqardens, Bank Working Paper C-4 (a).

D . SRI LANKA

Papers on I' Intercroppinq with coconut" ; "Prornisinq pasture and fodder srasses for I.ntercroppins with coconut"; Agrostology and Intercropping Divisions of the Coconut Research Institute of Sri Lanka.

68. Ariyaratnam E.A. (1978). Develo~mentof cocoa industry in Matale, Kuruneqala and Kandy Districts. A Feasibility Report prepared for the Agricultural .Diversificatioa Division. Ministry of Agriculture and Lands, Sri Lanka.

69. McConnell, D.J. and Dharmapala K.A.E. (1978). The forest-garden farms of Kandy. A paper based on Farm Management Report No. 7, Economic Structure of Kandyan Forest-Garden Farms. FA0 Agricultural Diversification Project, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. 1978.

70. Santhirasegaram, N.(1966). Intercropping of coconu= y&kh special si~ificance to food production. Seminar on Tea and Coconut Industries - Low Country Products Association. 8pp. E. IVOW COAST

71. Anon. (1978). Rapport Annuel, I.F.C.C. Centre de Recherches de ~StedlIvoire, 111, 2, p.42.

72. Anon. (1978). Rapport du Premier Semestre, 1.R.C.A.sQrie Agronomie Physiologie,pp. 10-17,

73. Melis, Rob. (1978). Rapport de stage effectug h 1'IRCA sur 1es cultures intercalaires. 15 July 1977 - 15 January 1978 pp.68. University of Waginingen Dept. of tropical plant technology.

74. SATbl3C1, (1975). Cultures vivrieres en association avec le cafgier ou le cacaoyer.

F. NIGERIA

75. Adeyoyu, S.K.(1976) Land tenure problems and tropical forestry development. FA0 committee on Forest Development in the Tropics, Fourth Session. Rome,Italy. 15-20 November.

76. Ball, J.B. (1977.). Taunqya in Southern Nigeria. Project Working Document NIR/71/546 - 14. UNDP/FAO Forest Development Project. Federal Department of Forestry, Lagos,35pp.

77. Igbozurike Matthias U. (1971). Ecological balance in tropical-g_riculture. The Geographical Review, 61 (IV),519-529.

78. IITA, (1979) Research Highlights 1978. pub.by IITA,pp.53 et seg.

79. Johnson, E.J. and Johnson, T.J. (1975). Economic plants in a rural Nigerian market. Economic Botany, 30, 375-381.

80. Juo, A.S.R. and Lal, R. (1979). Nutrient profile in a tropical alfisol under conventional and no-till systems. Soil Sci. 127, 3, 168-173.

81. Lagemann, J. Flinn, J.C., Okigbo, B.N. and Moorman, F.R.( 1979. Root crop/oil palm farming systems. A case study from Eastern Nigeria. Paper prepared for IITA Friday seminar, 10 October, 31pp. plus tables and references. 82. Lal, R.( 1976 1. Soil erosion prob&l.ms on an alfisol in Western Nigeria and their control. IITA Monograph No.1.

83. NIFOR. Mixed cropping. 3rd Annual Report. p33.

84. Okafor, J.C. ( 1975) . The place of wild gncultivated fruits and vegetables in Nigerian diet. National Seminar on Fruits and Vegetables, Ibadan, 13-17 October. 25pp.

85. Okafor, J.C.(1978). Edible indigenous woody plan% in the rural economy of the Nigerian forest zone. Invited paper prepared for the MAB Workshop on State of Knowledge on the Nigerian Rainforest Ecosystem. 19pp. plus tables and references.

86. Okafor, J.C.(1978). Development of forest tree crops for food supplies 'in Nigeria. Forest Ecol. Manage. 1, 235-247.

87. Okigbo, B.N. and Greenland, D.J.(1976). Intercro~pinqsystems in tropical_frica. Multiple Cropping. ASA Special Number No. 27, 63-101.

88. Okigbo, B.N. (1977). Neglected plants of horticultural and nutritional importance in traditional farming systems of tropical Africa. Acta Hort. 53, 131-149.

89. Sparnaaij, L.D. (1957). Mixed cropping in oil palm cultivation. WAIFOR, 111. N0.7~244.

90. Wijewardene, R. (1978). Systems and energy in tropical farming. 16pp. Paper No. 78-1511, presented at the 1978 Winter Meeting, Amer. Soc. Agric. Engineers, Illinois.

G. CAMEROON

91. Egger, E. Kurt(1978). Lekie-Mbam Agricultural Development Project. Study on improved cultivation techniques and erosion control. Final report submitted to the Government of the United Republic of Cameroon. H. BRAZIL

92. Abreu, J.M., Cruz, P.F.N. and Smith, G.E.F.( 1979). ~bundsnciasazonal dp mandaravs da seringueira Upniiello (LepiQptera: Sphingidae) na Bahia. Revista Theobroma, 9, 1, p. 39.

93. Adilson, E.S.S., Falesi, C.I., Bastas, J. de Verga and ~erreira,J.T.N. 4978 I(?). Productivity of cultivated pastures on low fertility soils in the Amazon of Brazil. (Ref. being sought, but document deposited with the Bank).

94. Alvim, de T. Paulo,(1978). Floresta ~mazgnica: ~quilibrioentre utiliza& e conservac~o. ~ignciae Cultura, 30(1) , 14. -

95. Alvim de T. Paulo, h978). A expansso' da fronte agrimla no Brasil. Paper presented at the First National Seminar on . ~rasclia,22-25 Nov. 32 pp.

96. Arkcoll, D.B.(1979). Nutrient re-cyclinq as an altern_ative to shifting cultivation. A paper presented to the Conference on Ecodevelopment arid Ecofarming. Berlin Science Foundation, pp. 11.

97. Brandt, S.A., Castro, A.M.G. de,Carmo, D.A.S., Junqueira, M.R.A., Milagre, J.S., Araujo, I.C. and Costa, J.R.0.(1973). acaoA. de mercado brasileiro de guarana./ Manaus, ACAR-Amazonas, 21 pp. (~cAi3-~ikie:Estudos de economia agr

98. Brandt, S.A., Carmo, D.A.S.,Rezende, A.M,,Costa, M.A. da, Ladeira, H.H. and Aad Neto A. (1975). Estudo de mercado potencial de guararla' no ~apgo.1975/ 1985. Manaus, ACAR-AM, 46 pp. (ACAR. ~6rie:Estudc de economia agrl'cola do sta ado do Amazonas, 26).

# 99. Cardoso, G. ( 1979) . Perspectivas favoraveis para a produ~zode 61eo de - Jornal "Gazeta Mercantil", 21 Sept. 100. ~orrsa,M.P.F., Cesar J. and Stolberg, A.G.Z.( 197ED.. Embrapa fornece subfdios mra a cultura do quaran;, Manaus. Unidade de EX~CU~~Ode Pesquisa de hito Estadual, 6 pp.

101. EMI3RAPA.(1976). Sistemas de produpgo para (micro-regizo 10). Manaus, Boletim 2. pp. 44.

102. Falesi, I.C. 6976 ) . Condi~gesedgficqasc seringais localizados ki margens de rios largos. ~na-io nacional do seringueira. p.279-300. 103. Goodland, R., Irwin, H.S. and Tillman, G. (1977). Ecological development for Amazonia. cigncia e Cultura, 30 (31, 275-289. lo4. Holliday, P. 4970 1. South American Leaf Blight (Microcvclus) of Hevea brasiliensis. Phytopathological Papers, No.12. Commonwealth Mycological Institute, Kew, England, pp. 31.

105. Loureiro A.A. da Silva, M.F. and Alencar da Cruz, T. (1979) . ~ssencias madeireiras da Amaz2nia. Pub. by INPA/CNP~.p, 8.

106. Mainstone, B.J., McManaman, G. and Begeer, J.J.(1977). Aerial spravinq aqainst South American Leaf Blight of rubber, Planters Bulletin, R.R.I.H. No. 148, January. 107. Moraes, M. F.V. (1978). ~stimulacakoda produ~a'ode latex em serinqais natives.- ~omrnunica~otkico, No. 02, pub. by EMBRAPA. 8 pp. + 108. Moraes, H.F.V. and Concei~ao,H.E. da(L978). ~e/cnicade preparo do CVP em placas finas defumadas . Communicado tgcnico No. 1.pu.b. by EMBRAPA, 15 pp.

109. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C.(.1975). Under-exploited tropical plants with promisinq economic value. 110. Paardekooper, E.C. (1978). Rubber cultivation in Bolivia, UNDP/FAO Bo1/74/031 pp. 21-29. lllc. Templeton, J.K.(1978), Natural rubber. Organisations and research in producing countries. Pub. by IADS, pp. 84-94.

I. COSTA RICA

112. Beer, J.W., Clarkin, K.L., Salas G. de Las and Glover, N.L.(1979). A case studyof trma. aqro-forestry practices in a wet tropical zone: the "La Suiza" project. A paper prepared for the ~nternationalSymposium on "Forest Sciences and Their Contribution to the Development of Tropical America." CONICIT. INTERCIENTIA. SCITEC. 11-17 October, San JOS~,Costa Rica. 113. Budowski, G. (1977) . Agro-forestry in the humid tropics. Report submitted to IDRC by CATI~Costa Rica. 24pp. 114. Budowski, G.(1979). Sistemas asroforestales en America tropical. Paper presented at the International Symposium on the "Forest Sciences and their Contribution to the Development of Tropical Artrerica.", October 11-17, San Jose, Costa Rica, 9 pp.

115. Budowski, G.(1979).. Traditional agro-forestry practices in the wet tropics : the "La Suiza" , costa-~ica,.. . - Case Study. UNU Proposal.

1 Camacho, V.E.(1970). Cultivo de la macadamia. Presented at the "Primer Seminario Internacional sabre ~nsesanzade Cultivos." San JOSQ, Costa Rica, 27 Sept. - 30 Oct. 15 PP.

117. Combe, J. ( 1979) ~dcnicasagroforestales pqa 10s trdpicos h6medos: conceptos y perceptivas. Simposio Internacional sobre las Ciencias Forestales y su contribucio'n a1 Desarrollo de la Amgrica mpical, CONICIT-INTER- CIENCIA-SCITEC. 11-17 October, San Josg, Costa Rica.

110. Combe, J.(1979). Alnus acuminata with grazing and mowing pasture: Las Nubes de Coronado, Costa Rica. Proc. Workshop, Agro-forestry Systems in Latin America, Turrialba, - - Costa Rica, 26-30 March, 199-201.

119. Combe , J. and Gewald, J. Nico. (1979) . Guia de campo de 1'0s ensaps forestales del CATIE en Turrialba, Costa Rica. pp. 378.

120. Ford, L.B. ( 1979) . An estimate of the yield of Cedxels- L. (Syn. _C..mexicanaRoem.)grown in association with coffee. Proc. Workshop, Agro-forestry Systems in Latin America, hurialba, Costa Rica, 26-30 March, 177-183.

121. Fournier, Luis A.0. (1979) . ~idercrops (usior-) in coffee plantations in Costa Rica. ibid. 158-162.

122. Ge wald, N. and Rosero, P. (1979) . Growth of laurel (Cordialin coffee and cacao plantations and pastures in the Atlantic Region of Costa Rica. ibid. 205-208.

123. Hunter, J.R. and Camacho, E.(1.961 ) . observations on permanent mixed croppinq in the humid tropics. Turrialba, Vol. 11 No. 1, 26-33.

124. Mendez, M.B.( 1979). Descripci6n de un sistem agriforestal de recuperaci& de suelos en la zona tropical hkda de Costa Rica. Paper presented at the 1nterna.tlonal Syoiposium on "Forestry Sciences and Their Contributio.~to the Develop- ment of Tropical America". 11-17 October, San JOS~, Costa Rica, 13pp. 125. Molleapaza A.J.E. (1979). ~roduccignde biomasa de poro U2!&hma nneDpiaiana (Walpers) O.F. Cook) y del laurel Gordin (Ruiz and ~avoq)Oken , associadas con, -cafc?. Tesis Mag. Sc. Turrialba, Costa Rica, UCR- CATIE (Quoted by Combe and Gewald, 1979).

126. Stone, D. La def inicio'n de dos culturas distinta s vistas en la antropologfa de la ~me/ricaCentral. mmenaje a1 Dr. Alfonson Cas o. pub. Nuevo Mundo, S .A. ~gxico.

127. Ugalde, A. Luis A. (1979 1. ~escripcigny evaluacign de las prdcticas aqro- forestales en la cuenca piloto de la Suiza. cant& de Turrialba, UNU-CATIE, Turrialba, Costa Rica.

128. Urpi, J.M. (1979). Consideraciones preliminares sobre el desarrollode una tgcnica de polinizacio/n contrdada en pejibaye (Bactris gasipaes, H.B.K.). Paper prepared for co- operative programme of work on pejibaye, ASBANA-MAG- UCR. 8 pp.

129. Vargas, E. and Vilaplana, Marcela. Principales enfermedades del pejibaye observadas en Costa Rica. Revista ASBANA, AGO 3, No.7,~. 8/9.

130. Vega, L. (1979). Profit-rnakinq capacities of reqular plantations as compared y$th the agrosi1vicu~almodel: Surinam. Proc . Workshop, Agro-forestry systems in Latin America, Wrialba, Costa Rica, 26-30, March 107-121.

131. Zaffaroni E., Locatelli EmI Shank M. and Burity A.M.,(1975). ~na(lisisecono'mico de sistemas de produccio(n aqrlcola/ con &£asis en alternativas de labreo y no laboreo. Paper presented at the XXIV Annual Meeting of the PCCMCA, San Salvador, El Salvador, 10-14 July.

132. Zamora, C. Cpstos de producci6n del pejibaye. Revista ASBANA, do3, No. 7., p.11.

J. GUATEMALA

133. Anacafe.(1979) . Memoria de Labores. &o cafetelero, 1978-1979. Subgerencia tgcnica: Unidad de investigaciones en cafe<

134. Carlos, 5.5. ( 1979) . De inter& para 10s productores de cardamno. "~nacaf6 ", May, 1979, 37-40.

135.Escobed0, Luis M.(1979,). El Catimr. La agricultura gana un nuevo aliado en su lucha contra la roya del cafeto."Anacaf6", May 1979, 30-34. 136. Estrada,. G. (1979) . Guidelines for Project 520-T-026. An untitled paper given to GAW and deposited with the Bank.

137. Fumagalli A. and Waugh, R.K.(1977). Agricultural Research in Guatemala. Presented at the Bellagio Conference, October 1977. Bellagio - Italy. 26pp.

/ 138. Morales, R.H.F.(1979).Alternativa de nuevo y faciles cultivos en zonas tropicales. El Maranon "~nacafg'. June 24-28.

K . JAMAICA

139. Coconut Industry Board, Jamaica, West Indies,(19731. 13th Report of the Research Department, July 1972-June 1973. p.10 p.33.

140. Coconut Industry Board, Jmaica(l977). 17th Report of the Research Department (1977).

141. Coconut Industry Board, Zamaica,(1978). 37th Annual Report and Accounts for year ended 31st- December 1978. 142. Smith, R.W.(1968). Coconut intercrops other than cocoa: principles of intercropping in coconuts with particular reference to bananas and pasture. "Ccxoa and coconuts in Malaya." pub. by Inc. Soc. of Planters, Kuala Lumpur, 87-95.

143. Smith, R.W. (1970). The Malayan Dwarf supercedes the Jamaica Tall coconut. 2. Changes in farming practice. ~lgacjineux,25e 1 annee, No. 11, 593-598.

144. Smith, R.W. (1972) . The optimum spacing for coconuts. Olgagineux, 27e annde, No. 2, 73-86.

L. THE PHILIPPINES

145. Margate, R.Z.(1978.), Intercropping studies at the Philippines Coconut Authority. A paper presented at the Fifth National Coconut Consultation: Cultural Management, PCA. Davao Research Centre, Nov. 17-18. 16 pp.

146. Reyes, G.D.(1976), Agri-silviculture: a multiple use~_alsrnative. Agri-silviculture, May, 8-10. Table 2: YIELD PER RAI L/ OF VARIOUS INTERCROPS

Number of Yield Intercrop Range Holdinss per rai

Pineapples - fruit Bananas - bunches Upland rice - kg paddy Peanuts - kg unshelled nuts Maize - cobs Sweet potatoes - kg

-1/ 1 rai = 0.16 ha

Table 3: YIELDS OF SWEET AND GLUTINOUS CORN

Yields per hectare Yields per rai Crop & Station planted of rubber Mean weight No. cobs No. cobs per cob kg kg A- (000) (000) ( gm)

Sweet Corn Khlong Thorn 5,120 59.7 615 7.2 85 RRCT 2 I 660 33.4 319 4 .O 80 Surat Thani 8,000 66.8 960 8 .O 120

Glutinous Corn Khlong Thorn 5,120 58.9 6 20 7.1 87 RIU3T 2,270 29.5 272 3.5 78 Tarn Toe 4,210 49.4 505 5.9 86 Table 4: MAIZE - YIELDS OF FRESH COBS (kg/rai)

Tarn Toe Variety Multiple range Khlong mean test 5% all Variety Actual at 90% RRCT Khuntule exclud- sibs, includ- stand ing K.T. ing K.T.

Sweet Corns HS E-2 1,681 2,360 880 1,618 1,823 HS E-1 1,459 2,436 678 1,715 1,455 HS 1,656 2,364 431 1,891 1,391 1,646 Site mean 1,599 2,387 663 1,741 1,556 1,632

Glutinous Corns P.G.S. 20 1,579 1,960 428 1,770 1,286 1,672 Khaen-on 1,394 1,496 675 1,715 1,173 1,462 Khao-nyeow 927 1,888 399 1,261 1,291 1,480 Tien 1,038 1,372 371 1,079 1,336 1,263 1 Site mean 1,235 1,679 468 1,456 1,272 1,469

LSD 5% 511 511 386 588 390

Table 5: MAIZE - COB WEIGHT AND NUMBER

No. cobs/plant &an cob weight (g) Variety Tarn Toe Khlong Thorn Tarn Toe along Thorn Sweet Corns HS

Glutinous Corns Khae n-on Tien Khao-nyeow P.G.S. 20 Table 6: SORGHUM - YIELD OF DRY SEED (kg/rai) ON ASSLTMED 90% STAND -1/

Variety Khlong Thorn Khlong Thorn Khunt ule Khuntule (a) (b) (a) (b) Early He gari TSP 748 IS84 IS 8719 IS 9278 TSS 1-12 TSS 1-10 TSS 17-1

------1/ Actual harvest stand in brackets.

Table 7: MLTNG BEAN - YIELDS (kg/rai) ON ASSUMED 90% STAND -1/

------Variety Variety Tarn Toe Khlong Thorn Khuntule Thalang Means

Shiny green 207 ' (83) 86 (55) 253 (34) 35 (43) 145 Rough green 239 (851 136 (55) 171 (51) 129 (47) 168 Black 439 (44) 118 (51) 187 (46) 43 (37) 196 Red (439)2/ (76) 303 (61) 234 (61) 356 (75) (333)

Site means (331) 161 2 11 141

-1/ Actual stand % at harvest in brackets. -2/ Rat damage, assumed yield as of Black variety. Table 8: EFFECT OF INTERCROPPING ON R'BBER TREE: GROWTH - EXPERIMENTAL TREATMENTS

Treat- me nt 1972 1973 1974 number

4 Mungbean ) Mungbean ) Mungbean ) 1 - Bambarra ) Mungbean - ) Upland Rice Bambarra ) Yam-bean ) Groundnut)

5 1 Groundnut - 1 Groundnut Upland Rice I Groundnut Upland Rice

6 Groundnut Watermelon sunf lower ) Sunflower 1 ) Upland Rice 1 Upland Rice Dwarf Castor Dwarf Castor)

7 1 Sweet Potato Sweet potato Sweet Upland Rice ( Sweet Corn Upland Rice I Corn -1/ One row in the center of each inter-row.

Table 9: EFFECT OF INTERCROPPING ON RUBBER TREE GROWTH - TOTAL TREATMENT INCREMENTS (cm) AS A PERCENTAGE OF LEGUME COVER

Treatment Percentage Girth at June 1974 RRIM 600 GT 1 RRIM 600 GT 1

Legume cover

Intercrop No. 4 NO. 5 No. 6 NO. 7

Mean of Intercrop

Naturals

Naturals + Ploughing Tdle 101 YEW AND ECONOMIC COXSIDERATIW OF INTEXROPPING IN COCONUTS (1973-74)

Yield Netreturn Energy equivalent Gross ~etarea per unit of anuunt of of harvested Intaraop Scientific Name Variety area of produceha L/ coconut intercrop cOZt of cultivation (million K ---- (t/ha) ----- Gal.)

1.28 10.15 Ele&an: Foot Yam - Amr@¶o~aluscompanulatus bed. 12.85 16.06

Cassava mihot utilissima 1.165 10.51 11.90 1.37 16 .SO

Sweet Potato IpomDea batatas H.42 9.53 13.61 1.00 11.46 1.70 17.14 Yam Dioscorea alata bcal 12.72 15.90 1.29 12.06 Lesser Yam Diosforsa esculenta Local 9.00 11.25 9.23 1.83 2.94 Coleus --Coleus barbatus bcal 6 .OO (Chinese Potato)

Ginger Zingiber officinarum Rio de Zaneiro 11.57 17.80

-l/ Hectare gross area of coconut plantation.

Table 11 r TOTAL PRODUCTIVITY OF COMNL? AN3 COCOA IN A FOVR YEAR IUXCD (IFIOPPING mERIF!Q?T

Average yield of coconut palm plant -.wpulation Annual increase in productivity Treatment pr heere (nuts/palr$year) per hectart over the pre-experi- Before After mental level Coconut Cocoa planting planting Rcspanae Coconut Coax (dry hans) coma mc~a (No. of nuts) (kg]

Coconut alone 175 - 73.25 120.39 47.14 8,249

Coconut and sinqle hedge cocoa 175 350 66.50 112.03 45.53 7,932 200

foconut and double hedge cocoa 175 6 50 50.45 108.95 58.50 10,237 2 75

Table 12: YIELD DXTA DUiUHG 1973-74 OF DIFf'EREWT CIMPS IN AN 0BSERVATIC)NAL TRIAL CR4 MU?LTISTOKEYED CROPPRIG AT CPCRI INITIATED IN 1970

Coconut Cocoa Total yield St. Gross Yield of nuts/paIiiyear Nuraber Total nc. of No. Treatment area 7' re- Average of two of of pods pineapple (m2) pah treatment years. 1972/73 plants harvested (kg) average and 1973/74

1 Coconut 6 &cod 1,000 26 57 -92 82.40 77 310

2 Coconut 6 pinapple 6 coma 1,000 20 61.35 87.53 75 945 40 2 3 Coconut 5 cocoa 5 pepper 910 17 57.50 73.25 6 8 834

4 Coconut 5 cocoa 6 i pepper 5 pineapple 9 20 15 50.16 65.79 50 411 192 Table 131 ESTIMATED EXPENSES AND GAINS POR INTERCROPPING COFFEE IN CCCONVTS OVER 1974-78, WITH 60 COCONUTS & 480 CODTEE PlANTS

Ilarvesting, Treatuent Planting Planting Weed Insecti- Cultivation, Fertilizers pulping & liarvesting pertili~ers Material Material Control cides vaterCng,etc for coffee hulling of coconuts for coconuts Total Costa ...... (bahtn)------

Costs vith coffee 240 960 2,858 4,984 3,618 9,577.20 750 1,459.15 4,536.44 Coffee 22,987.20 Coconuts 5,995.59 (No weeding cost allo- cated to coconuts)

No Coffee 960 1.748.05 4,536.44 Coconuts 7,244.49

Number of Incoue from Yield of Income from Total IncoIm Net incorm/ral Treatuent nuts coconuts coffee coffee over 4 years (bahtn) (kg) (bahts) (baht61 (ballts)

Returns with coffee 8,403 10.509 50.02 2,601.50 Coffee 2,601.50 (6,311.36) Coconuts 18,509.00 3,754.02

No Coffee 10,115 22,352 Coconuts 22,352.00 4,532.25

1/ Last column gives net loas or profit per rai, all other colwnns give mats per 5 replicates in the experiment.

Source: 1973 Annual Report of Coconut Research Station, Savi, Thailand. Table 14: MALAYSIA - ECONOMIC RETURNS FROM CULTIVATION OF GROUNDNUT, MAIZE AND SOYA BEAN PER HECTARE IN SMALLHOLDINGS

Unshelled Returns -1/ groundnut Maize Soy a be an

Yield 3,348 kg 26,982 cob 1,233 kg

Price 48 ct/kg 4.3 ct/cob 80 ct/kg

Gross income (with family labor) $1,607.04 $1,160.22 $ 968.00

Net income (with hired labor) $ 506.45 $ 706.93 $ 406 .OO

------

-1/ Currency - Malaysian $.

Table 15: MALAYSIA - YIELDS AND RETURNS FROM FOUR VARIETIES OF BANANA FOR TWO YEARS

Yield (kg/ha) Family returns per ha. Variety Total 1st harvest 2nd harvest over two years

Nangka

Berang an

Mas

Rastali Table 16: COST AND REVENUE OF COCOA/OIL PALM INTERCROPPING -1/

Density/ha Mean Annual Yield -2/ Cost ($) Revenue ($) Treat- Total Total Net % ments Cocoa Oil Palm Cocoa Oil Palm Cocoa Oil Palm Cost Cocoa Oil Palm Revenue Revenue Prof it (kg/ha) (t/ha) ($1 -3/ -4/ ($1 ($)

-1/ Currency - Malaysian $. -2/ Yields of oil palm and cocoa are based on mean of 1975/77 production. -3/ Cocoa revenue is based on ex-farm price of $1.50/kg dry bean, derived from 20 years (1957-1976) average London spot price of f382.05/t (Gill& Duffus, Cocoa Market Reports 1977) less 10% freight and other trade discount, and an ex- change rate of $4.36 to £1. -4/ Oil palm revenue is based on that used by Paterson (1969) and Harcharan (1976); with an assumed oil extraction rate of 20% and ex-farm price of $333/t, while kernel at 4% f fb and ex-farm price of $319/t. Table 17, WYSIA - CCCOHGT SbL4LLHOLOERS' DWFLOPWNT PR[*TEC?' CROP COMPONENT - YIELD ASSUMPTIONS

I COCOOU~IevIantlnn I Coconut Iehabllltatrd 1 CO:O~ intercroppln~ t toffee lntercro~~ins I Camhew nut intercro~~in~ I H.T. (10% of rehab. area)l WUA rcplantinu I Averanc 45 palu/a= 1 ~vera~e300 mcanda/acre 1 4ver@ge 300 eta~dc/@cre I Average 10 etandr/acrr I rlcul I Plcul 1 Plcul 1 Lbs wet Lbr dry I Plcul Lba dry Ky I Plcula raw Lbs raw I Nura/ copra1 u I nut./ copra/ I Nut./ copra/ ~g I beans/ beans/ ~g dry 1 berriecl bmana coffee/ I k*rn*la/ ~erne~.~ Ymar 1 acre acre copra/ha I acre acre copra/ha 1 acre acre copralha I acre acre boanhlhr 1 acre acre ha I acre acre Lylha I I I I I I I I I I (plantlna) I - -1 - - 1 1.150 4.5 610 1 - I - I I I I I I I 2 I - - -I - - I 1.150 4.5 670 I - I - I I I I I \

1.100 660 695 127.0 3b0 405 1 3.5 465 525 I I 1.250 500 560 I 30.4 405 55 1 4.6 615 685 1 I 1.375 580 650 1 34.0 655 505 1 6.0 BOO 895 I 1,650 580 650 136.0 455 505 I 1.1 1.025 1.150 I onvard onward onvard I onward ooward onward 11 1 2,320 9.1 1.360 1 6.525 21.15 3.250 1.450 580 650 1 I I I I I 1 I 1 2,320 9.1 1.360 16.525 11.75 3,250 1.450 580 65U I I I I I I 13 oow. 1 2.320 9.1 1.360 I 6,525 11.15 3,250 1.450 510 b5U / I

-Note: - I picul - 131.1 lb - 60.45 ka - I picul 01 copra - 300 MY* nuts - 255 U.T. nutr - Hat10 wrlghc of dry cocoa to welght of wet bean. - .40. - Patio wcitht of dry beans to w8lght ui coftee berrles - .lo. Table 18: MALAYSIA - COCONUT SMALLHOLDERS' DEVELOPMENT PROJECT CROP COMPONENT - ACREAGE OF INTERCROPPING SINCE INCEPTION OF cR/RS (1963)

Hlxed Other Year Maize Pineapple vegetables Banana Coffee Cashew nut f rults Cocoa Total

Total

Total

Total Table 19: MEAN HYBRID COCOA PERFORMANCE UNDER EXPOSED CONDITIONS

Hybrid group man No. Yield -1/ Bean Pod Corrected 2-/ Hybrid groups pro- (kg/ha value conversion yield (kg/ha genies DBE) (9) index DBE 1

- --

1. Aml x U.A. 3

2. Aml x Trin. 2

3. Trin. x U.A. a) Trin. x Na 4 b) Trin. x Pa 5 c) Trin. x Sca 6

4. U.A. x U.A. 3

5. Sabah SG hybrids 2

-1/ Calculated yield based on 30 pods/kg DBE. -2/ Corrected with respect to mean pod conversion index. Table 20: PROGENY PERFORMANCE IN MALAYSIAN COCOA TRIAL

Location: Bagan Datoh Estate Replications: 5 Planted: 1968 Plot size: 7 2 trees

Girth Dry bean yield (kg/ha/annum) Pod Bean VSD Canker value wgt. incidence incidence 8 Yr 1/ (cm) 1st yr2nd yr 3rd yr 4th yr 5th yr 6th yr 7th yr 1-7 yr (rank) (g) (% trees) (% trees)

Aml xNa33 ICS 16 x Pa 7 ICS 60 x Pa 7 ICS 95 x Pa 7 UIT 1 x Sca 6 UIT 1 x Sca 12 UIT 3 x Na 33

Av. Trin. x UA

Pa 7 n.1. Na 32 n.1. UIT 1 n.1. UIT 2 n.1.

Av. near legit. 27.8 228 858 1,035 1,260 1,147 1,559 1,699 1,112 26.2 1.02 66 7.9

Progeny av . 26.3 224 813 1,001 1,229 1,143 1,531 1,623 1,081 27.7 0.95 51 6.9

1 S.E. 2 -0 ------5 3 0.9 0.03 6 2.7 Table 21: FERTILIZER EFFECTS ON COCOA YIELD - SIGNIFICANT ASPECTS FOR MAIN TREAT- MENT BY YEARS - 1973 TO 1976.

1973 1974 1975 1976 Aspect ------(kg dry beans/ha/yrl ------

General mean No N1 N2 Po Pl

MSD -1/ P = 0.05 130 132 171 80

-1/ MSD = Minimum significant difference (P = 0.05) between corresponding treatments.

Table 22: TOTAL NUTRIENT REQUIREMENT BY MATURE -1/ COCOA FOR GROWTH AND PRODUCTION

-1/ 50-87 months - old plants, producing 1,000 kg dry beans/ha/yr. Table 23r AVERAGE IMMATURE PERIODS IN SELECTED FELDA, STATE AND FRINGE ALIENATION SCHEMES, 1970

Type of Number of Immature -1/ Coefficient of scheme schemes period variation (yrsl (%)

FELDA 60 6.9 9.8

State 15 7.8 4.5

Fringe 4 7 8.1 12 .O

Total 122 7.5 19.6

-1/ From field planting to commencement of tapping.

Source: Smallholders Modernization Committee , Report No. 2, February 1974: "Reduction of Immature Period of Rubber for Smallholders I*. Table 24: YIELDS. COSTS AN3 NCCMES FROEl INTEafROPP~G I?]YE XSSOP RREA L/

%turn Total Costs ?lumber to Net excluling Cost of Crop ar.d Location o f Yield Income Family Fan Famiiy Family Ho1dL.g~ Labor ~r.coue Lahr Labor -2/ (kg/ha) ------(Rp/ha) ------

1974 Wet Season: -Rice ?/ NSSOP Babussalam I/

%re and Yaize NSSOP - Rice - Maize aatussalm - Rice - .-ize t

1975 Dry Seascn: -Xalze NSSDP Babussalm

Green Gran NSS5P

Yaize and Green Grun .-q--.r-ar? - .Waiz~ - Green Sabussalam - :-iaize 487 39,337 30,267 (16,553) 8,970 46,325 - G-een Gram 176

-1/ %e figures refer to one hectare of Nbber, not to one hectare of intercrop. On the NSSDP, ~rticipa~ts are required to leave a one-meter strip on either side of the rubber rows; in practice the strig was generally half a meter wide, and someths less. If one-meter strips are left, the effective area i~ter- cropped is 75% of the rubber area (the inter-row distance is 8 mters on NSSOP blocks); if +% strips are only half a mter, the area intercropped is 87.5% of t?e rubber area. -;/ Family labor is value2 at 300 @/man-day. -?/ All rice yields are in kg dry paddy per hectare of dber. -4/ Figures in 2arenthesis are negative. -5/ aabussalam is a villa- of mainly Javanese people, not a part of +he NSS5P but is +Ae Labut.am Baru rsqe2c:i in Kecenatb? Merbau. Table 25: STRUCTURE OF TYPICAL SMALLHOLDERS FARM - MATALE, KUNUNGALA AND KANDY DISTRICTS IN SRI LANKA

No. of farmers Average no. Average Average no. growing the of trees number for the Crop species (togeth- (per farmer Per whole er with cocoa) growing) acre sample 1.

Coffee

Jak

Coconut

Pepper

Arecanut

Breadfruit

Kitul

Cloves

Nutmeg

Rubber

Cattle (No. of heads)

-1/ Size of sample = 39. Table 26: INTERCROPPING - RESULTS 1977

Duration No. days Fertilization Crops and varieties Yield of cycle worked Mean kg/ha) (days) N P K (units/ha) Maize : 1st cycle: CJB 151 Fertilizer 2nd cycle: TUXPENO (Maize-Maize) 330 104 CSpt-Jan) 151 trials TUXPENO (Rice-Maize) 1,523 104 (spt- an) 151

Rice : 1st cycle: IGUAPE-CATETO 2,500 132 (Mar-Jul) 2nd cycle: DOURADO PRECOCE 637 107 (Spt-Dec)

Groundnut: 1st cycle: Local variety 962 140 (Mar-Aug) 2nd cycle: Local variety 515 145 (Spt-Jan)

Igname : Dioscorea data 13,120 269 (Mar-Dec) Dioscorea cayenensis 13,458 296 (Mar-Jan)

Manioc : Local variety 23,523 297 (Mar-Jan) 136 Fertilizer trial

Plantain Banana: Local variety 4,640 360 (Mar-Mar)

-1/ The following has been applied per plant for a density of 1,024 plants/ha: - 500 g of dolomite and 200 g of phosphate in July 1977 - 40 g of urea per month - 120 g of KC1 every two months. Table 27: ESTIMATE OF THE AGE STRUCTURE OF NIGERIA'S FARMERS

(in the text - p.33)

Table 28: CROPS IN ORDER OF MAGNITUDE BY AREA, GROWN IN PRIVATE TAUNGYA IN SOUTHERN NIGERIA

(in the text - p. 34)

Table 29: ESTIMATED YIELDS OF AGRICULTURAL CROPS FROM TRADITIONAL AND DEPARTMENTAL TAUNGYA IN SOUTHERN NIGERIA (kg/ha crop)

(in the text - p.35) Table 30: INTERCROPPING EXPERIMENT IN OIL PALM (EXPERI- MENT 33-1) - YIELD OF FRUIT BUNCHES IN lb/ac

A B C D E Treat- Two years' Intercropping Weed cover Weed cover Leguminous ment intercropping to exhaustion slashed slashed cover (yams, maize, (yams, maize, regularly once a year Year cowpeas,okro) cassava, coco- yam) ...... (b) ------

1945 2,434 2,711 1,991 1,961 1,984 1946 4,412 5,340 4,215 2,747 4,262 1947 7,047 7,364 7,049 5,393 6,584 1948 6,520 6,909 7,108 5,178 6,972 1949 7,601 8,688 7,628 6,073 7,363 1950 6,065 4,736 6,009 5,342 6,840 1951 4,418 5,016 3,471 2,948 4,064 1952 5,615 5,992 6,841 5,561 6,496 1953 10,357 10,196 7,555 7,502 10,302 1954 7,627 7,613 6,101 6,269 6,882 1955 8,932 10,738 8,408 9,614 8,493 1956 7,427 8,091 9,482 8,522 9,228

Tota1 78,446 83,394 75,858 67,110 79,470

Table 31: INTERCROPPING EXPERIMENT IN OIL PALM (EXPERI- MENT 33-1) - CROP YIELDS IN lb/ac

A B Treat- Two years ' Intercropping to exhaustion ment intercropping Year Seed yams Seed and Seed yams Seed and Maize Cassava Cocoyam planted ware yams planted ware yams (dry (tubers) (tubers) harvested harvested qrain] Table 32: INTERCROPPING EXPERIMENT IN OIL PALM (EXPERI- MENT 704-11 - YIELD OF FRUIT BUNCHES IN lb/ac

Control Natural cover Intercropping Continuous Years Legdnous cover slashed annually every 4 years intercropping with manuring

Table 33: DATA FROM OIL PALM AND COFFEE EXPERIMENT IN NJALA (SIERRA LEONE) - EXPERIMENT 910-4

Yield of coffee Yield of palm Total

-. (fresh cherry) (fruit bunches) weight Treatment of (Ib/acre, or (&/acre, or produce lblbush/annum) lb/palm/annum) Ilb/acl

A.Pure stand of coffee & oil palm. Oil palm 30ft 1,416 - 1,742 4,041 26,944 6,694 4,218 -1/ triangular (55.6/acre) . (4 -08) (72.7) Coffee 10ft.sq. (435.6 per acre)

B-Oil palm at 30ft tri- angular with 1 row in 3 471 - 574 2,632 18,943 4,762 5,336 omitted (37.l/ac) . Cof- (3.62) (70 -9) fee at loft .sq. in wide interlines (130.l/ac)

C.Oil palm at 30ft x 40ft (36.3/acre ) . Coffee in- 951 - terplanted at loft.sq. (3 -06) ( 286.7/acre)

D.Oil palm at 30ft.sq., with alternate palms in alternate rows omitted 1,058 - (36.3/acre) . Coffee at (3 -66) l0ft.sq. in the hollow squares so formed (289.2/acre)

-1/ i-e. half an acre of coffee and half an acre of oil palm. Table 34: SOCAPALM OUTGROWER PROGRAM, 1977/79

(in the text - p. 44) Table 35: RAINFALL AT DENPASA OIL PALM PLANTATION BELEMI BRAZIL. MEAN DATA OVER 1968/78

Month Rainfall (rnm) Days

January

February

March

Apri1

May

June

July

August

Septemkr

October

November

December

Total Table 36: SWMY OP CXPI~RIbfNI'S(W TAW(XA SYSWM Al' Ml'IE

- -- Author locatiai Species & Spacing Associated Crop lksi y 8 Treatment Period of Final Results Status - hrc11 1979 & Area - Trial l'aingya Trial 1 Bajo Qiino %ietenia hunilis Coriandim sati~ Factorial experiment Cordia alliodora and (3nl y Cordia al liobra Cucunis sativun in divided plots: 16 sill-vives Avel i~ioAgui rre 4,608 mZ 'ma Cucurhita maxima plants per sp./ 2 Cul)ressis liriitanica treetnlen ts/4 repli- priate for Ta~ngya cations system 3x3m

Tamgya Tra Bajo Cordia alliodora Blocks at randan VIII-1974 - Same maize production CP 7.7m2/ha San lntcas Cuttings an corn- in divided plots: VII - 1975: for both periods, mre = 7.70 2 swings ecanornical with agro- a Mai~n,Miioz 2.500 m2 ~leteolant: 41.280 pl ./ha, cuttings and conplete 6 = 6.46 m 2.5 x '2.5 m with 6 without plants with 5 repli- forest~y,better sur- fertilizer cations vival & initial gmwth Ihinned April 1979 . with cuttings

Tai~igyaTrial 3 Florencia Eucalyptus Qgltlpta nlocks at randan I-XII-1976: Association of nlaize 1-1977 - XII-1978: Norte with 5 replicatims 2 swings without fertilizer Current annual Carloshim 7.794m2 2.5x2.5mand 40,000 and 50.000 lmrs cost of plan- hlcremcnts: pl./ha, with and tation by 50-665. No Td 3.1 - 3.7 dyr without fertilizer negatim influence of maize on E. deglupta ih= 3.1 - 4.9 dyr

Tamgya Trial 4 Florencia QlElina arborea Blocks at random VI-1977- Netgainwithassocia- I-XII-1977: Norte bttings with 5 ~rplications IV - 1978: tion of two crops: Thinning in 1 x 2 m: Silvestre 8,000 m Ix2mand 40,000 pl ./ho 2 sowings t! 3,599 to C 8,22O/ha, 50! systematic and I%man&z 8 2x3m depending m spacing selective Audio Fkrios Phaseolus vulgaris ($laC8. 54) 'Ihinning in 2 x 3 m: var. Extender 0-30-40-501 selective. (green beans) Evaluation of sprouts. and

Tangya Trial 5 Caqw Teminalia ivorensis Blocks at random VI-1978 - Better survival and 111-1979: -' -' in divided plots: V - 1979: initial gmwth with Fi = 85 an (cuttings) Jaime &gnc 40,000 pl./ha cuttings and conplete 2 swings cottings, better nlants with 5 re~li- resdts obtained by 6 = 108 on (conplete Vi a un 'culata cations association of maize plants) "-7 in mtaticn with and beans crop pin^ cont hues Phaseolus vulgaris var. m.1aItem. 100.000 pl ./ha Table 37: a3SrS OF PLPlYG AM) WNTEMME IN ?HE FIRST YUR OF TNNGYA SISIBI TRIALS AT GUIE

TALNGYA 1: four species (1962) at &,is line Plantation only Tamgya system (variorrs cmps)

Plantation without fertilizer Tauigya system w/o fertilizer, with maize Plmtaticm with fertilizer Tamgya system w/fertilizer, with maize

MGfA 5: Eucalyptus &glupta (1976) Plantation without fertilizer Tamgya system w/o fertilizer, with maize amgya system with fertilizer, with maize Plantation without fertilizer Tamgya system w/o fertilizer, with maize CTamgya system with fertilizer, with maize

P? wtation only - Taungya system with maize Taungya system with beans " iTamgya system with maize + beans

Plantatian only Tamgya system with maize + kms Tamgya system with -a + maize Tamgya system wjmaize + cowpea in rotatian W/ mize + beans

,300 ,200 ,100 1OJ ZOO, 300 , > 4 Cost of plantatidha in % of Net pmfit per ha in % of cost mst of "plantaticn only" of "plantation only" Table 38 : YIELD WT.4 Ct.: FOOD CWPS GROl1X ON 'iXlh'GY.% TRIALS, GZTIf (in kg/ha)

T-GYA !: Cordia alliodora (1974) 1st season Plantation only without fertilizer Taungya system w/o fertilizer, with maize 1,850 Plantation only with fertilizer Taamgya system w/fertilizer, with maize 1,890

TALPJGYA 3: Eucalyptus deglupta (1976) E Plmtation only without fertilizer :{ Tamgya system w/o fertilizer, with maize 1,338 1 Tamgya system with fertilizer, with maize 1,445 N Plantation only without fertilizer Tamgya system w/o fertilizer, with maize 1,293 system with fertilizer, kith maize 1,355

TALKGYA 4: Cmlina arbo~a(1977) mize beans 1st season 2nd season 1st season 2nd season Plantation only Tamgya system with maize Taungya system with beans Tamgya system with maize + beans Plantation o~y Tamgya system hit!! maize Tmgya sys tea htt? beans Tamgya system with o&ze + beans

TA!NCN.9 5: Tenninalia ivorensis (1978) maize beans cm'pea 1st season 2nd season 1st season 2nd season 1st seasor, 2nd season Plmtation only Taunaa system with mize + beans 10,733 430 ear af corn Taungya system with cowpea + maize 1,078 5,077 Taungya system with maize + Us'qea in rotation with maize + beans 6,833 784 140 1,973 ear of corn

.a1 c!ata obtained from respective thesis on taungya trials. See Cornbe & Gehzld (1979) for details. Table 39: EFFECT OF SPACING DENSITY ON YIELD OF MALAYSIAN DWARF AND MAYJAM HYBRIDS (PERA SPACING EXPERIMENT, S/4, 1977)

Average Density No. of nuts No. of nuts Trunk Crown Variety spacing per palm per acre height radia (ft) palm/acre (ft) ( ft)

M.D.

Mean - 47.9 5,602 -1/ 9.8 2/ 12.4 L/

15.6 178 28.5 5,075 15.1 15.9

17.6 141 40.2 5,686 14.3 15.8

M.D. x J.T. 19.6 114 42.5 4,829 13.1 15.6

21.7 93 50.2 4,648 12.2 14.5

23.9 76 65.5 4,982 11.4 14.7

Mean - 45.4 5,044 13.2 -2/ 15.3 -1/

-1/ Indicate Sig. Diff. at 1%. -2/ Indicates Sig. Diff. at 5%. Table 40: EFFECT OF SPACING COCONUT PALMS IN WIDE ROW PLANTINGS (ORANGE RIVER SPACING EXPERIMENT, S/6, 1977)

-

Spacing Palms/acre No. nuts No. bunches No. nuts NO.? flower $ No.nuts (32.5ft row per palm per palm Per per inflor- Set per ac (ft) spacing) bunch e s cence 12.5 107 56.8 12.2 4 -6 16.1 30 .O 6,078 13.5 99 63.2 12.1 5 -0 20 .o 26.1 6,257 14.5 92 60.3 12.4 4.7 17.0 27.2 5,548 15-5 86 72 -3 12.8 5.5 18.7 30.6 6,218 16.5 81 68 -5 12.8 5.1 17.3 33.1 5,548 17.5 77 65.4 12-4 5.2 18.2 28.4 5,036 18.5 72 59.7 12.5 4.7 15.4 27 -6 4,298 19.5 69 73.0 12.3 5.8 20.7 29.8 5,037 20 -5 6 5 78.3 12-8 5.9 19.6 26.7 5,090 21.5 62 89.7 12.8 6.8 20.7 32.9 5,561 Mean - 68.7 12.5 5.3 18.4 29.3 5,467 Sig. Dif f. at 5% N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S.

Table 41: EFFECT OF BANANA INTERCROPPING ON COCONUT -1/ YIELDS (UNITY EXPERIMENT C/T/6, 1976 & 1977 -2/)

NO. $' Banana No. nuts No. bunches flowers/ Banana spacings density per palm per palm in£lor- % Set ( ft) plants/ac escence

Control 0 29.2 (38.2) 15.3 (11.1) 8.8(9.7) 21.8 (32.5)

-1/ Warfs planted at 114/acre, 1976 first year of production, and bananas removed at end 1976. -2/ 1977 yields in brackets. Table 42: EFFECT OF COCOA INTERCROPPING ON COCONUT YIELD (SPEING GARDEN EXPERIMENT, C/T/7, 1977)

Treatments No. nuts No. bunches No. nuts No. $ flowers per % Set per palm per palm per bunch inflorescence

Cocoa variety 1 75.2 2 82.6 3 79.7

No significant differences

Cocoa variety 1 83.4 2 74.1 3 80.0

N.S. Sig. Diff. 10% N.S. N.S. N.S.

Control 83.4

Grand Mean 80.2

Table 43: SPACING AND VARIETYEFFECTS ON COCOA INTER- CROPPING IN COCONUTS (SPEING GARDEN EXPERI - MENT C/T/7, 1977)

- - No. pods/tree Wet cocoa/tree ( lb Wet cocoa (Us) Spacing -1/ --'.Var.1 - Var.2 Var.3 Var .l Var.2 Var.3 Var.1 Var.2 Var.3 (ft)

-1/ Cocoa planted in a single row along the coconut interrow, giving (1) 213; (2) 320; and (3) 417 cocoa bushes per acre.