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II. Definition of Key Terms: Militia: a Military Force That Is Composed of Ordinary Civilians in Opposition of a Regular Military Or Army

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II. Definition of Key Terms: Militia: a Military Force That Is Composed of Ordinary Civilians in Opposition of a Regular Military Or Army Forum: Council of Arab Foreign Ministers Issue: The Libyan Civil War Student Officers: Adham Zaineldin, Omar Madkour, Hanya Abdel-Hamid I. Introduction: Libya has faced nearly a decade of fighting with two civil wars. The first civil war emerged with the Arab Spring, a movement across the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) in which popular movements toppled autocratic, corrupt regimes, and Libyans protested against Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi, in which he responded to with violence. After the situation started to escalate significantly, NATO intervened in the war and after a few months, Gaddafi was killed at the hands of rebels and the civil war ended with the downfall of his regime. The events after that would eventually lead to the second civil war in 2014, ranging from political reasons to militias. This would lead to two governments, the Government of National Accord (GNA) and the House of Representatives (HoR), claiming to be the legitimate governing authority for Libya, and the second civil war is mainly between them fighting for territory and control over Libya. The conflict in Libya has caused untold suffering and bloodshed as well as a humanitarian crisis and economic one too, meaning the road to recovery is not easy. Over the years there have been numerous attempts at mediation and bringing peace to Libya, however all attempts have failed so far, and the Council of Arab Foreign Ministers will hopefully find a viable solution to bring this conflict to an end. II. Definition of Key Terms: Militia: a military force that is composed of ordinary civilians in opposition of a regular military or army. Ceasefire: a temporary truce that is agreed to by two opposing parties in a conflict or war that involves the suspension of any fighting Armed rebellion: An act of resistance by an armed group or civilians against the government or establishment of a state, and this could be from the refusal of obedience or order and carry arms with them to use against the government Rebel group: A political group that wants political change or wants to establish or maintain independence or some power and instead of participating in political affairs and the government, they use armed conflict as a means to achieve their goals and interests III. Focused Overview: 1. Pre-civil War and the First Libyan Civil War In 1969, Muammar Gaddafi, the leader of a group of Arab nationalists, the Free Officers, ousted the former king of Libya, King Idris I, in a coup d’état. He would eventually abolish the monarchy and become the de facto leader of the country after forming a new government, the Libyan Revolutionary Council (RCC). Libya’s economy revolved around its energy sector, with it having the largest oil reserves in Africa. Under the new government Gaddafi took control of all petroleum companies in Libya and redirected funds towards a welfare system that guaranteed free education, housing and health care for all to improve living conditions and increase prosperity and in 2010, Libya had the highest Human Development Index (HDI) in Africa. Homelessness barely existed, literacy rates were high and women had equal pay to men. However, there was rampant corruption under Gaddafi’s rule, and he restricted freedom of press and expression severely, making Libya one of the worst countries for human rights atrocities in the Middle East. Through the use of censorship, tight control of dissent and steep penalties and punishments, the government effectively maintained its power. Gaddafi’s regime alleged involvement in terrorist attacks as well as funding other terrorist groups globally causing resentment among the international community towards him. Around mid-January in 2011, protesters in multiple cities broke into and occupied several houses that the government was constructing, mainly due to anger in the delay of the construction of the housing units as well as political corruption. As police clashed with protesters, the government responded by investing more into housing and development, but protests and unrest continued. Police and Gaddafi loyalists quashed demonstrations. This was set against the backdrop of the Arab Spring, a movement across the Middle East and North Africa where civilians protested with democratic aspirations and hope for political change to topple autocratic and authoritarian regimes for the promise of better living standards, and fighting corruption and human rights violations. In Libya, the protests grew as a part of the wider movement for change, as they started to intensify with some military units joining. The National Transitional Council (NTC) was established for regime change and to create a government and to coordinate the resistance between the different towns and cities, and mainly operated in Benghazi. The government, the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, responded and violence escalated, with atrocities committed by both sides. Several senior Libyan government officials resigned due to the use of force against protesters and demonstrators, as well as senior military officials. Gaddafi lost members of the government and military, as well as the loss of control over Benghazi and of Tobruk, Misrata, Sorman and other major cities and key ports and harbours by late February. However, by early March his forces were able to push the rebels back and reached Benghazi and Misrata. In mid-March, the United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973 was put into action, which authorised intervention in Libya, with several states forming a coalition as they started military intervention, consisting initially of the air forces of Britain, the US, France and Canada, as well as the military of the US and Figure 1: A man waves a Libyan national flag as people British submarine operations, and the celebrate in the capital Tripoli on June 4, 2020, after the UN- coalition expanded eventually to recognised Government of National Accord (GNA) said it seventeen states. A naval blockade was was back in full control of the capital anD its suburbs. also imposed by the British Navy. NATO Image source: France 24 and the international coalition would support the NTC and the rebels, against Gaddafi and the Jamahiriya. Despite Gaddafi in June 2011 offering to NATO that they would be willing to hold transparent elections that would be watched by international observers and that he would step aside if he did not win, they still rejected the offer and continued their bombing operations. A month later, Gaddafi lost the capital in the Battle of Tripoli and escaped to the nearby town of Sirte where he was eventually surrounded by NTC fighters, and was subsequently killed, as the Jamahiriya regime collapsed and the civil war ended. However, there were many important impacts on Libya and other states. Refugees fled from the Libyan crisis to neighbouring countries and hundreds of thousands crossed the Mediterranean while others were trapped and stranded in Libya. A humanitarian situation also emerged, as there was a severe shortage of food, medicine and fuel supplies and more than a million people needed humanitarian aid. Also, estimates of casualties from the civil war ranged from 10,000 to 20,000 people, including civilians, with over 50,000 wounded. 2. The Second Libyan Civil War The NTC was recognised by over a hundred countries as the new legitimate governing authority, and it began the process for the creation of a new government with and the preparation of elections, and a new government was eventually formed, the General National Congress (GNC) which had several members associated to conservative Islamist groups as well as revolutionary groups. The main issue was that since the fall of Gaddafi, there was no organised military which resulted in armed groups, militias and rebels to proclaim that they were the ‘guardians of the revolution’ and therefore they started to adopt a political role, and military councils started to take the role of local governments. Violence started to break out between different groups, and due to a large number of different militias and armed groups, the government ordered all of them to register within the Ministry of Defense, which gave them some legitimacy. There were several high profile attacks committed by militias, rebel groups as well as terrorist groups, both registered and unregistered. After the attack on the US consulate, the government cracked down on unregistered militias, which escalated violence. In January 2014, the GNC did not stand down when it passed the end of its electoral mandate, and it voted to extend its power, which caused resentment and protests. General Khalifa Haftar called on the GNC to stand down and hold new elections, but they refused. On the 16th of May, Haftar launched Operation Dignity, an offensive against Islamists and the GNC starting with the city of Benghazi, marking the beginning of the Second Libyan Civil war. Within a few days, another offensive was launched by the LNA to take on Tripoli. A week later, elections were held with a very low turnout rate and the Islamists did not win a majority, and they rejected the results. The Islamists accused the new House of Representatives being filled with pro-Gaddafi supporters, and they continued to support the ‘old’ GNC after the newly House of Representatives replaced it. On the 13th of July, Islamists and some other militias seized Tripoli International Airport in Operation Libya Dawn, escalating the conflict, as members of the ‘old’ GNC declared that they were forming a new GNC, and they voted for themselves as a replacement of the current House of Representatives, claiming Tripoli as their political capital. The newly elected House of Representatives (HoR) were forced to relocate to Tobruk in Eastern Libya, with it being their political capital as they aligned themselves with General Haftar. In 2015, the UN-backed Libyan Political Agreement took place in Morocco.
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