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Lectures on Quantum Mechanics Leon A. Takhtajan

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Lectures on Quantum Mechanics Leon A. Takhtajan Lectures on Quantum Mechanics Leon A. Takhtajan Department of Mathematics, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794-3651, USA E-mail address: [email protected] Contents Chapter 1. Classical Mechanics . 1 1. Lagrangian Mechanics . 2 1.1. Generalized coordinates . 2 1.2. The principle of the least action . 2 1.3. Examples of Lagrangian systems . 6 1.4. Symmetries and Noether theorem . 11 1.5. One-dimensional motion . 15 1.6. The motion in a central field and the Kepler problem . 17 1.7. Legendre transformation . 20 2. Hamiltonian Mechanics . 24 2.1. Hamilton’s equations . 24 2.2. The action functional in the phase space . 26 2.3. The action as a function of coordinates . 28 2.4. Classical observables and Poisson bracket . 30 2.5. Canonical transformations and generating functions . 32 2.6. Symplectic manifolds . 34 2.7. Poisson manifolds . 41 2.8. Hamilton’s and Liouville’s representations . 45 3. Notes and references . 48 Chapter 2. Foundations of Quantum Mechanics . 49 1. Observables and States . 51 1.1. Physical principles . 51 1.2. Basic axioms . 51 1.3. Heisenberg’s uncertainty relations . 58 1.4. Dynamics . 59 2. Quantization . 61 2.1. Heisenberg’s commutation relations . 62 2.2. Coordinate and momentum representations . 66 2.3. Free quantum particle . 71 2.4. Examples of quantum systems . 76 2.5. Harmonic oscillator . 78 2.6. Holomorphic representation and Wick symbols . 85 3. Weyl relations . 92 3.1. Stone-von Neumann theorem . 92 3.2. Invariant formulation . 98 iii iv CONTENTS 3.3. Weyl quantization . 101 3.4. The ?-product . 107 3.5. Deformation quantization . 110 4. Notes and references . 116 Chapter 3. Schr¨odinger Equation . 119 1. General properties . 119 1.1. Self-adjointness . 120 1.2. Characterization of the spectrum . 121 2. One-dimensional Schr¨odinger equation . 122 3. Angular momentum and SO(3) . 122 4. Two-body problem . 122 5. Hydrogen atom and S0(4) . 122 6. Semi-classical asymptotics . 122 Chapter 4. Path Integral Formulation of Quantum Mechanics . 123 1. Feynman path integral for the evolution operator . 123 1.1. Free particle . 124 1.2. Path integral in the phase space . 125 1.3. Path integral in the configuration space . 127 1.4. Harmonic oscillator . 128 1.5. Several degrees of freedom . 130 1.6. Path integral in the holomorphic representation . 131 2. Gaussian path integrals and determinants . 131 2.1. Free particle and harmonic osicllator revisited . 131 2.2. Determinants . 136 2.3. Semi-classical asymptotics . 146 Chapter 5. Integration in Functional Spaces . 155 1. Gaussian measures . 155 1.1. Finite-dimensional case . 155 1.2. Infinite-dimensional case . 156 2. Wiener measure and Wiener integral . 158 2.1. Definition of the Wiener measure . 158 2.2. Conditional Wiener measure and Feynman-Kac formula . 161 2.3. Relation between Wiener and Feynman integrals . 163 2.4. Gaussian Wiener integrals . 164 Chapter 6. Spin and Identical Particles . 169 1. Spin . 169 2. Charged spin particle in the magnetic field . 171 2.1. Pauli Hamiltonian . 171 2.2. Electron in a magnetic field . 171 3. System of Identical Particles . 172 Chapter 7. Fermion Systems and Supersymmetry . 173 1. Canonical Anticommutation Relations . 173 CONTENTS v 1.1. Motivation . 173 1.2. Clifford algebras . 175 2. Grassmann algebras . 178 2.1. Commutative superalgebras . 179 2.2. Differential calculus on Grassmann algebra . 180 2.3. Grassmann integration . 180 2.4. Functions with anticommuting values . 184 2.5. Supermanifolds . 184 3. Equivariant cohomology and localization . 185 3.1. Finite-dimensional case . 185 3.2. Infinite-dimensional case . 187 3.3. Classical mechanics on supermanifolds . 188 4. Quantization of classical systems on supermanifolds . 190 5. Path Integrals for Anticommuting Variables . 190 5.1. Matrix and Wick symbols of operators . 190 5.2. Path integral for the evolution operator . 194 5.3. Gaussian path integrals over Grassmann variables . 197 6. Supersymmetry . 199 6.1. The basic example . 199 7. Spinors and the Dirac operator . 205 8. Atiyah-Singer index formula . 206 Bibliography . 207 Index . 211 CHAPTER 1 Classical Mechanics We use standard notations and basic facts from differential geometry. All manifolds, maps and functions are smooth (that is, C∞) and real-valued, unless it is specified explicitly otherwise. Local coordinates q = (q1, . , qn) on a smooth n-dimensional manifold M at a point q ∈ M are Cartesian n coordinates on ϕ(U) ⊂ R , where (U, ϕ) is a coordinate chart on M centered n −1 at q ∈ U. For f : U → R we denote (f ◦ ϕ )(q1, . , qn) by f(q). If U is n a domain in R then for f : U → R we denote by ∂f ∂f ∂f = ,..., ∂q ∂q1 ∂qn n the gradient of a function f at a point q ∈ R with Cartesian coordinates (q1, . , qn). We denote by n M A•(M) = Ak(M) k=0 the graded algebra of smooth differential forms on M with respect to the wedge product, and by d the deRham differential — a graded derivation of A•(M) of degree 1 such that df is a differential of a function f ∈ A0(M) = C∞(M). Let Vect(M) be the Lie algebra of smooth vector fields on M with the bracket [ , ], given by a commutator of vector fields. For X ∈ Vect(M) we denote by LX and iX , respectively, the Lie derivative along X and the inner product with X. The Lie derivative is a degree 0 derivation of A•(M) 0 which commutes with d and satisfies LX (f) = X(f) for f ∈ A (M), and • the inner product is a degree −1 derivation of A (M) satisfying iX (f) = 0 0 and iX (df) = X(f) for f ∈ A (M). They satisfy Cartan formulas 2 LX =iX ◦ d + d ◦ iX = (d + iX ) , i[X,Y ] =LX ◦ iY − iY ◦ LX . For a smooth mapping of manifolds f : M → N we denote by f∗ : TM → TN and f ∗ : T ∗N → T ∗M, respectively, the induced mappings on tangent and cotangent bundles. Other notations, including those traditional for classical mechanics, will be introduced in the main text. 1 2 1. CLASSICAL MECHANICS 1. Lagrangian Mechanics 1.1. Generalized coordinates. Classical mechanics describes systems of finitely many interacting particles1. A system is called closed if its par- ticles do not interact with the outside material bodies. The position of a system in space is specified by positions of its particles and defines a point in a smooth, finite-dimensional manifold M, the configuration space of a system. Coordinates on M are called generalized coordinates of a system, and the dimension n = dim M is called the number of degrees of freedom2. The state of a system at any instant of time is described by a point q ∈ M and by a tangent vector v ∈ TqM at this point. The basic prin- ciple of classical mechanics is Newton-Laplace determinacy principle which asserts that a state of a system at a given instant completely determines its motion at all times t (in the future and in the past). The motion is described by the classical trajectory — a path γ(t) in the configuration space M. In generalized coordinates γ(t) is (q1(t), . , qn(t)) and corresponding deriva- dq tivesq ˙ = i are called generalized velocities. Newton-Laplace principle is i dt a fundamental experimental fact confirmed by our perception of everyday’s d2q experience. It implies that generalized accelerations q¨ = i are uniquely i dt2 defined by generalized coordinates qi and generalized velocitiesq ˙i, so that classical trajectories satisfy a system of second order ordinary differential equations, called equations of motion. In the next section we formulate the most general principle governing the motion of mechanical systems. 1.2. The principle of the least action. In Lagrangian mechanics, a mechanical system with a configuration space M is completely characterized by its Lagrangian L — a smooth, real-valued function on TM × R — the direct product of a tangent bundle TM of M and the time axis3. The motion of a Lagrangian system (M, L) is described by the principle of the least action (or Hamilton’s principle), formulated as follows. Let PM(q0, t0, q1, t1) = {γ :[t0, t1] → M, γ(t0) = q0, γ(t1) = q1} be the space of smooth parametrized paths in M connecting points q0 and q1. The path space PM = PM(q0, t0, q1, t1) is a infinite-dimensional real Fr´echet manifold, and the tangent space TγPM to PM at γ ∈ PM con- sists of all smooth vector fields along the path γ in M which vanish at the endpoints q0 and q1. A smooth path Γ in PM, passing through γ ∈ PM is 1A particle is a material body whose dimensions may be neglected in describing its motion. 2Systems with infinitely many degrees of freedom are described by classical field theory. 3It follows from Newton-Laplace principle that L could depend only on generalized coordinates and velocities, and on time. 1. LAGRANGIAN MECHANICS 3 called a variation with fixed ends of the path γ(t) in M. A variation Γ is a family γε(t) = Γ(t, ε) of paths in M given by a smooth map Γ:[t0, t1] × [−ε0, ε0] → M such that Γ(t, 0) = γ(t) for t0 ≤ t ≤ t1 and Γ(t0, ε) = q0, Γ(t1, ε) = q1 for −ε0 ≤ ε ≤ ε0. The tangent vector ∂Γ δγ = ∈ TγPM ∂ε ε=0 corresponding to a variation γε(t) is traditionally called an infinitesimal variation. Explicitly, ∂ δγ(t) = Γ∗( ∂ε )(t, 0) ∈ Tγ(t)M, t0 ≤ t ≤ t1, ∂ where ∂ε is a tangent vector to the interval [−ε0, ε0] at 0. Finally, a tangential lift of a path γ(t) in M is the path γ0(t) in TM defined by 0 ∂ ∂ γ (t) = γ∗( ∂t ) ∈ Tγ(t)M, t0 ≤ t ≤ t1, where ∂t is a tangent vector to 0 [t0, t1] at t.
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