Improvement and Culture of Nitrogen Fixing T r e e s

January 2004 Volume 7 No. 1 Wo rk in g P ar ty 2.08.02

Web page at: http://iufro.boku.ac.at/iufro/iufronet/d2/wu20802/nl20802.htm

Message from the Coordinator Guide to the Identification of some WP 2.08.02 Species Indigenous to Namibia Khongsak Pinyopusarerk CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products Wolf-Achim Roland PO Box E4008, Kingston ACT 2604, Australia Spreestrasse 60 Tel: +61 2 6281 8247; Fax: +61 2 6281 8266 42697 Solingen, Germany Email: [email protected] Tel: +49 212 79790; Fax: +49 1800 060 334 96 028 Email: [email protected] This issue of the NFT News covers reports across diff e r e n t continents from Australia to Asia, Africa and South America. Introduction I thank all authors for sharing their experience and interesting Namibia is located in a south-western corner of Africa, and information. Due to limited space of this newsletter it was not has a dry climate with extremely variable and unpredictable feasible to include many other articles which we had received. rainfall. The average annual rainfall varies from less than 20 They are, however, on our list for the next issue. mm to more than 700 mm (Erkkila and Siiskonen 1992). The I wish to take this opportunity to inform members that after vegetation is subdivided into three main categories: eight enjoyable years serving as the Coordinator for this woodlands, savannas and deserts. A c a c i a species are the working party, I have decided to step down from this position predominant component in the local vegetation, especially in from 1 March 2004. It is an honour to be a part of the IUFRO the Namibia’s central region. They are widespread and well family and I always enjoy the association and correspondence adapted to marginal and harsh environments. Their wood is a with the many members of this NFT working party. source of fuelwood and poles while the trees are providing shade to people, domestic animals and wildlife. They are also It is a great pleasure to announce that Dr Antoine Kalinganire an important source of a delicious honey. are found has been elected as the new Coordinator. Please join me to along rivers, in the valleys and on hillsides. There are about welcome Dr Kalinganire and offer him our support. Dr Kalinganire has been associated with this working party 23 Acacia species found in Namibia but only a few of them for a number of years and is a co-editor for the NFT News. are endemic. Some exotic species (e.g. Acacia xanthophloea I am confident that he will do an excellent job in promoting Fever tree and A. burkei Black monkey thorn) are found the NFT species. mainly in the gardens and parks. Finally I thank you all for your strong support over the past many years. Your support has been an essential part for the growth and achievements of this working party. Please maintain your enthusiasm and support to make this working party grow further.

Introducing the New WP Coordinator Dr Antoine Kalinganire is an Australian national currently working with the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) Sahel Regional Programme at Bamako, Mali. Before joining ICRAF, he was a research scientist with CSIRO Forestry and Forest Projects, Australia. He has extensive experience in the domestication of tree crops and agroforestry systems management mainly with smallholder farmers in the third world. His main research focus is domestication and improvement of forest trees and shrubs for forestry and agroforestry plantings, including NFT species. You can contact Dr Kalinganire at:

World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) Sahel Regional Programme c/o ICRISAT BP 320, Bamako, Mali Tel: +223 223375/227707; Fax: +223 228683 Email: [email protected] Figure 1. Acacia erioloba (Camel thorn) with nests of weavers in southern Namibia

Improvement and Culture of Nitrogen Fixing Trees This article gives a brief description of the most popular branches emerging from thickets into the air like a radio acacia species in Namibia for a quick identification in the antenna. In the Kaokofeld, A. are n a r i a (Sand thorn), is field. Although there is no specific field guide for Namibian distinguished as a many stemmed shrub up to a height of vegetation, further information can be obtained from Carr about 3 m. It has white or pale pink flower heads and rather (1976), Craven and Marais (1986), Steyn (1994), van Wy k sparse foliage. and van Wyk (1997) and Smit (1999). A climber, Acacia ataxacantha (Flame thorn) grows in the Acacia erioloba (Camel thorn) with its typical big grey boat more humid micro-habitats of the Waterberg in Northeastern shaped pods (Figs 1 and 2) is found all over Namibia from the Namibia. Its prickles are seen scattered along the stem and has south-western border of the Namib to the north of the Etosha branches resembling to roses. In spring the long white flowers pan. It is a splendid tree among the acacias and can live to cover the whole . Another common species is 1000 years. A. mellifera (Black thorn), which is easily distinguished by pinna consisting of one pair of large leaflets. The species is The highlands around the capital city Windhoek are also invasive, forming thick thickets with numerous sharp hooks. home to A. hebeclada (Candle thorn) which is easily recognised by its big pods that stand erect from the twigs It is difficult to differentiate between A. eru b e s c e n s ( B l u e (Fig. 3). It has short thons, which are strongly curved, while thorn), and A. fleckii (Plate thorn). Acacia fleckii is larger thorns are mostly straight with only the tips curved. distinguished from A. erubescens by its many small pinnules (leaflets) per pinna. Other characteristics for A. fleckii are bigger flower spikes, a rougher bark and a later blooming period but this depends mainly on rainfall. Acacia fleckii blooms after the new leaves have developed, while A. erubescens starts flowering before the new leaves appear. Acacia erubescens is widespread in northern Namibia and its name refers to the yellow papery layers of bark that peel off showing brighter white layers underneath. During hot day conditions its leaves appear from some distance like hanging flower stalks. Both A. erubescens and A. fleckii look similar to A. herero e n s i s (Mountain thorn). The main difference is the light coloured bark of A. eru b e s c e n s and A. fleckii while A. hereroensis has the brownish-grey bark which is coarsely longitudinally fissured.

Other important acacias indigenous to Namibia are A. nebrownii ( Water thorn) and A. senegal v a r. ro s t r a t a Figure 2. Boat shaped pods of Figure 3. Pods of Acacia (Three-hook thorn), known for their gum which is chewed Acacia erioloba hebeclada like sweets. Acacia senegal is easily recognised by its triple black hook thorns and the whitish new growth of the twigs, The widespread A. karroo (Sweet thorn) features long white and flat and broad pods. The popular Faidherbia albida (Ana spines in pairs, small leaves and the beautiful bright yellow tree), syn. Acacia albida, is also indigenous to Namibia. clusters of flowering heads. Pods are sickle shaped or linear and come in various sizes. The European visitor will be References reminded of the mimosa trees in Mediterranean countries. C a r r, J.D. 1976. The South African Acacias. Conservation Press, Johannesburg, South Africa. Acacia nilotica (Scented thorn) has similar thorns, flowers and bark to A. karro o, the best distinguishing features are Craven, P. and Marais, C. 1986. Damaraland Flora. Gamsberg mainly the pods. Green pods of A. nilotica resemble fresh Macmillan Publishers, Windhoek, Namibia. peas. Erkkila, A. and Siiskonen, H. 1992. Forestry in Namibia 1850-1990. It is difficult to distinguish between A. luderitzii (Belly thorn) Silva Carelica Series no. 20. University of Joensuu, Joensuu, and A. reficiens. Both species display long thorns as well as Finland. short hooks, white flowers and reddish bark. However A. re f i c i e n s tends to colonize drier sites than A. luderitzii. Steyn, M. 1994. South African Acacias: Identification Guide. Acacia re f i c i e n s has fewer and smaller leaves and grows Promedia, Markus Street, Waltloo, South Africa. shorter than A. luderitzii, and has also small branchlets and finely velvety short hairs. Smit, N .1999. Acacias of South Africa. Briza Publications, Pretoria, South Africa. It is much easier to recognise A. tortilis (Umbrella thorn) from the landscape. The trees elegantly stretch out their crown Van Wyk, B. and Van Wyk, P. 1997. Field Guide to Trees of across the African savannas. It is one of the few acacias that Southern Africa. Struik Publishers, Cape Town, South Africa carry straight as well as curved thorns. However, the most [Editors Notes: To date no single, comprehensive botanical distinctive characteristic is the shape of the pods, which are description of all acacias of the world has been produced. It is twisted into a tight circle or into a helix-like coil spring. suggested that botanical information and keys to local species Some acacias are endemic in the dry western parts of Namibia be referred from country or regional floras. Moreover, as in the Damaraland and the Kaokoveld. The Brandberg Nature discussed by Turnbull in the present NFT News, currently the Reserve is home to A. montis-usti (Brandberg thorn), looking genus A c a c i a containing about 1350 species is underg o i n g like a reversed broom. Further north, A. ro b y n s i n i a name changes and this will have a big impact on its . (Whip-stick thorn) or Radio tree is seen with its slender Readers are invited to follow up the new developments].

2 Improvement and Culture of Nitrogen Fixing Trees Annual Litter Fall of Nitrogen- bulked by species for each plot and mean weight calculated on a unit area basis in tonnes per hectare (t ha-1). Mean values Fixing Tree Species in for litter production were analysed by SAS statistical program Rotational Woodlots at Tumbi and subjected to Duncan’s Multiple Range Test (Zar 1984). Results and Discussion (Tabora), Western Tanzania Litter production in rotational woodlots Estimates of litter fall are shown in Table 1. Acacia julifera Raphael Luhende and A. leptocarpa produced higher litter fall than other HASHI / ICRAF Agroforestry Project species. Acacia crassicarpa and S. siamea had slightly lower P.O. Box 797 Shinyanga, Tanzania litter production values, and L. pallida the lowest. Litter Tel: +255 028 2763099; Fax: +255 028 763164 production for A. julifera and A. leptocarpa is comparable Email: [email protected] with the 10.2 t ha–1yr-1 of A. mangium reported in Malaysia by Lim (1988). Gerson Nyadzi SADC / ICRAF Agroforestry Project, ARI – Tumbi D i fferences in litter production observed in this study could P.O. Box 503 Tabora, Tanzania be attributed to differences in the species and canopy type of Email: gnyadzi @hotmail.com the trees. Australian acacias were characterised by a larg e stem, heavy branching and dense spreading crown while Rodgers E. Malimbwi L. pallida were smaller trees with narrow and light spreading Sokoine University of Agriculture crown. Department of Forest Mensuration and Management P.O. Box 3013 Chuo Kikuu, Morogoro, Tanzania Table 1. Litter production for different tree components of five-year- Tel: +255 2604648; Fax: +255 2604648 old trees in rotational woodlots at Tumbi (Tabora), Tanzania. Email: [email protected] Species litter production (ha-1yr-1) Introduction leaves woody reproductive other parts overall total A rotational woodlot is a method involving growing trees with A. crassicarpa 4.6b (95) 0.06b (1) 0.2b (3) 0.003c (1) 4.86b (100) crops up to 2-3 years until trees start competing with crops. A. julifera 9.1a (87) 0.05b (0.4) 1.3a (12.5) 0.011bc (0.1) 10.46a (100) A. leptocarpa 8.5a (83) 0.06b (0.6) 1.6a (15.7) 0.008ab (0.1) 10.17a (100) Thereafter the woodlot is left as a source of fuelwood, S. siamea 4.3b (76) 0.80a (13.5) 0.6ab (9.9) 0.012bc (0.6) 5.60b (100) building poles or fodder while restoring soil fertility until L. pallida 0.2c (12) 0.93a (52.9) 0.6ab (33.9) 0.025a (1.6) 1.77c (100) farmers start cutting down the trees and growing crops Mean values in the same column followed by the same letter do not differ significantly (p > 0.001). between the stumps 4 to 5 years later. The method was Values in brackets indicate percentage proportional contribution (100%). designed and developed by the South African Development Countries (SADC) and the World Agroforestry Centre The contribution of leaf litter varied between tree species. (ICRAF) and their partners to alleviate rural farmers from the Leaf litter for A. crassicarpa accounted for over 95%, problems of fuelwood scarcity and poor soil fertility in the A. julifera (86%), A. leptocarpa (83%), S. siamea (76%) and tobacco cereal land use system. The method is currently being L. pallida produced the least proportional leaf fall of only 12%. practised at farmers’ fields in Tabora rural district in western Lim (1988) also estimated the leaf litter of over 85% of the total Tanzania involving a large number of farmers. fine litter production for A. mangium in a four-year old stand in Malaysia. The study indicates that the turnover of leaves in the This study reports an assessment of litter production and seasonal pattern of Acacia crassicarpa, A. julifera, canopy was higher than woody parts and other components, A. leptocarpa, Leucaena pallida and Senna siamea grown in indicating that the stand was in a rapid growth phase. rotational woodlots at five years of age. Seasonal pattern of litter fall in a rotational woodlot Materials and Methods The total litter fall increased rapidly during the rainy season The trial is located at the Agricultural Research Institute (May to August). Acacia julifera and A. leptocarpa shed o (ARI), at Tumbi (Tabora), western Tanzania (latitude 05 03¢S, substantial proportions of their annual litter between March o longitude 32 3 9¢E, altitude 1160 m asl). The mean annual and August with the peak in June – July (Fig. 1), while rainfall is 880 mm and is of monomodal type falling between L. pallida showed the least fluctuations in litterfall throughout November and April. The rest of the year is dry with a mean the year. Similar litter fall production observed for monthly rainfall of less than 50 mm. Soils in the study area A. crassicarpa and S. siamea between May and June may be are ferric acrisol (FAO) or Oxic Haplustalf (USDA) with a pH of about 5. attributed to an increase in reproductive parts such as flowers and pods during the observed period. The study revealed The trial was a randomised complete block design (RCB) with A. julifera and A. leptocarpa shed their leaves during the dry three replicates. Treatments were five different tree species: period, an indication that these species are deciduous. A. crassicarpa, A. julifera, A. leptocarpa, L. pallida and Senna siamea had increased in litter fall prior to the rainy S. siamea. The plot size was 16 m x 20 m, with 20 trees at season because it is an evergreen species (Mbuya et al. 1994). spacing of 4 m x 4 m. Distance between plots was 2 m. Litter production in rotational woodlots largely follows annual Annual litter fall was measured using litter traps of 47 cm x cycles of environmental factors (e.g. temperature variation, 48 cm made of wooden frame with fibreglass screen bottoms 2 moisture availability and water stress) and the peak of litter (1 mm mesh size), set at 50 cm above the ground. To avoid fall occurs in the dry season for most species. Australian edge effect, 15 litter traps were located randomly at the centre of each plot and these per species. Observations were acacias are deciduous species whose litter fall follows a recorded for nine months (January to September). Collections unimodal pattern. Further studies to quantify on litter fall were done during both dry and wet seasons. Litter fall was production and seasonal pattern are recommended in Improvement and Culture of Nitrogen Fixing Trees 3 rotational woodlots for an understanding of their long-term A c a c i a species are becoming popular in the Chilean litter fall behaviour. reforestation programs. However, these species are not widely used as their silvicultural treatments are not fully known. Conclusions Litter contributions were highest for Australian acacias Some of the Acacia species are adapted to sites where radiata indicating these species to have great potential of increasing pine and eucalypts have the least production. Acacias are also aiding in erosion control and soil improvement especially in soil productivity. Litter fall is important in soil fertility degraded sites (Pinilla 2002). Thus small landholders may use maintenance. Inclusion of Australian acacias in rotational Acacia species for reclaiming eroded lands. Farmers can also woodlots is highly recommended for maintaining soil obtain additional income by selling acacia wood products. productivity as a supplement in the traditional shifting cultivation, which has been criticized over its sustainability as In order to obtain relevant information for the forest industry, the practice tends to deplete soil nutrients in the long term. the Forestry Institute of Chile (INFOR) has been managing an Australian acacias project since 1987. Pilot plantations and Acknowledgements small acacia plots have been established in various The study was part of the SADC / ICRAF project at the geographical locations. Silvicultural management, production Agricultural Research Institute (ARI) Tumbi (Tabora) western of improved germplasm and their utilisation studies are Tanzania. The trial was designed by G. Nyadzi, Soil Scientist undertaken by INFOR. The studies will help in a better use of Acacia species in the Chilean forest industry. at ARI in consultation with Dr R. Otsyina of ICRAF. This paper reports on the main results of the studies carried References out by INFOR from 1987 to 2001 on the selection and use of Lim, M.T. 1988. Studies on Acacia mangium in Kemasul Forest, Malaysia. I. Biomass and productivity. Journal of Tro p i c a l Acacia species in Chile. Ecology 4: 293 -302. Materials and Methods Mbuya, L.P., Msanga, H.P., Ruffo, C.K., Birnie, A. and Tengnas, B. Acacia dealbata, A. melanoxylon and A. mearnsii were the 1994. Useful trees and shrubs for Tanzania. Identification, main species tested. The study covers areas and sites available p ropagation and management for agricultural and pastoral for reafforestation programs in Chile (mainly between c o m m u n i t i e s. Technical Handbook No. 6. Regional Soil latitudes 35o3 0¢S and 40oS and between longitudes 73o3 0¢W Conservation Unit/SIDA. and 72o3 0¢W). Annual precipitation in the study area varied between 400 mm and 1500 mm with a monomodal Zar, J.H. 1984. Biostatistical analysis. Second edition. Prentice Hall, distribution (falling from March to December in the south and Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA. April to October in the north). Mean annual temperature varies between 12oC and 14oC. Growth information was 2.5 collected from 37 permanent plots established in plantations. A. crassicarpa Plots are 20 m x 25 m each. Height and diameter at breast L. pallida height were recorded annually. 2.0 A. julifera A. leptocarpa Results and Discussion 1.5 S. siamea All species had high survival (85-90%) but A. dealbata h a d higher growth than A. mearnsii and A. melanoxylon 1.0 (Table 1). The annual volume increment calculated from the plots is 20 m 3 h a - 1 for A. dealbata and 10 m 3 h a - 1 for A. melanoxylon, on sites of good quality. On some good sites, 0.5 volume of 50 and 80 m3 h a- 1 were obtained for A. melanoxylon and A. dealbata, respectively. 0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Acacia dealbata is confirmed as the most promising species. The study obtained satisfactory growth for A. melanoxylon Figure 1. Seasonal pattern of litter fall in (t ha-1) for trees grown in and A. mearnsii, however further research for a better rotational woodlots at Tumbi (Tabora) western Tanzania understanding of these species is suggested.

Table 1. Growth results for the main Australian acacias nine years after planting in Chile

Species DBH (cm) Height(m) Survival (%) Performance of Australian A. dealbata 16.5 18.4 90 A. mearnsii 12.5 16.1 87 Acacias in Chile A. melanoxylon 9.7 11.6 85

Juan Carlos S. Pinilla, María Paz B. Molina, Braulio C. Gutiérrez Following much interest in these species by the forest industry Forestry Institute Concepción, Chile especially by private companies, a genetic improvement is Tel: +56 41 749090; Fax: +56 41 749090 being developed for these species. Open-pollinated families Emails: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected] were obtained from CSIRO Australian Tree Seed Centre, and the Australian seed together with the local landraces are being tested for the production of improved germplasm (Gutierrez Introduction and Molina 2002). Both the growers and the Forestry Various Australian acacias grown in Chile have shown Research Institute of Chile support the program aiming at the adaptation and quick growth under the local conditions. production of improved germplasm. Growth information

4 Improvement and Culture of Nitrogen Fixing Trees obtained from the study and the undergoing genetic Materials and Methods improvement program will help the Chilean forest industry in Fifty-five clones of C. equisetifolia were selected from a a better use of the Australian Acacia species used in various 3 . 5 - y e a r-old open-pollinated stand planted along the reforestation programs. east-coast in southern part of Tamil Nadu, India. Clones were selected from two locations: Chidambaram (latitude 11o54¢N, References longitude 71 o4 1¢E) and Chengalpet (latitude 13 o0 0¢N, Gutiérrez, B. and Molina, M.P. 2002. Enfoque estratégico para el longitude 80o11¢E). Selected clones following their growth mejoramiento de especies del género Acacia en Chile. Actas performance were vegetatively propagated and maintained Seminario Final Proyecto FDI: Incorporación de Especies el Género A c a c i a a la Producción Forestal. INFOR. as hedges at the Institute of Forest Genetics and Tr e e Concepción, Enero 2002. Breeding, Coimbatore, India. Among the 55 clones raised in clonal garden, 12 superior performers (4 females and 8 males) Pinilla, J.C. 2002. Antecedentes de Crecimiento y Rendimiento para were retained for the study. especies del género Acacia en Chile. Actas Seminario Final Proyecto FDI: Incorporación de Especies el Género Acacia a Clones were analyzed using Random Amplified Polymorphic la Producción Forestal. INFOR. Concepción, Enero. DNA (RAPD), Inter Simple Sequence Repeat (ISSR) and Florescent-ISSR (FISSR) techniques (Williams et al. 1990, Zietkiewicz et al.1994). DNA was extracted from freshly collected, growing tips of needles, following the Doyle and Clonal Identification of Casuarina Doyle (1990) protocol. equisetifolia using DNA Results and Discussion For a total of 60 primers used, 31 primers showed Polymorphisms Generated by PCR polymorphic banding pattern, 13 primers showed with Arbitrary Primers monomorphic pattern and 16 primers showed very faint bands or no amplification. Twenty primers were selected for fingerprinting studies on the basis of the number and R. Yasodha, R. Sumathi, K. Gurumurthi frequency of polymorphism produced among the clones. Division of Plant Biotechnology Depending upon the primer/clone combination the number of Institute of Forest Genetics and Tree Breeding amplification products resolved varied between 4 and 10 and Coimbatore 641002, India the size ranged from 210 to 2500 (base pair) bp. A total of 84 Tel: +91 422 2431540; Fax: +91 422 2430549 bands were scored of which 57 bands (68%) were polymor- Email: [email protected] phic. The minimum and maximum number of bands observed were 8 (primer (GT) 8R and Y(TG) 7) and 20 (primer M. Kathirvel, J. Nagaraju (CRR(ATT)4)) with an average of 13.6±4.2 per primer. Laboratory of Molecular Genetics Centre for DNA Fingerprinting and Diagnostics Genomic DNA of the 12 clones was amplified with 7 primers. Hyderabad 500076, India A total of 131 bands were amplified, of which 106 bands Tel: +91 40 7151344; Fax: +91 40 7155610 (81%) were polymorphic. The mean number of bands Email:[email protected] produced per primer was 19.0. The minimum and maximum number of bands produced were 11.0 (UBC810) and 25.0 Introduction (Y(TG)7 and CRR(ATT)4) respectively. The Polymerase Chain Clonal forestry is successfully practised in India for many Reaction (PCR) products ranged in size from 150 bp to forest tree species. Casuarina equisetifolia is one of the 1500 bp. preferred species used on a large-scale in industrial clonal plantations because of its fast growth, short rotation and amenability to vegetative propagation. As the number of clones and users of clonal propagules is increasing, it is necessary to have a reliable and convenient method for the verification of identity of stock used in multiplication programs and experiments. Further, it is desirable to have a method which will discriminate between closely related genotypes.

The optimal utilization of clones in clonal plantations and seed orchards require a detailed knowledge of their genetic v a r i a b i l i t y. Recently, Kumar and Gurumurthi (2000) used morphological parameters to estimate genetic diversity among the clones of C. equisetifolia. However, elucidation of clonal variation using morphological traits is not consistent since these traits are influenced by environmental factors and developmental stages of the . Therefore deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) based markers were used for the discrimination of clones.

The present study used the DNA marker systems for characterizing the clones of C. equisetifolia at the Institute of Forest Genetics and Tree Breeding with the financial assistance from Department of Biotechnology, Government of Figure 1. Clone-specific fingerprints generated by Inter-simple India. sequence repeat (ISSR) PCR

Improvement and Culture of Nitrogen Fixing Trees 5 DNA profiles obtained in all the three marker systems true that all the species are not symbiotically associated with established the individual identity of the clones (Fig. 1) and R h i z o b i u m. There are some other non-leguminous species it would serve as a reference library for the establishment of associated with Fr a n k i a which do fix nitrogen. There are also clonal identity. Clonal identity based on DNA pattern will contradictory reports about the geographical distribution of be of use in identification and verification of genotypes in species in relation to the nitrogen fixation. For example, clonal plantations and clonal seed orchards. Bauhinia is generally considered to be a non-nodulating genus (Sprent 1986) yet, nodules were reported in Ba u h i n i a pu r p u re a C o n c l u s i o n s (Domingo 1983). The above species was reported non-inodulat- Since the cost of maintaining clones without identity is very ing by Allen and Allen (1981). Faria et al. (1984) reported that high and mislabeling of clones in plantations is not Pt e ro c a r p u s species nodulate in Africa, Asia and Venezuela but uncommon, the information generated in this study will be not in Brazil (Allen and Allen 1981). useful in clonal identification and verification of mislabelled genotypes in clonal plantations and clonal seed There is an increasing demand for forest products by local orchards. In case of any dispute on the identity of populations mainly for firewood and poles. The on-going proprietary clones the genetic identity can be established by reforestation programs take place on very poor sites with low using these DNA markers. fe r t i l i t y . Thus wood production from plantations is very low, resulting in more pressure on the indigenous forests. Therefore, References there is a need to identify suitable indigenous shrub and tree Doyle, J. and Doyle, J.L. 1990. Isolation of plant DNA from fresh species, which are capable of utilising the atmospheric nitrogen, tissue. Focus 12:13-15. for the reforestation and reclamation of degraded sites. This article reports on a survey, which was conducted for the Keil, M. and Griffin, A.R. 1994. Use of random amplified identification of the locally available nitrogen fixing shrub and polymorphic DNA (RAPD) markers in the discrimination tree species from Garhwal, Himalayan region. and verification of genotypes in Eucalyptus. Theoretical and Applied Genetics 89: 442-450. Materials and Methods Kumar, A. and Gurumurthi, K. 2000. Genetic divergence studies on A survey was conducted at Garhwal, in the inner and outer clonal performance of Casuarina equisetifolia. Silvae Himalayan region during rainy season (June to September) Genetica 49:57-60 from 1989 to 1994. The survey team covered the area starting from 500 m altitude at Dehradun to 3200 m in the Nanda Devi Williams, J.G.K., Kubelik, A.R., Livak, K.J., Rafalski, J.A. and National Park (Valley of Flower). Ti n g e y, S.V. 1990. DNA polymorphisms amplified by arbitrary primers are useful as genetic markers. Nucleic Acids All leguminous and non-leguminous plant species believed Research 18: 6531-6535 to be nitrogen fixing were uprooted to check for nodulation. Zietkiewicz, E., Rafalski, A. and Labuda, D. 1994. Genome The nodules were collected and stored in glass vials and fingerprinting by simple sequence repeat (SSR) – anchored 10% acetylene was injected through the airtight lid of rubber polymerase chain reaction amplification. Genomics serum stopper. After one-hour incubation, nodule samples 20: 176-183 were kept into the ice-kit and brought to the Forest Research Institute laboratory at Dehradun for the analysis of acetylene reduction. Nitrogen was used as carrier gas. Ethylene produced by the reduction of acetylene was quantified as discussed by Pokhriyal et al. (2001). Thus a list of nitrogen Nitrogen-Fixing Plants in the fixing species was prepared. Himalayan Region of Uttaranchal, Results and Discussion India - A Case Study The results are detailed in Fig. 1. Most species obtained as nitrogen-fixing plants were herbs (45%) followed by shrubs (25%), trees (19%) and climbers (11%) (Fig. 1A). The results Satya P. Chaukiyal confirm the importance of herbs and shrubs in the process of Arid Forest Research Institute primary succession. The nitrogen-fixing plants may provide a P.O. Basni New Pali Road, Jodhpur suitable field of biological amelioration and rejuvenation of a Rajasthan 342005, India site. Out of 140 species surveyed, four were non-leguminous Tel: +91 291 2722550; Fax: +91 291 2722764 Alnus nepalensis (Betulaceae), Myrica esculenta Email: [email protected] (Myricaceae) and two new species Sibbaldia parv i f l o r a (Rosaceae) and Potentilla fulgens (Rosaceae) were first Tapish C. Pokhriyal reported as nitrogen-fixing plants from the District of Botany Division, Forest Research Institute Chamoli, Garhwal Uttaranchal State (Pokhriyal et al. 1990). P.O. New Forest, Dehradun Uttaranchal, India Among the observed species, 83% belong to the Papilionoideae Tel: +91 135 2752673; Fax: +91 135 2756865 s u b - f a m i l y, 11% to the and 3% to the Caesalpinoideae and non-legume each (Fig. 1B). However, no Introduction nodules were observed in Caesalpina pulcherima, D e l o n i x Nitrogen-fixing trees can be used for improving and reg i a , Gleditsia macrantha (Caesalpinoideae) and Ad e n a n t h e r a maintaining forest productivity. Cropping systems under m i c ro s p e r m a (Mimosoideae). Altitudinally, 31% of species various reforestation programs involving NFT have an were reported from 500 m altitude, 49% from >500 m to <1000 influence on the soil productivity by increasing its fertility. m, 14% from >1000 m to < 2000 m, and only 6% at < 3000 m (Figs. 1C and 1D). The Leguminosae is a large family of about 750 genera and 20,000 species. Though the nodulation is regarded as a The study confirms the report of Allen and Allen (1981) that general characteristic of leguminous species, however, it is also Caesalpinoideae nodulate less frequently than the

6 Improvement and Culture of Nitrogen Fixing Trees Mimosoideae and Papilionoideae sub-families. The identified A Name Change for Acacias? nitrogen-fixing plants may be used in forest management, for example in reclamation of degraded sites. However, there is a need to understand the nitrogen-fixing behaviour of most John Turnbull promising native and domesticated plants under diff e r e n t PO Box 5034 Garran ACT 2605 Australia agro-climatic conditions prior to recommending them for use Tel: +61 2 6281 5991 in various reforestation programs. Email:[email protected]

References We have learned to live with changes to the botanical names of nitro- Allen, O.N. and Allen, E.K. 1981. The Leguminous, Macmillan, gen-fixing trees, for example, in Albizia / Paraserianthes a n d London, UK. Casuarina / Allocasuarina. But now a proposed change to the genus Ac a c i a could have a much greater impact. The difference this time is Domingo, I.L. 1983. Nitrogen Fixation in Southeast Asian Forestry: the large number of species affected and the economic importance of research practice. In. Gordon, J.C. and Wheelar, V.T. (eds.). many of them. Currently the genus A c a c i a contains about 1350 Biological Nitrogen Fixation in Forest Ecosystems. species. These species are distributed throughout tropical and warm Foundation and Application. Pp 295-315. Martinus Nijhoff / temperate areas of the world, with the largest concentrations occurring Publishers Dordrecht, The Netherlands. in Australia (955 species), but there are also many species in the Americas (about 185 species), Africa (144 species) and Asia (89 Faria, S.M.de., Franco, A.A., Jesus, R.M. de,. Menandro, M. de S., sp e c i e s ) . Baitello, J.B., Mucci, S.F., Dobereiner, J. and Sprent, J.I. 1984. New nodulating trees from southeast Brazil. New Phytologist The Ac a c i a genus has had a complex nomenclatural history but was 98: 317-328. relatively stable until 1986 when the Queensland taxonomist, Les Pe d l e y , proposed dividing it into three genera: Acacia, Senegalia (s y n . Pokhriyal, T.C., Chaukiyal, S.P. and Naithani, H.B. 1990. Sibbaldia A c a c i a subg. A c u l e i f e ru m) and R a c o s p e r m a (syn. A c a c i a s u b g . and Potentilla- a new nodulating genus of Rosaceae. Indian Ph y l l o d i n e a e ), and made 275 combinations in Ra c o s p e r m a to accom- Forester 116: 837-838. modate part of this change. On taxonomic grounds, evidence presented by Pedley to substantiate his recognition of three genera was judged Pokhriyal, T.C., Chaukiyal, S.P. and Singh, U. 2001. inconclusive and/or incomplete and his proposal received little E u c a l y p t u s - A c a c i a mix planting affects on the nodular support. Since then, new cladistic analyses and molecular information nitrogenase activity in Acacia nilotica seedlings. Journal of have strongly supported division of the present Ac a c i a genus into at Tropical Forest Science 13: 290-296. least five genera. This is likely to occur in the near future and most species of economic importance will require a name change. Sprent, J.I. 1986. Problems and potentials for nitrogen fixation in deserts. In: Nabhan, G.P. and Elias-Cesnik, A. (eds.). A r i d Australian scientists, Tony Orchard and Bruce Maslin, have made a Lands, Today and Tomorrow, University of Arizona, USA. proposal to minimise the negative impacts of splitting Ac a c i a *. This is a formal process, sanctioned by the International Code of Botanical No m e n c l a t u r e, and involves conserving the name Ac a c i a by selecting a new type species to replace A. nilotica. Essentially it makes sense to (A) (B) retypify A c a c i a with a type from the largest subgenus (i.e. Distribution of NF species: Distribution of NF species: Ph y l l o d i n e a e ) because this would result in the fewest name changes type of plants sub-families worldwide. This approach is consistent with Article 14 of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature that aims to promote nomenclatural stability.

The alternative proposal would result in:

1. Fewer name changes would be required worldwide as only about 160 species in subgenus Acacia would need to be changed to Va c h e l l i a, compared with 960 species of subgenus P h y l l o d i n e a e that would need to be changed (perhaps) to Ra c o s p e r m a . Herb Shrub Papilionoideae Mimosoideae 2. The name A c a c i a would be retained for the largest group, Climber Tree Caesalpinoidea Non legumes n a m e l y, subgenus P h y l l o d i n e a e. Species in this group predominate in Australia but are grown in over 70 countries worldwide, where they cover about two million hectares in industrial, social and environmental programs. Least disturbance (C) (D) Distribution of NF species: Altitudinal distribution per would be caused to the large international trade and industries altitude type of plants that are built on species such as A. mangium, A. auriculiformis and A. mearnsii. 40 3. In Africa, Asia and the Americas where species of subgenus Herb Ac a c i a and subgenus Ac u l e i f e ru m co-occur in large numbers, it 35 Shrub will be less confusing, or at least no more confusing, if all taxa 30 Climber change their names simultaneously, rather than a portion of 25 them. Tree 20 15 Whatever decision is made regarding the dismemberment of the genus 10 Ac a c i a , the coming name changes will disadvantage some of us. This is unfortunate, but is unavoidable. Let us hope that sanity prevails in 5 this matter and that the negative effects of the name changes will be 500-100m 1000-200 m 0 >500 1000 2000 >2000 minimised. 2000-3000m 3000 and above Altitude (m) *Orchard, A.E. and Maslin, B.R. (2003) Proposal to conserve the name Acacia (Leguminosae: Mimosoideae) with a conserved type. Figure 1. Distribution of nitrogen-fixing species following their type Ta x o n 52(2): 362-363 (also available on the web through of plant, sub-families and altitude ht t p : / / r a m i r o . i n g e n t a s e l e c t . c o m )

Improvement and Culture of Nitrogen Fixing Trees 7 Coordinator: Mr Khongsak Pinyopusarerk CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products P.O. Box E4008 Kingston, ACT 2604, Australia Guidelines for Contributions Tel: + 61 2 6281 8247 Fax: + 61 2 6281 8266 We encourage members of the NFT Wo r k i n g Email: [email protected] Party to share their experiences and research results with others. Please help to make this newsletter and the NFT Working Party successful Deputy Coordinator: Dr Dietrich Werner by sending articles on relevant topics to us. Phillips-Universitat Marburg Fachberich Biologie Botanisches Institut Lahnberg D-35043 Marburg, Germany Content: IUFRO WP news, conference reports, brief review or technical articles, letters or Tel: + 49 6421 283475 comments related to improvement and culture of Fax: + 49 6421 282057 nitrogen fixing trees. Email: [email protected] Language: The newsletter will be published only in English at present. All submissions should be presented in English. Text Format: All submissions may be sent by email or in print with a copy in Word file on a 3.5 diskette (PC or Mac). Typescripts or disks will not Published by IUFRO Working Party 2.08.02, be returned unless indicated. Improvement and Culture of Nitrogen Fixing Trees Figures: Submit accompanying graphs, tables, Editors: Khongsak Pinyopusarerk charts, etc and captions in printed, camera-ready or electronic form. Slides and photographs will Antoine Kalinganire be accepted. Advisors: John Turnbull Submissions: Please address submissions to the Stephen Midgley WP Coordinator or Deputy Coordinator. The newsletter will be available in print and from Web version: Kron Aken the IUFRO web page. Design and production: Mosmondesign Subscription of NFT News Sponsor: CSIRO Forestry and Subscription of the NFT News is free of charge. Forest Products To obtain a copy, please write to the Co-ordinator Australian Tree Seed Centre or the Deputy Co-ordinator

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Improvement and Culture of Nitrogen Fixing Trees