REVISTA - Bogotá (Colombia) Vol. 11 N.° 2 - Julio-diciembre 161 rev.relac.int.estrateg.segur.11(2):161-185,2016

THE NEW HIDEOUT OF COCKROACHES? THE EXPANSION OF THE MEXICAN ORGANIZED CRIME IN THE NORTHERN TRIANGLE OF CENTRAL AMERICA*

Esteban Arratia Sandoval**

ABSTRACT

One of the more latent effects caused by the strategy of confrontation open to organized crime, held in Mexico from the last six years, has been the transfer of the main criminal groups towards the Northern Triangle of Central America. From this scenario, this article’s research aims to answer the following question: Why this territory has become the new headquarters for major Mexican cartels? For this 11 (2). purpose, are analyzed under a qualitative approach, the main factors that have facilitated the expansion of Mexican organized crime in that geographic area. Then, addresses and dynamic connections between Mexican cartels and other criminal organizations operating in the sub region as carriers and gangs. Finally, evaluates the viability of a strategic alliance

* Artículo de investigación, resultado del Proyecto IN201503, “¿Tropas en la calle? Fuerzas Armadas en seguridad pública en México y El Salvador: Una visión comparada”. Financiado por la Academia Nacional de Estudios Políticos y Estratégicos (ANEPE). ** Analista en Políticas y Asuntos Internacionales mención en : 01 de febrero 2016 Seguridad y Defensa. Universidad de Santiago. Magíster en Estudios RevistaRelaciones de Seguridad . Internacionales, Estrategia y Internacionales. Universidad de Santiago. Investigador Asociado Academia Nacional de Estudios Políticos y Estratégicos. E-mail: [email protected] pp. 161-185. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.18359/ries.1875 Recibido Evaluado: 16 de marzo 2016 Aprobado : 22 de marzo 2016 Artículo de investigación The hideout of cockroaches? The new Referencia: Arratia, E. (2016). of Central expansion of the Mexican organized crime in Northern Triangle America. 162 REVISTA DE RELACIONES INTERNACIONALES, ESTRATEGIA Y SEGURIDAD between two actors with greater preponderance in the criminal scene of the area: Los Zetas and Mara Salvatrucha. The paper concludes that, by its geographical location, its porous borders, its weakness institutional and growing sophistication of local criminal groups - transportistas- and gangs, the Northern Triangle of Central America provides spacious opportunities for Mexican drug trafficking expansion

Keywords: Central America; Drug traffic; Mexico.

¿EL NUEVO ESCONDITE DE LAS CUCARACHAS? LA EXPANSIÓN DEL CRIMEN ORGANIZADO MEXICANO EN EL TRIÁNGULO NORTE DE AMÉRICA CENTRAL

RESUMEN

Uno de los efectos más latentes ocasionados por la estrategia de confrontación abierta al crimen organizado, mantenida en México desde el sexenio pasado, ha sido el traslado de los principales grupos criminales hacia el Triángulo Norte de América Central. A partir de ese escenario, el presente artículo de investigación tiene como objetivo responder la siguiente pregunta: ¿Por qué aquel territorio se ha transformado en el nuevo centro de operaciones para los principales carteles mexicanos? Para tal efecto, se analizan, bajo un enfoque cualitativo, los principales factores que han facilitado la expansión del crimen organizado mexicano en esa área geográfica. Luego, se abordan las conexiones y dinámicas entre los carteles mexicanos y otras organizaciones criminales operativas en esa subregión como los transportistas y maras. Finalmente, se evalúa la viabilidad de una alianza estratégica entre dos actores con mayor preponderancia en la escena criminal de aquella zona: Los Zetas y Mara Salvatrucha. El trabajo concluye que, por su ubicación geográfica, sus fronteras porosas, su debilidad institucional y creciente sofisticación de sus grupos criminales locales −transportistas− y maras, el Triángulo Norte de Centroamérica ofrece amplias oportunidades para la expansión del narcotráfico mexicano.

Palabras clave: Centroamérica, México, narcotráfico.

O NOVO ESCONDERIJO DE BARATAS? A EXPANSÃO DO CRIME ORGANIZADO MEXICANO NO TRIÂNGULO NORTE DA AMÉRICA CENTRAL

RESUMO

Um dos efeitos mais latentes causados pela estratégia de confronto aberto com o crime organizado, realizado no México nos últimos seis anos, tem sido a

THE NEW HIDEOUT OF COCKROACHES? THE EXPANSION OF THE MEXICAN ORGANIZED CRIME IN THE NORTHERN TRIANGLE OF CENTRAL AMERICA REVISTA - Bogotá (Colombia) Vol. 11 N.° 2 - Julio-diciembre 163 transferência dos principais grupos criminais para o Triângulo Norte da América Central. Neste cenário, a pesquisa deste artigo destina-se a responder à pergunta seguinte: Por que este território tornou-se o novo centro de operações para os principais grupos de crimes organizados mexicanos? Para este fim, são analisados sob uma abordagem qualitativa, os principais fatores que facilitaram a expansão do crime organizado nessa área geográfica. Em seguida, conexões e dinâmica entre as organizações criminais mexicanas e outras organizações criminosas que operam nesta sub-região como portadores e “maras” é abordada. Finalmente, avalia a viabilidade de uma parceria estratégica entre dois personagens com maior preponderância na cena criminal da área: Los Zetas e Mara Salvatrucha. O jornal conclui que, pela sua localização geográfica, suas fronteiras porosas, sua fraqueza institucional e crescente sofisticação de seus grupos criminosos locais - transportadoras - e maras, o Triângulo Norte da América Central oferece amplas oportunidades para a expansão do tráfico de drogas mexicano.

Palavras-Chave: América Central; México; Tráfico de Droga.

Introduction drug trafficking organizations can be considered a success because it The War on Drugs driven Mexico forced the drug organizations move during the government of Felipe much of its operations outside the Calderon (2006-12) it has been Mexican territory and also caused identified as the main catalyst for a change in the corridors of access the movement of organized crime to the US market. However, at the into the Northern Triangle of Central neighborhood level it can be classified America, Guatemala, Honduras and as a failure because it passed a security El Salvador-producing the so-called of a State other border unprepared to cockroach effect3 as shown in Figure fight criminal gangs or illegal activities 1. This situation can be interpreted displaced from the sending country in several ways: From the standpoint -Mexico-. In short, the cockroach effect of national security, migration caused towards the north Central American by this criminal strategy to combat sector demonstrates the militarized

3 According to Bruce Bagley, the cockroach effect occurs when criminal organizations to avoid detection by the authorities after the light has been lit on them move from one municipality to another, from one city to another, from one country to another; or from one region to another in search of a better context to set and carry out their criminal activities. See: Garzón, 2013, p.12

Esteban Arratia Sandoval 164 REVISTA DE RELACIONES INTERNACIONALES, ESTRATEGIA Y SEGURIDAD approaches can become effective in and this causes a bottleneck, i.e. their task of combating transnational the convergence of routes within a organized crime at the state level, but few access roads and the resulting not at the sub regional level (Servitja clash of groups to control them or Roca, 2012). facilitate the income from their illicit products. To increase the human Figure 1. Central America: Transit and conflict area. and material costs of drug trafficking along the northern border of Mexico, as well as the degree of danger on the roads because of violence generated in disputes - added to the increasing US pressure to intercept Caribbean routes-, posters had to seek alternative routes to Mexico as the traditional gateway to North America, generating incentives for drug racking be relocated on the southern border, using Northern Triangle nations as a Source: Extracted from Pérez, 2014. transit point for the purpose to control the route in its entirety, “turning this Thus, the use of the armed forces in area into a bottleneck through which some states of Mexico, especially almost all the cocaine coming from border, exerted pressure on organized South America, particularly in Bolivia, crime operating in them. This means Colombia and Peru and destined for that the more military presence there, the United States” (Dudley, 2012a, unless border crossings are enabled p.10) as illustrated by the data given for the transit of illicit trafficking in Figure 2

Figure 2: Tons of cocaine seized in Central America (2006-12)

Source: Own production from UNODC, 2012.

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The main Mexican cartels often seek Institutional weakness a path of least resistance for their criminal activities, and in that sense By having a number of structural deficits it seems that the Northern Triangle that encourage the establishment of has become a strategic point for the a relationship between organizations following reasons: drug traffickers and governments based on a transactional paradigm, i.e., logic of exchange between government Geographic location officials or political authorities and criminal groups which is a network of For be between largest cocaine institutionalized corruption replaced producer –Colombia- and the largest the rule of law4. Thus, “the exchanges consumer of it the worldwide - United include admission fee for loads of States-. cocaine in exchange for money; support for a political campaign in exchange Because of its proximity to Mexico for protection for criminal activities; with signs that control traffic routes loyalties changing in parliament it has begun to be used as drug store regarding situations related to organized them. exchange for luxury coastal properties partisan crime; court decisions in cases For the vast expanse of coast which of neglect or deliberate stalling of them provide that avails for the arrival of in exchange for economic benefits; shipments of illicit trafficking by sea. access to prisons for the killing of key witnesses in exchange for thousands of By owning spaces and border regions dollars; or payments to police officers lacking or absent state control points to commit murder” (Farah, 2013, p.91). rule of law that remain unidentified blind-along most of its length. In These links based on a high degree of addition, official adjacent crossings are tolerance by the State -fighting illicit few, far between and do not have the economies marginally or inefficiently necessary equipment or to deter illegal in best cases- are needed to avoid traffic of drugs, arms and people staff disruption of the development of illicit (Ramsey, 2012) operations by the authorities. The

4 Chabat poses that criminal groups may have different types of organization depending on the illicit economy developed and the relationship established with the State. Thus, the relationship between the State and the criminal organization can go through three phases: predatory (low capacity, low relative importance), parasitic (interaction limited between the State and criminals) and finally symbiotic (State structures work to benefit criminal organizations). See: 2008, p.4

Esteban Arratia Sandoval 166 REVISTA DE RELACIONES INTERNACIONALES, ESTRATEGIA Y SEGURIDAD result of this is “the failure of the state and the Caribbean: An evolving as an entity on many levels, which threats, published by the United are actively covered by transnational Nations Office on Drugs and Crime organized crime”(Farah, 2013, p.92). -UNODC- in 2012, the Pacific In sum, States will determine the shape Cartel and Los Zetas have not only or type of the criminal organization taken to Northern Triangle 90% of its that operates and strengthened in a operations to traffic cocaine into the given territory (Garzón Vergara, 2013). United States (see Figure 3), but their battles for plazas5 control located in the sub region, which are fought by Production costs local criminal organizations co-opted by their Mexican counterparts, these The need that Mexican cartels have being the main problem disputes to be close production centers, crime that plagues this area of ​​the which influences the acquires value a subcontinent (Martinez, 2013). substance in the Mexican market against price recorded in Central America. Thus, these nations who survived This means that the closer the Aztecs political violence armed-conflicts and/ criminal organizations where drugs are or military repression during the Cold produced, they can buy cheaper and War now suffer the vicissitudes of a better your profits. For example, “the war between organized crime. Making price level reaching cocaine in Mexico situation that Guatemala, Honduras City -US $ 18,000/kg- compared to and El Salvador in the most violent the price in Guatemala -US $ 12,000 countries in the world, high rates / kg-provides incentives for purchase in of homicides recorded realize that the second region and subsequent sale classification (see Figure 4). on the first, without doubt influencing drug traffickers to move to the southern The link between drugs and criminal border” (Dudley, 2012a, p.11). violence in the Northern Triangle is different to that experienced in Mexico due to the complex interaction The new coordinates of violence of various criminal actors with history, activities and modus operandi According to the report Transnational traditionally different. Thus, those in Organized Crime in Central America the Northern Triangle criminal groups

5 The plaza has been used to describe the territories where they traffic drugs along the border of the United States with Mexico. Most of the major cartels were associated to a specific place, usually focused on one of the two twin border cities. Control the plaza entails an important flow of revenue associated. See: UNODC, 2012, p.19

THE NEW HIDEOUT OF COCKROACHES? THE EXPANSION OF THE MEXICAN ORGANIZED CRIME IN THE NORTHERN TRIANGLE OF CENTRAL AMERICA REVISTA - Bogotá (Colombia) Vol. 11 N.° 2 - Julio-diciembre 167

Figure 3: Influence of the Pacific Cartel and Los Zetas in Central America

Source: Extracted from Pérez Ventura, 2014.

Figure 4: Homicide rate per every 100,000/room Northern Triangle (2006-14).

Source: Own production from ACAPS, 2014

can be classified as Managers and These product obtained illicit traffic Transportistas: directly from the source markets. For reception, storage, transport The managers are the ones who and protection to the final market, control the route and have the they hire local groups monitored power of decision. This role is by them known as transportistas, in exercised in full by the Mexican turn, can act as dealers in the local cartels that are set in the sub region. market as part of their work is paid

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with the product trafficked. (Servitja Because of lax regulations and a long Roca, 2012, p.9) history of smuggling, weapons abound. An impoverished and underemployed Normally the Sinaloa Cartel and Los population is a good source of recruits” Zetas conduct their affairs in the sub (ICC, 2011, p.3). region through local allies mostly. Thus, members of these two rivals The Sinaloa Cartel is already operating drug cartels “usually they negotiate in the Pacific region in Guatemala. agreements, with surprising that Indeed, this criminal organization the Mexican cartels are involved has established strong links with directly in operations carried out major trasportistas Guatemala: The abroad”(Farah, 2013, p.98). Emerging Mendozas -based in the northern conflict between the two models province of Petén apparently you have of transnational organized crime in provided the Mexican drug cartel for accordance with their interests in the more than a decade. The strategy used Northern Triangle: Business model – by the Sinaloa Cartel to expand its Sinaloa Cartel- and territorial model influence in the neighboring country – Los Zetas-. Indeed, each country is mainly based on a business model has experienced changing degrees locally “as a creator of employment of cooperation between non-state opportunities, health care provider, actors -managers and transportistas, as even assuming the role of government detailed below. to eliminate small criminal groups in areas under their control” (TNI,2012, p.9). This action is very different from Guatemala Los Zetas, “who they are based in a vertical structure and brute force, According to the report Guatemala: which may explain the success of Drug trafficking and violence prepared the Sinaloa Cartel to prevent Los by the International Crisis Group, the Zetas take control of the province of outbreak of the Mexican cartels is the Huehuetenango” (TNI, 2012, p.10) latest in a vicious circle of violence and crucial area for drug trafficking. institutional failure episode. Geography has made this country -located at the Meanwhile, Los Zetas have evolved north end of Central America- “in to the point of becoming one of the one of the busiest intersections for greatest threats to domestic security illicit drugs. Cocaine and now the from their arrival in Petén in 2007, ingredients for synthetic drugs entering when they established an alliance by air, land and sea. Hence it follows with the Guatemalan trafficker Mexico en route to the United States. Horst Walther Overdick. They have Added to this is the cool highlands even been identified as the biggest offer ideal climate poppy cultivation. criminal organization with nationwide

THE NEW HIDEOUT OF COCKROACHES? THE EXPANSION OF THE MEXICAN ORGANIZED CRIME IN THE NORTHERN TRIANGLE OF CENTRAL AMERICA REVISTA - Bogotá (Colombia) Vol. 11 N.° 2 - Julio-diciembre 169 presence because approximately 75% peasants in the department of Peten in of the Guatemalan territory it controls May 2011, an episode that has been (Dudley, 2013a).These explosive interpreted as an attack by the cartel increases in its degree of influence to a local drug dealer operating in this tend to be explained in two ways: sector. First, obey the successful tactics of recruitment among members of local Currently they exert territorial control criminal organizations whose leaders over the cocaine trade in the top have been jailed. Furthermore, local five provinces -Petén Guatemala, criminal elements operate according Huehuetenango, Quiché, Alta to logic incompatible with Los Zetas Verapaz and Zacapa- through the and, therefore, prevent this group to band known as The Lorenzanas on recruit local high-level positions within a route that crosses the country from the organization. However, as is well the border with Honduras to the known Los Zetas, whose origin is in border with Mexico as shown in Figure a group of defectors from the former 5. In addition, four other adjacent Airmobile Special Forces Group who municipalities with Honduras and with were initially hired as enforcers for access to the Pacific coast -Chiquimula, the Gulf Cartel in the 90’s- have Jutiapa, Jalapa and Santa Rosa were established links with the former caught by the local group Los Zetas commands Kaibiles unit of Special dominant Lions, whose leadership Forces of Guatemala. These former was shot by Mexican drug trafficking officers have helped this Mexican cartel organization. providing intensive military training in logistics and heavy weaponry to new members, which fits perfectly with the Figure 5:Territorial influence Los Zetas in Guatemala military perspective cultivated by Los Zetas. Which seems to be part of a broader strategy consists in recruiting members to reduce costs Kaibiles indoctrination and training as well as for firearms and grenades Guatemalan military (Bargent, 2013).

As in Mexico, Los Zetas were unveiled at the North Triangle for their extreme violence, instead of gradually cultivate community support and bribe officials and local police, they attempted to take control of the drug routes by strength. One example is the slaughter of 29 Source: Extracted from Martinez (2013)

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Honduras north. The Mosquito Coast, located on the border with Nicaragua lacks state Mexican cartels have participated in presence so it serves as a refuge for local the narcotics industry in soil Honduran groups cooperating with the cartel. Such for at least fifteen years. But after operations are also carried out in other the overthrow of Manuel Zelaya in northern provinces as Yoro, Atlantida, 2009-and the complete disregard Colon and Olancho. Indeed, the for organized crime by the interim Sinaloa cartel controls the production government - served to expand its of ecstasy and methamphetamines- power at the expense of local groups specifically in the department (TNI, 2012 p.10). Indeed, Honduras of Olancho- that are shipped to has become a major transfer point Europe and the United States. There between Colombian cocaine and are also reports that shipments of Mexican cartels -even it is considered pseudoephedrine a precursor for the the main airlift for that substance from production of metanfetaminas- from South America, Venezuela being the Asia and Western Europe pass through starting point-. Honduras under the responsibility of the Mexican criminal group. In An example signal the dismantling of that direction, customs officials have a cocaine laboratory in March 2011, reported that the Sinaloa Cartel use with the capacity to process one ton land routes that cross the border of cocaine belonging to monthly- between Honduras and Guatemala. Sinaloa cartel, which is significantly more powerful than its counterpart While Los Zetas have it has been in Honduras, Los Zetas. In fact, it has detected in the four Northern been speculated that Honduras has provinces: Ocotepeque, Copan, been used by its leader, Joaquin El Colon, and Atlantis (McDermott, Chapo Guzman as a hideout after his 2013). Also, the Mexican cartel recent escape (Gagne, 2015a). has hired former Honduran police officers to provide protection for drug Thus, the Sinaloa Cartel has established trafficking operations, and help with a transport route to mobilize large operations of kidnapping and extortion amounts of cocaine by air and of migrants, one of the principal illicit speedboats between Colombia and activities of this organization drug Honduras before sending it to the trafficker6. Based on the foregoing,

6 The brutal psychological tactics associated with the Mexican cartel are becoming increasingly common in this country because they have proven to be effective in the control of the civilian population, as well as the ranks of organizations. See: Parkinson, 2013a

THE NEW HIDEOUT OF COCKROACHES? THE EXPANSION OF THE MEXICAN ORGANIZED CRIME IN THE NORTHERN TRIANGLE OF CENTRAL AMERICA REVISTA - Bogotá (Colombia) Vol. 11 N.° 2 - Julio-diciembre 171 one can conclude that this criminal of cocaine coming out of Colombia group and has not only representatives and Ecuador, through Central America in Honduras in order to supervise the all the way to Mexico. Thus, the main receipt and transportation of shipments Salvadoran criminal organizations of cocaine from South America, but have strong connections with the has established a formal presence Sinaloa Cartel: Texas Cartel -whose translated into military capability. network operates in the northwest of the country- and Los Perrones -located in the East and around the El Salvador region- have links with the West that criminal group Aztec dating back Following Bartolomé & Sampó (2014), at least to 2002 (Gagne,2015a). the smallest of the Northern Triangle Members of both groups are country meets two conditions that responsible for ensuring that the make it attractive to Mexican cartels. cocaine smuggled from El Salvador to be transported safely from the Pacific First, considering its northern coast to Guatemala or Mexico, where territory –close to the border it is delivered to the Mexican drug with Guatemala- has been trafficking organization. institutionalized as a meeting place for leaders of criminal organizations Instead, The Zetas don’t yet have an not only resolve their differences operational presence in El Salvador, so there, but enjoy impunity needed far, have chosen to occasionally send to design strategies and plans to key members located in Guatemala. enable them to carry out their Although an episode arms trafficking operations. And secondly, the lack case in 2013 suggests a link between of programs to combat money them and the Texis Cartel might laundering and the dollarization of constitute a novel criminal synergy, as the economy, currency movements the local government has increased possible from drug trafficking and pressure on the Salvadoran group7. weapons from there to Europe and the United States. (p.102) Moreover, the sub regional panorama discussed above allows the following In this country, transportistas are scenarios envisage the short and responsible for protecting shipments medium term:

7 213 anti-tank grenades stolen from the Salvadoran army in a house in the central city of the Congo, as signs of the National Civil Police, were going to be used for the Mexican cartel by a shuttle provided by the Texis Cartel were uncovered in October 2013. This version is plausible considering that the Salvadoran group is known for its transportation services to anyone willing to pay, and is involved with several transnational groups. See: Parkinson, 2013b

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First, from the current stage networks at the sub regional level. bipolar-dominated by the Sinaloa Indeed, leading candidates to take over Cartel and Los Zetas presence that role would be the Texis Cartel on and operations of other Mexican Salvadoran ground and Los Mendozas criminal groups smaller in the in Guatemalan territory (Fox, 2012). Northern Triangle seems to have Therefore, the history of drug diffusion more of a complementary residual linking Colombia with Mexico could and therefore the small drug be repeated in Central America in trafficking organizations could light of the relative achievements be annexed by the great. In this of the strategy to combat the Aztec case, the tactical alliances benefit government. the Sinaloa Cartel because of its strong commercial orientation in In a fourth scenario, the fragmentation contrast to the military perspective of the Mexican cartels rather lead to a of Los Zetas. However, this does market of more plural and fragmented not imply that the Mexican cartels drug that would operate from three possess such a capability that allows fronts-Mexico, Northern Triangle and “impose its authority to Guatemalan Colombia. Under the assumption that [Honduran or Salvadoran] criminal the higher criminal atomization, greater because it would require a capacity state control capacity exist, a situation to control social strength and which in principle could be reflected in knowledge of the terrain with only a greater responsiveness on the part of about their area of ​​influence”. governments in the sub region. (Villalobos, 2011a, p.17) Finally, another projection is that the The second possibility would be Sinaloa Cartel and Los Zetas could favorable to small criminal groups, reach an agreement on their respective which eventually inherit trafficking areas of geographical influence - routes along with control of drug flows, advocate a pax mafiosa-. Although but its realization will depend largely the possibility of occurrence is very on two factors: the confrontation low because the differences between between the Sinaloa Cartel and Los criminal actors-from the strategic, Zetas is performed on Mexican soil and operational and organizational-angle the effects of these posters persecution are simply irreconcilable. by the Aztecs authorities.

The third scenario would be that the Unexpected convergence? Mexican weakening of the Mexican cartels, cartels, Trasportistas and Maras. we could see the strengthening and increasing role of the Central American As noted in the previous section the criminal organizations trafficking two main Mexican cartels - Sinaloa

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Cartel and Los Zetas- criminal is noteworthy that prison overcrowding networks have been established in caused by the application of these the North Triangle allying with local repressive measures against gangs actors such as transportistas. However, provided contacts necessary for them they have also forged ties with cells to enter into such circuits, operating as or cliques of gangs, particularly the a facilitator to transition them to new Mara Salvatrucha (MS-13) and Barrio forms of organized crime8. Therefore, 18 (M-18). Now, the question arises: the strategy to combat gangs in what is the origin and how they have Northern Triangle had an unexpected developed these links? effect: a growing intersection between the activities of transnational organized According to Cruz’s arrival gangs to the crime, local criminal groups and gangs. North Triangle during the 90s -product of mass deportation by United States- However, it is not possible to argue It marked the first transition from that this new phase necessarily implies one “model of traditional, local, and lasting agreements between gangs atomized, an organized, hierarchical and other criminal organizations as and transnational identity model” the Northern Triangle it’s difficult gang (Santamaría, 2013, p.66). Then, “establish whether this transition in mid-2000, the adoption of policies has been collective and consensual hard hand against gangs by Central manner or if certain cells or gang American governments plus the members who choose to participate expansion of drug trafficking networks in these transnational organized in the sub region generated a second crime networks is rather limited” transition. (UNODC, 2012, p.13). Indeed, gangs face a number of alternatives ranging Thus, they mutated into a criminal gang from joining these criminal groups to mode “farthest from the traditional gang directly confront them while “each and closer to a model of criminal gang, clica has significant levels of autonomy in which [the gain] extortion and drug to manage their resources, provide for dealing has been accentuated as the their subsistence and manage their moving head of these groups through income” (Garzón Vergara,2014). strategic alliances with other criminal organizations” (Santamaría, 2013, Although there is evidence of alleged p.67) as transportistas. In this regard, it links between some leaders of MS-

8 In October 2012, the Department of the Treasury of United States appointed MS-13 as a Transnational Criminal Organization on the grounds that the gang was involved in cross-border criminal activities, including international drug trafficking. Rating that puts this camera at the same level as Los Zetas, Italian Camorra and Japanese Yakuza. See: Sáiz, 2012

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13 and Barrio 18 structures of drug and relaxed activity in “the appearance trafficking, the truth is gangs as a whole of its members, particularly their facial have not decided to get involved in tattoos denoting allegiance to a specific these criminal networks, rather it is camera, making them unsuitable active members or former members for public interactions in operations who are recruited sporadically to requiring low profile” (TNI, 2012, provide certain services to drug p.8). Indeed, the tactics employed by cartels such as Los Zetas and Sinaloa some kidnappings extortions- like cells Cartel9. Thus, “maras are inserted and demonstrate the lack of discipline into transnational criminal networks and professionalism of criminal gangs, as intermediaries between the main which reinforces the reluctance of players in drug trafficking” (Farah, 2012, Mexicans to establish sustainable links p.57), being responsible, for example, with them posters. protects shipments “from the ports to the interior of the sub region by land, On the other hand, it has stated which gave rise to calls transportistas that the Central American gangs are networks” (Farah, 2012, p.59). strengthening and may control the operations of drug trafficking in the sub From this perspective, the role of region to eventual decline of the main gang members appears to have Aztec criminal organizations. In 2012 “becomes important product the current Assistant Secretary of State atomization resulting from the war of the Bureau of International Narcotics on drugs, in a form of outsourcing” and Law Enforcement Affairs, William (Santamaría, 2014, p.4) but these Brownfield, during a conversation with continue to occupy a secondary role the Colombian newspaper El Tiempo, in transnational criminal economy. said the following: In large part, this is because Mexican cartels conceive Central American Four years ago we started a gangs as unsophisticated and unable multinational effort in Mexico, to solve the problems involved in the dominated by the Mexican management of drug trafficking groups government, and what do we see because they have a more localized today? In my opinion, we are seeing

9 A exceptional case is Moris Alexander Bercián Manchón, alias the Barney - located in the high hierarchy of the MS - who is involved in the transport and distribution of drugs, possibly in the transnational environment, as well as homicides, and possibly, money laundering, being mentioned in a press release from the Treasury Department about gangs: “Bercián Manchón has been involved in drug trafficking operations on behalf of the criminal organization”. Indeed, its possible allies include Texis Cartel and Los Zetas while his main enemy is Barrio 18. In both his ability to establish a transnational network of drugs has been possible thanks to his father, a former Colonel in the Guatemalan army, which allegedly has links with some of the most powerful figures in the Central American underworld. See: Dudley, 2013

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the beginning of the end with the United States uncovered that the beheading of posters and reducing gang participation in drug trafficking its operating capacity [...] they felt operations in the sub region has the pressure from the authorities and expanded as “clicas [or gangs] local their response was violence. What follow international guidelines we know today - we didn’t know established by the group’s leaders to then--is that this was the signal of an make strategic decisions involving organization on the verge of collapse moves into new territories and due to the pressure sustained on recruiting new members” (Cawley, operations in the region. (Vega, 2012) 2013a), added have joined gaining presence by charging a tax of war Thus, the more interaction there transportistas circulating through their between cartels and gangs, both players territories10. However, the idea that will have more opportunities to engage criminal gangs form a complex network in a symbiotic relationship. Under that achieves take control of key links this logic, the gangs could advance of drug trafficking -snatching control of their criminal agenda and increase the routes to transportistas and Mexican their level of professionalism criminal, drug traffickers- it is impractical given which would allow them to acquire their poor organizational sophistication greater prominence in the movement expressed in the lack of “means, the of drugs to the detriment of the Aztecs knowledge, the contacts, the capacity criminal groups. Giving way to a similar to accumulate capital, and the ability situation that occurred in Colombia to use that capital to expand their during the late 80’s and early 90’s: as businesses. They are simply focused the government eroded the capacities organizations ensure their subsistence” of the major cartels -Medellin and Cali- (Dudley, 2013b). from their Mexican counterparts were increasing their power and influence Another reason lies in the sporadic on cocaine trafficking to the United and opportunistic gangs linking with a States to take its role in the geopolitics specific Mexican cartel, in the case of of drugs. This is how the Colombian Guatemala with Los Zetas in Honduras organized crime today seems to be just with the Sinaloa Cartel and Salvadoran a supplier of Mexican cartels. soil with Texis Cartel or failing to Los Perrones. As in any economy -licit or And while recent statement from illicitly- relationships with suppliers, the Treasury Department of the transport agents and buyers are not

10 Statistics suggest that the northern triangle is the epicenter of global extortion, is how Salvadorans paid about US $400 million a year by extortion gangs, followed by Hondurans, who paid about US $200 million, and Guatemalans, with around US $61 million. See: Dudley, & Lohmuller, 2015

Esteban Arratia Sandoval 176 REVISTA DE RELACIONES INTERNACIONALES, ESTRATEGIA Y SEGURIDAD exclusive, that is, each link is free to caused several members of maras opt form bonds with others in the absence to start operations in other countries of a common source of authority of Central America (Daugherty, 2015). or sharing of funds. After all, in a That is, they are producing one second commercial supply chain it is easy to cockroach effect. As a recent report replace a link. of the Judicial Investigation Agency of Costa Rica -Organismo de Investigación Linked to this, the displacement of the Judicial-, members of street gangs criminal operations of the Northern Barrio 18 and MS they have expanded Triangle Mexico has resulted in a their presence in the country since the shift in gears underground economy mid of the last decade. Thus, Costa as drug trafficking organizations tend Rica could become their next hiding to use illicit substances as a means place for the following reasons (Gagne, of payment for their services gang 2015b): members (Dudley, 2012b), then these contract workers directly consume or Some Mexican transnational criminal sell drugs on the streets, which also organizations such as the Sinaloa Cartel contributes to their involvement in they have been active in Costa Rica trafficking networks is residual. from some years ago, So its presence can facilitate their growth. Also for this replacement it would need to materialize that gangs increase The growing importance of the their presence in Mexico -which until country as a transit point has promoted now only restricted to Baja California, a growing local drug market offering Tamaulipas, Chihuahua and Chiapas- huge profits to gangs. (Vega, 2012), will be more difficult than it was for the Mexican cartels Vulnerability to the judicial system migrate to the Northern Triangle against organized crime could enable because the Aztec government has a them to operate relatively quiet. high degree of institutional strength in relation to the countries in this sector Costa Rica doesn’t record a history of in Central America because, as noted mano dura approach as applied in the at beginning of this work, Mexican Northern Triangle to fight gangs. drug trafficking organizations knew precisely exploit state weakness that characterizes this geographical area to Bad partners? Evaluating a develop their illicit trafficking. partnership between Los Zetas and Mara Salvatrucha. From another angle, it has warned that aggressive anti-gang policies In the wake of increasing intersection executed in the North triangle have between organized crime activities

THE NEW HIDEOUT OF COCKROACHES? THE EXPANSION OF THE MEXICAN ORGANIZED CRIME IN THE NORTHERN TRIANGLE OF CENTRAL AMERICA REVISTA - Bogotá (Colombia) Vol. 11 N.° 2 - Julio-diciembre 177 transnational, local criminal groups certainly-. Thus, while “MS members and gangs in the North Triangle, some would gain a wide support network authors like Douglas Farah & Phillips for its operation and expansion, Los Lum (2013) have raised the alleged Zetas acquires the flexibility and existence of a synergy between Los responsiveness of the gang, generating Zetas and Mara Salvatrucha -as a result a greater risk to the governments of of the truce that MS-13 and Barrio 18 Central America” (p.9). launched in El Salvador, between 2012 and 2013- but it is not yet clearly sees However, the differentiated nature what and how viable would be such a of Los Zetas and MS -from the connection. organizational angle and operationally- acts as a potent antibody against a In fact, there have been several possible strategic alliance between the hypotheses about: Salvadoran two criminal organizations (see Table authorities point out that “Mara 1). Thus, the anarchy, indiscipline Salvatrucha wants to increase your and functional autonomy of the arsenal of long-range weapons, Mara Salvatrucha - in contrast to the grenades and drugs for use and to high levels of hierarchy, discipline, sell. They know that the economic professionalism and sophistication that benefit is enormous and Los Zetas, characterize Los Zetas - hinder their being a foreign group, need their subordination to a cartel. Indeed, MS- networks to increase their operational 13 is a complex organization crossed level and thus be able to control all by hierarchies but also horizontal activities: legitimate, illegitimate and relationships between cells or clicas criminal” (Ruiz-Goiriena, 2012). In that don’t necessarily have regular that direction, Scott Stewart, an analyst contact - unlike the Mexican criminal at Strategic Forecasting, says the MS is organization - resulting structure neo- increasingly willing to work with Los feudal character (Garzón Vergara, Zetas “the economic power of the 2014). This means that “it sustained criminal organization, allowing it to by bonds of respect and loyalty in operate in countries such as El Salvador a hierarchy of influence but lacking and reduce it costs to the local market. sophistication allows the organization Thus there is an incentive to cooperate to a high degree of adaptability to a with the organization or risk going out changing landscape” (Sullivan & Elkus, of business altogether” (Associated 2013, p.8). Press, 2012). Moreover, John Sullivan & Adam Elkus (2013) argue that a link While this relative verticality has between Los Zetas and MS-13 could been functional to enforce a truce benefit both parties, understood not that has caused a drastic drop in as a joint venture; rather it would be homicides, it does not apply that has a strategic alliance -highly unstable to do with the local support of gangs

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Table 1: Profile Los Zetas vs. Mara Salvatrucha (MS) Los Zetas Maras Salvatrucha (MS) Type criminal organization Cartel Gang Hierarchy High Medium Structure Vertical Mix Cohesion level High Low Sophistication level High Low Profesionalization level High Low Violence level High High Criminal activity diversification High Low Transnational presence Medium High Source: Own production from Dudley, S. 2012c.

(Garzón Vergara, 2014). Therefore, to that the fact that the provision of as previously it indicated, “each the MS as a whole in the Mexican clica enjoys a significant degree of drug trafficking organization certainly autonomy to engage in business would impact on the feasibility deemed suitable methods deemed of the agreements reached at the appropriate for survival” (Sullivan & cellular level adds. Since each clica Elkus, 2013, p.8). However, this highly is independent, a contract with may decentralized structure rather restricts not necessarily be respected by the the possibilities of achieving a strategic others. For example, ensure the free agreement with Los Zetas. movement along a route located in a controlled by the Mara Salvatrucha In contrast, transient and instrumental could mean negotiate and maintain facilitate cooperation between the a series of agreements with multiple Zetas and the cells of the Mara partners’ unreliable territory. Salvatrucha, since the latter could provide services in the form of In addition, the interpretations of a mercenary soldier’s base. Although link between non-state armed actors such a provision could be provided by completely ignored the “identification other criminal act devoid of baggage of a criminal organization lies in family associated with members of the MS- rituals or -derived occupational ties, 13 as the side with the members of ethnic and religious-that configure that gang, Los Zetas are automatically a hallmark against other groups” would make a powerful enemy: the (Chabat, 2008, p.3). Thus, a franchise Barrio 18, finding himself involved in is established, “understood not only a vicious gang war that obstruct the as a brand but also as a number of development of their activities. Add methods and know-how to develop

THE NEW HIDEOUT OF COCKROACHES? THE EXPANSION OF THE MEXICAN ORGANIZED CRIME IN THE NORTHERN TRIANGLE OF CENTRAL AMERICA REVISTA - Bogotá (Colombia) Vol. 11 N.° 2 - Julio-diciembre 179 certain types of activities” (Chabat, transplantation- It is inapplicable to the 2008, p.5). case of the MS-13 as this camera has its own franchise based on complex In that sense, Villalobos argues that the initiation rituals through which the presence of Mexican cartels in Central will of the applicants to belong to it, America is “part of the coordination expressed in tattoos that identify them between criminal organizations and as part of that band is confirmed. the use of violence as franchises Los Thus, this feature of the MS franchise, Zetas” (Villalobos, 2011b). Indeed, It makes “a highly visible group whose former armed wing of the Gulf Cartel movements are closely monitored by has followed a peculiar mode of the authorities” (Chabat, 2008, p.9) i.e. diffusion as the Northern Triangle “nor which would imply a high risk to the they have only been coordinated with operations of Los Zetas operations11. local criminal organizations, they have developed a model of transplantation” Indeed, “the existence of a MS-13 (Santamaría, 2013, p.70). Particularly brand is evident with the emergence in Guatemala, Los Zetas have of bands that use the franchise in successfully expanded the scope of Mexico, which have copied the its operations “by incorporating local structure and modus operandi of actors as members of his organization, the original version” (Chabat, 2008, the paradigmatic expression of p.9). Therefore, “the structure this model are the recruitment of reproduces itself in other companies Kaibiles” (UNODC, 2012, p.15). From with similar conditions -high poverty, this perspective, the existence of a marginalization, inequality and lack military training and a similar code of economic opportunity- through of conduct between Kaibiles and Los know-how; inevitably it manages Zetas may have facilitated the spread information across national borders” and eventual transplantation of this (Chabat, 2008, p.10). This situation organization in Guatemala. has affected “There is no intent to monopolize or structure of the MS-13 Although the preferences share violent or criminal activities; by contrast, it has methods seem to be a good incentive cooperated with copies to carry out its for cooperation between the Zetas operations in Mexico” (Chabat, 2008, and MS. The truth is that a synergy p.11). as described -under the model of

11 According to a report prepared by Procuraduría General de República - PGR - Los Zetas employees have emulated directly beheading tactics by the MS, product of indoctrination and training provided by the gang, with the aim of intimidating opponents, confirm their presence at the site, and earn rankings within the criminal organization. See: Vega, 2012

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And although It has said that the location -among the largest cocaine Aztec paramilitary organization seeks producer and the largest consumer to assimilate members of one of the of it worldwide-, its porous borders, most violent factions of the MS-13, weak institutions and increasing Fulton Locos Salvatruchas —FLS— sophistication of local criminal groups and Hollywood Locos Salvatruchos -transportistas- and gangs, the area —HLS— by ideological indoctrination offers ample opportunities for Mexican (Ruiz-Goiriena, 2012). Version would drug cartels expansion. be endorsed by the existence of training camps Los Zetas located in However, Mexican cartels have not the region of Peten, Guatemala with only taken to Northern Triangle “mobile camps in nearby San Salvador operations to traffic cocaine into the volcano in territory once controlled by United States, but their battles for the FMLN” (Farah, 2012, p.62). The control of the streets located in this truth is that it would be difficult to geographic area, which are fought by persuade members of the MS leaving local criminal organizations, leading his brothers to join another criminal to various degrees of cooperation organization with strong territorial between non-state actors as the role roots as Los Zetas as it would require a of each country in the geopolitics of complete reorientation of their values. drugs. Thus, as criminal organizations are facing greater pressure, they seek new allies, and are associated with Conclusions actors that are further down the chain to help them with the dirty work and The War on Drugs driven Mexico protect their interests: diversify income during the government of Felipe sources and smuggling routes. Calderon (2006-12) it has been identified as the main catalyst for the In this regard, the adoption of policies shift to the North Triangle -Guatemala, hard hand against street gangs in the Honduras and El Salvador- producing Northern Triangle, coupled with the so called cockroach effect. This new expansion of drug trafficking networks scenario shows that the partial victories in the sub region, it had an unexpected of a given nation may become a failure effect: Increasing intersection for your neighbors. between the activities of transnational organized crime -Posters Mexicans, The recent emergence of major Mexican -transportistas- local criminal groups cartels -Sinaloa and Los Zetas- in the and gangs. Although it has been sub region evidence both his desire speculated the existence of an alleged to expand into new markets and find synergy between Los Zetas and the a refuge from the escalating Mexican Mara Salvatrucha, as a result of the authorities. Due to its geographical MS-13 and Barrio 18 truce launched in

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