LutzRzehak DoingPashto Pashtunwaliastheidealofhonourablebehaviourandtriballife amongthePashtuns

1 EXECUTIVESUMMARY principlesforamodernAfghannation.Lateron, AfghanscholarsstartedtostudyPashtunwalifrom Variousvaluesystemsarecompetingwitheach afolkloricpointofview.Thus,writtenaccountsof otherinAfghanistantoday.Ourunderstandingof Pashtunwaliappeared,offeringaviewfrominside thePashtuns,oftheircultureandtraditionalvalues thecultureofthePashtuns.Someoftheseare isoftenovershadowedbytheTalebanandtheir writteninadidacticstyleandmanyrevealthe fundamentalistinterpretationofIslam.Thispaper philosophybehindparticularvaluesandrules.The bringsbackintodiscussionasystemofvaluesand perspectiveoftheseaccountsisfeaturedinthis rulesofbehaviourwhich,foraratherlongtime paperwhereinPashtunwaliisdescribedasthe beforetheriseoftheTaleban,hadbeenheld idealofhonourablebehaviourandtriballife sacredbyvirtueoftraditionandwhich,byvirtueof amongthePashtuns.Idealsnevercomeupto itsimperativecharacter,hadbeenintendedto reality,ofcourse,buttheyserveasimportant determinethebehaviouroftheindividualandof guidingprinciplesforbehaviour. socialgroupsinbotheverydaylifeaswellasin ThetribalspiritofthePashtunsisexplainedherein exceptionalsituations. theframeworkofasocialorganisation,which InPashtolanguage,mostofthesevaluesandrules followstheprincipleofpatrilinealdescentandin ofbehaviouraresummarisedundertheword whichgroupsofdifferentsize(tribes,subͲtribes, ‘Pashtunwali’whichcanbeunderstoodas'theway clans,andlineages)canbedistinguished ofthePashtuns'.Pashtunwalipresentsanethnic dependingonthegenealogicaldepthtakeninto selfͲportraitofthePashtunsaccordingtowhich account.AlthoughthemajorityofthePashtuns thePashtunsaredistinctfromotherethnicgroups adoptedasettledlifestylecenturiesago,thetribal notonlyduetotheirlanguage,historyandculture, spiritandotheraspectsofPashtunwalicanbe butalsoduetotheirbehaviour.Since,accordingto tracedtotheirnomadicbackground.Sincethe thisconcept,Pashtunsaretrustedandexpectedto AfghanstateoriginallyemergedfromaPashtun acthonourably,wecanqualifyPashtunwaliasa tribalconfederacy,Pashtuntribeswerefavoured codeofhonour.'DoingPashto'meanstoact withmuchautonomyandotherprivilegeswithin honourablyandtobeguidedbythevaluesof Afghansociety.This,inparticular,explainsthe Pashtunwali. persistenceofthetribalspiritandtribalcustoms amongthePashtuns. AmongthePashtuntribes,thesevaluesandrules ofbehaviourhavebeentransmittedorallyfor TherulesofconductofPashtunwalifollowthe centuries,butaslateasthe1950s,someAfghan dichotomyofhonourandshame.Behaviour, menoflettersbecamemoreandmoreinterested consequently,isguidedbythequestionastohow inPashtunwaliwhensearchingfortheguiding itisevaluatedintheeyesofothersaccordingto

2 LutzRzehak:DoingPashto  thecommonunderstandingofhonourandshame. ThequestionhowimportantPashtunwalistillisin Thefollowingvaluesandrulesofbehaviourwillbe modernAfghanistancannotbeansweredina discussedinthispaper: generalway.Thetransformationofformaland organisationalaspectsofthetriballife(principles x Honouroftheindividualandhonourof ofdecisionmaking,roleofelders,artofwarfare, groups innercoherenceoftribalunitsandothers)ismore x Fightingspiritandbravery obviousthanchangeswithinthesystemofvalues. x Equalityandrespectforseniors AnevaluationofthepresentͲdayimportanceof x Consultationanddecisionmaking Pashtunwaliasasystemofvaluesrequires x Willpowerandsincerity qualitativecasestudiesinvariouspartsof x Compensationandretaliation Afghanistanthatcannotbepresentedwithinthis x Generosityandhospitality paper.Itdependsoneveryparticularsituationby x Prideandzeal whichvaluesthebehaviourofindividualsorgroups Apersonwhoembodiesalmostallofthevalues isguided,butthereisnodoubtthatamongthe andrulesofbehaviourofPashtunwaliandwho competingvaluesystemstheidealsofPashtunwali leavesnodoubtthathedoeshisutmosttoabide stillcontinuetopresentanattractiveand bythem,isrespectfullycalledghairatman.He sometimesbindingoptiontoday. representstheidealPashtun. Beinganidealofthetribalwayoflife,Pashtunwali 2 INTRODUCTION alsoincludesasystemofcustomarylegalnorms (narkh)whichiscloselyrelatedtothecodeof InmodernAfghanistan,thecultureandwayoflife honour.SinceselfͲgovernancewasoneofthe ofthePashtunsareusuallyviewedthroughthe privilegeswhichPashtuntribesweretraditionally prismofthequiteidiosyncraticinterpretationof grantedinthestatesystemofAfghanistan, IslampresentedbytheTaleban.Thisperspective customarylegalnormswereappliedeventotopics hinderstherecognitionofcertainculturalvalues addressedbysecularlaw.Inremoteruralareas, andrulesofbehaviour,whichhadbeen somecustomarylegalnormsremainimportant determiningthewayoflifeofmanyPashtunsfora todayandattimesevenTalebanleadersadvisethe longtimebeforetheriseoftheTalebanasa membersoftheirmovementthattheyshould militaryandpoliticalmovement,andwhichremain solvedisputesamongthelocalpopulationby ofconsiderableinfluencetoday. applyingtribalmechanismsofconflictresolution. InthePashtolanguage,mostofthesevaluesand Wheneveracommonlyrecognisednormisbroken, rulesofbehaviourareoftensummarisedunderthe thethreatenedgroupfeelsresponsibilityfortaking wordPashtunwali(paܤhtunwali1,also measuresagainstthenormͲbreakerinordertoreͲ paܤhtunwĈlഋiorpaܤhtungalwi).Thiswordconsists establishthepreviousbalanceandtoretrievetheir ofthenounpaܤhtun'Pashtun'andthesuffixͲwali, honour.Crimeswhichoffendthewhole respectivelyͲwĈlഋiorͲgalwi.InPashto,these communityaredifferentiatedfromcrimeswhich suffixesgeneratenounswithanabstractmeaning. offendonlyaparticulargroupofpersonslikea Hence,thewordPashtunwali(oritsvariants)can lineageorclan.Varioushabitsandcustomsallow betranslatedliterallyas'Pashtunness'orinafreer foravoidingabloodfeudcycleandresolvinga translationas'thewayofthePashtuns'. conflictpeacefully.Thesemechanismsarebased Pashtunwalisignifiesaconceptwhichcanbe ontheideologyofpatrilinealdescent,thetribal interpretedasanethnicselfͲportraitofthe spiritandthecodeofhonourasexpressedin Pashtuns.2Itincludesalltraditionsbywhichthe Pashtunwali.Thecustomarylegalsystemcanvary insomedetailsfromtribetotribeandfromregion toregion.Variationmainlyconcernsthe 1ForPashtowords,asimplifiedsystemofRomanisation computationoftheamountofbloodmoneytobe isusedinthispaper.Mostcharactersandpairsof paidratherthanthemechanismofconflict characters(sh,zh,ch,kh,ai,au)canbepronounced resolution. almostlikeinEnglish.FollowingtheRomanisationtables oftheLibraryofCongressretroflexsoundsaremarked Itisimportanttostressthatthesocietyof byadotunderacharacter.Amacronovera(Ĉ)shows Afghanistan,includingPashtunsociety,wassubject thatamustbepronouncedasalongvowel.The tofundamentalchangeinalmosteveryrespect characterഋstandsforamidͲcentralvowelsound(schwa) duringthelastdecades.Asaresult,todaythe whichispronouncedlikeainEnglish'separate'(sepഋrഋt). Thecombinationghshouldbepronouncedasguttural'r' idealsofPashtunwalicompetewithothervalue (sometimesknownasFrench'r'). systemsthatgainedinfluenceduringthattime. 2SeeBerntGlatzer,'ZumPashtunwalialsethnischem Selbstportrait',inGünterBestandReinhartKößler(eds):

AANThematicReport01/2011 LutzRzehak:DoingPashto 3  Pashtuns,accordingtotheirunderstanding, trustedandexpectedtoacthonourablytherefore distinguishthemselvesfromotherethnicgroups. qualifiesPashtunwaliasacodeofhonour. Likemanyotherconceptswhichareaimedat WhenBritishofficersandcolonialservantstook shapingethnicidentity,Pashtunwalidescribesan noticeofthenormsandvaluesofPashtunwaliin ideal,inthiscase,theidealofthewayoflifeofthe thenineteenthcentury,theywereinterested Pashtuns.Thisidealincludesthetribalspiritofthe aboveallinadministrativeandmilitaryquestions Pashtuns,asophisticatedcodeofhonour,moral andtheirmainfocuswasoncustomarylawand andethicalrulesofbehaviour,thedemandfor bloodrevenge.6Inthesecondhalfofthetwentieth martialbravery,reasonableactionsand century,thenormsandvaluesofPashtunwali consultation,asystemofcustomarylegalnorms engagedtheattentionofwesternanthropologists andnotleast,faithinIslam.3 whoanalyseditinawiderperspective,bringing TheconceptofPashtunwaliisanethnoͲcentric intofocusmoralandethicalvaluesandrulesof conceptbecauseitisbasedontheideathatthe behaviouraswell.7Inrecentpublications, Pashtunsaredistinctfromotherethnicgroupsnot Pashtunwaliisusuallyseeninthecontextofthe onlyduetotheirlanguage,cultureandhistory,but currentwar.8 duetotheirbehaviouraswell.Theidealoftheway WithinPashtunsociety,thevalues,normsand oflifeofthePashtunsissometimesconfusedwith rulesofPashtunwalihavebeentransmittedorally anethnicstereotype,butneithertheidealnorthe forcenturies,althoughasearlyastheseventeenth stereotypenecessarilycorrespondstoactual century,thePashtunpoetKhushhĈlKhĈnKhaܞܞak behaviour.Furthermore,similarvalues,norms, (1613Ͳ1689)wroteabookinPashtoprosethatcan customsandhabitscanbefoundamongother beseenasthefirstattempttodefinerulesof ethnicgroupsinAfghanistanandPakistan.4Butthe behaviourforthePashtuns.ThewordPashtunwali, Pashtunshaveevolvedthesevalues,norms, however,wasnotusedinthetext.Thenameof customsandhabitsintoastrongsetofrulestoa higherdegreethanmostotherethnicgroupsof thatregion.5ForthePashtuns,theserulesdefine 6Forexample,MountstuartElphinstone,anofficerof whatconstituteshonourablebehaviourandthey theEastIndiaCompanywhomadeanofficialmissionto includevarioussanctionsforthosewhoarein theDurraniwinterresidenceinPeshawarin1809, violationoftheserules.TheideathatPashtunsare describesPashtunwaliinhisreportasa"rudesystemof customarylaw".SeeMountstuartElphinstone,An AccountoftheKingdomofCaubul,2volumes(Karachi, IndusPublications1992)p.220. SubjekteundSysteme:Soziologischeund anthropologischeAnnäherungen.FestschriftfürChristian 7SeeAlfredJanataandReihanodinHassas,'Ghairatman Sigristzum65.Geburtstag(Frankfurt:IKOͲVerlag2000). –DergutePaschtune',AfghanistanJournal(1975)3:83Ͳ 3 96,CharlesKieīer,'ÜberdasVolkderPaštunenา undsein ThewordpaܤhtunwĈlidoesnotbelongtotheactive Paštunwali',า Pašto๸ Quarterly(1360/1981)1:63Ͳ76,JonW. vocabularyinallPashtospeakingregions.Itseemsthatit Anderson,DoingPakhtu:SocialOrganizationofthe ismorefrequentlyusedinthesouthͲeasternpartsof GhilzaiPakhtun(ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolina Afghanistan(Khostandneighbouringprovinces)thanin 1979),CharlesLindholm,GenerosityandJealousy–The thesouthernandwesternparts.However,thisisrather SwatPukhtunofNorthernPakistan(NewYork,Columbia aquestionoflinguisticbehaviouranddoesnotmean Univ.Pr.1982),WillySteul,Paschtunwali:ein thattheidealsandvaluesforwhichtheword EhrenkodexundseinerechtlicheRelevanz(Wiesbaden, Pashtunwalicanstandwouldnotbevalidinthose FranzSteinerVerlag1981),BerntGlatzer,'Zum regionswherethewordislessornotusedinactive PashtunwalialsethnischemSelbstportrait'. speech.Theexpressionpaܤhtokawഋl,'doingPashto,'in themeaningoffollowingtheidealofhonourable 8See,forexample,MajorRichardTodStrickland,'The behaviourandtriballifeiscommontoalmostallPashto wayofthePashtun:Pashtunwali',CanadianArmy speakers. Journal(2007)3:44Ͳ55,JohnH.Cathell,Human 4 geographyintheAfghanistanͲPakistanregion: Thedifferenceisratherinthedegreeofrigourwith UnderminingtheTalebanusingtraditionalPashtun whichtheseidealsandvaluesarepursued.Forcommon socialstructures(Newport,R.I.:NavalWarCollege2009) valuessee,forexample,theremarksonseclusionand http://www.dtic.mil/cgiͲ dignity(pഋtauজizzat),reputationandhonour(nangau bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA502894&Location=U2&doc=GetT ghairat),loyaltyandpromise(wafĈauzhmഋna),shame RDoc.pdf(referredtoon9March2011),CraigCordell andmodesty(sharmauhayĈ)andothersinthechapter Naumann,JohnF.RichardsFellow,ThePashtunwali's 'Afghanhabits'(afghĈnikhuyuna)inAurangzebIrshĈd, RelevanceasaToolforSolvingthe'AfghanCrisis'(Edited AfghĈnistĈnpezhandഋna['Acountrystudyof andupdatedexcerptoftheResearchReportsubmitted Afghanistan'](Peܙhawur,DĈnishkhparanduyaܞol೅na totheAmericanInstituteofAfghanistanStudies(2008), 1386h.sh.=2006)p.327Ͳ333. http://www.educationinafghanistan.com/The_Pashtunw 5Somecausesofthisdevelopmentwillbediscussedin alis_Relevance_as_a_Tool_for_Solving_the_Afghan_Crisi chapter2. s_September_2009.pdf(referredtoon8March2011).

March2011 4 LutzRzehak:DoingPashto  thebookisDastĈrnĈma('Bookoftheturban')and confidentlyprofferedtherulesandvaluesof KhushhĈlKhĈnKhaܞܞakdescribestwentyabiliƟes Pashtunwaliaseducationalprinciplesforamodern (hunaruna)andtwentyvirtues(khislatuna)whicha Afghannation.Duringthefollowingdecades,as Pashtunmanmustowntobecomeworthytowear Afghanscholarsbecameincreasinglymore aturban.Someofthesevalues,suchasselfͲ interestedinthestudyoflocalfolkloreand knowledge(dഋdzĈnmaজrifat),bravery(shujĈজat), traditions,morepublicationsonPashtunwaliand consultation(mashwarat),modesty(sharm,hayĈজ), relatedsubjectsemerged.12Mostofthese honesty(rĈsti),respectfortheelders(dഋmalik publicationswerewritteninthedescriptivestyleof intizĈm),ambitiousness(himmat),prideand folkloricandanthropologicalaccountsratherthan honour(ghairat),areclosetothevaluesof asanalyticalstudies.Onthesegrounds,onecan Pashtunwaliinthesensedescribedearlier.But saythatthesepublicationsoffertheperspectiveof someotherabilities,likefalconryandhunting personswithinthecultureandthatPashtunwaliis (ܤhikĈr),chess(narddഋshatranj),poetry(sheজr), describedintermswhicharemeaningfultothose music(musiqi)orpainting(taswirdഋnaqqĈsh),are whoaredoingPashto(inthemeaningof addressedtothenobilityfirstofall.Thus,thisbook Pashtunwali). standsratherinthetraditionofclassicalIslamic textsinthegenreof'Mirrorsforprinces'like QĈbusnĈma('BookofQĈbus')byKaiKĈॖus, SiyĈsatnĈma('BookofGovernment')byNizĈmalͲ newspaperAngarwhichwaspublishedinKabultwicea Mulk,orNasihatalͲmuluk('CounseltoPrinces')by week,butnoclearprogramexistedatthebeginning.The alͲGhazĈli.9 mainidealofthemovementwaspatriotism.Education, enlightenment,nationalunityandtheparticipationof Inmoderntime,thefirstwrittenaccountson thepeopleinpoliticalaffairswereseenasthemainways PashtunwaliappearedinAfghanistaninthe toleadthepeopleofAfghanistanoutofthe'darknessof 1950s.10Theirauthorsweremenofletterswho ignorance',togivethewomentheirlegalrights,to followedtheWeܤhZalmiyĈnmovementandother enablethepeopletobecomethepillarofasovereign nationalgovernmentandtodeveloptheeconomy.Later groupsoftheintellectualenlightenment.They somemembersofthismovementstoodupfora appealedtothehistoryandtraditionsofthe constitutionalmonarchysystemwithpoliticalrightslike Pashtunswhenadvocatingfornationalawakening freedomofspeech,freedomofthepressandfreedomof 11 andsocialjustice. Intheirpublications,they politicalorganisations.FordetailsseeV.G.Korgun, IntelligenicyavpoliticheskoyzhizniAfganistana ['IntelligentsiainthepoliticallifeofAfghanistan'] 9ThePashtotextoftheDastĈrnĈmabyKhushhĈlKhĈn (Moskva,Nauka1983)p.52ff. Khaܞܞakwaspublishedseveraltimes(KĈbul,Pashto 12SeeamongothersQudratullahHidĈd,'D೅paܙhtun ܞol೅na1345/1966,Peshawar,PashtoAcademyofthe kahol'['ThefamilyofthePashtuns'],KĈbul(1340/1961) UniversityofPeshawar1991).QuiterecentlyanEnglish 46Ͳ51,BismillahHaqmal,'IjtimĈॖimasĈyilaud೅ta܋iyo translationwaspublished;seeArifNaseem(transl., wul೅sinarkh'['Socialquestionsandthecustomarylegal commentary),DastarnamaofKhushhalKhanKhattak systemoftheTani'],KĈbul(1360/1981)58Ͳ68,QaƟl (Peshawar,PashtoAcademyoftheUniversityof XoܮhyĈni,'Jirgaaupaܙhtoadab'['JirgaandPashtun Peshawar2007).ForadescriptionofthebookseeV.V. culture'],Jirga(nodate)1/4,25Ͳ28,M.IbrĈhimॖAtĈyi,Dഋ Kushev,Afganskayarukopisnayakniga['Afghan paܤhtaniqabiloisƟlĈhiqĈmƻs['DictionaryofPashtun handwrittenbooks'](Moskva,Nauka1980)p.56f.and tribalterminology'](KĈbul,D೅paܙhtoceܕ೅nonaܕiwĈl ManfredLorenz,'DerafghanischeDichterChushhĈlͲ markaz1357/1978),MuhammadॖAzizKĈkaܕ,'D೅ ChĈnChattaküberdasSchachspiel',inAdélaKƎikavová, AfghĈnistĈnd೅khatidzoaumarkazibarkhod೅kuchiyĈno LudĢkHƎebíēek(eds.),ExOriente.CollectedPapersin ijtimĈॖihĈlat'['Thesocialsituationofthenomadsofthe HonourofJiƎíBeēka(Prague,OrientalInstituteofthe westernandcentralpartsofAfghanistan'],KĈbul CzechAcademyofSciences1995)p.101ff. (1340/1961)53Ͳ58,IliyĈsWaziri,'D೅waziristĈnd೅ 10SeeQiyĈmuddinKhĈdim,Paܤhtunwali(KĈbul, barmalid೅khalkoul೅snarkhuna'['Thecustomarylegal 1331/1952),QiyĈmuddinKhĈdim,'Paܙhtunwali– systemofthepeopleofBarmalinWaziristan'],KĈbul tarbiyawiusul'['Pashtunwali–educationalprinciples'], (1361/1982)52Ͳ61,HoۭyĈlai,'D೅apridiyonangiyĈlai KĈbul(1331/1953)25Ͳ32,ॖAbdullahBakhtĈni,Paܤhtani qaum'['ThebravetribeoftheAfridi'],Jirga(nodate) khuyuna['Pashtunqualities'](KĈbul1334/1955), 1/5,42Ͳ47,MuhammadAkbarMuॖtamad(ed.), [GulpĈchĈUlfat(ed.),]Paܤhtanidoduna['Pashtunhabits NangiyĈlaipaܤhtun['ThehonourablePashtun'](KĈbul, andcustoms'](KĈbul:D೅paܙhtoܞol೅na1336/1957). Daulatimatbaॖa1345/1966),JalĈtXĈnHikmati(ed.),Dഋ paܤhtanoܩolഋnizͲiqƟsĈdijuܠഋܤhtdഋsaurtഋrinqilĈba 11WeܤhZalmiyĈn('AwakenedYouths')appearedasa ['ThesocialandeconomicalstructureofthePashtun ratherinformalmovementin1947undertheleadership tribesuptotheSaurrevolution'](KĈbul,D೅paܙhto ofMuhammadRasulKhĈnPaܙhtun.Mostmemberswere ceܕ೅nobainulmilalimarkaz1362/1983),NurMuhammad menoflettersandintellectualslikeॖAbdurraufBenawĈ, TĈbish(ed.),PaܤhtĈnഋkuchiyĈn['Pashtunnomads'] GulpĈchĈUlfat,ॖAbdullahBakhtĈni,QiyĈmuddinKhĈdim (KĈbul,D೅paܙhtoceܕ೅nobainulmilalimarkaz andNurMuhammadTaraki.From1951publicationson 1360/1981). thepoliticalagendaofthismovementappearedinthe

AANThematicReport01/2011 LutzRzehak:DoingPashto 5  Thispaperconcentratesonthisperspective.Itis 3 THENOMADICBACKGROUND largelybasedonwrittenaccountsnotonlybecause inotherpublicationsonPashtunwali,such OFTHEPASHTUNSANDITS accountshavescarcelybeentakeninto SIGNIFICANCEFORPASHTUNWALI consideration,butalsobecausePashtunwaliis usuallypresentedasaphenomenonthatis Theemergenceandthevitalityofthenormsand exclusivelysubjecttooraltradition.Thevalueof valuesofPashtunwaliaredeeplyͲrootedinthe thesewrittenaccountsliesinthefactthatmanyof socialhistoryofthePashtuns.Culturesofhonour themhaveadidacticinterestandduetotheir aretypicallyidentifiedwithnomadicpeopleswho form,presenttheidealsofPashtunwaliinamuch havenorecoursetolawenforcementor morecomplexwaythanisusuallythecaseinoral governmentwhentheytraversegeographically narratives.Insomestudies,Pashtunwaliis remoteareasinsearchofpastures,carrytheir presentedasacollectionofquantifiabletenetsor mostvaluablepropertywiththem,riskhavingit 13 rulesofbehaviour. Itgoeswithoutsayingthat stolen,etc.15TherearestillsomePashtunnomadic Pashtunwaliisratheraquestionofthequalityof herdsmentoday,butthemajorityofPashtuns behaviorthanofthequantityofparticularvalues. adoptedasettledlifestylecenturiesago.16Today, Thenativeaccountsexaminedforthispaperreveal mostPashtunsliveinruralareasandareengaged thephilosophywhichstandsbehindparticular inagriculture.Innomadicsocieties,theprivate valuesandrulesofbehaviourandconflatesthem ownershipofpasturelandisunknownalthougha systematicallyintoanentireworldͲview.Thefocus particulargroupbytraditionmaylayclaimstoa ofthispapermoreoverisnotonlyonkeywords particularpastureinaparticularseasonofthe andtheirmeaning,butalsoonthelinesof year.Butaclaimtosomethingisnotidenticalwith argumentusedbyAfghanauthorsinorderto theownership/possessionofsomethingandthese demonstratetheculturalvaluesandrulesof claimswereheldnotbyindividualsbutbygroups. behaviourbywhichthePashtunsdistinguish ManyPashtungroupsretainedthispracticewith themselvesfromotherethnicgroups.Hence, regardtofarmlandforaverylongtimeafterthey Pashtunwaliismainlydescribedhereasanideal; hadsettleddownandbegunfarming.Atthe fromtimetotime,however,theemphasisonthe beginning,thefarmlandusuallybelongedtothe viewfromwithinPashtunculturewillbroadento wholecommunity.Noparticularhouseholdhadan incorporatetheobservationsoftheauthorofthis individualclaimtoaparticularparcelofland; paper,basedonhisfieldstudiesinvariouspartsof instead,theparcelsoflandwereregularly 14 Afghanistanoverthelasttwodecades. Tobegin, redistributedamongallhouseholdsbelongingto andtoenableabetterandbroaderunderstanding thatcommunity.Originally,theparcelswere ofthematter,somehistoricalremarksare redistributedbylotandredistributiontookplace necessary.

15Thecorrelationofculturesofhonourandaparticular wayoflifeismuchmorecomplexinfact.Thecodeof honourofthePashtunsshowsmanysimilaritieswith codesofhonourintheMediterranean,theCaucasus, CentralAsia,theMiddleEast,EastAfricaandinthe 13Cf.'Dependingonone'sperspectiveand Philippines,butaclearinterrelationshipofhonour interpretation,Pashtunwaliismadeupofbetweenthree culturesandanomadicwayoflife(inthepastorat andsixbasictenets,whichinturndevelopintoafairly present)isnotinallcasesevident.Foracritical complexinterplayguidingtheactionsandnormative discussionseeMarkMoritz,'ACriticalExaminationof behavioursofthecode.'(MajorRichardTodStrickland, HonorCulturesandHerdingSocietiesinAfrica',African 'ThewayofthePashtun:Pashtunwali',p.47).Seealso: StudiesReview(2008)2:99Ͳ117andToddK.Shackelford, 'Pashtunwalialsoencompassesfourpersonalcore 'AnEvolutionaryPsychologicalPerspectiveonCulturesof values:honor,revenge,freedom,andchivalry.'(JohnH. Honor',EvolutionaryPsychology(2005)3:381Ͳ391. Cathell,HumangeographyintheAfghanistanͲPakistan 16Adetailedaccountofthesettlementprocesswas region,9). presentedfromaMarxistperspectivebytheRussian 14Istartedlinguisticandanthropologicalfieldworkin scholarI.M.Reysnerwhobasedhisanalysisonlocal Afghanistanin1988asavisitingpostgraduatestudentat chronicles,Europeantravelreportsandmanyother KabulUniversity.Inthemid1990iesIcarriedout sources.Accordingtohisstudy,thefirstwaveof fieldworkintheNorthernprovincesofBalkh,SarͲiPul settlementstartedamongPashtunnomadictribes andJuzjan;between2002and2006Imadeseveral betweenthefourteenthandseventeenthcenturies.See researchtripstothesouthwesternpartsofAfghanistan I.M.Reysner,Razvitiefeodalizmaiobrazovanie betweenHeratandKandaharwithlongerstaysin gosudarstvauafgancev['Thedevelopmentoffeudalism Nimrozprovince.In2008and2010Iworkedagainin andtheemergenceofthestateamongtheAfghans'] NorthernAfghanistan(BalkhandTakharprovinces). (Moskva,Izdatelफ़stvoAkademiinaukSSSR1954)p.47ff.

March2011 6 LutzRzehak:DoingPashto  everyyear.InPashto,thiscustomiscalledwesh someBalochtriballeaders.Hekeptthetitleofa 'redistribution[ofland]'.Theparcelscouldbe shĈh('king'),butforthosewhohadelectedhimhe allocatedtoahouseholdaccordingtothenumber wasnotmorethanaprimusinterpares.Ahmad ofitsmembers(khulawesh'redistributionamong ShahDurrĈnicouldrelyonthemilitaryandpolitical eaters'),accordingtothemilitarystrengthofa strengthofthetribeswhichsupportedhimaslong household(mlĈt೅ܕwesh'redistributionamong ashedidnotoffendtheirfeelingsandinterests.21 fighters'),oraccordingtogenealogicallinks(d೅ Thesamecanbesaidforallofhissuccessors shajarewesh'genealogicalredistribution').17In withintheroyaldynasties.Allofthem,selfͲ manyPashtunvillages,thecustomofweshwas evidently,werePashtunsandallofthemhadto maintainedupuntilthenineteenthcentury,in cometotermsfirstofallwiththePashtuntribesin singularcases,likeamongtheShinwĈriand differentpartsoftheirkingdom.Pashtuntribes MomandPashtunsoftheNangarhĈrandKunaܕ providedthemilitaryandpoliticalbasisforthe provinces,upunƟlthemiddleofthetwenƟeth royaldynastyandtheyweregrantednumerous century.Inthedistrictof٨horĈwakintheSouthern privilegesinreturn,particularlyintaxationandin Kandaharprovince,theBaܕecPashtunscontinued selfͲgovernment.Ithasalwaysbeenafactthatin practisingtheweshcustomintothe1980s.18 thetribalregions,thestatewouldnotinterfere Grouppropertyofasimilarkindcontinuedtoexist intoaffairswhichoughttoberegulatedbythe withregardtopastures,threshingfloors,or stateandwhichinfactwereregulatedbyofficial woodlands.19AlongͲtermconsequenceofthe institutionsinmostotherpartsofthecountry.22In weshtraditioncanbeseeninthefactthatinmany thecourseoftime,thisexceptionalpositionwithin ruralplacesofAfghanistan,theprivateownership thesocietyofAfghanistanbecameaninherent oflandisstillsubjecttostrongrestrictions.Land featureoftheselfͲconfidenceofmanyPashtuns canbethepropertyofapersonorofahousehold, especiallyinthetribalareasalongthefrontierwith itcanberentedtootherpersons,butitcannotbe Pakistan.AmongallethnicgroupsofAfghanistan, soldtojustanyone.Oftenthisispossiblefor onlytheBalochtribessharedthisexceptional recognisedmembersofaparticularcommunity positionwiththePashtuns.Thisreflectedasimilar only.Inmanyplaces,itisunimaginableand, wayoflifewithasimilartribalstructureanda therefore,defactoalmostimpossibletosellland similarcodeofhonour.23Generallyspeaking,in toapersonwhodoesnotbelongtothecommunity whichtraditionallyhasheldrightstoit.The 21SeefordetailsI.M.Reysner,Razvitiefeodalizma,p. acquisitionoflandislimitedalmostentirelyto 334ff. inheritanceandresidencerightswhichare 22 transmittedthroughpatrilinealdescent.20Group Adetaileddiscussionofthehistoricalrelationship interestsarehigherthanindividualinterests. betweentribesandstateinAfghanistanispresentedin RichardTapper(ed.):TheConflictofTribeandStatein Furthermore,itmustberememberedthatthe IranandAfghanistan(London:St.Martin'sPress1983); AfghanstateoriginallyemergedfromaPashtun seeespeciallythepapersbyRichardTapper, tribalconfederacy.WhenAhmadShahDurrĈniwas 'Introduction'(pp.1Ͳ82),RobHager,'State,tribeand enthronedasthefirstkingofAfghanistanin1747, empireinAfghaninterͲpolityrelations'(pp.83Ͳ118),J. hehadbeenchosenbyagroupofPashtunand W.Anderson,'Khanandkhel:DialecticsofPakhtun Tribalism'(pp.119Ͳ149),BerndGlatzer,'Political organisationofPashtunnomadsandtheState'(pp.212Ͳ 17SeefordetailsI.M.Reysner,Razvitiefeodalizma,p. 232)andNancyTapper,'AbdalͲRahman’sNorthͲWest 104ff.,Hikmati(ed.),DഋpaܤhtanoܩolഋnizͲiqƟsĈdi Frontier:ThePashtuncolonisationofAfghanTurkistan' juܠഋܤht,p.24ff. (pp.233Ͳ261).SeealsoChristineNoelle,StateandTribe inNineteenthͲCenturyAfghanistan:TheReignofAmir 18 SeeHikmati(ed.),DഋpaܤhtanoܩolഋnizͲiqƟsĈdijuܠഋܤht, DostMohammadKhan(1826Ͳ1863)(Richmond:Curzon p.30ff.,M.G.AslanovandV.I.Kochnev,'Pushtuny' Press1997),RichardTapper,'Anthropologists,historians, ['ThePashtuns'],NarodyYuzhnoyAzii(Moskva1963)p. andtribespeopleontribeandstateformationinthe 747. MiddleEast',inPhilipS.Khoury,JosephKostiner(eds.), 19 TribesandstateformationintheMiddleEast(Oxford: ForexamplesrelatingtotheKhostprovinceseeWilly UniversityofCaliforniaPress1990)pp.48Ͳ73,Richard Steul,Paschtunwali,p.23. Tapper,'Ethnicity,orderandmeaninginthe 20ForthesituationamongtheGhilzaiPashtunsin anthropologyofIranandAfghanistan',inJeanͲPierre easternAfghanistanbetweenKabulandKandaharinthe Digard(ed.),LefaitethniqueenIranetenAfghanistan 1970sseeJonW.Anderson,DoingPakhtu,164. (Paris:ÉditionsduCentreNationaldelaRecherche AccordingtomyobservationsintheNimrozandFarĈh Scientifique1988)pp.21Ͳ34. provinces,similarlimitationsconcerningtheacquisition 23SimilaritiesofthecodeofhonourofthePashtunsto oflandstillexist.Forthesituationinotherregionssee thatoftheBalochareevidentbuttheycannotbe Hikmati(ed.),DഋpaܤhtanoܩolഋnizͲiqƟsĈdijuܠഋܤht,p.143 discussedindetailhere.Accordingtomyobservationsin ff. Nimroz,almostallwhatisdescribedhereforthe

AANThematicReport01/2011 LutzRzehak:DoingPashto 7  SouthernandWesternAfghanistanthedistinction 4 TRIBALSPIRIT betweenPashtunandBalochissometimesvery smooth.Indeed,somegroupsarereferredtoas 'AmongthePashtunsthewordPashtunwali augĈnͲbaloch,i.e.AfghanͲ(PashtunͲ)Baloch.These implicateseverythingwhatranksamongthe aresplintergroupsofPashtunoriginwhichwere rootsandbasicsoftheirtribalspirit,historical incorporatedintothetribalorganizationofthe greatnessandnationaltraditions...Pashtois Baloch,oralternatively,groupsofBalochorigin thenameoftheirnationallanguage,Pashtunis whichwereincorporatedintothetribal 24 thenameoftheirtribe,Pashtunkhwaisthe organisationofthePashtuns. InAfghanistan, nameoftheirhomeland;andfromthesewords prominenceisgiventobothPashtunsandBaloch 25 themeaningfulwordPashtunwaliwas bythenameĈzĈdqabĈyil'thefreetribes'. This created'.27 situationonlybegantochangesignificantlyinthe lastthreedecadeswhenothergroupsgainedin ThisPashtunauthor,QiyĈmuddinKhĈdim,places militaryandpoliticalpowerinthecivilwarand thetribalspirit(qaumiruh)firstwhenhedefines startedtoenforcetheirpoliticalclaimsonan thewordPashtunwaliinhisfundamentalbookon ethnicbasis.26 thissubject.Qaumisthewordwhichheusesfor 'tribe',andqaumiisthewordwhichheusesfor 'tribal'.Nodoubtisleftthathisreferencetothe PashtunscanbetransferredtotheBalochinsouthͲ tribalspiritappliestoallPashtuns.Onecould westernAfghanistanalthoughparticulartermsmayvary. interpretqaumiruhas'nationalspirit'therefore, SomefeaturesofthecodeofhonouroftheBalochof butthereisanotherwordwiththemeaningof AfghanistanaredescribedinAbdulsattĈrPurdeli,Chint 'national'inPashtoandinotherlanguagesof pahlokshabalochĈnirabedagipahlistĈnĈ/Chandgulaz Afghanistan(milli).QiyĈmuddinKhĈdimusesthis farhangͲipurbĈrͲiBaloch['Someflowersofthecultural gardenoftheBaloch'](Kabul:RegionalStudiesCenterof latterwordtorefertothelanguageandthe Afghanistan1387=2008/09)pp.71Ͳ82.Adetailed traditionsofthePashtuns,butheusesqaumwith analysisoftheBalochcodeofhonourwiththemain referencetothePashtunpeopleandqaumiwhen focusonPakistanwaspresentedbyErwinOrywal,Krieg describingtheirspirit.Thisisduetothefactthat oderFrieden:einevergleichendeUntersuchung thewordqaumimplicatestheideaofcommon kulturspezifischerIdeale–derBürgerkriegin descenttoamuchhigherdegreethanimaginable Belutschistan/Pakistan(Berlin:Reimer2002). lexicalequivalents.Likeotherconceptsofgroup 24Forexample,groupslikeBaܕecandNurzicanbefound identity,qaumexpressesidentityasarather bothasPashtunandBalochtribes.BalochNurziand cumulativeorpolymorphfeaturewhichcanbe BalochBaܕecmaintaintribalrelaƟonsnotonlytoother imaginedasapooloffragmentarycharacteristics Balochtribes,buttoPashtunNurziandBaܕecaswelland likecommondescent,language,culture,shared viceversa.Usuallysuchsplintergroupsswitchedoverto history,customs,wayoflife,religion, thelanguageofthetribalgrouptheywereincorporated neighbourhood,etc.Hence,qauminfactisavery into,butbilingualismisawideͲspreadphenomenonas well(ownobservations,moredetailedsooninLutz elastictermwhich,dependingonthesituation,can beunderstoodas'nation','tribe','clan'orasa Rzehak'Ethnicminoritiesinsearchofpolitical 28 consolidation',forthcoming). groupofsomeotherkind. Thesizeofagroupcan 25 differ,butthewordqaumindicatesthatamongall ThistermdescribesthePashtunandBalochtribeswho featuresofidentity,priorityisgiventocommon resideinthefrontierregionswithPakistanandIranand whotraditionallyarrogatetheprivilegeofcrossingthe descent.Agrouptermedqaumisadescentgroup, borderwithoutlimitation.Inthepoliticalsystemof firstofall. Afghanistan,thisstatuswasofficiallyrecognisedbythe AmongthePashtuns,thedescentofanindividual establishmentofaspecialministryfortribalaffairsafter isreckonedfromthefather'slineofdescent.Thus theSaurrevolution.SeeNeamatollahNojumi,TheRise aqaumisalineofdescentfromamaleancestorto oftheTalebaninAfghanistan.MassMobilization,Civil War,andtheFutureoftheRegion(NewYork,N.Y.: descendantsinwhichtheindividualsinall PalgravePublishersLtd.2002),pp.67ff.Thisministry interveninggenerationsarefathers.Thetradition stillexiststodayunderthenameMinistryofBordersand holdsthatallPashtunsarefatherͲlinedescendants TribalAffairs. 26 Asaresult,theresponsibilityoftheMinistryof BordersandTribalAffairswasextendedtoallminority 27 SeeKhĈdim,Paܤhtunwali,p.10. groups,mostlybyprovidingeducationprogramsin minoritylanguagesandbyhelpingtheminthe 28FortheconceptofqaumseeErwinOrywal:'Ethnische resolutionofdisputeswithothertribesandethnic Identitäten–KonzeptundMethode',inErwinOrywal groups(informationprovidedbyAbdulKarimBrahui, (ed.):DieethnischenGruppenAfghanistans.Fallstudien MinisterforBorderandTribalAffairs,duringan zuGruppenidentitätenundIntergruppenbeziehungen interviewwiththeauthorinApril2005inKabul). (Wiesbaden,Dr.LudwigReichertVerlag1986).

March2011 8 LutzRzehak:DoingPashto  ofalegendaryancestornamedQais29(aliasPatan) beliefincommonpatrilinealdescentthatunites whoaccordingtoprevailingopinion,livedatthe individualsonaparticularlevelofthetribalsystem timeofMuhammad.WhenQaisconvertedto anddistinguishesthemfromotherindividualson Islam,heassumedtheIslamicnameॖAbdurrashid. thesamelevel,eventhoughtheyallbelongtoone AccordingtogenealogicaltradiƟon,Qais grouponahigherlevel.Patrilinealdescentgroups ॖAbdurrashidhadthreesons–Saܕbun,Gharghaܙht, ofdifferentgenealogicaldepths,i.e.tribalgroups, andBaiܞan–whobecamethefoundersofthree tribes,subͲtribes,clansandsmallerlineagesare descentgroups.Today,thedescentgroupsof solidaritygroups.Eachparticularsituationdictates Saܕbun,GharghaܙhtandBaiܞanappearastribal whichgenealogicaldepthistakenintoaccount groupstowhichmostPashtuntribescanbe concerningtheneedforsolidarity.Rivalling assigned.AfourthtribalgroupnamedKarlĈ܋igoes lineagesofaclanforgettheirrivalryandstick backtoapersoncalledKarlĈ܋.ItissaidthatKarlĈ܋ togetherwhenclaninterestsareindanger.Clans wasafoundlingwhowasbroughtupbyaPashtun whichbelongtoonesubͲtribeandwhicharein andlatermarriedthedaughterofhisadoptive conflictoveraparticularmatter,forgettheir father.ThedescendantsofSaܕbun,Gharghaܙht, conflictandsticktogetherwheninterestsoftheir BaiܞanandKarlĈ܋areregardedtheancestorsof subͲtribeoroftheirtribeareindanger,etc.31 varioustribes,theirdescendantsareregardedthe Genealogicalknowledgeisofvitalnecessityina ancestorsofvarioussubͲtribes,etc.Dependingon societywhichisstructuredalongpatrilineal thenumberofgenerationstakenintoaccount, descentgroupsofdifferentsize.Ideally,aPashtun patrilinealdescentgroupsofdifferentsizecanbe candemonstratehisdescentfromQais distinguished,andthemembersofeachgroupcan ॖAbdurrashid,thecommonancestorofall demonstratetheircommondescentfromanapical Pashtuns,byenumeratingalllinkingforefathers.In ancestor.Biggerdescentgroupsarenamedtribe reality,aPashtunknowsbyheartatleastallhis (tĈyifaorqabila).Eachtribeisdividedintotwoor forefathersuptotheancestorofhiskaholgroup, moresubͲtribes(ܞab೅r),subͲtribesconsistof i.e.foraboutsevenoreightgenerationsasa smallergroupswhichcanbenamedclan(khelor minimum.Forgenealogicalknowledgewhichgoes zaionahigherlevelandplarinaorpܙhaonalower backdeeperinhistory,olderandexperiencedmen level).ThesmallestgroupofthePashtuntribal whoareregardedasexpertsinthisfield,are systemiscalledkahol.Thecommonancestorofa contacted.Whennecessary,theyrefertowritten kaholusuallylivedsevenoreightgenerationsago. genealogytrees(shajara)oftheirclan,subͲtribeor Everykaholconsistsofseveralextendedfamilies.A tribe.Attemptstocodifythecommongenealogical household(kor)isaneconomicalratherthana treeofallPashtunsdatebacktotheearly tribalunit.Ideally,itconsistsofagrandfather,his seventeenthcentury.32Likelatercompilationsof wifeorwives,sons,daughtersͲinͲlaw,unmarried thatkind,33theyareunabletokeepupwiththe daughtersandgrandchildren.Ayoungmancan createhisownhouseholdaftermarriagealthough 31 itisoftenlocatedquiteclosetohisfather's HerethePashtuntribalsystemwasdescribedfroma householdandmealsstillcanbeprepared structuralpointofview.Foramoredetailedandcritical commonly.Ineverydaylife,patrilinealdescent discussionseeBerntGlatzer,'ThePashtunTribal System',inG.Pfeffer&D.K.Behera(eds.),Conceptof groupsofthekahollevelrepresentthemost TribalSociety(NewDelhi,ConceptPublishers2002),R. importantunitsofsocialorganisation.Thisisthe Tapper(ed.):TheConflictofTribeandStateinIranand levelatwhichmarriagesarearranged,peoplehelp Afghanistan,JonW.Anderson,DoingPakhtu. eachotherinagricultureorinbuildinghouses, 32 disputesaboutlandusageariseandaresolved,or Ni'matullahalͲHerawiwhoservedasachroniclerat thecourtoftheMughalEmperorJahangir,wrotedowna opinionͲformationaboutpoliticalquestionstakes 30 historyoftheAfghans.Itisoftenreferredtoas place.  MakhzanͲiAfghĈnior'HistoryoftheAfghans'andlists Thelowestleveldemonstratesthedynamicnature thousandsoftribes(seeKhwajaNiॖmatUllahb.Khwâja ofthePashtuntribalsystem.Groupswhichappear HabîbUllahalͲHarawî:TarîkhͲeKhânJahânîwa makhzanͲeAfghâni.Ed.byS.M.Imâmuddîn(Dacca, asthesmallestunitsataparticulartime,increase AsiaticSocietyofPakistan1960Ͳ1992).AnEnglish innumberwitheverynewgenerationandthus translationwasmadebyB.Dorn,HistoryoftheAfghans theytransformgraduallyintoclans,whichare translatedfromthePersianofNeametUllah,by dividedintoseveralnewgroupsofthekahollevel BernhardDorn(London,A.J.Valpy1829&1836). aftersomegenerations.Butallgroupssharethe 33Averypopulargenealogywascompiledunderthe nameHayĈtͲiAfghĈnduringthereignofAmirSherAli 29 Also:Kais. Khanin1865.ForaPashtoeditionseeMuhammad 30 AkbarKhĈn:HayĈtͲiAfghĈn(KĈbul,D೅sarhadunochĈro SeeWillySteul,Paschtunwali,pp.28ff.,JonW. wazĈrat1370/1991).Publicationsofthatkindremainto Anderson,DoingPakhtu,pp.223ff. beverypopulartoday.See[PohanwĈl]Muhammad

AANThematicReport01/2011 LutzRzehak:DoingPashto 9  dynamiccharacterofthetribalsystem,and, honourableorshamefulwhenitishonourableor correspondingly,lessornoinformationisavailable shamefulintheeyesofotherpeople. aboutgroupsonthelowestlevelswhich,however, Consequently,themainruleofconductisthe arethemoreimportantineverydaylife.Oral questionastohowone'sbehaviourisevaluatedin knowledgeofthegenealogicaltraditionremains theeyesofotherpeople.Inaddition,thecitedrule absolutelyessential.WhentwoPashtunmenmeet impliesanotherdichotomy:individualhonourand forthefirsttime,theyoftenchecktheir shamearecloselylinkedtothehonourandshame genealogicalroots.Iftheyfindacommonancestor, ofotherpeople. thechanceacquaintancewillturnintoa relationshipwithmutualobligationsandsupport. 5.1 Honouroftheindividualand ExplainingtheessenceofPashtunwali,QiyĈmuddin honourofgroups KhĈdimreferredtothetribalspirit(qaumiruh)of allPashtunsbecauseallPashtunsarepatrilineal Theconceptofnanga(alsonang)arisesfromthe descendentsofQaisॖAbdurrashidandmoreover, tribalspiritofthePashtuns:'Nangameansto becausehewrotehisbookduringaperiodof defendone'srightsandtherightsofone'stribe 37 nationalawakening.Yetallothersegmentsofthe honourably'. Thus,thisconcepthasadouble tribalsystemcanbereferredtosimilarlyasqaum. meaning.Nangaisthecalltodefendone's Hence,thereferencetothetribalspiritcanbean personalhonour,whichisbasedonanindividual's appealforsolidarityacrossalllevelsofthetribal dignityandtrustinoneself.Butthecallfornanga system,i.e.withinatribe,asubͲtribe,aclan,or isnotlimitedtopersonalhonourbecausethe withinsmallerlineagegroupsaswell. honourofanindividualandthehonourofthe lineageortribeonebelongstoareinterdependent. Onlyinthelineageortribecanonefindallieswho 5 HONOUR,SHAMEANDRULES wouldprovidesupportifnecessary.Livingoutside OFBEHAVIOUR ofthetribalstructureisalmostunimaginable becauseapersonwithoutagenealogicaltreeisa Aspreviouslymentioned,Pashtunwalimeansthat personwithoutadescentgroup,andaperson thePashtunsaredifferentfromotherpeoplesnot withoutadescentgroupisapersonwithoutallies onlyduetotheirlanguage,butalsoduetotheir orsupporters.Hence,nangaisthedemandfor behaviour.ThePashtunauthorॖAbdullahBakhtani personaldignityandselfͲconfidencebecauseonly takesthisideatothepointthat'apersonwho apersonwithdignityandtrustinoneselfcan speaksPashtobuthasnoPashtunwaliisnota upholdthehonourofone'slineageortribe.A Pashtunbecausepersonsfromotherpeoplesalso personwholivesuptothisstandardisheldinhigh havelearnedPashtoandspeakit.Onlyaperson esteemandwillbecallednangyĈlai('honourable'). whodoesPashtoandfollowsitsruleshas ThedemandfornĈmushasasimilarrationale 34 Pashtunwali'. Pashtunwalimeans'doingPashto'; behindit,butwithafocusonthosemembersof and'doingPashto'meanstobringone'sbehaviour thesocietyforwhomaPashtunmanfeels inlinewiththeidealsandmoralconceptsofthe responsibleinaveryspecialway.Theseare,firstof Pashtuns.Theseconceptsareprojectedin all,hiswifeorwives,daughters,andhisunmarried numerousrulesofbehaviour.Oneofthebasic orwidowedsisters.ThewordnĈmuscanbe rulesstates:paܤhtunhaghഋwichinadzĈn translatedas'honour','reputation','esteem', sharmawiaunabഋl('APashtunishewhodisgraces 'conscience',and'chasteness',anditcandenoteall 35 neitherhimselfnorothers'). Aswecansee,the femalemembersofahouseholdaswell.Inthe rulesofbehaviouraregroupedaroundthe worldviewofPashtunwali,thehonourofa 36 dichotomyofhonourandshame. Behaviouris Pashtunmanandthehonourofallfemalesfor whomheisresponsibleareinterdependent. ॖUmarRawandMiyĈkhel:Dഋpaܤhtanoqabiloshajareau Defendingtheirhonourmeanstoprovideshelter mene['ThegenealogiesandhomelandofPashtun andtotakecareofthemandthisisthebestwayto tribes'](KĈbul,MaiwandKhparandoyaܞol೅na defendone'sownhonourandreputation.Pashtun 1383/2004),SiyĈlMomand:Dഋpaܤhtaniqabiloshajare authorspropagatethisideabyreferringtoa ['GenealogiesofthePashtuntribes'](Quetta,Sidiq popularversewhichisattributedtothepoet kutubkhĈna,nodate). HamidBaba(1660Ͳ1732).Hesays:chidഋbഋlnang 34SeeBakhtĈni,Paܤhtanikhuyuna,p.2.

35SeeQuyamuddinKhĈdim,'Paܙhtuncokd೅y?',KĈbul asanestablishedexpressiontodenotetheBalochcode (1333/1954),p.1. ofhonouringeneral. 36 InBalochi,thisdichotomyisexpressedbythewords 37 ॖAtĈyi,DഋpaܤhtaniqabiloisƟlĈhiqĈmƻs,p.277. nangͲumayĈr('honourandshame')whicharealsoused

March2011 10 LutzRzehak:DoingPashto  aunĈmussĈtഋlainaͲshi/wuͲbഋnaͲsĈticokkhpഋl beginning,theyareusuallyresponsiblefor nangaunĈmus('Hewhocannotdefendthe identifyingasuitablewifeandasuitablemember honourandreputationofanotherpersondoesn't tojointheirhousehold.Olderwomenareheldin defendhisownhonourandreputation.')38 suchhighesteemthattheycanhelptoresolvea Seclusionisseenasthebestwaytodefenda bloodͲfeudconflictpeacefully.41 female'sreputationandconsequently,one'sown honourbecausethemainruleofconductisthe questionabouthowone'sbehaviourisevaluated 5.2 Fightingspiritandbravery intheeyesofotherpeople.Afemalewhoisalmost Thedemandforturaisaimedatraisingthefighting invisibletotheeyesofotherpeoplecannot spiritofthePashtuns.InPashtofolklore,onecan disgraceherselfintheeyesofotherpeople.Ifa findinnumerableproverbs,sayingsandverses woman,nevertheless,hasbeenunfaithful,her praisingbravery.Pashtunauthorsoftenquote husbandfeelsobligedtokillhertogetherwithher fromthatfolklorewhentheyexplaintheconcept loverrightaway.Intheeyesofamanwhois oftura.Onepopularverseisattributedto trustedandexpectedtoacthonourably,thisisthe KhushhalKhanKhattak(1613Ͳ1689)whois 39 onlywaytodefendhishonourandreputation.  regardedasthenationalpoetofthePashtuns.He However,inreality,hecanlethimselfbeguidedby says:chiminpഋwaslanaͲwഋymarddenaͲwaye theprinciplethat'ashameisnotashameaslong khpഋldzĈnͲta('Ifyoudon'tlikeweaponsyou asnobodyisawareofit'.Thusadultery(likeother shouldnotcallyourselfaman'.)42Theoriginal missteps)canbecovereduptoavoidblood meaningofturais'sword'andasaruleofconduct, 40 feuds.  turaisthedemandforphysicalbravery.Aperson IntheconceptofPashtunwali,thepositionof whofightsfearlesslyandbravelyishonourably womenismainlydefinedbytheideaofpatrilineal calledturyĈlai('brave').Thistitlecanalsobe descentandbythecleardistinctionwhichismade attributedtoalineage,clanortribe. betweenrelationshipbydescent(khpഋlwali)and ThefightingspiritofthePashtunshasbeensubject relationshipbymarriage(kheܤhi).Thisexplainswhy toproofmanytimesoverthecourseofhistory.It thebirthofasonandthebirthofadaughtercause extendsbacktothenomadicpastandwasraised differentfeelings,whywomenareexcludedfrom againandagainduringthelongstruggleagainst thedivisionoftheestate,whymanyPashtuns SafavidandMughalrulersandduringthe prefermarriagesinsidethepatrilineage,whythe campaignsofPashtuntribesagainstotherpeoples transferofmoneyandgoodsiscompulsoryfor aswell.InthethreeBritishwarsinAfghanistan, marriages,andwhymarriagesareoftenarranged thePashtunslearnedtocombinetheirfighting aspatrilinealcrossͲcousinmarriages.Theideaof spiritwiththeirfaith.Untilthattime,Islamic patrilinealdescentcanalsoexplainlevirateͲ reservationsaboutthesoͲcalledunbelievershad marriagesaccordingtowhichthebrotherofa beenquiteunclearformanyPashtuns,butduring deceasedmanisobligatedtomarryhisbrother's theBritishwars,thePashtuns–likeother widow,andthewidowisobligatedtomarryher inhabitantsofAfghanistan–physicallyexperienced deceasedhusband'sbrother.LevirateͲmarriages theburdenofthecolonialaggressorsandgaineda arealsoaquestionofnĈmus.Theyserveas veryrealisticpictureofthedreadedunbelievers. protectionforthewidowandherchildren, AsprophesisedintheQuran,theyfound ensuringnotonlythattheyhaveamaleprovider themselvesindangerofbeingtriumphedoverby responsibleforthem,butthatthechildrenremain theseunbelievers,dressedinBritishuniforms.43 intheresponsibilityoftheirfather'spatrilineage. Thus,theirstruggleforindependenceturnedintoa 44 Theseclusionoffemalesblocksourviewofsome strugglefortheirfaith. Today,thefightingspirit spheresofsociallifewhicharelesspublic,but wherewomenhavemuchauthority.Womenare 41Formoredetailsonthepositionofwomeninthe oftenthetreasurersofahouseholdandplayan patrilinealPashtunsocietyseetheexcellentstudyby importantroleinmatchmakingbecauseatthe NancyTapper,BarteredBrides:Politics,Genderand MarriageinanAfghanTribalSociety(Cambridge, CambridgeUniversityPress1991). 38KhĈdim,Paܤhtunwali,p.127. 42ForthisandotherversesseeKhĈdim,Paܤhtunwali,pp. 39Cf.AlfredJanataandReihanodinHassas,'Ghairatman 15Ͳ20. –DergutePaschtune',p.86. 43'Norwilltheyceasefightingyouuntiltheyturnyou 40It'sinthenatureofthingsthateveninconfidential backfromyourfaithiftheycan'(Quran,2/218). conversationsonehearsonlyverysubtlehintsatsuch 44AlreadyduringthefirstAngloͲAfghanwar,Afghan cases.Allattemptstoquantifythemwouldbeidle theologianswrotenumeroustractatesinwhichthe speculation. struggleforfreedomwasdeclaredaholywar.Oneofthe

AANThematicReport01/2011 LutzRzehak:DoingPashto 11  ofthePashtunshasbecomeintertwinedwiththe womentocheertheirsonsandhusbands.Oneof sacredtraditionsoftheirstruggleforfreedom, theseversessays:ghഋܹhshupഋkaܩͲyejĈnĈnrĈͲ independence,andfortheirfaith.Thecallfortura wuͲwഋܠ/zܠഋͲmipഋpurshuchiͲyepഋshĈnaͲwi isalwaysthedemandforphysicalbraveryinajust zakhmuna('Therewasabattlecry,mybeloved cause. madeitinthebed/myheartisfull[ofconcern] thathewouldn'tbewoundedattheback').47 Itisalsoajustcausetodefendone'shonourand ExplainingtheartofwarofthePashtuns, rights.Bothindividualrightsandhonourandthe QiyĈmuddinKhĈdimmentionsastoryabouta rightsandhonourofalineage,clanortribeneed battleoftheAfriditribein1897/98.ABritish tobedefendedbravely.Propertyoffencesaswell officerwatchedAfridiwomencollectingbodies aslibelandslandercancausebloodyquarrels fromthebattlefield.Hesawanoldwomanwho therefore.Butbraveryrequiresreasonedactions liftedtheheadofeverydeadmaninordertofind basedonconsideratenessandprudence.Inevery hersons.Thenshekissedsixmenandslappedthe conflict,preferenceshouldbegiventononͲviolent faceoftheseventh.TheBritishofficersentascout andamicablemethodsofresolution.Heroic tofindoutwhathadhappened.Later,thescout courageandbraveryareindemandonlywhen explainedtohimthatallsevenmenweretheold thereisnolongeranyalternative.45Thisideais woman'ssons.Sixofthemwerewoundedonthe fixedinaproverbwhichsays:turadഋtekemaͲbĈsa frontsideandshekissedthemfortheirbravery. kadewuͲistഋlabiyĈͲyenosrawuͲtekeͲtaachawa Theseventhwaswoundedontheback,andthe ('Don'tunsheathethesword,butwhenyouhave womanhadsaidthatacuckolddeservesnothing unsheathedtheswordsheatheitred[fromblood] butaslapintheface.48 afterwards').46 Accordingtothetraditionalrulesofwarfare, Describingbraveryasoneoftheidealsandvalues womenareexpectedtosupporttheirfightingsons, ofPashtunwali,Pashtunauthorsemphasisethat brothersandhusbandsnotonlymorallybut thePashtunsfollowspecialrulesandcustomsof physicallyaswell.InhisbookonPashtunwali, warfare.Wheneverfightingbecomesinevitable, QiyĈmuddinKhĈdimdevotedaspecialchapterto themembersofalineageortribefeelcalledupon theroleofwomenatwar.Itissaidthatbothmen toforgetinternalquarrelsinordertopresenta andwomentakepartinfightingandthatwomen unitedfrontandleadofftothefight.Solidarity supporttheirfightingmenbybringingfood,water groupsappearascombatunits.Intheconceptof andothernecessariestothetrenches.According tura,itisaholydutytoopposeanenemyfaceͲtoͲ tothesamerules,womenmustnotbeattacked.49 faceandtofightuntilthelastbreath.Escaping Thisispartiallyduetothefactthatthekinship fromthebattleisseenasanactofcowardiceanda systemofthePashtunsclearlydistinguishes Pashtunmustnoteventurnhisbacktohisenemy. relationshipbydescentfromrelationshipby Otherwisehewillbecalleddawus('cuckold'),i.e. marriage.Awomanremainsamemberofher heiscomparedwithamanwhosewifehasbeen father'sdescentgroupafterbecomingmarried. unfaithful.Theidealofafearlesswarrioris Whenawomangetshurtinaction,bothher preachedinvariousgenresofthePashtunfolklore. husbandandherbloodrelativescantake Thereareshortverses(landഋi)whicharesungby vengeance.Besidesthat,intheconceptoftura braveryrequirescoequalopponents.Attackinga mostfamoustractatesofthatkindwaswrittenunder womanisregardedasanactofarrogant thetitleRauzatͲulͲmujĈhidin('TheGardenofthe cowardice.Forsimilarreasons,itisforbiddento Mujahidin')byMullĈFayzMuhammad khundzĈda.He attackchildrenaswellasmembersofcasteswitha wrotethistractatebyorderofEmirSherAliandfinished sociallyinferiorstatus,likebarbersormusicians. itin1876.Itiswritteninverses,consistsof1500lines MullahsaswellasSayyids,i.e.maleswhoare andpresentsamilitarycodexforthemujahidin.SeeG.F. acceptedasdescendantsoftheIslamicprophet Girs,Istoricheskiepesnipushtunov['Historicalsongsof Muhammad,Hajjis,i.e.personswhohave thePashtuns'](Moscow:Nauka1984),47. successfullycompletedthepilgrimagetoMecca, ContemporaryPashtunfolkloreprovidesevidencefor thefactthatintheAngloͲAfghanwarsthestrugglefor spiritualleadersofSufibrotherhoodsandother independencewasseenasastruggleforfaith.For dignitariesshouldbeexcludedfrommilitary examplesseeibid.pp.79Ͳ111,JamesDarmesteter, actionsduetotheirholiness.Likeotherideals,this ChantspopulairesdesAfghans(Paris,Imprimerie wasnotalwaysfollowedduringthecivilwar. Nationale,1888Ͳ1889). 45 Seethediscussiononturaandaql('swordand 47 SeeKhĈdim,Paܤhtunwali,p.29. reason')inBerntGlatzer,'ZumPashtunwalials ethnischemSelbstportrait',pp.94ff. 48SeeKhĈdim,Paܤhtunwali,pp.31Ͳ34. 46SeeॖAtĈyi,DഋpaܤhtaniqabiloisƟlĈhiqĈmƻs,p.59. 49SeeKhĈdim,Paܤhtunwali,pp.41Ͳ42.

March2011 12 LutzRzehak:DoingPashto  5.3 Equalityandrespectforseniors answersorinformationastopersonalproblems wouldagainshowthatonewantstobethefocus TheconceptofmusĈwatexpressestheideaof ofattention. equality.Thisideaiscloselyrelatedtothe genealogicaltraditionofcommonpatrilineal Theideaofequalityasexpressedintheconceptof descent.Pashtunauthorsproudlyclaimthattheir musĈwatgoeshandͲinͲhandwiththedemandfor languagedoesnothavegenuinePashtowordswith respectfulandhonourablebehaviourtowards meaningslike'slave','servant'or'Lord'.50Withthis seniors(dഋmഋshഋrĈnomanഋܤht).Thisdemand statement,theywanttodemonstratethe definesthepositionoftriballeadersaswellasthe importanceoftheconceptofmusĈwat.Equalityas relationbetweenfathersandtheirsons,between conveyedintheconceptofmusĈwatisthe brothers,cousins,etc.LiketheEnglishwords equalityofbrothersbutitdoesnotcontradict 'elder'and'senior,'thePashtowordmഋshഋrcan socialinequality,differenceinageordifferencesby denotebothapersonwhoisolderinageanda otherhierarchicalprinciples.Furthermore,equality personwhoseprestigeisbasedonsocial asconveyedintheconceptofmusĈwatisdeeplyͲ categorieslikeleadership,experienceoflife, rootedintheconceptofpersonaldignityand knowledge,etc.SeveralageͲgroupswhichare honour.InthePashtofolklore,thisideais generallygenderͲseparatedcanbedistinguishedin expressedinapopularproverbwhichsays: thesocietyofthePashtuns.Inthishierarchy,the paܤhtĈnഋharyaumandഋinimmanpഋkinഋshta positionofamandependsnotonlyonone'sage ('EveryPashtunweighsoneman51;thereareno butalsoonthecriteriawhetheroneisunmarried halfͲmanamongthem.')52Thismeansthat ormarried,whetheronekeepsahouseholdof Pashtunsarenotsimplyequal,buttheyareequal one’sown,whetheronehaschildren,whetherone intheirprideanddignity.Apersonwhoexpects ownsaplotofland,etc.Besidesbydifferencein otherstorespecthisorherdignityandhonour age,thepositionofwomenisalsodefinedby mustrespectthedignityandhonourofothersin criteriawhetheroneisunmarriedormarried, anequalway.Consequently,theconceptof whetheronehaschildrenorgrandchildren,etc.All equalityrequiresrespectfulandmodestbehaviour personscanpassthroughtheseageͲgroupsover ineveryway.Takingturnstolettheothergofirst thecourseoftheirliveswhereasonlyselected doesbynomeansinflictdamageonsomebody's personsareregardedasseniorsduetocriterialike dignity.Incontrast,onlydignifiedpersonsareable leadership,knowledgeoftribalcustoms,or topaytributetosomebody'shonourinthatway. experienceoflife. ThetraditionholdsthattheformerkingZaherShah Traditionally,inthesocietyofthePashtuns,two broughthiscartoastopbecauseanagedPashtun groupsofeldersortriballeaderscanbe manwascrossingovertheroad.Needlessto distinguishedduetotheirsocialfunctionsand mentionthatostentationrepresentsacrude competencies.Thefirstgroupconsistsofpersons breachoftherulesofconduct;andoneshouldnot whoarecalledkhĈnormalikinPashto.53Theseare eventalkaboutoneselfwithoutbeingaskedtodo eldersoravillageheadmanofhighprestigewho so.Agoodillustrationofthisruleofbehaviouris havemuchinfluenceandpowerandwhoactas thegreetingceremony.Wheninquiringafter representativesfortheirtribalgrouporvillagein somebody'shealthonewillhardlygetananswer negotiationswithgovernmentagenciesandother rightaway.Insteadofanswering,theotherperson tribalgroups.Inmostregions,thepositionofa willinquireafterthehealthoftheconversational khĈnormalikishereditaryanddependsmuchon partner.SuchquestionsandcounterͲquestionscan landownershipandeconomicstrengthalthough lastforseveralminutesinmanycases.Answering toosoonwouldshowthatonewantstobeinthe 53 focusofattention,butonemustdemonstrateto TheusageofkhĈnormalikasanhonorarytitlefor theconversationalpartnerthathisorherstateof theseleadersdependsonthedialect.SeeM.IbrĈhim ॖAtĈyi,'P೅qabilawiܞol೅nakid೅m೅sh೅r೅yp೅rfaktoyawa healthisthefocusofattentioninstead.When itnolojikiceܕ೅na'['Astudyonthefactorsofleadershipin finallyanswering,onewillcontentoneselfwith atribalsociety'],AryĈnĈ(1360/1981)3:65,75.In sayingthateverythingisfineandthankingGodfor regionswherebothtitlesareinuse,preferenceisgiven that.Atthisstageofconversation,moredetailed tooneofthemduetothecriterionoflandownership.In someregionssuchasKhost,apersonwhoseleadership ismainlybasedonlandholding,iscalledkhĈnwhereasa 50 SeeKhĈdim,'Paܙhtunwali–tarbiyawiusul',p.30. malikisapersonwhoseeconomicinfluenceisless 51 importantforleadership.SeeSteul,Paschtunwali,p.70. Manisameasureofweight.Dependingontheregion AmongtheNurziandGhelziofSouthͲWestern onemanisabout4kg(Kandahar),32kg(Peshawar)or AfghanistanthepositionofakhĈndependsmainlyon 565kg(Kabul). leadershipabilitiesandeconomicpowerisless 52SeeKhĈdim,Paܤhtunwali,p.43. importanttoday(ownobservations).

AANThematicReport01/2011 LutzRzehak:DoingPashto 13  leadershipabilityisalsonecessary.Twoormore berespectedasaleaderofthattype.Economic leadersofthattypecancoexistinonevillageand powerislessimportant,butoneshouldownat sometimestheyrivalforfollowersandloyalty.A leastaplotoflandtodemonstratethatoneis khĈnormalikdoesnotexercisedirectpowerover economicallyindependent.Agedmenwhohavean hisfollowers;decisionsareinsteadusuallybased expertknowledgeofthecustomarylegalsystem onconsultationswithfollowers.Evidently,akhĈn arecallednarkhi(singular:narkhai)respectfully.A ormalikmustholdallattributesofa'good narkhaiisnotajudge,butapersonwhois Pashtun'asprescribedbythenormsandrulesof experiencedinjudicialmatters,whoisableto Pashtunwali.Inaddition,atriballeaderofthatkind quoteprecedentsandwhoisthereforeaskedfor needstohaveconsiderableeconomicresources. adviceonvariousissues.Eldersofthistype(both Followersmustbefeastedfortheirloyaltyfrom spinܹhiriandnarkhi)aregrantednumerous timetotime.Afollower,whohasplacedhistrust privilegesthatenablethemtoactas inaleaderforalongperiodoftime,expects intermediariesincasesofconflict.Sayyids,Hajjis, financialormaterialaidintheeventofan somespiritualleadersofSufibrotherhoodsand emergency.Generallyspeaking,thepositionofa otherdignitariesareprivilegedinasimilarway. khĈnormalikismorethatofapatronthanofa landlord,buteconomicdependencyhasgained importanceintherelationshipbetweensuch 5.4 Consultationanddecisionmaking 54 eldersandtheirfollowers. Duringthecivilwar, Asmentionedabove,individualhonourandshame thepositionoftraditionaltriballeaderssuchas arecloselylinkedtothehonourandshameofthe khĈnormalikwasseriouslyweakenedbythe tribalgrouptowhichonebelongs.Allquestions militaryandpoliticalstrengthofmilitary requirethoroughconsultationswithother commanders.Intimesofpeace,akhĈnormalik tribesmenwhomaybeaffectedbythem.Inmany organisedaccesstopastures,tookcareofthe cases,itissufficienttoasktheeldersforadvice;in irrigationsystemordealtwithstateauthorities, othercases,allconcernedpersonsarecalled butduringthewarotherleadershipabilitieswere togetherforconsultations.Inthetribalstructureof indemand.Aleaderhadtoorganiseweapons, thePashtuns,thedemandforconsultationhas moneyandfoodwhichwereoftensuppliedvia beeninstitutionalisedintheJirgatradition. PakistanorIran.Hence,aleaderneededaccessto Generallyspeaking,everygatheringofPashtun militarygroupsandforeignorganisations.Manyof menwhichisheldinordertosolveaquestionof theelderlytraditionalleaderswerephysically commoninterestcanbecalledJirga.Inmostcases, unabletocopewiththesetasksandlefttheir aJirgaisconvenedspontaneouslywhenevera 55 positiontomilitarycommanders.  problemofcommoninterestneedstobesolved. Thesecondgroupoftraditionaleldersconsistsof TherearenosuperiororinferiorJirgas.Thegroup personswhoseprestigeandinfluencearebased ofparticipantsisdefinedbythecircleofpersons exclusivelyonpersonalattributesandonthe whoareaffectedbyaparticularproblem.Whena knowledgeandexperiencetheyhavegained Jirgaisheldonthevillagelevel,alladultmenwho duringtheirlonglives.Sucheldersareregardedas havefoundedahouseholdandownatleasta wisemenandarerespectfullycalledspinܹhiri patchoflandhavetheformalrighttojoinit.In ('whiteͲbeardedmen',singular:spinܹhirai).They othercases,onlytheeldersofatribalgroupor haveagoodknowledgeofthetraditionsand villagemaycometogether.Supportersofa valuesofPashtunwali.Theyareexperienced particularpositioncanforminformalpartiesin rhetoriciansandcanbeaskedforadviceinalmost advanceandauthoriseelderstodefinetheir allsituations.Generally,everyagedmancanbe positionattheJirgagathering.Experiencedelders calledspinܹhirai,butonemustpossessall emphasisetheirideasimpressivelyusingproverbs, aforementionedpersonalattributesandhavethe quotingprecedentsortellingmoralisingnarratives. knowledgeandexperienceofanagedwisemanto InsomeregionssuchasPaktia,theJirgahas transformedintoatribalassemblyofelderswhich isnotopentoeveryonethoughthisassemblyis 54SeeJ.W.Anderson,'Therearenokhananymore: alsocalledJirga.WhenaJirgaofthiskindcomes economicdevelopmentandsocialchangeintribal togethertheeldersaresurroundedbyakindof Afghanistan',MiddleEastJournal(1978)2,pp.167Ͳ183. tribalpolicewhichiscalledarbaki(singular: 56 55Fordetailsconcerningthesituationoftraditional arbakai)andrecruitedfrombravetribesmen.  eldersduringthecivilwarofthe1990iesseeBernt Thearbakidenyaccesstounauthorisedpersons Glatzer,'BeingPashtun–beingMuslim:Conceptsof personandwarinAfghanistan',inBerntGlatzer(ed.), EssaysonSouthAsianSociety:CultureandPoliticsII 56SeeAliMohammadSobman,'ArbakaiinPaktia',Paܤto (Berlin,DasArabischeBuch1998),p.83f. Quarterly(1359/1980)3:81.

March2011 14 LutzRzehak:DoingPashto  andareresponsiblefortheenforcementofthe (mudĈhina)and'blarney'(chĈplusഋy)arenotof Jirgadecision. Pashtoorigin.Withthisstatementhewantsto showthatPashtunsdisdainfalsenessand Dependingontheproblemtobesolved,aJirgacan insincerity.Hearguesthatsincerityisnotamatter takeonaconsultinganddesigningrole,itcanbe ofwealth.Onthecontrary,willpowerwillhelpa partofthedisputeresolutionmechanismina poorpersontocopewithhissituation.Asinother disputebetweentwogroups,anditcanbeusedas cases,QiyĈmuddinKhĈdimdoesnotrefrainfrom acourtincasesofcriminalconduct.Inallcases, usingbigwords,sayingthatgenerallyforaPashtun decisionsaremadebyconsensus.57Thediscussion itisbettertodiethantolie.AndwhenaPashtun lastsaslongasthereisnolongeranyoppositionto dies,hedoesnotevenwanttobeburiednexttoa aparticularposition.Allparticipantsmustagreeto liar.61 aproposal.Itcanhappen,therefore,thataJirga lastsaverylongtimeorthatitbreaksupwithout takingadecision.Insuchcases,anewJirgacanbe 5.6 Compensationandretaliation calledorintermediariesareinvitedtocometoa decision. Freedom,strongͲmindednessandsincerityare basicfeaturesofone'sdignityandhonour.These ThedecisiontakenbyaJirgaisbindingforall feelingsareincompatiblewiththeideaofowing membersofatribalgroup.ContraventionofaJirga anybodyanything.Theconceptofbadalconveys decisioncancauseatribalpenalty(nĈgha).Itis thedemandforcompensationwithoutcondition. reportedthatwithseriousviolations,thehouseof Theoriginalmeaningofthewordbadalis theoffenderwasburnedorheorshewasexpelled 'exchange'.Inthecourseoftime,itacquiredthe 58 fromthevillageortribalgroup.  meaningofcompensationandretaliation.In Westernpublications,badalisoftenunderstood 62 5.5 Willpowerandsincerity exclusivelyasrevengeandbloodfeud. Pashtun authors,however,unmistakablypointoutthat TheconceptofmeܠĈnഋexpressesthedemandfor bothgooddeeds(nekഋi)andbaddeeds(badഋi) willpowerandtenacity.DoingPashtomeansto requirecorrespondingactionsinreturn.63Hence, overcomeanydifficultieswithconsiderableeffort theconceptofbadalexpressesnotmerelythecall andagreatdealoftimeifnecessary.Theword forrevenge,butalsotheobligationtothankfor meܠĈnഋwasderivedfromthePashtowordfor theprovisionofhelpandtoprovidecompensation '[married]man'(meܠഋ),butthedemandfor assoonaspossible.InPashtunwali,itissinfultobe willpowerandtenacitymustbemetbywomen givensomethinggoodwithoutreciprocation.The andchildrenaswell.Pashtunauthorsclaimthat feelingofindebtednesstosomeonewhohasdone thesearenationalattributesofthePashtunswhich youafavourisconsideredunmanlyandcowardly werebroughtforthbythedifficultgeographical althoughreciprocationdoesnotneedtobe conditionsoftheirhomeland.59Faithfulness, grantedrightaway.Compensationcanbeprovided reliabilityandsincerityarespecialfeaturesofthe ataconvenienttimebecausedoingPashtomeans conceptofmeܠĈnഋ.Agivenwordmustnotbe tosettleone'sdebtwhentheopportunityarises. broken.Promisesareweighedthoroughlybecause Onthesegrounds,numerousnetsofmutual doingPashtorequireskeepingpromiseswithout obligationsarewoven.Onesimpleexamplecan exception.InPashtunwali,thesevaluesare illustratehowsuchnetswork.In2006inNimroz expressedbytheconceptofজahdauwafĈ province,alocalkhĈnoftheNurzitoldmethathe ('promiseandfidelity').Itissaidthatin hadboughtwithhisownmoneymorethan100 Pashtunwali'speakingPashto'and'keepingone's prayermatsforafriendinFarĈhprovincewhohad promises'aresynonyms.60Furthermore,doing completedthehajjtoMeccaandneededthese Pashtorequirestellingthetruth.Inhisarticle prayermatstobepresentedassouvenirsto abouttheeducationalprinciplesofthePashtuns, relativesandfriends.WhenIaskedhimifthe QiyĈmuddinKhĈdimhasanextrachapternamed friendhadalreadygivenbackthemoneyforthe riܤhƟyĈ'truth'andheemphasisesthatthewords carpetmats,hesaidno.Heexplainedthathe whichareusedinPashtofor'lie'(durogh),'flattery' wouldn’ttakethemoney,butwheneverhewould haveaprobleminFarĈhprovince,thisfriendwho

57 OnlyattheLoyaJirgaasenshrinedintheConstitution 61SeeKhĈdim,'Paܙhtunwali–tarbiyawiusul',p.30. ofAfghanistandecisionsaretakenbyvoting. 62 58 SeeLindholm,GenerosityandJealousy,p.210,Steul, SeeKhĈdim,Paܤhtunwali,p.54. Paschtunwali,p.153,Strickland,'Thewayofthe 59SeeBakhtĈni,Paܤhtanikhuyuna,p.16. Pashtun',pp.4Ͳ5. 60SeeKhĈdim,Paܤhtunwali,p.58. 63SeeKhĈdim,Paܤhtunwali,p.48.

AANThematicReport01/2011 LutzRzehak:DoingPashto 15  hadahighpositioninthelocaladministration 5.7 Generosityandhospitality wouldbeobligedtohelphim.Thiscouldbe tomorroworinsomeyears.Numerousobligations TheconceptofsakhĈwatexpressesthehabitof givingfreelywithoutexpectinganythinginreturn. ofthisandsimilarkindsarewovenintonumerous 65 netsofmutualobligationswhichmakesany Agenerouspersoniscalledsakhirespectfully. It discussionaboutcorruptionmuchmoredifficult issaidthataPashtunwillneversacrificehis thanitwouldseematafirstglance. honour,butgivingawayone'sbelongingsis nothingexceptionalforPashtuns.66Hospitality Likegooddeeds,baddeedsalsocallfor (melmastiyĈ)isaspecialformofdemonstrating reciprocation.Ifabaddeedconsistsinanattackon generosity.Everypersonwhoentersthehouseis aperson'shonourorphysicalintegrity, providedwithatleastsometeaandfoodand,if reciprocationmeanstotakerevenge.Revengeis necessary,aplacetostay.Evenpoorpeopleare aimedatrestoringtheprimarybalancebetween hospitabletosuchanextentthataguestwill individualsandgroupsandatretrievingone's probablygetawrongpictureoftheirreal honour.Thisequivalenceisalsocalledbadal.A economicsituation.Aguestisseenasagiftsentby cycleofretaliatoryviolencecanturnintoablood Godanddemonstratinghospitalitythereforeisa feud.Suchfeudsarenamedbloodfeudnot piousdeed.67Accordingtocustom,aguestis becausebloodshedmustbenecessarilyinvolved, treatedwithspecialhonourforthreedays. butbecausetheyarecarriedoutbykingroups Afterwards,aguestisservedlikeothermembers whicharerelatedbyblood,i.e.bydescentgroups ofthehousehold.Hospitalityincludesnotonly ofdifferentgenealogicaldepth.Revengecanbe rulesofbehaviourtobeobservedbythehost,but takenbythepatrilinealrelativesofsomeonewho rulesfortheguestaswell.68Everyoneisfreeto hasbeenwounded,killedorotherwisewrongedor becomesomebody'sguest,butoncethishas dishonoured,anditcanbedirectedagainstthe happened,theguestmustgivethehostthe offenderoragainstoneofhispatrilinealrelatives. opportunitytoshowgenerosity.Hence,aguest Sincebloodfeudsareaimedatrestoringthe canleavethehost'shouseonlywiththehost's primarybalancebetweenindividualsandgroups, permission.Itgoeswithoutsaying,thatitisnot revengemustbereciprocal.Theprincipletobe respectabletorefuseofferedfood.Furthermore,a appliedisaneyeforaneyeandatoothforatooth. guestshouldfranklytalktohishostsalthoughthe Forexample,killingapersonrequireskillingthe hostmaynotevenaskwhotheguestis,wherehe killeroroneofhisrelatives.Onlyinthiscasethe comesfromandwhereheisgoing.APashtundoes primarybalanceandequivalencebetweenthetwo notneedtoknowaguest'spersonaldetailsto groupswouldberestoredandpeacenegotiations honourhimgenerously.69Thehostandhisfamily wouldbepromising.Revengedoesnotneedtobe willentertainaguest,havingconversationwith takenrightaway.Vengeancecanbedelayedand himorherinorderthataguestshallnotbebored. theobligationtotakerevenge(por,literary'debt') Onthesegrounds,aguestisneverleftalone.Ifthe canevenbelefttothenextgeneration.Apopular hostneedstobeabsentforawhile,hewill proverbsays:paܤhtunsഋlkĈlapaskhpഋlporwuͲ commissionhisbrothersorsonstokeepcompany asikht/hamwayഋlͲyechighalơͲmiwuͲkܠa('A withtheguest.Atypicalquestionaddressedtoa Pashtuntookhisrevengeafteronehundredyears guestissĈজatͲditerdഋi?('Aren'tyoubored?'). 64 andhesaidthathewasinahurry.')  Often,guestsareofferedapresentwhentheyare Moralharmcausedbykillingandinjurymustalso leaving. betakenintoconsiderationwhentheprimary balancebetweenindividualsandgroupsistobe restoredinthecourseofvengeance.Accordingto custom,somemoneyneedstobepaidbythe 65Thewordsakhicanbeusedasapropernameaswell. offenderorhisrelativestocompensatemoral Furthermore,inAfghanistanitisawellknownepithetof damage.InPashto,thismoneyiscalledsharm. Ali,thecousinandsonͲinͲlawoftheIslamicprophet Originally,thiswordmeans'shame'andthusit Muhammad. showsthatrevengeisalsoaquestionofhonour 66SeeBakhtĈni,Paܤhtanikhuyuna,p.29. andshame.Moneycanbepaidascompensation 67 forphysicalharmaswelltoavoidpointless Ofcourse,beinggenerousisalsoawaytoexpress bloodshed.ThismoneyiscalledkhunbahĈ('blood one’swealthandtogainpublicreputationbutasa primarymotiveofaction,suchbehaviourdoesnot money').Suchpaymentsareveryimportantforthe correspondtotheidealsof'doingPashto'. peacefulsolutionofdisputes. 68SeeMuhammadKĈkaܕ,'D೅AfghĈnistĈnd೅xatidzo',p. 55. 64SeeKhĈdim,Paܤhtunwali,p.43. 69SeeBakhtĈni,Paܤhtanikhuyuna,p.30.

March2011 16 LutzRzehak:DoingPashto  Hospitalityalsofindsitsexpressionintheway almostallvaluesandrulesofbehaviourofthe buildingsaredesignedanderected.Almostevery codeofhonourofthePashtuns.Apersontowhom househasaguestroomwhichisstrictlyseparated ghairatisattributedisrespectfullycalled fromthehouse'sfamilypart.Manyvillageshavea ghairatman.Suchapersonisnotsimplydoing separatehutwhichiscalledhujraandservesasa Pashtobutheisanxioustodosoandleavesno restingplaceforguestsandtravellers.The doubtthathedoeshisutmost.Suchapersonis householdsofavillagewillsupplyfoodand heldinhighesteembecauseaghairatmanPashtun companyinturn. personifiesthe'idealPashtun'.72 InPashtunwali,aguestisnotonlyprovidedwith foodandaplacetostay,butwithprotectionas 6 THECUSTOMARYLEGAL well.Apersonisunderthehost'sprotectionas longasheisthehost'sguest.Theguestonhispart SYSTEM mustnotraisehishandagainstanyoneaslongas heisinthehouseofhishost.Thiselementof 6.1 Legalnormsandthecodeofhonour hospitalityincludestheobligationtograntasylum (panĈkawഋl)toapersonwhoispersecutedby Legalnormsdifferfromothersocialnorms anyone.Ahostcantrytoactasamiddlemanfor becausecomplianceissupervisedbyinstitutions theguestandhispersecutors,butwhentheguest whicharesociallyrecognisedforthisfunction.Ina isattackedthehostwilldohisutmosttoprotect societywherehonourcoverseverythingandwhere him.Defendingone'sguestmeanstodefendone's thehonourofanindividualandthehonourofthe honourandthehonourofone'stribalgroup. grouptowhichonebelongsareinterdependent, Asylummustnotevenberefusedtoone'senemy. mattersofdisputecanhardlybedelegatedtoany Specialmechanismsofpeacefulconflictresolution personsotherthanthosewhosehonourisin havedevelopedonthesegrounds.Followingthe question.AmongthePashtuntribes,whenevera samerationaleofhospitality,awomancanpresent commonlyrecognisednormisbroken,the herselfasaguestinthehouseofthemanwhom threatenedgroupfeelsresponsibletotake shewishestomarrywhensheisgoingtobe measuresagainstthenormͲbreakerinordertoreͲ marriedtoanothermanagainstherwishes.Inthis establishthepreviousbalanceandtoretrievetheir case,thechosenhostmustsettlethematterwith honour.Imposedsanctionsneedtobeacceptedby herfather.Inreality,however,thisdoesnot othertribesmenand,ifnecessary,supportedby happenveryoftenbecauseawomanwhoresorts themtobecomelegalsanctions.Thisphilosophy tothistacticlosesfaceandrunstheriskofstarting constitutesthebasisforacomplexofnormsand arevengecycle.70 mechanismswhichareknownunderthename narkh(literally'price')inPashtoandwhichcanbe Escorting(badraga)isanotherfeatureof interpretedasthecustomarylegalsystemofthe hospitalityinthemeaningofdoingPashto.A 73 Pashtuns. Thecustomarylegalsystemandthe personwhoistravellinginaregionwhereother codeofhonourarecloselyrelatedtoeachother. tribesresidecanaskforanescort.Localtribesmen Onecannotunderstandthephilosophyand willescorthimandprovideprotectionifnecessary. mechanismsofthecustomarylegalsystemwithout Anintelligenttravellerwillnevercrossforeign takingintoconsiderationtheideologyofpatrilineal regionswithoutseekinganescortbylocalpeople. descent,thetribalspiritaswellasthevaluesand rulesofbehaviourasexpressedinPashtunwali. 5.8 Prideandzeal Besidescustomarylegalnorms,Pashtunsaccept Theconceptofghairatisprobablythemost theSharia,i.e.thesacredlawofIslam,andfollow complextenetofPashtunwali.Thewordghairat theHanafiSchoolinjurisprudence.Traditionally, means1.dignity,selfͲesteem,pride, Shariaaddressedseveralaspectsoffamilylaw ambitiousness;2.zeal,eagerness,passion;3. primarilywhereascasesofcrimeandinheritance bravery,courage,audacity;4.indignation,anger; disputesweresettledaccordingtocustomarylegal 5.modesty.71Thustheconceptofghairatpools norms.Nooppositionexistedbetweentheselegal

70SeeErikaKnabe,'AfghanWomen:DoesTheirRole 72SeeAlfredJanataandReihanodinHassas,'Ghairatman Change?,inLouisDupreeandLinetteAlberts(eds.), –DergutePaschtune',M.IbrĈhimॖAtĈyi,Dഋpaܤhtani Afghanistaninthe1970s(NewYork,Prager1974),pp. qabiloistilĈhiqĈmƻs,p.199. 146,147. 73Thefactthatawordwiththeoriginalmeaning'price' 71SeeM.G.Aslanov,PushtuͲrusskijslovar'['PashtoͲ isusedtodenotethecustomarylegalsystemisrelated Russiandictionary'](Moskva,Russkijjazyk1985),pp. tothecustomofpayingbloodmoneyintheprocessof 621Ͳ622. conflictsolution(fordetailsseebelow).

AANThematicReport01/2011 LutzRzehak:DoingPashto 17  systemsuntilthemidͲ1990swhentheTaleban Asmentionedearlier,ithasalwaysbeenafactthat introducedafundamentalistinterpretationof inthetribalregionsthestatewouldrarely Islamanddeclaredsometraditionalcustomsand interfereintoaffairswhichwereregulatedby normsofthePashtunstobeopposingIslamiclaw. officialinstitutionsinmostotherpartsofthe In1998,theTalebanissuedadecreewhichbanned country.Whenaconflictarose,manyPashtuns thecustomthatindisputeresolutiontheclanof usedtosaypaܤhtokawu'wewilldoPashto',i.e. theoffenderwouldpresentawomanorseveral theyresolvedtheconflictbyapplyingcustomary womentotheclanofthevictimascompensation. legalnorms.Correspondingly,aJirgawhichisheld Anotherdecreeforbadeleviratemarriages toresolvealegalconflictaccordingtothetribal declaringthatwidowshadtherighttochoosetheir customsofthePashtunsiscalledpaܤhtojirga.77 ownhusbandsregardlessofwhetherthey Especiallyinremoteareasandinareaswith belongedtothehusband'sfamilyortribeornot.74 compactPashtunsettlements,government Today,however,theTalebanrecommendcaution agenciesacceptedthissituationuntiltherecent inapplyingIslamiclaw.Inastatuteforthe pastbycondoningthecustomarylegalsystemor membersoftheTalebanmovement(Dഋ evenbyapplyingcustomarylegalnormsintheir mujĈhidinoaskarilĈyha'Militaryrulesforthe ownjudgements.Intheearly1980s,Afghan mujahedin')whichwasissuedinAugust2010,itis scholarscarriedoutananthropologicalsurveyin saidthatjudicialdisputeswhicharetakentothe Pashtuntribalareasanddocumented104criminal Talebanbythelocalpopulationwiththerequest cases.84ofthemwereresolvedbythetribes forresolutionshouldbeaddressedfirstlyvia withoutinforminggovernmentagenciesandonly mediationbylegalpeacemakingJirgas.Onlyifa in20caseswerethepoliceorothergovernment JirgacannotcometoasolutionorifaJirgacannot agenciesengagedtoresolvetheconflict.Inalmost beheld,disputesshallbetakentoanIslamic allcases,however,theirjudgmentsconformedto court.75Thisrecommendedpreferencefortribal thecustomarylegalnormsofthePashtuns.78 methodsofconflictresolutionstrengthens SinceinmanypartsofAfghanistannofunctioning Pashtunwalieventhoughitmightbeatemporary governmentinstitutionsexistedduringthecivil approachintheeyesoftheTaleban.76 war,customarylawcontinuedtobeimportantand Furthermore,thecustomarylegalnormsofthe inremoteareasitisstillbeingappliedtoday.In Pashtunsdealwithmanytopicsaddressedby 2005,IhadthechancetojoinaJirgaoftribal secularlaw.However,selfͲgovernancewasoneof eldersoftheNurziwhohadcomefromFarĈhand theprivilegeswhichPashtuntribestraditionally NimrozprovincestoZaranjinordertodiscussa weregrantedinthestatesystemofAfghanistan. deaththreatagainstayoungmanfromtheirtribe whohadbeenengagedincrossͲborderdrug trafficking.Althoughaleadingsecurityofficerof 74FordetailsseeJuanR.I.Cole,'TheTaleban,Women, FarĈhprovincewhoalsobelongedtotheNurziwas andtheHegelianPrivateSphere',inRobertD.Crewsand presentatthisJirga,itwasclearfromthevery AminTarzi,TheTalebanandtheCrisisofAfghanistan beginningthattheproblemwouldbesolvedby (Cambridge,London,HarvardUniversityPress2008),pp. 'doingPashto',i.e.thetribalwayandwithout 118,143Ͳ144. addressingofficialinstitutions. 75Thethirdeditionoftheseruleswaspublishedinthe Interneton8August2010bythesecretariatofthe ThecustomarylegalnormsofthePashtunshave IslamicEmirateofAfghanistan(DഋafghĈnistĈnislĈmi neverbeencodifiedinwrittenform.Theywere imĈratdĈrͲulͲinšĈজ).Itconsistsoffourteenchaptersand transmittedorallyandconsequentlyparticular 85sections.Thereferredstatementisgiveninsection62 normsandcustomsmayvaryinsomedetailsfrom ofchapter14titledolഋsimauzuজĈt('Publicquestions').I tribetotribeandfromregiontoregion.Variation downloadedthetexton2November2010underthe mainlyconcernsthecomputationoftheamountof address bloodmoneytobepaidbutnotthemechanismof http://shahamat.info/index.php?option=com_content&v conflictresolution.79Herethemaintypesof iew=category&id=9&Itemid=24buttodaythissiteisnot workinganymore. 77MuhammadGulMuhmand,Dഋmusawadepഋ۷aul 76TheybelievethattheconditionsforIslamicjurisdiction lumܠaipaܤhtosind['AdraftofthefirstPashto areunfavourabletoday.Insection63ofthesame dictionary'],(KĈbul,MatbaॖaͲyiumumiyaͲiKabul documentitissaid,therefore,thatevensolutionswhich 1316/1937),pp.210Ͳ211. weretakenbyIslamiccourtsunderthesovereigntyof theIslamicEmirateofAfghanistan,i.e.between1995 78SeeHikmati(ed.),DഋpaܤhtanoܩolഋnizͲiqƟsĈdijuܠഋܤht, and2001,andrequirerenegotiationshouldnotbe pp.235Ͳ284. renegotiatedtoday'becauseunliketodaybetter 79SomeexamplesforvariationamongtheTa܋iand conditionsforjustifiedsolutionsexistedatthattime' Ahmadzaitribesaregivenbelow.Formoredetailssee (ibid). Steul,Paschtunwali,185ff.andHikmati(ed.),Dഋ

March2011 18 LutzRzehak:DoingPashto  conflictsandprinciplesofdisputeresolutionwillbe 6.3 Disputesettlement described. Revengedoesnotnecessarilyinvolvebloodshed. Varioushabitsandcustomsenableabloodfeud 6.2 Typologyofconflicts cycletobeavoidedandaconflicttobepeacefully resolved.Themostfamouscustomisaritualof Crimeswhichoffendthewholecommunityare forgivenesscallednഋnawĈtainPashtowhich differentiatedfromcrimeswhichoffendonlya literallymeans'entering[thehouseofthe particulargroupofpersonssuchas,forexample, offendedparty]'.Thisritualisperformedincases themembersofalineageorclan.Eachtypeof ofattacksonaperson'sphysicalintegrity(both crimesgivesrisetoothersanctionsanddifferent killingandinjury)whenoneofthefeudingparties groupsareauthorisedtoimposeandexercisethe 80 istooweaktotakerevengeorwhenbloodshed sanctions.  shouldbeavoidedforotherreasons.The Actionswhichthreatenthewholecommunityare nഋnawĈtaritualisbasedontheconceptsof subjecttosanctionstobeimposedbythe hospitality(melmastiyĈ)andasylum(panĈkawഋl) community,i.e.byaJirga.Forexample,incases accordingtowhichasylummustnotevenbe whensomebodyhasrefusedtoparticipateintasks refusedtoone'senemy.NഋnawĈtameansthatthe whicharetobeperformedasreliefbycommunity offendercomestothehouseoftheopposingparty members(ashar),whensomebodyhascleared toadmitguilt.Sometimesamullahissentfirstto tribalwoodlandswithoutpermission,orwhen announceanഋnawĈtaritual,atothertimesthe somebodyhasexceededthemaximumofthebride offenderappearsinpersonwithoutanyadvance pricewhichhadbeenestablishedforaregion,a announcement,thenusuallyaccompaniedbya Jirgaisconvenedandtheoffenderisforcedtogive mullah,tribalelders,anelderwomanorseveral offsomeanimalsorsomemoneyaspunishment women.Inthepast,apersonwhoperformedthe forhisbehaviour.Inthecaseofgrossviolations, nഋnawĈtaritualboundacordaroundhisneckand thehouseoftheoffendercanbeburneddownor boreatuftofgrassinhismouthtoshowthathe hislandconfiscatedanddistributedamongother admitshisguilt.82APashtunisobligedtoaccept tribesmen.81Thismeansthatthispersonisde thenഋnawĈtaritualbecauseapersonwho factoexpelledfromthecommunity. performsitrepentsanddemonstratesdevotion. Attemptsonsomebody'slifeorphysicalintegrity, WhenthenഋnawĈtaritualisbeingperformedthe assaultsonaperson,adulteryorotherattemptson offendergivesthesoͲcalledbloodmoney afemale'ssexualintegrityaswellasproperty (khunbahĈ)tothefamilyofthevictim.Theblood offencesandattemptstoexploitapersonorgroup moneyisacompensationfortheinflicteddamage areactionswhicharedirectedagainstaparticular anditispaidouttoavoidfurtherrevenge.The personoragainstaparticulargroupofpersons. amountofthebloodmoneyvariesdependingon Consequently,inthefirstinstance,theoffended thedamage.Thebasicunitisestablishedaccording personorgroupofpersonsisresponsiblefor totheaveragebrideprice(walwar)whichis imposingandexercisingsanctions.Takingrevenge currentlypaidinaparticularregion.Ifamalehas istheusualresponseinthesecasesandinthe beenkilledthebloodmoneytobepaidconsistsof customarylegalsystem,revengeisregardeda twobrideprices.Thisunitiscalledonekhun legitimatesanctionforsuchactions. (literally'blood')oronenek(literally'good','good man')insomeregions.Therationalebehinditis thatthebloodmoneyenablesthefamilyofthe victimtomarryagirlwhocangivebirthtoason. Duetotheideologyofpatrilinealdescent,thisson wouldbeamemberofthevictim'spatrilineal paܤhtanoܩolഋnizͲiqƟsĈdijuܠഋܤht,pp.176ī.(bothforthe tribesofKhost),Haqmal,'IjƟmĈॖimasĈyil'(fortheTa܋i tribe),Waziri,'D೅waziristĈnd೅barmalid೅xalkoul೅s 82Thisusedtobethemosthumiliatingformof narkhuna'(fortheWaziritribe),KhĈdim,Paܤhtunwali, nഋnawĈtabecauseapersondemonstratesthatevenin pp.50ff.(fortheAfriditribe). hisowneyesheisnotaturyĈlai.Nodetailedinformation 80 isavailableaboutwhenthistypeofnഋnawĈnawas Inthatrespectcustomarylegalnormsinvariousparts performed.KhĈdimdescribesitasacontemporary oftheworldaremoreorlessidentical.Cf.Heiderich customandhisdatabelongtothe1950s(seeKhĈdim, Barnim,GeneseundFunktionderRache(Gleichzeitigein Paܤhtunwali,p.40).WillySteul,whogatheredhis BeitragzumProblemderUniversalrechtsinstitute),(Köln, materialinthelate1970sinKhostprovince,reportsthat UniversitätzuKöln1972),pp.12ff. someinformantsrememberthistypeofnഋnawĈta'but 81SeeHikmati(ed.),DഋpaܤhtanoܩolഋnizͲiqƟsĈdijuܠഋܤht, theywereunabletostateparticulars'(WillySteul, pp.235ff. Paschtunwali,p.163).

AANThematicReport01/2011 LutzRzehak:DoingPashto 19  descentgroupandareplacementforthekilled Figure1:ThebloodmoneyoftheAhmadzai person.Forthatreason,thebloodmoneyalways tribe84 dependsontheaveragebrideprice. Killing Ifawomanhasbeenkilled,thebloodmoneyishalf Premeditatedmurder 2khun ofthatamount,i.e.½khunwhichisequaltoone Manslaughter 1khun averagebrideprice.Inthecaseofinjury,different Injuries amountsofbloodmoneyareestablishedforevery bodypart.Forexample,ifsomebodyhaslost Spin–'white[visible]bodyparts' eyesightinbotheyesthebloodmoneyis1khun,if Eye 1eye ½khun oneeyehasbeenblindeditis½khun.Ifsomebody haslostalegthebloodmoneyis½khun.Thesame Botheyes 1khun mustbepaidwhensomebodylosthislegorcannot Nose ½khun useitanymoreafterbeingwounded.If Ears 1ear ½khun somebody'sleghasbeenwoundedbutstillcanbe Bothears 1khun usedthebloodmoneyis¼khun.83Theamountof Tongue 1khun bloodmoneywhichwastobepaidforkillingand Teeth Everyvisible onetenthofa injuriesamongtheAhmadzaitribeaccordingto tooth khun datapresentedbyQiyĈmuddinKhĈdim,isgivenin EverynonͲ Specialblood Figure1.Furthermore,acertainamountofmoney visibletooth money needstobepaidbytheoffenderorhisrelativesto Legs Oneleg ½khun compensateformoraldamage(sharm). Bothlegs 1khun Thebloodmoneycandifferin Theamountofthebloodmoneyisraisedincases thecasethatonlythepartbelow wherethevictimwasanhonouredelderlikea thekneewaslost. spinܹhiraiorbelongedtothedignitaries.The Armsand Onearm/ ½khun amountofthebloodmoneyisalsoraisedinthe hands hand casethatthevictimwasunarmedanddefenceless Botharms/ 1khun whenhewaskilledorinjured,inthecasewhere hands thevictimwasmutilatedafterbeingkilledorinthe casethatthekillertookpossessionofthevictim's Thebloodmoneycandifferin weapon. thecasewhenonlythepart belowtheelbowwaslost. Sincetheamountofbloodmoneytobepaidis Furthermorethebloodmoney alwaysestablishedinproportiontotheaverage candifferdependingonwhether brideprice,theoffender'sfamilycanalsogiveone therightarmorhandortheleft orseveralmarriageablegirlstothevictim'sfamily onewaslost. insteadofpayingmoney.Forexample,if Fingers Thumborall 1khun somebodyhasbeenmurderedandtheoffender's fourbearing familygivesonegirltothevictim'sfamily,the fingersonone amountofmoneywhichremainstobepaidis hand reducedto½khun.Revengeandbloodfeudsare Thumbsorall 2khun disputeswhicharecarriedoutbetweenpatrilineal fourbearing descentgroups.Hence,disputesettlementis fingersonboth aimedatreͲestablishingtheprimarybalance hands betweenthesepatrilinealdescentgroups. AfterthenഋnawĈtaritualhasbeenacceptedby Tor–'black[invisible]bodyparts' thevictim'sfamilyandthebloodmoneyhasbeen Genitals Injuryor 2khun paidtothem,thebloodfeudmustbestopped.No cuttingoff furtherrevengecanbetakenbecausetheprevious beforethe balancebetweenthedisputingfamiliesorclans death hasbeenreͲestablished.Anyotherbehaviour Desecrationor 1khunin wouldbedishonouring. cuttingoff additiontothe afterthedeath bloodmoney tobepaidfor killing  83ThesedatarefertotheTa܋itribeofPakƟainthe 1970ies.SeeHaqmal,'IjtimĈॖimasĈyil',pp.62ff. 84SeeKhĈdim,Paܤhtunwali,pp.183ff.

March2011 20 LutzRzehak:DoingPashto  6.4 Mediation mediationandpeacenegotiations.Acceptanceofa Jirgadecisionisaquestionofhonour.86 Seriousdisputescangiverisetoabloodfeudcycle withnumerousvictimsthatwouldthreatenthe SometimesaJirgaisusedasatrialcourt.This wholecommunity.Insuchcases,acommunity wouldhappenwhenarightofownershiporusage mightbewelladvisedtobringthedisputetoan rightsuchasofpasturesisindispute.Inthiscase, end.Forthispurpose,theeldersofalineage,clan everyconflictingpartymusttestifyunderoaththat ortribewouldpersuadethefeudingpartiestolay accordingtopatrilinealsuccessionitisthelegal downtheirarmsandagreetopeacetalks.Tomake heiroftheobjectofdispute.Itisbelievedthata sucheffortsasuccess,theywouldappealtothe falseoathwouldevokeGod'spenalty.If, conceptofnang,i.e.totheindividualhonourof nevertheless,bothpartiessweartobethelegal thepersonsinvolvedandtothehonouroftheir heir,theobjectofdisputewillbedividedbetween 87 lineage,clanortribe.Forpeacenegotiations, them.  mediators(dreyഋmgഋܠai,miyandzgഋܠai)canbe AlldecisionsofaJirgathathasbeenheldfor invited.Mediatorsmustberespectableeldersand conflictmanagementaremadebyconsensusand theymustbeneutral.Forthatreason,itisusually theyarethereforecompromises.Thequotationof tribaleldersofotherlineagesorclanswhoare precedentsoriftheeventisquiteunprecedented, calleduptoarbitratebetweentheconflicting referencestosimilareventsareveryimportantfor parties.Furthermore,theweaponsofboth decisionͲmaking.TheauthorityofaJirgadecisionis conflictingpartiescanbeconfiscatedbythe basedupontheappealtonanga,i.e.acceptanceis communitytopreventanewflareͲupofhostilities amatterofhonour. forthetimeofthepeacetalks.Thiscustomis calledbaramtainPashto.85Aceasefireisan essentialpreconditionforpeacetalks. 7 CONCLUDINGREMARKS PeacenegotiationsareconductedataJirgato whichthemediatorsandrepresentativesofboth Insummary,itmustbereiteratedthatPashtunwali conflictingpartiesareinvited.Inasocietywhichis describesanideal,namelytheidealofthePashtun organisedinpatrilinealdescentgroups,peace wayoflife,andthatidealsnevercomeupto cannotbemadebetweenindividualsonly,but reality.Actualbehaviourcanbeguidedbyother mustberealisedbetweenpatrilinealdescent valuesaswell.Inrecentdecades,Afghansociety groups.Forthatreason,bothconflictingparties hasbeensubjecttofundamentalchangeinalmost mustsenddignifiedrepresentatives,usuallytheir everyrespect.ThesocietyofthePashtuntribesis elders,totheJirga.SuchaJirgaisbynomeansa nolongerthesocietythatexistedwhenmostof judicialhearingoratrialcourt,butapeacemaking thenativeaccountsdrawnonforthispaperwere institution.Hence,thequestionofguiltwouldnot written.Atthattime,manyofthevaluesof bediscussedatall.TheJirgawouldfindouthow Pashtunwaliwerealreadylesspredominantinthe manymembersoftheconflictingpartieswere milieuofurbanPashtunsincitieslikeKabulthanin killed.Ifthenumberofkilledpersonsisequalin mostruralareas.Later,foreignaggressionsandthe everyparty,peacecanbeconcluded.Ifoneparty civilwarcreatedawartimeexperiencewhichis hasmorevictimsthantheother,theotherparty almostwithoutprecedentinthehistoryof mustpaythecorrespondingamountofblood Afghanistan.Whilethewarwaswagedin money.Insomecases,theritualofforgiveness Afghanistan,itwasinfactaninternationalconflict (nഋnawĈta)couldalsobepartofthepeacemaking betweensuperpowerswhichendedwiththe process.Inanycase,theprincipalobjectof collapseoftheSovietUnionandtheEasternbloc. peacemakingistoreͲestablishthebalanceand Afghanmujahidinfeltlikeglobalplayersinthenew equivalencebetweenthedisputinggroupsasit internationalorderandtheconceptoftura hadexistedbeforetheoutbreakofthedispute. seemedtopromiseawaytosolveglobalconflicts. Onlyinthissituationcanpeacebeconcluded.The Butthemilitarypowerofthecommanders decisionofapeacemakingJirgaisbindingforall underminedthetraditionalhierarchyofPashtun participantsbecauseapeacemakingJirgacanbe societyaswellastheconceptofequality.Atthe heldonlyifbothconflictingpartieshaveagreedto sametime,numerousmigrationsbroughtmillions ofPashtunsintoasocioͲeconomicenvironment whichwasorganisedinafundamentallydifferent wayfromtheirformervillagecommunities.Several 85 Generallybaramtadescribesallkindsofconfiscation madetoforcesomebodytoclearhisdebt.SeeKhĈdim, 86 FordetailsseeSteul,Paschtunwali,pp.229ff. Paܤhtunwali,p.39,ॖAtĈyi,DഋpaܤhtaniqabiloisƟlĈhi qĈmƻs,p.21. 87FordetailsseeSteul,Paschtunwali,pp.226ff.

AANThematicReport01/2011 LutzRzehak:DoingPashto 21  traditionalvaluesandrulesofbehaviourwereput andforeignobservers,andthatmuchofwhatis intoquestionbytheTaleban,theirfundamentalist toldaboutitareidealisedversionsofagolden interpretationofIslamiclawandanewartof past.90ThisistruebecausePashtunwali,bynature, warfare.Moreover,thecivilwaralsochangedthe isanidealisedpictureofthePashtunwayoflife. natureofrelationshipsbetweentheethnicgroups Theideathatinformertimesallbehaviourfulfilled ofAfghanistan.Othergroupsgainedinmilitaryand thedemandsofPashtunwaliiswithoutadoubtan politicalpowerduringthewarandintheireyes, idealisation,butthereisalsonodoubtthat thePashtuntribeslosttheirtraditionalexceptional Pashtunwaliitselfpresentsidealsandthatthese positionwithinAfghansociety.After2001,anew idealsserveasvaluestobepursuedasgoals. politicalorderandanewconstitutionwere TheidealofthePashtunwayoflifeaspresented establishedwithenormousforeignsupport.This byPashtunwaliincludesvalues,norms,customs neworder,selfͲevidently,wascraftedtorespond andhabitswhichforafairlylongtimehavebeen tointernationalexpectationsratherthan heldsacredbyvirtueoftraditionandwhichby traditionalvaluesasexpressed,forexample,inthe virtueoftheirimperativecharacterareintendedto conceptofPashtunwali.Andbesidesallthat,the determinethebehaviouroftheindividualandof risinglevelofeducationamongtheyounger socialgroupsineverydaylifeandinexceptional generationisbringingnewvaluesintoawareness, situationsaswell.Today,thevaluesystemof whilemodernmeansofcommunicationare Pashtunwalicompeteswithothersystemsof enablingthepeopleofAfghanistantobecomepart valueswhichhavegainedinfluenceinAfghanistan oftheglobalisedworldwithitsglobalised overthelastfewdecades.Indeed,thevalues discussionofvalues. guidingthebehaviourofindividualsorgroupsare ThequestionabouttheimportanceofPashtunwali largelydependentonthedemandsofaparticular inmodernAfghanistancannotbeansweredinany situation.Attemptstofulfiltherequirementsof generalway.88Thetransformationoftheformal Pashtunwalimayremainacompromisefromcase andorganisationalaspectsoftriballifeismore tocase,yetamongcurrentcompetingvalue obviousthanchangeswithinthesystemofvalues. systems,theidealsofPashtunwalistillpresentan Recently,afundamentaldiscussionofsomeofthe attractiveandsometimesabindingoptiontoday. changeswithinPashtuntribalsociety,whichhad beencausedbythirtyyearsofconflictandthe  gradualcollapseofthestate,waspresentedby  ThomasRuttiginhispaper'Howtribalarethe 89 Taleban?' Hearguesquiterightlythatmight  oftentrumpsPashtunwaliandhecitesmany examplesshowingthattheJirgahaslostmuchof  itsauthorityandthatithasbeenreplacedbythe lessegalitarianshurĈ,thatintraͲtribalcohesionhas  declinedinstrength,andthatseveralfactorsstand inthewayofacoherentandcontinuoustribal  leadership.ThomasRuttigdoesnotconfinehimself totheformalaspectsofpoliticalandsocial organisation.ConcerningthePashtunwaliasthe codeofconductofthePashtuns,hearguesthat muchofithadbeenmystified,bothbyAfghans

88Foradiscussionoftheeffectsofthecivilwaronsome aspectsofPashtunwaliseeGlatzer,'ZumPashtunwali'. Genderissueswerediscussedfromalegalpointofview byPalwashaKakar,'TribalLawofPashtunwaliand Women'sLegislativeAuthority',publishedbythe HarvardLawSchoolintheInterneton http://www.law.harvard.edu/programs/ilsp/research/ka kar.pdf(referredtoon8December2010). 89SeeThomasRuttig,'HowtribalaretheTaleban? Afghanistan'slargestinsurgentmovementbetweenits tribalrootsandIslamistideology',AfghanistanAnalyst Network,http://www.aanͲ afghanistan.org/uploads/20100624TRͲ HowTribalAretheTalebanͲFINAL.pdf. 90Ibid,pp.4,7.

March2011

ABOUTTHEAFGHANISTANANALYSTSNETWORK(AAN)

TheAfghanistanAnalystsNetwork(AAN)isanonͲprofit,independentpolicyresearchorganisation.Itaimsto bringtogethertheknowledgeandexperienceofalargenumberofexpertstoinformpolicyandincreasethe understandingofAfghanrealities. TheinstitutionalstructureofAANincludesacoreteam(currentlyconsistingofthreesenioranalysts)anda networkofregularcontributorswithexpertiseinthefieldsofAfghanpolitics,governance,ruleoflawand security.AANwillpublishregularinͲdepththematicreports,policybriefingsandcomments. ThemainchannelfordisseminationofthereportsistheAANwebsite.Forfurtherinformation,pleasevisit www.aanͲafghanistan.org.  AUTHORBIO:LUTZRZEHAK

LutzRzehakisaseniorresearcherandassistantprofessorattheDepartmentforCentralAsianStudiesofBerlin HumboldtUniversity.HegraduatedfromStPetersburgUniversity,thenLeningrad,USSR,in1985andearned hisPhDatBerlinHumboldtUniversityin1991.Currently,heteacheslanguagesandculturalhistoryof AfghanistanandCentralAsia.Hepublishedextensivelyaboutlanguagedevelopment,socialandculturalhistory andfolkloreofAfghanistanandneighbouringregions.Inoneofhismajorprojects,hecollaboratedinthe editionofaBalochiͲPashtoͲDariͲEnglishdictionarythatwaspublishedinKabulin2007asacontributiontothe developmentprogramforethnicandlinguisticminoritiesofAfghanistan. 



















 ©AfghanistanAnalystsNetwork2011. Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationcanmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystemortransmittedinanyformorbyany means,electronic,mechanical,photocopying,recordingorotherwisewithoutfullattribution.