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ABSTRACT ROTOR HOVER PERFORMANCE and SYSTEM DESIGN of an EFFICIENT COAXIAL ROTARY WING MICRO AIR VEHICLE Felipe Bohorquez, Docto

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ABSTRACT ROTOR HOVER PERFORMANCE and SYSTEM DESIGN of an EFFICIENT COAXIAL ROTARY WING MICRO AIR VEHICLE Felipe Bohorquez, Docto ABSTRACT Title of dissertation: ROTOR HOVER PERFORMANCE AND SYSTEM DESIGN OF AN EFFICIENT COAXIAL ROTARY WING MICRO AIR VEHICLE Felipe Bohorquez, Doctor of Philosophy, 2007 Dissertation directed by: Professor Darryll Pines Department of Aerospace Engineering Rotary-wing Micro air vehicles (MAVs) due to their unique hovering and low- speed flight capabilities are specially suited for missions that require operation in constrained spaces. Size restrictions force MAVs to operate in a low Reynolds num- ber aerodynamic regime where viscous effects are dominant. This results in poor aerodynamic performance of conventional airfoils and rotor configurations. This dis- sertation explores the design issues that affect the hover performance of small-scale rotors and the implementation of a working coaxial MAV prototype. A computerized hover test stand was used for the systematic testing of single and coaxial small-scale rotors. Thin circular arcs were chosen for blade manufac- turing because of their good aerodynamic characteristics at low Reynolds numbers, and simplified parameterization. Influence of airfoil geometry on single rotor hover performance was studied on untwisted rectangular blades. Non rectangular blades were used to study coupled airfoil and blade parameters. Tip tapered geometries were manufactured by removing material from baseline rectangular blades producing a coupling between blade planform, twist distribution, and spanwise airfoil shape. Performance gains were obtained by introducing large negative twist angles over short radial distances at the blade tips. A parametric study of the blade geometries resulted in maximum figures of merit of 0.65. Coaxial rotor performance at torque equilibrium was explored for different trims and operating conditions. It was found that the upper rotor was marginally affected by the lower one at spacings larger than 35% of the rotor radius, and that it produced about 60% of the total thrust. Experiments showed that power loading was maximized when higher collectives were used at the lower rotor, resulting in sizable differences in rotational speed between rotors. The CFD solver INS2d was used for a two-dimensional parametric aerody- namic study of circular arc airfoils. Lift, drag, and moment coefficients were ex- plored over a range of Reynolds numbers. Validation with wind-tunnel data showed that lift predictions were satisfactory; however, drag was under-predicted at low an- gles of attack. The CFD database was integrated to a BEMT rotor model through a parameterization that coupled blade planform with twist distribution and airfoil shape. Thrust and maximum FM predictions were satisfactory for rectangular and non-rectangular blades with maximum cambers of 6% and below. The BEMT model was extended to the coaxial rotor case, producing good thrust and power predictions with errors within 5% of the experimental measurements. The approach validated the use of analytical and numerical tools commonly used in full-scale analysis, and proved to be a versatile system design tool. A fully functional coaxial MAV was developed based on the aerodynamic stud- ies performed. Transmission, rotors, and swashplate were designed from scratch. Batteries, motors, and electronics were carefully selected off-the-shelf components. The prototype has been used as a testing platform for control systems and algo- rithms. ROTOR HOVER PERFORMANCE AND SYSTEM DESIGN OF AN EFFICENT COAXIAL ROTARY WING MICRO AIR VEHICLE by Felipe Bohorquez Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Maryland, College Park in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy 2007 Advisory Committee: Professor Darryll Pines, Chair/Advisor Professor Amr Baz Professor Inderjit Chopra Professor Norman Wereley Professor James Baeder c Copyright by Felipe Bohorquez Artunduaga 2007 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Several years ago I showed up at Dr. Pines office looking for an opportunity. I was just a guy from a distant place with lots of enthusiasm that had missed all the application deadlines. Somehow, he saw my potential and gave me the chance to be a grad student at the Rotorcraft Center. I owe my gratitude to him for believing in me, for his support, and for his guidance through the course of this research. I would also like to thank my committee, especially Dr. Chopra, for their advice and support. I would like to acknowledge the invaluable help of Jayant Sirohi, he intro- duced me to the lab, and taught me the fundamental skills that were essential for most of the experimental aspects of this work. We shared endless hours tinkering with experimental setups and MAV prototypes, while having fun with our peers at the Smart Structures lab. My colleagues Paul Samuel, Jason Pereira, Joe Conroy, Anubav Datta, Atul Jayasimha, and Ron Couch not only helped me on various aspect of my research, but also enriched in many ways my graduate student life. Some of the students of the CFD lab were incredibly patient and helpful an- swering thoroughly the many questions I had. Karthik Duraisamy, Eric Shroeder, Vinod Lakshminarayan, Falcon Rankins, and Brandon Bush, thanks for all your help. I would also like to acknowledge some of the staff members, Becky, Julia, Debora and specially Pat Baker, who guided me through a maze of deadlines and paper work. Grad student life would have been less enjoyable without my lunch buddies and good friends Natalia Perez, Andres Garay, Ashish Purekar, Carlos Malpica, Sandra Ugrina, and Maria Ribera. We will always cherish the memories of the culinary delicacies of suburban Maryland. ii I owe my deepest gratitude to my family, my mother, father, and sister, and to Maria Francisca, Gonzalo, and Claudia. They are the foundation of who I am and have always believed in me. Finally and most importantly, I would like to thank my wife Patricia for being the sweetest, most inspiring woman one can imagine. She calmly dealt with the stress of two Ph.Ds, hers and mine. Her constant love and support kept me going. Without her this journey would have been impossible. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Tables vii List of Figures viii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Historical Background . 1 1.2 Motivation and Problem Statement . 2 1.3 Literature Review . 6 1.3.1 Experimental Low Re Airfoil Studies . 6 1.3.2 Vehicle Design and Development . 9 1.3.3 Coaxial Helicopter Aerodynamics . 11 1.3.4 Computational Studies . 12 1.4 Current Research . 15 1.4.1 Objectives . 15 1.4.2 Contributions . 16 1.4.3 Organization of Dissertation . 17 2 Single Rotor Tests 19 2.1 Introduction . 19 2.2 Experimental Setup . 19 2.2.1 Data Acquisition System . 20 2.2.2 System Calibration . 22 2.2.3 Procedure for Data Acquisition . 24 2.2.4 Experimental Error Analysis . 26 2.3 First Generation Rotors - Hover Performance . 29 2.3.1 First Generation Rotor Configuration . 29 2.3.2 Experimental Results - First Generation Rotors. 32 2.3.3 Effect of Number of Blades on Rotor Performance . 45 2.4 Third Generation Rotors - Flat Plate Research . 48 iv 2.4.1 Zero Lift Drag Measurements . 50 2.4.2 Hover Performance of Rotors with Rectangular Flat Plate Blades 58 2.5 Third Generation Rotors - Cambered Rectangular Blades . 61 2.5.1 Hover Performance - Effect of Maximum Camber . 61 2.5.2 Hover Performance - Effect of Maximum Camber Chordwise Location . 65 2.5.3 Hover Performance - Effect of Rotor Solidity . 68 2.6 Third Generation Rotors - Non-Rectangular Blades . 73 2.6.1 Blade Tip Shapes - Full-scale vs. MAV-Scale . 73 2.6.2 Blade Planform Effects on Hover Performance of Rotors with Flat Plate Blades . 76 2.6.3 Blade Planform Effects on Hover Performance of Rotors with cambered blades . 78 2.6.4 Maximum FM and Maximum PL Envelope . 92 2.7 Summary . 97 3 Blade Element Momentum Theory and Average sectional Airfoil Characteristics 99 3.1 Introduction . 99 3.2 Blade Element Momentum Theory . 100 3.2.1 Derivation of Equations . 100 3.2.2 BEMT and Sectional Airfoil Characteristics . 104 3.3 Inverse Method to Obtain 2D-Airfoil Characteristics from Rotor Tests 105 3.3.1 Iteration algorithm . 107 3.4 BEMT Analysis Results . 108 3.4.1 Inverse BEMT Results . 108 3.4.2 Induced and Profile Power, FM revisited . 112 3.5 Summary . 116 v 4 Sectional Airfoil Characteristics from CFD 117 4.1 Introduction . 117 4.2 Geometrical Airfoil Parameterization . 118 4.3 CFD Methodology . 119 4.3.1 Flow Solvers . 121 4.3.2 Grid Generation . 122 4.3.3 Boundary Conditions . 123 4.3.4 Flow Field Assumptions . 124 4.4 Two-Dimensional Validation . 125 4.5 CFD Results . 127 4.5.1 Parametric Study on 4% Circular Arc . 129 4.5.2 Elliptical Leading Edge Database Results . 131 4.5.3 Sharp Leading Edge Database Results . 139 4.5.4 Sharp vs. Elliptical Leading Edges . 148 4.6 Summary . 149 5 Hybrid BEMT-CFD Method for Rotor Analysis and Design 154 5.1 Introduction . 154 5.2 Design Algorithm . 154 5.3 Geometric Blade Parameterization . 157 5.4 Airfoil Database Interpolation . 161 5.4.1 Interpolation Validation . 161 5.5 Approach Validation . 164 5.5.1 Rectangular Blades - Camber Effects . 164 5.5.2 Rectangular Blades - Rotational Speed Effects . 169 5.5.3 Rectangular Blades - Leading Edge Effects . 170 5.5.4 Non-Rectangular Blades . 176 5.6 Blade Planform Optimization - Case Study - . 180 5.7 Summary . 184 vi 6 Coaxial Rotor Performance and Vehicle Design 186 6.1 Introduction . 186 6.2 Experimental Setup . 186 6.3 Coaxial Tests Objectives . 188 6.4 Coaxial Test Results . 190 6.4.1 Rotor Spacing . 191 6.4.2 Rotor Interaction . 193 6.4.3 Rotor Load Sharing . 195 6.5 Maximization of Power Loading in a Coaxial Rotor . 196 6.6 Modeling of a Coaxial Rotor .
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