Forum: Council of Arab Foreign Ministers Issue: The Libyan Civil War Student Officers: Adham Zaineldin, Omar Madkour, Hanya Abdel-Hamid

I. Introduction: has faced nearly a decade of fighting with two civil wars. The first civil war emerged with the , a movement across the Middle East and North (MENA) in which popular movements toppled autocratic, corrupt regimes, and Libyans protested against Libyan leader , in which he responded to with violence. After the situation started to escalate significantly, NATO intervened in the war and after a few months, Gaddafi was killed at the hands of rebels and the civil war ended with the downfall of his regime. The events after that would eventually lead to the second civil war in 2014, ranging from political reasons to . This would lead to two governments, the Government of National Accord (GNA) and the House of Representatives (HoR), claiming to be the legitimate governing authority for Libya, and the second civil war is mainly between them fighting for territory and control over Libya. The conflict in Libya has caused untold suffering and bloodshed as well as a humanitarian crisis and economic one too, meaning the road to recovery is not easy. Over the years there have been numerous attempts at mediation and bringing peace to Libya, however all attempts have failed so far, and the Council of Arab Foreign Ministers will hopefully find a viable solution to bring this conflict to an end.

II. Definition of Key Terms: : a military force that is composed of ordinary civilians in opposition of a regular military or army. : a temporary truce that is agreed to by two opposing parties in a conflict or war that involves the suspension of any fighting Armed rebellion: An act of resistance by an armed group or civilians against the government or establishment of a state, and this could be from the refusal of obedience or order and carry arms with them to use against the government Rebel group: A political group that wants political change or wants to establish or maintain independence or some power and instead of participating in political affairs and the government, they use armed conflict as a means to achieve their goals and interests III. Focused Overview: 1. Pre-civil War and the In 1969, Muammar Gaddafi, the leader of a group of Arab nationalists, the Free Officers, ousted the former king of Libya, King Idris I, in a coup d’état. He would eventually abolish the monarchy and become the leader of the country after forming a new government, the Libyan Revolutionary Council (RCC). Libya’s economy revolved around its energy sector, with it having the largest oil reserves in Africa. Under the new government Gaddafi took control of all petroleum companies in Libya and redirected funds towards a system that guaranteed , housing and health care for all to improve living conditions and increase prosperity and in 2010, Libya had the highest Human Development Index (HDI) in Africa. Homelessness barely existed, literacy rates were high and women had equal pay to men. However, there was rampant corruption under Gaddafi’s rule, and he restricted freedom of press and expression severely, making Libya one of the worst countries for atrocities in the Middle East. Through the use of censorship, tight control of dissent and steep penalties and punishments, the government effectively maintained its power. Gaddafi’s regime alleged involvement in terrorist attacks as well as funding other terrorist groups globally causing resentment among the international community towards him. Around mid-January in 2011, protesters in multiple cities broke into and occupied several houses that the government was constructing, mainly due to anger in the delay of the construction of the housing units as well as political corruption. As police clashed with protesters, the government responded by investing more into housing and development, but protests and unrest continued. Police and Gaddafi loyalists quashed demonstrations. This was set against the backdrop of the Arab Spring, a movement across the Middle East and where civilians protested with democratic aspirations and hope for political change to topple autocratic and authoritarian regimes for the promise of better living standards, and fighting corruption and human rights violations. In Libya, the protests grew as a part of the wider movement for change, as they started to intensify with some military units joining. The National Transitional Council (NTC) was established for regime change and to create a government and to coordinate the resistance between the different towns and cities, and mainly operated in . The government, the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, responded and violence escalated, with atrocities committed by both sides. Several senior Libyan government officials resigned due to the use of force against protesters and demonstrators, as well as senior military officials. Gaddafi lost members of the government and military, as well as the loss of control over Benghazi and of , , and other major cities and key ports and harbours by late February. However, by early March his forces were able to push the rebels back and reached Benghazi and Misrata. In mid-March, the Security Council Resolution 1973 was put into action, which authorised intervention in Libya, with several states forming a as they started military intervention, consisting initially of the air forces of Britain, the US, and , as well as the military of the US and Figure 1: A man waves a Libyan as people British submarine operations, and the celebrate in the capital on June 4, 2020, after the UN- coalition expanded eventually to recognised Government of National Accord (GNA) said it seventeen states. A naval was was back in full control of the capital and its suburbs. also imposed by the British Navy. NATO Image source: and the international coalition would support the NTC and the rebels, against Gaddafi and the Jamahiriya. Despite Gaddafi in June 2011 offering to NATO that they would be willing to hold transparent elections that would be watched by international observers and that he would step aside if he did not win, they still rejected the offer and continued their bombing operations. A month later, Gaddafi lost the capital in the and escaped to the nearby town of where he was eventually surrounded by NTC fighters, and was subsequently killed, as the Jamahiriya regime collapsed and the civil war ended. However, there were many important impacts on Libya and other states. fled from the Libyan crisis to neighbouring countries and hundreds of thousands crossed the Mediterranean while others were trapped and stranded in Libya. A humanitarian situation also emerged, as there was a severe shortage of food, medicine and fuel supplies and more than a million people needed humanitarian aid. Also, estimates of casualties from the civil war ranged from 10,000 to 20,000 people, including civilians, with over 50,000 wounded. 2. The The NTC was recognised by over a hundred countries as the new legitimate governing authority, and it began the process for the creation of a new government with and the preparation of elections, and a new government was eventually formed, the General National Congress (GNC) which had several members associated to conservative Islamist groups as well as revolutionary groups. The main issue was that since the fall of Gaddafi, there was no organised military which resulted in armed groups, militias and rebels to proclaim that they were the ‘guardians of the revolution’ and therefore they started to adopt a political role, and military councils started to take the role of local governments. Violence started to break out between different groups, and due to a large number of different militias and armed groups, the government ordered all of them to register within the Ministry of Defense, which gave them some legitimacy. There were several high profile attacks committed by militias, rebel groups as well as terrorist groups, both registered and unregistered. After the attack on the US consulate, the government cracked down on unregistered militias, which escalated violence. In January 2014, the GNC did not stand down when it passed the end of its electoral mandate, and it voted to extend its power, which caused resentment and protests. General called on the GNC to stand down and hold new elections, but they refused. On the 16th of May, Haftar launched Operation Dignity, an offensive against Islamists and the GNC starting with the city of Benghazi, marking the beginning of the Second Libyan Civil war. Within a few days, another offensive was launched by the LNA to take on Tripoli. A week later, elections were held with a very low turnout rate and the Islamists did not win a majority, and they rejected the results. The Islamists accused the new House of Representatives being filled with pro-Gaddafi supporters, and they continued to support the ‘old’ GNC after the newly House of Representatives replaced it. On the 13th of July, Islamists and some other militias seized Tripoli International Airport in Operation Libya Dawn, escalating the conflict, as members of the ‘old’ GNC declared that they were forming a new GNC, and they voted for themselves as a replacement of the current House of Representatives, claiming Tripoli as their political capital. The newly elected House of Representatives (HoR) were forced to relocate to Tobruk in Eastern Libya, with it being their political capital as they aligned themselves with General Haftar. In 2015, the UN-backed Libyan Political Agreement took place in . Despite the opposition to the deal within both factions, it was still signed. The agreement accepted that a national unity government was to be formed, the Government of National Accord (GNA), and it laid out the structure for the government and other institutions within it. It would give executive authority to the GNC while giving the HoR legislative authority. The GNA was eventually formed, and ultimately it has given legitimacy to the GNC government which became a part of the government and it has failed to unify the country. Haftar would later on call the agreement ‘void’, as members of the HoR vote to reject the GNA. The GNC and the National Salvation Government, a government body formed by politicians from the GNC who had lost in the elections in 2014, joined forces with the GNC by joining the GNA. The current conflict is mainly between the GNA and the HoR, who both want control over Libya, with several militias and groups supporting each side as well as other states. By 2017, the LNA and its allies controlled approximately seventy percent of Libyan territory, and successfully managed to capture the city of Benghazi, which marked a major change in the balance of power across the country as the GNA previously controlled territories amounting to the same size in 2016. In February 2019, they also managed to capture the city of Derna. On the 4th of April 2019, the LNA announced the beginning of Operation Flood of Dignity, otherwise known as the Western Libya military campaign, with its goal being to capture most of Western Libya and eventually the capital Tripoli. However, the LNA lost Tripoli after months of fighting and the GNA regained the capital and had control over nearly all of Western Libya.

On the 16th of January 2020, Turkish president Recep Tayyip Erdogan officially announced that had started the process to send troops to Libya in support of the GNA, marking a major shift in the war. They were supporting the GNA through troops, including those from the which Turkey backed, as well as equipment, training and operational support. This move was opposed by the HoR who believed that this was an attempt by Turkey Figure 2: Map of Territorial Control Over Libya as of May to gain access to resources, 2020 especially with the maritime deal Image Source: Political Geography Now signed between them and the GNA which was also opposed by the HoR. With the support of Turkey, the GNA was able to recapture and gain several coastal cities and towns. 3 3. The Involvement of ISIL The and the Levant is a militant group in Libya. After the end of the first Libyan civil war, many rebel fighters went to to join other rebels against the Syrian president Bashar Al Assad, with a group establishing itself as the Battar Brigade which would eventually pledge loyalty to ISIL. They would return to Libya later, many of them went to the city of Derna specifically. They created a faction named the Islamic Youth Shura Council and started to recruit militants and expand. Around September 2014 an ISIL delegation was created in Libya and the Council pledged loyalty to them. ISIL started to expand their influence to other cities and starting to attack oil installations and hotels, as well as terrorizing civilians through many attacks. They attacked embassies, were responsible for the bombings of several buildings and targeted several people, including foreigners living in Libya, such as the beheading of twenty-one Egyptian Coptic Christians in Sirte and the execution of two Tunisian journalists for example. They created three ‘provinces’, also known as wilayahs, which were in , and , and took over neighbouring towns in order to gain more territory while creating a stronghold in Sirte. They suffered losses in several cities such as Benghazi and Derna with the help of rebel groups, a coalition of militia faces with connections to the GNA, the LNA and some by the US and after seven months, Sirte was liberated from ISIL in December 2016, but to this day they still are a dangerous threat and have some presence. 4. Socio-economic Impacts of the War The war has had a devastating impact on Libya, both in terms of social and economic impacts. The death toll in Libya is estimated to be around 21,490 people since the start of the conflict, and over 19,700 were injured. As a result of the civil war, there were many humanitarian consequences on Libyans. In 2019, more than 1.1 million people were in need of humanitarian assistance according to the UNHCR and that over 435,000 people were forcibly displaced due to conflict according to the WFP. Thousands of refugees have fled to Europe while hundreds of thousands fled to neighbouring and . Libya has also become a new hotbed for refugees and migrants seeking to go to Europe. However, many migrants have to face harrowing conditions in inhuman detention centres where they face malnutrition, widespread use of torture and worse. There have been substantial effects on the economy since the war has started. When General Haftar imposed a blockade on major oil fields and production units, this caused significant losses of over $235 million in just six days, with the blockade ending on the 23rd of January 2020. Several companies lost millions of dollars a day due to the blockade. According to the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (UNESCWA), both civil wars in Libya have cost over $576 billion, shrinking the economy and GDP which has resulted in a decline of investment and consumption and the disruption of foreign trade. The decline in crucial exports such as oil has also devastated the economy, but imports have been affected more significantly mainly due to the contraction of the construction sector and the declining expenditures of both Libyans and expatriate and foreign workers.

Figure 3: The statistic shows gross domestic product (GDP) in Libya from 1984 to 2017, with projections up until 2021. Gross domestic product (GDP) denotes the aggregate value of all services and goods produced within a country in any given year. Image Source: Statista

IV. Major Parties and Organisations Involved: 1. The Government of National Accord: The Government of National Accord (GNA) was formed on the 17th of December 2015, as an interim government in an initiative led by the UN in the Libyan Political Agreement, with Fayez al-Sarraj as the prime minister, and is recognised by the UN as the national government and the sole legitimate executive authority in Libya. While it was initially backed by both the GNC and HoR, the LNA withdrew their support while the GNC continued to support it. Eventually the GNC would dissolve and operate as the GNA, operating from Tripoli. The GNA has been largely unsuccessful in unifying Libya so far, and the country has remained split so far politically and ideologically and they lacked popular support. As the GNA is made predominantly of the GNC which had the support of Islamists, as a result of that the GNA is backed and supported by an Islamist coalition, Libya Dawn, and the , as well as the Misrata militia. Several countries such as Turkey support it as well in the civil war. 2. The House of Representatives: The House of Representatives (HoR), which operates in the city of Tobruk, hence why it is also known as the Tobruk government, was a democratically elected government. In the parliamentary elections of 2014, where voter turnout was very low and around eighteen percent, members of the HoR won the majority. However, the Libyan Supreme Constitutional Court declared that the elections were unconstitutional and that the HoR should be dissolved. However, they rejected this and continued to stay in power, operating in Eastern Libya. The HoR was internationally recognised, that is until the formation of the GNA. The HoR is backed by the (LNA), which is under the control of the anti-Islamist General Khalifa Haftar and has leaded operations to gain control over territory. He is seen by others as a bulwark against extremism while his critics would argue that he would become a military dictator. The LNA have control over much of Eastern Libya, which contains most oil reserves and facilities and have used that to their advantage, as in January 2020 the LNA shut down state oil production and exports which damaged Libya economically and put pressure on the GNA. However, Haftar’s campaign in Western Libya has collapsed and failed and has given the GNA some advantages. The HoR has the backing of Egypt, the UAE, France, and other countries. 3. The Republic of Turkey: Turkey supports the GNA and has backed it with troops, equipment and military assistance and in early 2020 have launched a military intervention in the war. However, its support stems from their goal of a greater presence in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region as well as in the Eastern Mediterranean by expanding their influence in North Africa and instilling a government that supports them. Turkey also would like to expand its influence and control over energy reserves in the Eastern Mediterranean, and it has already taken the initiative with the maritime boundary agreement signed with GNA to allow greater access to resources. They also back the Muslim Brotherhood, which aligns itself with the GNA. 4. The Arab Republic of Egypt: Egypt supports the HoR and Haftar’s role in governing Libya and has advocated strongly for peace between the two governments. Egypt supplies the LNA with arms deals, and supports them with weapons and special forces troops. However, Egypt as well as the UAE, strongly opposes the GNA which supports Islamists and is aligned with the Muslim Brotherhood, which has a long history in Egypt spanning decades and under the rule of Egyptian president Abdel Fattah El Sisi, they have been overthrown, members have been arrested and the group is considered a terrorist group officially, which makes curtailing their spread and influence important. Also, due to the presence of the ISIL in the Sinai Peninsula and the rise of the ISIL in Libya, this prompted Egypt to support the LNA with more military assistance especially due to Egypt’s ‘porous’ border with Libya, and Egypt is also involved much more recently due to Turkey’s intervention. 5. The Russian Federation: While Russia did not support NATO’s decision to overthrow Muammar Gaddafi, it did not veto the UN Security Council resolution which called for intervention in 2011. It has since taken the situation in Libya to its advantage to display it as a classic example of the failures of Western intervention in the Middle East. However, Russia still wants to have an active role in restoring order and in the creation of a strong new government. Russia supports the HoR and LNA, and in early 2017, Russian were deployed to support Haftar and the LNA and assisted them with logistics and intelligence. Russia also has interests in expanding its influence over the MENA region and to secure oil and construction deals. It has also blocked condemnation of the LNA and allowed the printing of a Libyan currency by the HoR in Russia.

V. Timeline of Events: Date Event February 15, 2011 In Benghazi, a small rally occurred in which people demanded the release of a human-rights lawyer and condemned a prison massacre. The small protest grew into a large anti-Qaddafi demonstration where police and government tried to quash it with the use of force February 25, 2011 Protests break out in multiple cities against Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi where hundreds are killed by police and the armed forces February 26, 2011 The closed its embassy in Tripoli and imposed sanctions on the government. The UN condemned Libya and imposed sanctions too while referring Qaddafi to the International Criminal Court (ICC) February 27, 2011 National Transitional Council (NTC) is formed in Benghazi to overthrow the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya of Muammar Gaddafi March 2011 The United Nations Security Council authorises intervention in Libya by stating that “all necessary measures short of an occupation force,” will be used to protect Libyan civilians March 21, 2011 NATO launched its first airstrikes, with the first ones landing in Qaddafi’s compound and destroying a building there October 20, 2011 Muammar Gaddafi is captured as he tried to escape Sirte and is killed by rebels October 23, 2011 The NTC officially announce that Libya is liberated as celebrations are held across the country July 2012 Elections occur for the formation of a new government under the NTC peacefully and turnout was around fifty two percent. August 2012 The transitional government hands power to the General National Congress (GNC) after the parliamentary elections. The Muslim Brotherhood won 17 out of the 80 seats allocated to political parties and 17 independent seats. September 11, 2012 Islamic militant group Ansar al-, which is an Al Qaeda affiliate, attacks two American government facilities, including the US embassy, killing the US ambassador to Libya and three others May 5, 2013 Islamist politicians controversially passed the Political Isolation Law which banned any officials who worked under the Qaddafi regime from politics for ten years January 2014 GNC does not stand down when it passed the end of its electoral mandate February 2014 Protests erupt as a response to the refusal of the GNC to disband after the mandate expires May 16, 2014 General Khalifa Haftar launches Operation Dignity, an offensive against Ansar al-Sharia, the Islamist group that attacked the US embassy, but then he expands this to all Islamists including the Muslim Brotherhood and the GNC, starting with the city of Benghazi, and this marked the beginning of the Second Libyan Civil war May 18, 2014 Another offensive is launched by the Libyan National Army under Haftar to take on Tripoli May 25, 2014 Elections are held with a turnout rate of eighteen percent and the Islamists did not win a majority May 30, 2014 Pro-Haftar protests erupt in several cities including Tripoli and Benghazi July 13, 2014 Operation Libya Dawn is launched by Islamists and Misratan militias who form a coalition of the same name, as Benghazi falls to them August 4, 2014 Outcome results of the election are disputed and not agreed on and the new House of Representatives replaces the old one , 2014 Tripoli International Airport fell to Libyan Central Shield fighters, which is a coalition between Islamists and Misratan forces August, 2014 Libya Dawn captured Tripoli after a five week battle with secular militias, and they forced to recognise the new government, forcing it to relocate to the city of Tobruk October 1, 2014 General Haftar launches another offensive against Islamists in Benghazi and recaptures an important military base from Ansar al-Sharia November 19, 2014 The Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) linked militants in Libya seizes control of port of Derna, a crucial port city in Eastern Libya January 14, 2015 Peace talks broker by the UN begin in Geneva, . However, the GNA suspended the talks and withdrew as it accused the HoR of violence February 2015 Offensive of the Libyan National Army to retake Derna fails as ISIL establishes control over the city of Sirte February 9, 2015 General Haftar’s forces and those loyal to the HoR eventually regain Benghazi’s main military base from Islamist forces and fighters February 15, 2015 ISIL in Libya releases a video displaying the beheading of twenty- one Egyptian Coptic Christians. Egyptian president Abdel-Fattah El-Sisi orders a response and the respond with airstrikes on ISIS targets in Eastern Libya March 5, 2015 Peace talks backed by the UN are held in Morocco between different Libyan factions May 21, 2015 ISIL linked militants captured the city of Sirte, and within ten days they were able to expand their territory to the east, south and west of the city which led to Misratan militias forcefully retreating from the city. June 10, 2015 The HoR, which is the internationally recognised government, drops out of the UN backed peace talks in Morocco as they refuse to share power with their rivals, the GNC July 11, 2015 Factions in Libya reach to an agreement and a peace deal brokered by the UN, but it excluded the Islamist GNC October 2015 UN proposes the creation of the Government of National Accord (GNA) in the Libyan Political Agreement December 17, 2015 Representatives from the GNC and HoR sign a UN backed deal, despite the representatives not having the approval from either governments, which establishes a new unity government in Libya, the GNA, and is formed and recognised as the sole legitimate executive authority in Libya, with Fayez al-Sarraj as the new Prime Minister March 13, 2016 Several countries within the EU as well as the United States recognise the GNA as a Libya’s legitimate government April 5, 2016 The self declared National Salvation Government (NSG) announces that it is stepping down and dissolving and that it would join the GNA April 18, 2016 The LNA is able to regain and capture key areas of Benghazi from Islamist militants and other forces August 22, 2016 A vote on the GNA by the HoR resulted in the rejection of the GNA, with sixty one votes against, one in favour and thirty nine abstentions December 2016 Libyan forces retake Sirte from ISIL after seven months of fighting January 2, 2017 Musa al-Koni, the GNA’s deputy leader, resigns amid what he believed the failure of the GNA to bring unity and political order May 8, 2017 General Haftar launches a new offensive against Islamist militants in Benghazi May 26, 2017 Clashes between Islamist militias and troops allied with the GNA occurred in Tripoli May 27, 2017 The Al Qaeda affiliate, Ansar el-Sharia announced that it would be dissolving July 6, 2017 The Battle of Benghazi ends as the LNA took control over the city from Islamist forces after three years. General Haftar declares that it had been liberated and that a new era of ‘security, peace and reconciliation’ was about to enter the city, but clashes and fighting still occurred the day after July 25, 2017 Both Prime Minister Sarraj and General Haftar agree to a conditional ceasefire and that they would hold elections in the spring of 2018 September 20, 2017 Ghassan Salame, the former UN Special Envoy for Libya , announced his new vision and plan for amendments to the Libyan Political Agreement that would open the doors to those who were unable to participate in the political process before October 21, 2017 After month long talks, the UN conference on Libya in Tunisia ended without any progress being made and in regards to elections and no meeting is set next 24 March 2018 The United States launches its first against Al Qaeda in Libya April 11, 2018 General Haftar reportedly suffers a stroke and is flown to Paris where he is treated at a hospital there. He returns to Benghazi in around two weeks May 8, 2018 General Haftar launches a military operation in order to reclaim the city of Derna, which is north east of Benghazi May 29, 2018 Several important Libyan leaders and representatives meet in Paris to discuss about Libya, including General Haftar and Prime Minister Sarraj and senior officials from each government as well as some leaders from militias and forces. Both parties agreed to hold presidential and parliamentary elections in December 2018 and adopt the necessary constitutional basis for the elections and electoral laws by September 16 September 26, 2018 A UN brokered ceasefire was agreed to, as announced by the GNA, in Tripoli to deescalate the violence and heavy fighting that had been occurring there for several months. The ceasefire would allow for the reopening of Tripoli International Airport and around 25,000 displaced persons to return to their homes November 12, 2018 Both international and Libyan leaders convened for a conference in in another attempt to solve Libya’s political gridlock, but General Haftar participated in more sideline meetings rather than the direct ones. All parties eventually agreed to participating in a UN conference in early 2019 that would plan the elections in the spring January 16, 2019 The LNA launches another offensive to target extremists and gangs in southern Libya and ‘ensure security for citizens’. Fighting resumed in Tripoli between militias and forces, breaking the UN brokered ceasefire. However, five days later, another one was signed February 6, 2019 LNA forces capture El Sharara, Libya’s largest oil field from GNA allied forces and militias, who took advantage of the place by demanding higher wages April 3, 2019 The LNA launches the Western Libyan Offensive in an attempt to gain more territory in the west as well as the capital, and declares Western Libya a no-fly zone as the LNA began to engage with GNA targets. The LNA were able to take control over towns on the outskirts of the capital, but GNA allied forces were able to hold General Haftar’s forces back, and the battle for Tripoli goes on for a few months with both forces making gains and losses, however, they remain at a stalemate mostly. May 9, 2019 The GNA suspends the operations of over forty foreign businesses and firms in Libya, claiming that their licenses had expired June 16, 2019 Prime Minister Sarraj announces a peace plan to unite Libya’s factions and with the use of a UN sponsored peace forum as well as parliamentary and presidential elections before the end of the year January 6, 2020 General Haftar’s forces take control of the city of Sirte from GNA forces January 19, 2020 Turkish President Recep Tayyip Erdogan officially announces that Turkey had started to send troops to Libya in support of the GNA. The announcement comes days before a summit in Berlin for the Libyan conflict April 26, 2020 Both the LNA and GNA make small advances on some areas in Tripoli, with the GNC being a lot stronger due to its extensive Turkish support

VI. Relevant U.N. Treaties and Past Resolutions: 1. Libyan Political Agreement: This agreement was intended to create a national unity government, the GNA, and this would be the sole legitimate government of Libya in the eyes of the UN. It would give executive authority to the GNC while giving the HoR legislative authority. 2. UN Security Council Resolution 1970 S/RES/1970 This resolution imposed an on Libya, targeted sanctions such as assets freeze and a travel ban, established a sanctions committee to monitor them and referred the situation in Libya to the International Criminal Court (ICC) 3. UN Security Council Resolution 1973 S/RES/1973 This resolution authorized all necessary measures, including an occupation force, to protect Libyan civilians and enforce a number of sanctions including an arms embargo, no-fly zone and established the panel of experts. 4. UN Security Council Resolution 2174 S/RES/2174 This resolution imposed sanctions on individuals and entities who were hindering the political process and transition in Libya and tightened the arms embargo. VII. Failed Solution Attempts: 1. There have been numerous and quite unsuccessful attempts at bringing peace in Libya. The UN has attempted many times to facilitate negotiations and peace talks between both parties, and on the 16th of December 2015, a peace deal was signed between the GNC and HoR backed by the UN in Sikhrat, Morocco, also known as the Libyan Political Agreement or Sikhirat Agreement. Despite the opposition to the deal within both factions, it was still signed. The agreement accepted that a national unity government was to be formed, the Government of National Accord (GNA), and it laid out the structure for the government and other institutions within it. It would give executive authority to the GNC while giving the HoR legislative authority. The GNA was eventually formed, and ultimately it has given legitimacy to the GNC government which became a part of the government and it has failed to unify the country. Haftar would later on call the agreement ‘void’, as members of the HoR vote to reject the GNA. 2. The Libyan National Conference was being planned to take place in the spring of 2019 in , Libya, after over a year of planning, and it aimed to organise parliamentary and presidential elections as well as setting out the peace process in Libya. However, it was postponed due to the LNA’s offensive on Western Libya and Tripoli. 3. Turkish and Russian presidents Recep Tayyip Erdogan and called for a ceasefire to start on the 12th of January 2020 to end what had become a . However, the ceasefire was broken only hours after its announcement and both the GNA and LNA blamed each other for the violence that occurred after. 4. There have been several attempts at bringing peace to Libya, however all conferences and meetings have generally been rushed and did not involve militia representatives who are very important to this conflict and are crucial to ensure the security of Libya, and the agreements have been based on the logic that the parties should accept the framework first and then work out the details as they were implementing it. In terms of militias, international backers have prioritised the security of Tripoli over creating a comprehensive approach to security issues which are very much exacerbated due to the fact that there is no central or unified armed forces even for each government.

VIII. Possible Solutions: 1. A solution to Libya’s political gridlock needs to include not only the HoR and GNA, but the militias that align with them and those that do not, and have a solution for security and the issue of the no centralised or unified armed forces. 2. A military intervention or the authorization of UN peacekeeping troops to create some stability 3. Economic incentives to improve Libya’s economy and the removal of sanctions to stimulate growth 4. More humanitarian assistance to provide to Libyan citizens and migrants 5. Imposing sanctions on countries that support parties in Libya through arms and are violating Un Security Council Resolution 1970 which imposed an embargo on the supply of arms to Libya, which is violated by several countries.

IX. Useful Links 1. https://www.polgeonow.com/search/label/libya 2. https://www.mei.edu/sites/default/files/201905/Libya_Winer_May%2020 19%20update_0.pdf 3. https://english.alarabiya.net/en/features/2020/07/13/Libya-crisis- timeline-The-battle-forTripoli-Sirte-and-oil 4. https://www.britannica.com/event/Libya-Revolt-of-2011 5. https://www.cfr.org/in-brief/whos-who-libyas-war

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