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Deposited in DRO: 15 September 2016 Version of attached le: Accepted Version Peer-review status of attached le: Peer-reviewed Citation for published item: Moritz, R. and Melkonyan, R. and Selby, D. and Popkhadze, N. and Gugushvili, V. and Tayan, R. and Ramazanov, V. (2016) 'Metallogeny of the Lesser Caucasus : from arc construction to post-collision evolution.', in Special publications of the Society of Economic Geologists. , pp. 157-192. Special publications. (19). Further information on publisher's website: https://www.segweb.org/store/detail.aspx?id=EDOCSP19CH06

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1 Metallogeny of the Lesser Caucasus: From arc construction to post-collision evolution 1 2 3 2 4 5 3 6 7 1,a 2 3 4 8 4 Robert Moritz , Rafael Melkonyan , David Selby , Nino Popkhadze , 9 10 4 2,* 5,** 11 5 Vlademir Gugushvili , Rodrig Tayan and Vagif Ramazanov 12 13 6 14 15 16 7 1 Department of Earth Sciences, University of Geneva, Rue des Maraîchers 13, 1205 Geneva, 17 18 8 Switzerland 19 9 20 21 10 2 Institute of Geological Sciences, National Academy of the Republic of Armenia, 22 23 11 Baghramyan Avenue 24, 0019 Yerevan, Armenia 24 12 25 3 26 13 Department of Earth Sciences, University of Durham, DH1 3LE United Kingdom 27 14 28 4 29 15 A. Djanelidze Institute of Geology of I. Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University, Politkovskaia 30 16 St. 5, 0186 Tbilisi, Georgia 31 32 33 5 Geological Department, Baku State University, Z. Khalilov St. 23, Az1145, Baku, 34 17 35 18 Azerbaijan 36 37 19 38 20 39 40 21 * deceased March 25th 2016 41 th 42 22 ** deceased May 7 2014 43 44 23 45 24 46 47 25 48 26 a corresponding author: Robert MORITZ, University of Geneva, Rue des Maraîchers 13, 1205 49 50 27 Geneva, Switzerland; e-mail: [email protected] 51 28 52 53 54 29 55 30 56 57 58 31 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 2

32 Abstract 1 33 This contribution reviews the metallogenic setting of the Lesser Caucasus within the framework of the 2 3 34 complex geodynamic evolution of the Central Tethys belt during convergence and collision of Arabia, 4 5 35 Eurasia and Gondwana-derived microplates. New rhenium-osmium molybdenite ages are also 6 36 presented for several major deposits and prospects, allowing us to constrain the metallogenic evolution 7 8 37 of the Lesser Caucasus. The host rock lithologies, magmatic associations, deposit styles, ore controls 9 10 38 and metal endowment vary greatly along the Lesser Caucasus as a function of the age and tectono- 11 magmatic distribution of the ore districts and deposits. The ore deposits and ore districts can be 12 39 13 40 essentially assigned to two different evolution stages: (1) Mesozoic arc construction and evolution 14 15 41 along the Eurasian margin, and (2) Cenozoic magmatism and tectonic evolution following late 16 17 42 Cretaceous accretion of Gondwana-derived microplates with the Eurasian margin. 18 19 43 The available data suggest that during Jurassic arc construction along the Eurasian margin, i.e. the 20 44 Somkheto-Karabagh belt and the Kapan zone, the metallogenic evolution was dominated by 21 22 45 subaqueous magmatic-hydrothermal systems, VMS-style mineralization in a fore-arc environment or 23 24 46 along the margins of a back-arc ocean located between the Eurasin margin and Gondwana-derived 25 47 terranes. This metallogenic event coincided broadly with a rearrangement of tectonic plates, resulting 26 27 48 in steepening of the subducting plate during the middle to late Jurassic transition. 28 29 30 49 Typical porphyry Cu and high-sulfidation epithermal systems were emplaced in the Somkheto- 31 50 Karabagh belt during the late Jurassic and the early Cretaceous, once the arc reached a more mature 32 33 51 stage with a thicker crust, and fertile magmas were generated by magma storage and MASH processes. 34 35 52 During the late Cretaceous, low-sulfidation type epithermal deposits and transitional VMS-porphyry- 36 53 epithermal systems were formed in the northern Lesser Caucasus during compression, uplift and 37 38 54 hinterland migration of the magmatic arc, coinciding with flattening of the subduction geometry. 39 40 41 55 Late Cretaceous collision of Gondwana-derived terranes with Eurasia resulted in a rearrangement of 42 56 subduction zones. Cenozoic magmatism and ore deposits stitched the collision and accretion zones. 43 44 57 Eocene porphyry Cu-Mo deposits and associated precious metal epithermal systems were formed 45 46 58 during subduction-related magmatism in the southernmost Lesser Caucasus. Subsequently, late 47 59 Eocene-Oligocene accretion of Arabia with Eurasia and final closure of the southern branch of the 48 49 60 Neotethys resulted in the emplacement of Neogene collision to post-collision porphyry Cu-Mo 50 51 61 deposits along major translithospheric faults in the southernmost Lesser Caucasus. 52 53 62 The Cretaceous and Cenozoic magmatic and metallogenic evolutions of the northern Lesser Caucasus 54 55 63 and the Turkish Eastern Pontides are intimately linked to each other. The Cenozoic magmatism and 56 57 64 metallogenic setting of the southernmost Lesser Caucasus can also be traced southwards into the 58 65 Cenozoic Iranian Urumieh-Dokhtar and Alborz belts. However, contrasting tectonic, magmatic and 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 3

66 sedimentary records during the Mesozoic are consistent with the absence of any metallogenic 1 67 connection between the Alborz in Iran and the southernmost Lesser Caucasus. 2 3 4 68 5 6 69 Introduction 7 8 70 The Lesser Caucasus is a major segment of the Tethyan belt, which extends from the Black Sea to the 9 71 Caspian Sea, across Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan (Figs 1 and 2). This mountain belt links the 10 11 72 Western and Central metallogenic Tethys belts with their extensions into Asia (Jankovic, 1977, 1997; 12 13 73 Richards, 2015). The Lesser Caucasus was formed as a consequence of convergence and collision of 14 74 Eurasia, Gondwana-derived terranes and Arabia, and it evolved from a Jurassic nascent subduction- 15 16 75 related magmatic arc environment to a Neogene post-collisional setting (Fig. 3). This geodynamic 17 18 76 evolution resulted in episodic ore formation in response to particular tectonic and magmatic events 19 across the entire belt (Figs 1, 2 and 3). 20 77 21 22 78 In this contribution, we focus on ore deposit belts and districts from the Lesser Caucasus only (Figs 1 23 79 and 2), and discuss their genetic link with adjoining metallogenic provinces in eastern Turkey and 24 25 80 northern Iran. While the metallogenic aspects of the Tethyan segments along Turkey and Iran have 26 27 81 been relatively well addressed in recent contributions (e.g. Yigit, 2009; Kusçu et al., 2013; Aghazadeh 28 82 et al., 2015), there is only fragmentary information available about the Lesser Caucasus in reviews 29 30 83 about Tethyan metallogeny and Tethyan porphyry belts (e.g. Tvalchrelidze, 1980, 1984; Cooke et al., 31 32 84 2005; Richards, 2015). We deliberately restrict this review to the Lesser Caucasus, because of its 33 85 particular position as a link between the Turkish and Iranian mountain belts, and to keep this report to 34 35 86 a reasonable length. We are aware that the metallogenic evolution of this part of the Tethys belt goes 36 37 87 beyond the geographic limits of the Lesser Caucasus, such as the Greater Caucasus for example 38 88 (Tvalchrelidze, 1980, 1984), which includes orogenic gold-style mineralization (Kekelia et al., 2008), 39 40 89 intrusion-related gold and polymetallic style mineralization (Okrostsvaridze et al., 2015), and black 41 42 90 shale-hosted gold and polymetallic deposits, such as the famous Filizçay and Kızıldere deposits 43 91 (Markus, 2002; Kekelia et al., 2004). 44 45 46 92 The main host rock, alteration, ore characteristics, and ages of the ore districts and deposits described 47 48 93 in this review are presented in Figures 1 and 2, summarized in Table 1, and set in a geodynamic 49 94 scheme in Figure 3. New Re-Os molybdenite ages obtained for several ore deposits and occurrences 50 51 95 are summarized in Table 2. The host rock lithologies, magmatic associations, deposit styles, ore 52 53 96 controls and metal endowment vary greatly along the Lesser Caucasus as a function of the age and 54 97 tectono-magmatic distribution of the ore districts and deposits. The mineral districts of the Lesser 55 56 98 Caucasus can be grouped and discussed according to their distribution among the major tectonic and 57 58 99 magmatic zones of this mountain belt (Fig. 2). The first group includes mineral districts associated 59 100 with the Mesozoic subduction-related, magmatic evolution of the Eurasian margin, which are hosted 60 61 62 63 64 65 4

101 by the Kapan zone, the Somkheto-Karabagh belt and its northern Georgian extension, named the 1 102 Artvin-Bolnisi zone (Fig. 2). The second group includes ore deposits of Cenozoic age that can be 2 3 103 correlated with tectonic and suture zones outlining the boundaries between the Eurasian margin and 4 5 104 terranes or microplates of Gondwana origin. 6 7 105 8 9 106 Geodynamic evolution of the Caucasus 10 11 107 The Caucasus orogenic belt extends from Crimea along the Black Sea to the Southern Caspian Sea, 12 13 108 and is subdivided into the Greater Caucasus in the north, the intermontane Transcaucasian Massif, and 14 109 the Lesser Caucasus to the south, sitting astride on the Eurasian plate and Gondwana-derived plates 15 16 110 (Khain, 1975; Adamia et al., 1981, 2011). The Greater Caucasus is a fold-and-thrust mountain belt 17 18 111 consisting of Proterozoic and Paleozoic metamorphic and magmatic basement rocks, covered by 19 Mesozoic and Cenozoic sedimentary rocks. It developed during late Proterozoic and Paleozoic 20 112 21 113 subduction of the Prototethys and Paleotethys along the Paleozoic Eurasian margin, named the 22 23 114 Scythian platform. The Greater Caucasus was affected by the Variscan, Triassic-Jurassic Cimmerian 24 25 115 and Alpine orogenies (Adamia et al., 1981, 2011; Kazmin, 2006; Saintot et al., 2006). 26 27 116 The Transcaucasus massif consists of Neoproterozoic to Paleozoic metamorphic, ophiolitic and 28 117 granitic basement rocks (Bagdasaryan et al., 1978; Gamkrelidze and Shengelia, 1999; Shengelia et al., 29 30 118 2006; Zakariadze et al., 2007; Mayringer et al., 2011), covered by late Triassic to Cenozoic volcano- 31 32 119 sedimentary rocks. Neoproterozoic and early Cambrian rocks of the Transcaucasus massif share 33 120 affinities with island arcs of the Arabian-Nubian shield. The Transcaucasus massif was accreted to 34 35 121 Eurasia during the early Carboniferous, followed by Paleoetethys subduction-related Permo- 36 37 122 Carboniferous magmatism (Zakariadze et al., 2007). To the west, the Transcaucasus massif extends 38 123 into the Sakarya and Pontide zones (Okay and Sahintürk, 1997; Yilmaz et al., 2000; Mayringer et al., 39 40 124 2011). The extension to the east into Iran is still open to question (Kalvoda and Bábek, 2010). 41 42 125 The Lesser Caucasus constitutes the southernmost part of the Caucasus, and its geometry was shaped 43 44 126 by indentation tectonics (Philip et al., 1989). It was formed during north- to northeast-verging 45 46 127 Jurassic-Cretaceous subduction of a northern branch of the Neotethys beneath the Eurasian margin 47 128 (Figs 3a-b; Kazmin et al., 1986; Zonenshain and Le Pichon, 1986; Rolland et al., 2011), and closed 48 49 129 during the late Cretaceous, when the Gondwana-derived South Armenian block was accreted to 50 51 130 Eurasia (Fig. 3c; Rolland et al., 2009 a, b). As a consequence of the blocked subduction setting along 52 131 the Eurasian margin, the active late Cretaceous-Cenozoic Neotethys subduction zone jumped to the 53 54 132 southwest of the Turkish Bitlis-Pütürge massif (Fig. 3c; Kazmin et al., 1986; Zonenshain and Le 55 56 133 Pichon, 1986; Rolland et al., 2012). Interpretations about the final Arabia-Eurasia collision range 57 134 between the late Cretaceous (Mohajjel and Ferguson, 2000) and the Miocene (McQuarrie et al., 2003; 58 59 135 Guest et al., 2006; Okay et al., 2010). However, a collision between the late Eocene and the early 60 61 62 63 64 65 5

136 Oligocene (40-25 Ma) is favored by a majority of studies for the Caucasian-Zagros region (Vincent et 1 137 al., 2005; Allen and Armstrong, 2008; Agard et al. 2011; Ballato et al., 2011; Verdel et al., 2011; 2 3 138 McQuarrie and van Hinsberger, 2013). 4 5 6 139 7 8 140 Geological setting and evolution of the Lesser Caucasus 9 141 The Lesser Caucasus consists of three tectonic zones (Fig. 2): (1) the magmatic and sedimentary 10 11 142 Somkheto-Karabagh belt and Kapan zone, (2) the Sevan-Akera suture zone, and (3) the South 12 13 143 Armenian block (Sosson et al., 2010; Adamia et al., 2011). The ~350 km-long Somkheto-Karabagh 14 144 belt and the ~70 km-long Kapan zone or block (Gevorkyan and Aslanyan, 1997; Mederer et al., 2013) 15 16 145 belong to the Eurasian margin (Figs 1 and 2) and were developed along the southern margin of the 17 18 146 Transcaucasian massif. Both belts have similar geologic and tectonic characteristics and are 19 interpreted as a discontinuous Jurassic to Cretaceous tholeiitic to calc-alkaline island-arc formed 20 147 21 148 during Neotethyan subduction (Sosson et al., 2010; Adamia et al., 2011), segmented by sub-latitudinal 22 23 149 strike-slip faults (Kazmin et al., 1986; Gabriyelyan et al. 1989; see SSF? in Fig. 2). The Somkheto- 24 25 150 Karabagh and Kapan belts are subdivided in five broad series separated by unconformities, recording 26 151 uplift and erosion events, including: (1) a thick sequence of Bajocian and Bathonian volcanic, 27 28 152 volcanoclastic and sedimentary rocks, and a subsidiary Callovian sequence, (2) late Jurassic-early 29 30 153 Cretaceous magmatic and sedimentary rocks, (3) mid- to late Cretaceous volcanic, volcanoclastic and 31 154 sedimentary rocks, (4) Paleogene rocks, and (5) Quaternary rocks (Achikgiozyan et al., 1987; Sosson 32 33 155 et al., 2010; Adamia et al., 2011; Mederer et al., 2013). The Mesozoic sequences are underlain by 34 35 156 Proterozoic and Palaeozoic basement rocks in the Loki, Khrami, and Akhum-Asrikchai massifs of the 36 157 northern Somkheto-Karabagh belt (Gamkrelidze and Shengelia, 1999; Shengelia et al., 2006; 37 38 158 Zakariadze et al., 2007). The late Cretaceous extremity of the northern Somkheto-Karabagh belt in 39 40 159 Georgia is known as the Artvin-Bolnisi zone (Figs 1 and 2; Gamkrelidze, 1986; Yilmaz et al., 2000). 41 42 160 The ophiolite sequences of the Sevan-Akera zone represent the suture zone between the Eurasian 43 Somkheto-Karabagh belt and the Gondwana-derived South Armenian block (Figs 1 and 2). The suture 44 161 45 162 zone is the relict of two contemporaneous and parallel east- to northeast-verging subduction zones, 46 47 163 one being located along the Somkheto-Karabagh belt, and a second intra-oceanic subduction zone, 48 located to the west, between the Eurasian margin and the South Armenian block, explaining the 49 164 50 165 formation of a back-arc oceanic basin between the two subduction zones (Fig. 3a; Galoyan et al., 51 52 166 2009; Rolland et al., 2009b, 2010, 2011; Hässig et al., 2013a, b). The ophiolites were obducted on the 53 54 167 South Armenian block between 88 and 83 Ma (Galoyan et al., 2007; Rolland et al., 2010), and final 55 168 collision between the Eurasian margin and the South Armenian block took place at 73-71 Ma (Rolland 56 57 169 et al., 2009 a, b). According to recent paleomagnetic data, it remains open to question whether the 58 59 170 ocean between the South Armenian block and the Eurasian margin was already closed or still open 60 171 during the Santonian (~83.5-86 Ma), with geological data speaking in favor of the second 61 62 63 64 65 6

172 interpretation (Meijers et al., 2015). The Sevan-Akera ophiolite is correlated with the Izmir-Ankara- 1 173 Erzincan suture zone of northern Anatolia (IAES in Fig. 1; Yilmaz et al., 2000; Hässig et al., 2013b). 2 3 174 In the southernmost Lesser Caucasus, the tectonic boundary between the Eurasian Kapan block and 4 5 175 the Gondwana-derived South Armenian block is outlined by the northwest-trending, dextral strike-slip 6 176 Khustup-Giratakh fault (Fig. 2), where ultramafic rock, gabbro, spilite, andesite and radiolarite of the 7 8 177 Zangezur tectonic mélange are interpreted as ophiolite remains (Knipper and Khain, 1980; Burtman, 9 10 178 1994), and are imbricated with late Precambrian to early Cambrian metamorphic rocks and Devonian 11 and Permian sedimentary rocks (Belov, 1969; Khain, 1975). Hässig et al. (2013a) correlate the 12 179 13 180 Zangezur tectonic mélange zone with the Sevan-Akera ophiolite, although relationships are hidden by 14 15 181 Cenozoic molasse and volcanic rocks (Fig. 2; Khain, 1975; Burtman, 1994). Melkonyan et al. (2000) 16 17 182 and Hässig et al. (2015) suggest the presence of an additional Jurassic-Cretaceous west-verging 18 183 subduction zone of the Neotethys along the Gondwana-derived South Armenian block (Fig. 3a). 19 20 184 The Gondwana-derived South Armenian block is located to the southwest of the Sevan-Akera suture 21 22 185 zone, and is mainly exposed in southwestern Armenia, Nakhitchevan and the Tsaghkuniats massif, 23 24 186 north of Yerevan (Fig. 2; Shengelia et al., 2006; Hässig et al., 2015). The terminology of the South 25 187 Armenian block can be traced back to Kazmin et al. (1986), and it is also named Iran-Afghanian 26 27 188 terrane (Gamkrelidze, 1997; Gamkrelidze and Shengelia, 2007) and Nakhitchevan-South Armenia 28 29 189 (Adamia et al., 2011). It includes the Miskhan/Tsaghqunk-Zangezur, Yerevan-Ordubad, Araks and the 30 190 Paleozoic-Triassic Daralagez subterranes described in earlier contributions (e.g. Khain, 1975; 31 32 191 Gamkrelidze, 1986; Zonenshain and Le Pichon, 1986; Melkonyan et al., 2000; Saintot et al., 2006). It 33 34 192 consists of Proterozoic metamorphic basement rocks (Belov and Sokolov, 1973; Meijers et al., 2015), 35 193 and an incomplete succession of Devonian to Jurassic sedimentary and volcanogenic rocks, intruded 36 37 194 by late Jurassic granodiorite and leucogranite (Hässig et al., 2015; Meijers et al., 2015), 38 39 195 unconformably covered by late Cretaceous sedimentary rocks (Belov, 1968; Sosson et al., 2010), 40 Albian-early Turonian volcanic rocks (Kazmin et al., 1986), and Paleocene sedimentary rocks 41 196 42 197 (Djrbashyan et al., 1977). Paleozoic stratigraphic and lithological characteristics of the South 43 44 198 Armenian block differ from the ones of the Eurasian margin and correlate with the Malatya-Keban 45 46 199 platform of the Tauride block (Robertson et al., 2013), therefore supporting its Gondwanian origin 47 200 (Sosson et al., 2010). Paleolatitude interpretations based on magnetic data indicate that the South 48 49 201 Armenian block was located farther to the south during the early-middle Jurassic, and was separated 50 51 202 by a 2700 ± 600 km wide ocean from the Eurasian continent (Bazhenov et al., 1996; Gamkrelidze and 52 203 Shengelia, 2007). Barrier and Vrielynck (2008), Sosson et al. (2010), Hässig et al. (2013a, b, 2015) 53 54 204 and Meijers et al. (2015) group the South Armenian block together with the Eastern Anatolian 55 56 205 platform or Anatolide-Tauride block (e.g., Figs 3a-c), and interpret it as the northeastern part of the 57 206 Tauride microcontinent since the Jurassic. By contrast, Adamia et al. (1981; 2011) group the South 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 7

207 Armenia terrane together with the Sanandaj-Sirjan zone into the Central Iranian platform since the 1 208 Jurassic, a paleoreconstruction shared by Golonka (2004) and Alavi (2007). 2 3 4 209 Abundant Cenozoic magmatic activity is recognized throughout the Lesser Caucasus (Kazmin et al., 5 210 1986; Lordkipnadze et al., 1989; Sosson et al., 2010). Paleocene to Eocene magmatism stitches the 6 7 211 collisional structures (Rolland et al., 2011), and is generally interpreted as being related to final 8 9 212 subduction of the Neotethys along the Eurasian margin (Kazmin et al., 1986; Lordkipnadze et al., 10 213 1989; Vincent et al., 2005; Moritz et al., in press), coeval with the voluminous, subduction-related 11 12 214 Eocene magmatism in Iran (e.g., Allen and Armstrong, 2008; Agard et al., 2011; Ballato et al., 2011; 13 14 215 Verdel et al., 2011). Other authors suggested a post-collisional geodynamic setting for the Eocene 15 216 magmatism of the Lesser Caucasus (Dilek et al., 2010; Sosson et al., 2010). Subsequent Neogene and 16 17 217 Quaternary magmatism is syn- to post-collisional (Kazmin et al., 1986; Lordkipnadze et al., 1989; 18 19 218 Karapetian et al., 2001; Adamia et al., 2010; Sosson et al., 2010; Neill et al., 2015; Moritz et al., in 20 219 press). The Dalidag pluton along the Sevan-Akera zone, the Pambak nepheline-bearing syenite pluton 21 22 220 north of Yerevan, and the composite Meghri-Ordubad and Bargushat plutons in the southernmost 23 24 221 Lesser Caucasus, at the contact between the South Armenian block and the Kapan zone, are major 25 222 intrusions emplaced during the Cenozoic (Fig. 2; Khain, 1975; Moritz et al., in press). 26 27 28 223 The EW-oriented Adjara-Trialeti belt in western Georgia consisting of a Cretaceous volcanic arc and 29 224 Paleogene flysch and volcanic rocks, and the Talysh mountains along the Azerbaijan side of the 30 31 225 Caspian Sea (Fig. 1), consisting of Senonian to Paleocene flysch and Eocene-Oligocene volcanic rocks 32 33 226 display similar geological characteristics and evolution. They are interpreted to have formed in back- 34 227 arc settings during the Paleogene evolution of the Lesser Caucasus, which subsequently experienced 35 36 228 basin inversion, uplift and transpression during the late Eocene to early Oligocene, attributed to the 37 38 229 initiation of Arabian-Eurasian collision (Khain, 1975; Lordkipnadze et al., 1979, 1989; Zonenshain 39 230 and Le Pichon, 1986; Brunet et al., 2003; Vincent et al., 2005; Adamia et al., 2010; Asiabanha and 40 41 231 Foden, 2012). 42 43 232 44 45 233 Re-Os molybdenite geochronology 46 47 234 Molybdenite-bearing samples were collected from outcrops and drill cores. Sample descriptions, 48 49 235 locations and Re-Os results are reported in Table 2. The molybdenite grain size is typically between 50 51 236 100 to 500 μm. All samples were hand picked from crushed samples under a binocular to remove 52 53 237 remaining impurities. An average of 30 mg of pure molybdenite separate was obtained for each 54 238 sample. The Re and Os abundance and isotope composition determinations for ~10 to 50 mg aliquants 55 56 239 of these molybdenite separates were conducted at the University of Durham (U.K.) as described by 57 58 240 Selby and Creaser (2001a, b). In brief, weighted aliquots of the molybdenite mineral separates and 59 241 tracer solution (185Re + isotopically normal Os) were loaded into a Carius tube with 11N HCl (1 ml) 60 61 62 63 64 65 8

242 and 15.5N HNO3 (3 ml), sealed, and digested at 220°C for ~24 h. Osmium was purified from the acid 1 243 medium using solvent extraction (CHCl ) at room temperature and microdistillation methods. The Re 2 3 3 244 fraction was isolated using standard anion column chromatography. The purified Re and Os fractions 4 5 245 were loaded onto Ni and Pt wire filaments, respectively, and their isotopic compositions were 6 246 measured using negative thermal ionization mass spectrometry (Creaser et al., 1991; Völkening et al., 7 8 247 1991). Analyses were conducted on a Thermo Scientific TRITON mass spectrometer, with the Re and 9 10 248 Os isotope composition measured using static Faraday collection. During the course of this study Re 11 and Os blanks were <3 and 0.5 pg, respectively, with the 187Os/188Os of the blank being 0.25 ± 0.03. 12 249 13 250 Internal uncertainties include uncertainties related to Re and Os mass spectrometer measurements, 14 187 15 251 blank abundances and isotopic compositions, spike calibrations (0.24% on Os and 0.30% on Re, 2), 16 17 252 and reproducibility of the RM8599 NIST molybdenite standard Re and Os isotope values. 18 253 Molybdenite of this study was analyzed during the same period as that of Lawley and Selby (2012), 19 20 254 which presents an Re-Os age for RM8599 of 27.6 ± 0.1 and 27.6 ± 0.1 Ma, which is in agreement 21 22 255 with the proposed age of 27.74 ± 0.11 Ma (n = 18; Markey et al., 2007). The molybenite Re-Os

23 187 187 187 24 256 model ages were calculated using the equation t = ln ( Os/ Re + 1)/λ, where and λ is the Re 25 −11 −1 26 257 decay constant (1.666 x 10 ± 0.017 a ; Smoliar et al., 1996). 27 28 258 29 30 259 Ore formation during Jurassic magmatic arc construction along the Eurasian margin 31 260 The middle Jurassic to late Cretaceous geodynamic evolution of the Lesser Caucasus is characterized 32 33 261 by long-lasting subduction of the Tethys oceanic lithosphere along the Eurasian margin, with 34 35 262 progressive magmatic arc construction along the Somkheto-Karabagh belt and the Kapan zone (Fig. 3; 36 263 Rolland et al., 2011). Ore formation was diachronous along the arc and resulted in several major 37 38 264 mineral districts described below, which include contrasting ore deposit types. The more recent 39 40 265 deposits are essentially porphyry-epithermal-type, but the origin of the earliest deposits remains the 41 266 subject of debate. 42 43 44 267 The Alaverdi mining district: Jurassic lithologically- and structurally-controlled base metal deposits 45 46 268 The Alaverdi district of northern Armenia includes the Alaverdi, Akhtala, and Shamlugh deposits (Fig. 47 269 4; Table 1), of which only the last one is presently in production (since 2003). Copper ore extraction 48 49 270 dates back to 4500 years BC and industrial mining began in the 18th century by French companies 50 51 271 (Kozlovsky, 1991). This district accounted for 13% of Cu production of the Russian Empire in the 52 272 beginning of the 20th century. The rock units are subdivided into middle Jurassic and late Jurassic- 53 54 273 early Cretaceous complexes (Fig. 4; Sopko, 1961). Older crystalline basement was neither observed in 55 56 274 outcrops, nor intercepted by a 1100m-long drill hole. The Alaverdi, Akhtala and Shamlugh ore 57 275 deposits are hosted by the 3.5 km-thick middle Jurassic complex, defined as Bajocian and Bathonian. 58 59 276 They consist of lava, lava breccia, tuff, and pyroclastic rock, with basaltic, andesitic to dacitic and 60 61 62 63 64 65 9

277 subsidiary rhyolitic compositions, and interlayered sandstone. The late Jurassic-early Cretaceous 1 278 complex is composed of basaltic andesite, andesite and tuff breccia interlayered with sandstone and 2 3 279 limestone (Sopko, 1961; Lebedev and Malkhasyan, 1965; Ghazaryan, 1971). The oldest middle 4 5 280 Jurassic unit yielded K-Ar whole-rock ages of 169 ± 1 and 171 ± 2 Ma (Bagdasaryan and Melkonyan, 6 281 1968), and the Haghpat plagiogranite (Fig. 4) yielded a K-Ar whole-rock age of 161 ± 3 Ma 7 8 282 (Bagdasaryan, 1972). 9 10 11 283 The majority of the ore bodies are controlled by roughly NS- and EW-oriented faults, and by 12 284 intersection between steeply dipping NE-oriented dikes and sill-like bodies (Zohrabyan and 13 14 285 Melkonyan, 1999). At shallow levels, the ore bodies form stockworks and subhorizontal, stratiform 15 16 286 lenses, whereas subvertical veins are the common ore type at deeper levels, especially at Alaverdi and 17 287 Shamlugh (Fig. 4; Zohrabyan and Melkonyan, 1999; Calder, 2014). A Bajocian unit called 18 19 288 keratophyre, consisting of rhyolitic pyroclastic rocks, constitutes a distinct marker and ore-bearing 20 21 289 horizon in the district (Fig. 4), extending laterally from the Alaverdi deposit through Shamlugh to the 22 Akhtala deposits (Nalbandyan and Paronikyan, 1966; Nalbandyan, 1968). Shamlugh (Fig. 4), ore 23 290 At 24 291 lenses are hosted by the Bajocian keratophyre, immediately below a rhyolite sill, termed “albitophyre” 25 26 292 in the district (Sopko, 1961), and dated at 155.0 ± 1.0 Ma by U-Pb zircon geochronology (Calder, 27 28 293 2014). Because the albitophyre was affected by hydrothermal alteration related to ore-formation 29 294 (Nalbandyan, 1968; Calder, 2014), the 155.0 ± 1.0 Ma age of the sill sets a maximum age of ore 30 31 295 formation at Shamlugh. At the Akhtala deposit, ore bodies are also controlled by the contact of a 32 33 296 subvolcanic quartz-feldspar porphyry dome with andesite and basalt within the lowermost Bajocian 34 297 magmatic complex (Zohrabyan and Melkonyan, 1999), stratigraphically below the Shamlugh and 35 36 298 Alaverdi deposits (Sopko, 1961; Calder, 2014). 37 38 Regional propylitic alteration predates ore formation and affects the lithologies within the Alaverdi 39 299 40 300 district. It consists of prehnite, zeolite, chlorite, carbonate, albite, epidote, actinolite, and hematite. 41 42 301 Regional epidote alteration is particulary well developed in the lowermost middle Jurassic sequences 43 (Nalbandyan, 1968). Hydrothermal alteration spatially associated with the ore bodies at Alaverdi, 44 302 45 303 Akhtala and Shamlugh consists of silicification, sericite, chlorite, carbonate and disseminated pyrite. 46 47 304 Pyrophyllite and dickite were also described at Akhtala (Nalbandyan, 1968). The main opaque 48 49 305 minerals at the Alaverdi and Shamlugh deposits are chalcopyrite, pyrite, sphalerite, bornite, chalcocite, 50 306 and subsidiary galena, tennantite, stannite, bismuthite, native gold and silver, and electrum in a gangue 51 52 307 of quartz, carbonate, sericite, and chlorite (Table 1; Sevunts, 1972; Khachaturyan, 1977). The Akhtala 53 54 308 deposit is characterized by a barite, galena and sphalerite association, with subsidiary chalcopyrite, 55 309 tennantite, tetrahedrite, bornite, cassiterite, electrum, and native gold and silver in a gangue of quartz, 56 57 310 carbonate, sericite, chlorite, kaolinite, anhydrite and gypsum (Paronikyan, 1962). Local Fe-oxide-rich 58 59 311 siliceous rocks at the Shamlugh deposit were interpreted as exhalative chert (Calder, 2014), but may 60 312 also be a product of silicification and hematite alteration (e.g. Çağatay, 1993; Karakaya et al., 2012). 61 62 63 64 65 10

313 Kapan mining district: diversity of ore styles during Jurassic magmatic arc construction 1 314 The Kapan district in southern Armenia (Fig. 2), close to the border with Iran, consists of the 2 3 315 producing Shahumyan and past-producing Centralni east and west deposits (Fig. 5). Industrial mining 4 5 316 in the Kapan district dates back to the mid-19th century. At least 370,000 tons of Cu were mined in the 6 317 Kapan district since 1953 (Wolfe and Gossage, 2009). Production in the open pit and underground 7 8 318 workings of Centralni East ceased in 2005 and the Centralni West underground operation closed in 9 10 319 2008. The underground Shahumyan deposit remains the only active mine of the district. 11 12 320 Like in the Alaverdi district, the geology in Kapan is dominated by a middle Jurassic complex, and an 13 14 321 late Jurassic-early Cretaceous complex (Achikgiozyan et al., 1987; Mederer et al., 2013, 2014). There 15 16 322 are no older crystalline basement outcrops, and basement was not intercepted by an ~400m-long drill 17 323 hole. The ore deposits are hosted by a ~1 km-thick Bajocian and Bathonian andesitic to dacitic 18 19 324 sequence with subsidiary basaltic and rhyolitic compositions, consisting of lava, lava breccia, tuff, and 20 21 325 pyroclastic rock. They were deposited in both subaerial and subaqueous environments, and include 22 326 hyaloclastite, widespread amygdaloidal and porphyritic textures, and subsidiary pillow lava structures 23 24 327 (Cholahyan et al., 1972; Achikgiozyan et al., 1987). District-wide epidote alteration is characteristic 25 26 328 for the base of the middle Jurassic section and becomes less intensive towards the upper part of the 27 329 middle Jurassic magmatic complex (Achikgiozyan et al., 1987). Quartz dacite from the middle 28 29 330 Jurassic sequence was dated at 162 ± 5 Ma by K-Ar whole rock geochronology (Sarkisyan, 1970). 30 31 331 There are no plagiogranite outcrops in the Kapan district, but a tonalite clast sampled in a polymict 32 332 pebble dike yielded a U-Pb zircon age of 165.6 ± 1.4 Ma (Mederer et al., 2013), and gabbro-diorite 33 34 333 bodies were intersected by drill holes at a depth of 390 m (Tumanyan, 1992). The middle Jurassic 35 36 334 magmatic complex was partly eroded and unconformably covered by late Jurassic-early Cretaceous 37 basaltic andesite, andesite and tuff breccia interlayered with sandstone and limestone (Akopyan, 1962; 38 335 39 336 Achikgiozyan et al., 1987). Granodiorite, quartz-monzodiorite, gabbro and monzogabbro from the late 40 41 337 Jurassic-early Cretaceous complex yielded U-Pb zircon ages between 131.5 ± 2.1 and 137.7 ± 1.6 Ma 42 (Mederer et al., 2013). 43 338 44 45 339 Mineralization styles, metal endowment, paragenesis and hydrothermal alteration vary among the 46 47 340 three main deposits of the Kapan district (Table 1). Centralni West is a Cu deposit, Centralni East a 48 341 Cu-Au deposit, and Shahumyan is a polymetallic Cu-Au-Ag-Zn±Pb deposit, essentially mined for 49 50 342 gold at present. East-west-oriented and steeply S-dipping ore veins, with up to 8% Cu, are the 51 52 343 dominant mineralization style at the Centralni West deposit, accompanied by local replacement of the 53 344 host rock matrix, where ore and gangue minerals precipitated around clasts of permeable volcano- 54 55 345 sedimentary host rocks. The mineral assemblage consists predominantly of chalcopyrite and pyrite, 56 57 346 with minor sphalerite, tennantite-tetrahedrite and galena, and traces of tellurides and sulfide-bismuth 58 347 minerals in a quartz and carbonate gangue. Host rock alteration consists of chlorite, carbonate, epidote, 59 60 348 and sericite (Achikgiozyan et al., 1987; Mederer et al., 2014). Hydrothermal muscovite from Centralni 61 62 63 64 65 11

349 West yielded an 40Ar/39Ar plateau age of 161.8 ± 0.8 Ma (50% of the released gas), which is 1 350 considered to be the most reliable mineralization age within the Kapan district (Mederer, 2014; 2 3 351 Mederer et al., 2014). 4 5 6 352 Stockwork is the dominant mineralization style at Centralni East, and most of the veins are roughly 7 353 EW-orientated and dip steeply to the south. Vein-type ore bodies dominate over stockwork-style 8 9 354 mineralization with increasing depth (Achikgiozyan et al., 1987). This deposit contains an 10 11 355 intermediate- to high-sulfidation state sulfide mineral paragenesis, including mainly pyrite, colusite, 12 356 tennantite-tetrahedrite, chalcopyrite and specular hematite, subsidiary luzonite, galena, enargite, 13 14 357 bornite, sphalerite, covellite, and minor native silver and tellurides (Table 1). Quartz is the dominant 15 16 358 gangue mineral with minor barite and gypsum. Silicification, phyllic alteration and residual quartz 17 359 alteration with sericite, dickite and diaspore affect the andesitic to dacitic host rocks (Mederer, 2014; 18 19 360 Mederer et al., 2014). Re-Os isochron dating based on five pyrite samples yielded an age of 144.7 ± 20 21 361 4.2 Ma (Mederer et al., 2014). Mederer (2014) discussed the reliability of the latter age: in the case 22 362 this age was accepted, it would mean that ore formation at the Centralni East deposit, which is hosted 23 24 363 by middle Jurassic magmatic rocks, occurred at the Jurassic-Cretaceous transition. 25 26 27 364 The presently producing Shahumyan deposit (Table 1) consists of over 100 steeply dipping EW- 28 365 oriented veins, which can be traced for several hundred meters along strike, and over a vertical extent 29 30 366 generally between 100 and 300 m. The veins are cut by the late Jurassic-early Cretaceous magmatic 31 32 367 complex, which overlies the middle Jurassic rock complex. Distal propylitic alteration consists of 33 368 chlorite, epidote, carbonate and pyrite. Phyllic alteration with sericite, quartz and pyrite prevails in 34 35 369 proximity to the ore bodies. With decreasing depth, the phyllic alteration grades into an argillic 36 37 370 alteration assemblage including dickite, quartz, pyrite and sericite. East-west-oriented and steeply 38 371 dipping veins consisting of coarse-grained bladed pink alunite, and minor hematite, pyrite and quartz 39 40 372 occur on surface in the northeastern part of the Shahumyan deposit, and alunite, associated with 41 42 373 kaolinite and dickite, replaces plagioclase phenocrysts of the quartz-dacite host rock (Mederer, 2014). 43 374 The coarse-grained bladed alunite yielded a slightly disturbed 40Ar/39Ar plateau age of 156.1 ± 0.8 Ma 44 45 375 for only 40% of the released gas. Such an age is consistent with the local geological setting, but it 46 47 376 would imply ore formation during the late Jurassic (Mederer, 2014; Mederer et al., 2014). Pyrite, 48 377 chalcopyrite, sphalerite, tennantite-tetrahedrite and galena predominate at Shahumyan in a gangue 49 50 378 consisting of early quartz and late stage carbonate. Up to 40 µm-sized inclusions of enargite, digenite, 51 52 379 bornite and chalcocite occur in pyrite. Most of the gold and silver is associated with tellurides 53 380 (Matveev et al., 2006; Mederer et al., 2014), but Achikgiozyan et al. (1987) reported the presence of 54 55 381 native gold. 56 57 58 382 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 12

383 Jurassic geodynamic and metallogenic evolution of the Lesser Caucasus 1 384 Magmatism along the Eurasian margin evolved from tholeiitic to calc-alkaline from the middle 2 3 385 Jurassic to early Cretaceous (Kazmin et al., 1986; Lordkipadnize et al., 1989; Zohrabyan, 2007). 4 5 386 Bonitites were reported locally along the Somkheto-Karabagh belt by Kazmin et al. (1986) and 6 387 Lordkipadnize et al. (1989). Minor and trace element data (Ti, Z) also reveal an evolution from 7 8 388 tholeiitic to transitional compositions during the middle Jurassic to an essentially calc-alkaline 9 10 389 composition during the late Jurassic-early Cretaceous (Zakariadze et al., 1987; Mederer, 2013; Calder, 11 2014). These data document progressive magmatic arc construction along a convergent margin, 12 390 13 391 starting in a nascent, immature suprasubduction environment during the Jurassic and evolving to a 14 15 392 more mature arc environment during the Cretaceous. 16 17 393 If one accepts the interpretations by Galoyan et al. (2009), Rolland et al. (2009b, 2010, 2011) and 18 19 394 Hässig et al. (2013a, b), the Jurassic-Cretaceous ocean immediately adjacent to the west of the 20 21 395 Eurasian margin was a back-arc basin (Fig. 3a). Yilmaz et al. (2000) suggest that the Somkheto- 22 396 Karabagh belt evolved from a middle Jurassic arc setting to a late Jurassic-Cretaceous fore-arc 23 24 397 environment. Rolland et al. (2011) recognize a major regional exhumation episode attributed to a 25 40 39 26 398 subduction geometry steepening at ~166-167 Ma based on Ar/ Ar cooling ages from the northern 27 399 Somkheto-Karabagh belt. The latter interpretation is consistent with Nd and Sr isotope data, which 28 29 400 reveal a larger mantle input in the source regions of the late Jurassic-early Cretaceous magmatic rocks 30 31 401 in comparison to the middle Jurassic rocks, which is attributed to progressive slab roll-back (Mederer 32 402 et al., 2013; Calder, 2014). 33 34 35 403 Based on geochronological data, the Centralni West Cu deposit with an age of 161.8 ± 0.8 Ma 36 37 404 (Mederer, 2014), and the Shamlugh base metal deposit with an upper 155.0 ± 1.0 Ma age limit 38 405 (Calder, 2014) are the oldest ore occurrences in, respectively, the Kapan and the Alaverdi districts 39 40 406 (Fig. 2). In fact, because of the stratigraphic position of the Akhtala deposit within the lowermost 41 42 407 Bajocian magmatic complex (Zohrabyan and Melkonyan, 1999), ore formation may have started prior 43 408 to 155 Ma in the Alaverdi district. It can be concluded, that the earliest ore deposit formation along the 44 45 409 Somkheto-Karabagh belt and the Kapan zone, likely took place along a nascent magmatic arc setting, 46 47 410 rimming a back-arc ocean, broadly coinciding with a major rearrangement of the subduction geometry, 48 411 as the subducting plate was progressively steepening during the middle to late Jurassic transition. 49 50 51 412 In both the Kapan and the Alaverdi districts, there is ample evidence for a seawater environment 52 53 413 during deposition of the middle Jurassic host rocks and during ore formation, including abundant 54 414 hyaloclastite, and subsidiary pillow lava structures in the volcanic and volcanoclastic rocks 55 56 415 interlayered with reef limestone and carbonaceous sandstone in the middle Jurassic sequence at Kapan 57 58 416 (Cholahyan et al., 1972; Achikgiozyan et al., 1987; Mederer et al., 2013). At the Shamlugh deposit, 59 417 the ore-bearing Bajocian keratophyre is overlain by marine sedimentary rocks (Sopko, 1961), and 60 61 62 63 64 65 13

418 sulfide and pumice clasts within shale immediately overlying the ore horizon indicate that 1 419 mineralization was reworked during sedimentation, and that the latter was coeval with the waning 2 3 420 stages of Jurassic volcanism (Calder, 2014). Strontium and sulfur isotopic compositions of, 4 5 421 respectively, carbonates and sulfates support the participation of seawater in the hydrothermal system 6 422 at Shamlugh (Calder, 2014). The same is the case for the Sr isotopic composition of late stage 7 8 423 carbonates in ore deposits of the Kapan district (Mederer, 2013). These features, together with the 9 10 424 hydrothermal alteration including chlorite, carbonate, quartz, epidote, pyrite and sericite, and the Cu- 11 dominant metal association, are consistent with an ore-forming system in a submarine environment 12 425 13 426 during the middle to late Jurassic transition, comparable to volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) type 14 15 427 deposits (Galley et al., 2007). 16 17 428 Middle Jurassic plagiogranite intrusions are recognized along the entire Somkheto-Karabagh belt 18 19 429 (Melkonyan, 1965, 1976; Ghazaryan, 1971), including the Jurassic Haghpat plagiogranite of the 20 21 430 Alaverdi district (Fig. 4). Together with clasts of tonalite from subvertical polymict pebble dikes dated 22 431 at 165.6 ± 1.4 Ma and the presence of gabbro-diorite intersected by drill-holes in the Kapan district 23 24 432 (Mederer et al., 2013), they provide evidence of intrusive activity at depth during Middle Jurassic 25 26 433 nascent arc construction along the Somkheto-Karabagh belt and the Kapan zone. This intrusive 27 434 association together with the tholeiitic to transitional composition of the middle Jurassic volcanic 28 29 435 complex is reminiscent of composite, synvolcanic gabbro-diorite-tonalite clusters underlying eruptive 30 31 436 centers, interpreted as heat engines sustaining hydrothermal systems in VMS districts (Galley, 2003; 32 437 Galley et al., 2007). In addition, the district-wide epidote alteration at the base of the middle Jurassic 33 34 438 complex in both the Alaverdi and the Kapan districts (Naldanbyan, 1968; Cholahyan et al., 1972; 35 36 439 Achikgiozyan et al., 1987) is comparable to semi-conformable epidote-dominated hydrothermal 37 alteration zones also described at depth in many VMS districts, immediately at the top of synvolcanic 38 440 39 441 gabbro-diorite-tonalite intrusions (Galley, 1993; Galley et al., 2007). In brief, the early mineralization 40 41 442 stages at the Centralni West Cu and Shamlugh deposits in or adjacent to a subduction-related, 42 submarine magmatic arc, characterized by a tholeiitic to calc-alkaline evolution at the middle to the 43 443 44 444 late Jurassic is comparable to other typical VMS districts and submarine hydrothermal systems (de 45 46 445 Ronde et al., 2005, 2011; Huston et al., 2011; Hannington et al., 2005). The setting could be analogous 47 48 446 to a fore-arc environment if we accept the interpretation of Yilmaz et al. (2000) for the Somkheto- 49 447 Karabagh belt. Similar fore-arc VMS systems have been described in the Dominican Republic (Torró 50 51 448 et al., 2016), and in the Uralides, where they are defined as Baimak-type ore deposits (Herrington et 52 53 449 al., 2005a,b). 54 55 450 In the Kapan area (Fig. 5), the Centralni East and Shahumyan deposits contain high-sulfidation state 56 57 451 opaque mineral and advanced argillic alteration assemblages, including alunite and enargite, which are 58 452 typically recognized in subaerial epithermal and porphyry settings (e.g., Rye et al., 1992; Einaudi et 59 60 453 al., 2003; Rye, 2005; Simmons et al., 2005). However, the same alteration and opaque mineral 61 62 63 64 65 14

454 associations are also reported in submarine hydrothermal systems and VMS deposits, where they are 1 455 considered as evidence for the involvement of magmatic-hydrothermal sulfur (e.g., de Ronde et al., 2 3 456 2005; 2011; Huston et al., 2011). The questionable ages obtained for the Centralni East (Re-Os pyrite 4 40 39 5 457 isochron age of 144.7 ± 4.2 Ma) and Shahumyan deposits (disturbed Ar/ Ar plateau age of 156.1 ± 6 458 0.8 Ma for alunite) leave the question open as to whether the two deposits are roughly 7 8 459 contemporaneous with the Centralni West deposit or if they represent three, independent pulses of 9 10 460 mineralization between 162 and 145 Ma (Mederer, 2014; Mederer et al., 2014). Because of such 11 uncertainties, the deposits from the Kapan district may represent either (1) coeval hybrid VMS- 12 461 13 462 epithermal-porphyry systems, or (2) juxtaposition of different mineralization styles with different 14 15 463 ages, due to rapid changes in local tectonic, magmatic, sedimentary and ore-forming conditions, as 16 17 464 described in subaqueous metallogenic settings within Pacific magmatic arcs and in Australia 18 465 (Hannington, 1997, 2011; Large et al., 2001). 19 20 21 466 22 467 Late Jurassic to early Cretaceous mature magmatic arc evolution along the Eurasian margin: 23 24 468 Porphyry Cu systems and associated epithermal deposits 25 26 469 The Teghout deposit: porphyry-Cu ore formation in the Alaverdi mining district 27 470 The Teghout porphyry-Cu deposit is a distinct and the youngest deposit of the Alaverdi district (Fig. 28 29 471 4). Teghout has been mined since 2015, and it is spatially associated with the polyphase, calc-alkaline 30 31 472 Koghb-Shnokh intrusion (Fig. 4), which marks the final stage of the late Jurassic magmatic evolution. 32 473 Quartz diorite-tonalite yielded a U-Pb zircon age of 152.87 ± 0.72 Ma (Calder, 2014), and leucogranite 33 34 474 from the same intrusion yielded a Rb-Sr isochron age of 156 ± 3 Ma (Melkonyan and Ghukasian, 35 36 475 2004), confirming earlier geological interpretations (Aslanyan, 1958; Melkonyan, 1976). Re-Os 37 molybdenite dating yielded an age of 145.85 ± 0.59 Ma (Table 2), which coincides with K-Ar ages of 38 476 39 477 145.5 ± 0.5 Ma and 149 ± 3 Ma for muscovite separates from quartz-molybdenite veins (Paronikyan 40 41 478 and Ghukasian, 1974). The tonalite and quartz-diorite porphyry stock-like bodies and dikes, and the 42 sulfide mineralization of the Teghout deposit are structurally controlled by N- to ~NE-oriented faults 43 479 44 480 or zones of deformed rocks. The Koghb-Shnokh intrusion and its country rocks were affected by 45 46 481 initial actinolite-epidote and epidote-chlorite alteration, followed by quartz-sericite alteration and 47 48 482 silicification. The mineralization consists of sulfide stockwork, dissemination and veins. Predominant 49 483 pyrite is accompanied by chalcopyrite and molybdenite, subsidiary sphalerite, galena, chalcocite, 50 51 484 covellite, bornite, and magnetite in a gangue of quartz, anhydrite, carbonate and gypsum (Table 1). 52 53 485 Rare enargite, luzonite, and native gold have also been reported (Amiryan et al., 1987). 54 55 486 Gedabek and adjoining districts: Early Cretaceous, apical porphyry Cu and epithermal systems 56 57 487 Gedabek ore deposit district: Mining in the Gedabek district started about 2000 years ago, with 58 488 industrial mining beginning about 1849 at the Gedabek mine (Fig. 6a). About 56,000 tons of copper 59 60 489 and 134.16 tons of gold-silver doré were produced from 1864 to 1917, when mining activity ceased 61 62 63 64 65 15

490 with the start of the Russian Revolution. Gedabek is the major porphyry-epithermal district of the 1 491 Somkheto-Karabagh belt (Fig. 6a; Babazadeh et al., 1990). The district is characterized by a long 2 3 492 magmatic evolution starting with Bajocian and Bathonian andesitic to rhyolitic volcanic and 4 2 5 493 pyroclastic rocks, and the emplacement of the ~65 km -large Atabek-Slavyan plagiogranite, dated at 6 494 152-172 Ma by K-Ar geochronology (Ismet et al., 2003). Late Jurassic-early Cretaceous diorite and 7 8 495 granodiorite, and subsidiary aplites of the Gedabek intrusion were dated by whole-rock K-Ar 9 10 496 geochronology between 129 and 142 Ma, with one outlier at 150 Ma (Ismet et al., 2003). The Gedabek 11 intrusion is reported as Kimmeridgian on the local maps (Fig. 6a), but an early Cretaceous age for this 12 497 13 498 intrusion is more consistent with the K-Ar ages reported by Ismet et al. (2003). The ore deposits and 14 15 499 prospects of the district are spatially related to the emplacement of quartz-diorite and granodioritic 16 17 500 porphyritic stocks and dikes post-dating the Gedabek intrusion, and the middle Jurassic Atabek- 18 501 Slavyan plagiogranite (Fig. 6a; Babazadeh et al., 1990). The porphyry-Cu Garadagh, Kharkhar, and 19 20 502 Djaygir prospects are located in the northern part of the district, and are spatially associated with the 21 22 503 Atabek-Slavyan massif. This part of the district experienced the most intense uplift of the region 23 504 (Babazadeh et al., 1990). Epithermal deposits and prospects with variable sulfidation state 24 25 505 characteristics are mainly located to the south of the district at Gedabek, Bittibulag, Novogorelovska, 26 27 506 etc. (Fig. 6a). 28 29 507 According to Babazadeh et al. (1990), the ore deposits of the Gedabek district are controlled by a 30 31 508 deep-seated, ~NS-oriented, orogen-transverse arc-shaped fault. The 700 to 800 m-wide stockwork- 32 509 type ore bodies of the porphyry Cu deposits are stretched along the same direction over a distance of 33 34 510 1.5 to 2 km. The major part of mineralization in the porphyry systems is associated with the central 35 36 511 quartz-sericite-pyrite alteration evolving outwards into a quartz-sericite and argillic alteration, and 37 propylitic alteration in the periphery (Table 1). Potassic alteration is only poorly developed in this 38 512 39 513 mining district (Babazadeh et al., 1990). This suggests that the Garadagh, Kharkhar, and Djaygir 40 41 514 prospects represent the apical parts of typical porphyry Cu systems (Sillitoe, 2010). The quartz diorite 42 and granodioritic porphyritic stocks and dikes, associated with the porphyry Cu prospects are also 43 515 44 516 hydrothermally altered and impregnated with sulfides. The highest ore grades are located in the apical 45 46 517 parts of a quartz diorite porphyry intrusion at the Garadagh and Kharkhar prospects. At Kharkhar, 47 48 518 alteration consists essentially of sericite-quartz, local argillic alteration (kaolinite), surrounded by 49 519 propylitic alteration. The main opaque minerals are pyrite and chalcopyrite, and subsidiary 50 51 520 molybdenite, with one molybdenite sample from Kharkhar yielding a Re-Os age of 133.27 ± 0.53 Ma 52 53 521 (Table 2). 54 55 522 Gedabek, Bittibulakh and Novogorelovka are the best described epithermal occurrences (Table 1; Fig. 56 57 523 6a). Bittibulakh is located along a NW-oriented structure at the contact with Bajocian andesite and 58 524 andesitic tuff and the Atabek-Slavyan plagiogranite. The Cu-As-Au mineralization is a 60 m by 50 m- 59 60 525 sized body, including small lenses of enargite and barite surrounded by quartz-pyrite veins and 61 62 63 64 65 16

526 disseminations, and the wall-rock alteration consists of silicification, sericite and kaolinite. 1 527 Novogorelovka is a Cu-Zn stockwork-type NW-oriented ore body, hosted by early Bajocian andesite 2 3 528 and andesitic tuff crosscut by a late Jurassic quartz diorite. The host rocks are silicified, sericitized and 4 5 529 kaolinitized. Gedabek is the best-studied deposit and only operating mine in the district. The ore body 6 530 is a sub-horizontal lens of highly silicified rocks at the contact between middle Jurassic andesitic 7 8 531 volcanoclastic rocks and a late Jurassic granodiorite. Hydrothermal alteration is lithologically 9 10 532 controlled by a subhorizontally bedded volcaniclastic rock sequence. Early low-sulfidation alteration 11 and mineralization includes pervasive silicification, microcrystalline adularia and disseminated pyrite, 12 533 13 534 and is crosscut by argillic alteration, including kaolinite, and stockwork mineralization, with the later 14 15 535 paragenetic assemblages consisting of an intermediate- to high-sulfidation assemblage, including 16 17 536 enargite and covellite. Throughout the paragenetic sequence, sphalerite changes in composition from 18 537 Fe-rich to Fe-poor. Electrum is deposited before the transition towards a late enargite-covellite 19 20 538 assemblage (Hemon et al., 2012; Hemon, 2013). According to Hemon (2013), the alteration 21 22 539 characteristics and the temporal evolution of the hydrothermal system at Gedabek are comparable with 23 540 the Round Mountain deposit, U.S.A. (Sander and Einaudi, 1990). 24 25 26 541 Chovdar and Gosha high-sulfidation epithermal systems, and Dashkesan deposit: The Chovdar 27 542 deposit is located to the northwest of the major Dashkesan deposit (Fig. 2), and mining started in 2014. 28 29 543 The deposit is hosted by middle Jurassic basic to felsic volcanic rocks and tuff (Fig. 6b). Gold 30 31 544 mineralization is associated with subvertical barite-polymetallic veins and with highly silicified 32 545 stratiform horizons, which include occurrences of vuggy silica, and disseminated pyrite and kaolinite. 33 34 546 The silicified rock is highly brecciated in some places. Vuggy silica, with vugs filled with pyrite, 35 36 547 enargite, tetrahedrite-tennantite and kaolinite was encountered during drilling (Table 1). 37 38 548 The major Dashkesan Fe-Co deposit, in proximity to Chovdar, consists of stratiform magnetite- 39 40 549 hematite skarn bodies, crosscut by uneconomic Co-bearing sulfide bodies. The ore bodies are hosted 41 42 550 by late Jurassic sedimentary rocks intruded by early Cretaceous (Neocomian) gabbro and granite of 43 551 the Dashkesan intrusion, which is coeval with the Gedabek intrusion. Late Jurassic volcanic rocks 44 45 552 adjacent to the skarn bodies, at a location named Alunite Dag, are pervasively altered to alunite, with 46 47 553 associated kaolinite, sericite and silicification, grading laterally into hematite alteration (Kashkai, 48 554 1965; Baskov, 2012). 49 50 51 555 The Gosha prospect, northwest of the Gedabek district (Fig. 2), is mainly hosted by Bajocian andesitic 52 53 556 pyroclastic rocks, intruded by small dioritic intrusions. Mineralization is controlled by steeply dipping 54 557 EW- and NS-oriented faults filled with clay minerals (kaolinite) and disseminations and small clusters 55 56 558 of pyrite (Fig. 6c). The host rock is locally brecciated. Gold is associated with pyrite and tellurides 57 58 559 along the faults and veins. The host rocks are silicified, and contain kaolinite and disseminated pyrite 59 560 (Table 1). 60 61 62 63 64 65 17

561 The Mehmana mining district of the sourthernmost Somkheto-Kabaragh belt 1 562 The Mehmana district is located in the southeasternmost part of the Somkheto-Karabagh belt (Fig. 2), 2 3 563 and includes the Drmbon/Gizilbulag Cu-Au deposit, the Mehmana Pb-Zn deposit and several other 4 5 564 occurrences are described as porphyry Cu type. The main host rocks are Bajocian and Bathonian 6 565 volcanic and volcano-sedimentary rocks, covered by late Jurassic volcanic breccia and sedimentary 7 8 566 rocks (Vardanyan, 2008; Mederer et al., 2014). Steeply E-dipping andesite and dacite dikes crosscut 9 10 567 the middle and late Jurassic volcanic rocks. The major granitic to tonalitic Mehmana intrusion from 11 the western part of the district has been dated at 154-147 Ma by U-Pb zircon geochronology (Galoyan 12 568 13 569 et al., 2013), and 131-152 Ma ages were obtained by K-Ar dating of quartz diorite and granodiorite 14 15 570 from the same intrusion (Ismet et al., 2003). 16 17 571 At Drmbon/Gizilbulag, the economic mineralization consists of three lens-shaped lithologically 18 19 572 controlled ore bodies, which grade downwards into brecciated host rock with stockwork and 20 21 573 disseminated mineralization. The ore bodies are hosted by late Bajocian andesite and dacite, and are 22 574 capped by a quartz dacite sill, which is interpreted to have been a major fluid barrier during ore- 23 24 575 formation by Vardanyan and Zohrabyan (2008). The main opaque minerals are pyrite, chalcopyrite, 25 26 576 galena and gold in a quartz matrix, followed by sphalerite and chalcopyrite in a carbonate matrix 27 577 (Table 1). In proximity to the ore deposit, the host rocks are altered to sericite and abundant hematite, 28 29 578 and chlorite and carbonate replace mafic minerals. Pre- to syn- mineralization polymict matrix- 30 31 579 supported pebble dikes crosscut late Jurassic agglomerates, and contain blocks of Oxfordian 32 580 limestone. Therefore, the mineralization is interpreted as syn-to post-Oxfordian in age (Vardanyan, 33 34 581 2008; Mederer et al., 2014). 35 36 37 582 38 583 Porphyry-Cu and epithermal ore deposits: mature stage of the Somkheto-Karabagh magmatic belt 39 40 584 The Teghout deposit is the oldest, typical stockwork-style porphyry Cu system along the Somkheto- 41 42 585 Karabagh belt, with an age of 145.85 ± 0.59 Ma (Table 2). This indicates that the switch from a 43 586 submarine magmatic-hyrothermal or VMS mineralization style to typical porphyry ore-forming 44 45 587 systems occurred within 10 m.y. or less in the Alaverdi district (Fig. 4). The next significant porphyry- 46 47 588 epithermal event occurred at about 133 Ma in the central Somkheto-Karabagh belt at the Gedabek 48 589 district (Fig. 6a). These classical epithermal-porphyry centers were clearly formed during the 49 50 590 subduction evolution of the Somkheto-Karabagh belt (e.g. Fig. 3a). They document that this belt had 51 52 591 evolved towards a mature island-arc stage at the Jurassic-Cretaceous transition and during the early 53 592 Cretaceous, once the arc was sufficiently thickened, and when sufficient amounts of fertile magmas 54 55 593 were generated over time by MASH processes, as is observed for typical porphyry districts (Richards, 56 57 594 2003; Cooke et al., 2005; Sillitoe, 2010; Hou et al., 2011; Chiaradia, 2014). 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 18

595 The porphyry Cu and high-sulfidation epithermal ore deposit association of the Gedabek district, with 1 596 the adjoining Gosha prospect and Chovdar deposit (Fig. 6), is comparable to the Panagyurishte district 2 3 597 in Bulgaria, where several paired porphyry-epithermal systems are present (Moritz et al., 2004; Von 4 5 598 Quadt et al., 2005; Chambefort et al., 2007; Kouzmanov et al., 2009). Babazadeh et al. (1990) stated 6 599 that the Gedabek district experienced intense uplift during the early Cretaceous. This interpretation is 7 8 600 shared by Sosson et al. (2010), who describe a major erosion event and unroofing of the plutons of the 9 10 601 magmatic arc during the early Cretaceous. Sosson et al. (2010) attributed the uplift to subduction of an 11 oceanic plateau or an intra-oceanic spreading ridge. Given such an uplift and denudation setting, it 12 602 13 603 remains open to question how the epithermal deposits and prospects were preserved in the Gedabek 14 15 604 district. Indeed, epithermal ore deposits, which form within the uppermost part of the crust, are 16 17 605 particularly vulnerable to rapid erosion (Hedenquist et al., 2000; Simmons et al., 2005). Concealement 18 606 by basin sedimentation or tectonic processes following shortly ore formation are typically required to 19 20 607 preserve old epithermal deposits (e.g., Masterman et al., 2002; Kesler et al., 2004; Chambefort and 21 22 608 Moritz, 2006). Further studies are necessary to understand, which processes can explain the 23 609 preservation of epithermal deposits and prospects in the Gedabek district. 24 25 26 610 Interpretation of the ore deposits in the Mehmana district (Fig. 2) remains more equivocal, especially 27 611 to understand whether the deposits were formed in subaqueous or subaerial environments. Because of 28 29 612 the poor age constraints, the ore deposits and prospects from the Mehmana district could be coeval 30 31 613 with the early mineralization stages of the Kapan and Alaverdi districts (Mederer et al., 2014). On the 32 614 other hand, younger ages are very likely, based on the reported presence of the Kashen porphyry Cu 33 34 615 and epithermal style mineralization in the Mehmana district (Mederer et al., 2014), and therefore ore 35 36 616 formation in this district could be roughly contemporaneous with porphyry and epithermal systems at 37 617 Teghout or Gedabek. Clearly, further comprehensive studies are necessary to verify this. 38 39 40 618 Local hydrothermal alteration and sulfide veining occur within the late Jurassic-early Cretaceous and 41 42 619 Paleogene magmatic complexes of the Kapan block, suggesting the presence of porphyry-type ore- 43 620 forming systems, but their age remains uncertain. They include polymetallic veins at Bartsravan (Fig. 44 45 621 5) hosted by volcanic and subvolcanic rocks (Zohrabyan et al., 2003), and stockwork-type Cu-Au-Mo 46 47 622 mineralization at Shikahogh (Fig. 5), at the outer contact of an early Cretaceous intrusion within late 48 623 Jurassic and early Cretaceous rocks (Achikgiozyan et al., 1987). 49 50 51 624 52 53 54 625 Toukhmanouk precious and base metal prospect – an anomaly? 55 626 The Toukhmanouk prospect is located within the Tsaghkuniats massif, belonging to the easternmost 56 57 627 part of the Gondwana-derived South Armenian block (Fig. 2; Shengelia et al., 2006; Hässig et al., 58 59 628 2015), in an area with abundant prospects and mines, including the Meghradzor deposit and the 60 629 Hanqavan prospect (Fig. 7). Eocene to Holocene sedimentary and magmatic rocks outcrop in the 61 62 63 64 65 19

630 eastern downthrown block along the Marmarik fault, and the western uplifted block exposes Jurassic 1 631 intrusions, and metasedimentary and metamorphic basement rocks. Toukhmanouk consists of ~NE- 2 3 632 oriented, subvertical quartz-carbonate-sulfide vein swarms crosscutting Jurassic and Cretaceous 4 5 633 volcanic and intrusive rocks (Wheatley and Acheson, 2011), as well as trondhjemite interpreted as 6 634 Proterozoic in age. The vein corridors are typically 150 to 200 m-wide, and can be traced along strike 7 8 635 for more than 1 km. The main sulfides are sphalerite, galena, pyrite and arsenopyrite, and the valuable 9 10 636 commodities are gold and silver (Table 1). Molybdenite was dated at 146.14 ± 0.59 Ma by Re-Os 11 geochronology (Table 2). Although the latter Re-Os age ect coincides with the one of the Teghout 12 637 13 638 deposit at 145.85 ± 0.59 Ma (Table 2), it cannot be linked to the long-lasting Jurassic-Cretaceous east- 14 15 639 verging subduction underneath the Somkheto-Karabagh arc, because Toukhmanouk lies within the 16 17 640 South Armenian block, to the west of the Sevan-Akera suture zone, that is on the opposite side of the 18 641 active Eurasian margin to which the porphyry deposits at Teghout and Gedabek are related to (Fig. 2). 19 20 642 However, Melkonyan et al. (2000) and Hässig et al. (2015) suggested that a S- to SW-verging 21 22 643 Jurassic-early Cretaceous subduction zone was active along the eastern margin of the South Armenian 23 644 block (Fig. 3a). Therefore, the Toukhmanouk ore-forming system maybe a product of subduction 24 25 645 beneath the South Armenian block, if we accept such a geodynamic interpretation. 26 27 646 28 29 647 The Bolnisi mining district, Artvin-Bolnisi zone: epithermal and transitional mineralization 30 31 648 systems during late Cretaceous arc evolution along the Eurasian margin 32 649 The late Cretaceous Bolnisi district (~87-71 Ma) is the last major metallogenic event before the South 33 34 650 Armenian block was accreted with the Eurasian margin (Fig. 3b). It documents hinterland migration of 35 36 651 the active magmatic arc, which Rolland et al. (2011) attribute to a flatter geometry of the subducting 37 oceanic slab. This resulted in uplift of the arc and a compressional setting during the late Cretaceous 38 652 39 653 (Rolland et al., 2011). 40 41 42 654 Mining in the Bolnisi district started during the Bronze age according to archaeological investigations 43 655 (Hauptmann and Klein, 2009), and the Sakdrisi deposit is reported as the world’s oldest gold mine 44 45 656 (Feresin, 2007; Stöllner et al., 2014). The ore deposits and prospects of the Bolnisi mining district are 46 47 657 hosted by late Cretaceous rocks emplaced in a depression between the two uplifted Khrami and Loki 48 658 basement blocks (Fig. 8), composed of Neoproterozoic to Palaeozoic metamorphic and intrusive 49 50 659 rocks, and covered by early Jurassic to early Cretaceous volcanic and sedimentary sequences 51 52 660 (Zakariadze et al., 2007; Adamia et al., 2011). The late Cretaceous host rocks are subdivided into six 53 661 volcanogenic suites, generally interpreted to be Cenomanian to Campanian in age, and overlain by 54 55 662 Maastrichtian limestone and marl (Gambashidze, 1984; Apkhazava, 1988; Gugushvili et al., 2014; 56 57 663 Popkhadze et al., 2014). The arc-related, calc-alkaline volcanic rocks include abundant pyroclastic 58 664 rocks, lava, extrusive domes and sub-volcanic intrusions and dikes, with a predominantly rhyolitic, 59 60 665 dacitic, and andesitic composition, except one Santonian suite (Tanzia) and one late Campanian suite 61 62 63 64 65 20

666 (Shorsholeti), which are dominantly basaltic, and partly alkaline in composition (Lordkipnadze et al., 1 667 1989; Gugushvili et al., 2014; Popkhadze et al., 2014). The late Cretaceous volcanic rocks were 2 3 668 deposited in a shallow water environment (Adamia et al., 2011). 4 5 6 669 Gugushvili (2004), and Gugushvili et al. (2014) recognized a stratigraphic control on the distribution 7 670 of ore deposits and prospects in the Bolnisi district. The presently producing Madneuli deposit and the 8 9 671 Tsiteli Sopeli, Kvemo Bolnisi and David Gareji prospects from the eastern part of the district (Fig. 8) 10 11 672 are hosted by the stratigraphically older volcanic and volcano-sedimentary rocks of the Mashavera 12 673 suite interpreted as late Turonian to early Santonian in age. A second group of ore occurrences, 13 14 674 including the presently producing Sakdrisi deposit, and the Darbazi, Imedi, Beqtakari, Bnelikhevi and 15 16 675 Samgreti prospects, in the western district (Fig. 8), are hosted by volcanic and volcano-sedimentary 17 676 rocks of a stratigraphically younger suite named Gasandami suite, and interpreted as Campanian in 18 19 677 age. A granodiorite porphyry to quartz diorite porphyry intrusion crosscut by drilling at a depth of 20 21 678 800-900 m beneath the Madneuli deposit hosted by the Mashavera suite was dated by whole-rock K- 22 679 Ar geochronology at 88-89 Ma (Rubinstein et al., 1983; Gugushvili and Omiadze, 1988), and rhyolite 23 24 680 domes from the same area yielded whole-rock K-Ar ages of 84-85 Ma (Gugushvili, 2004). Moritz et 25 26 681 al. (2012) reported U-Pb zircon ages of 86.6 and 87.1 Ma for dikes crosscutting the Mashavera unit. 27 682 All ages are consistent with Coniacian to Santonian stratigraphic ages of the Mashavera suite. 28 29 683 Pyroclastic rocks at Sakdrisi and rhyolite domes from the Sakdrisi and Beqtakari areas (Fig. 8) yielded 30 31 684 K-Ar ages of 77.6 Ma and 71-72 Ma, respectively (Gugushvili, 2004), which are consistent with the 32 685 Campanian stratigraphic age of the Gansandami host rock unit. Nannoplankton determinations by 33 34 686 Migineishvili and Gavtadze (2010) of samples from the Mashavera suite suggest a younger 35 36 687 Campanian age, which question the above-mentioned Coniacian to Santonian radiometric ages. 37 38 688 39 40 689 The Madneuli polymetallic deposit 41 42 690 The Madneuli open pit exposes different styles of mineralization. One mineralization style consists of 43 691 a deep, vertical stockwork and breccia composed of, respectively, veins and matrix with a quartz- 44 45 692 pyrite-chalcopyrite assemblage with subsidiary enargite, covellite and sphalerite, passing upwards into 46 47 693 quartz-barite-sphalerite-galena-pyrite subvertical veins, and into stratiform massive sulfide ore bodies 48 694 with sphalerite, galena, chalcopyrite, pyrite and tennantite-tetrahedrite, and sandstone lenses cemented 49 50 695 by barite in the uppermost levels (Gugushvili et al., 2001; Migineishvili, 2002, 2005; Gialli et al., 51 52 696 2012; Gialli, 2013). The copper ore was mined at the beginning at Madneuli and is now nearly 53 697 exhausted. The immediate host rocks of the stockwork and vein mineralization are silificied and pass 54 55 698 laterally into a quartz-sericite-pyrite zone, followed by a distal quartz-chlorite-sericite envelope. The 56 57 699 hanging wall on top of the stratiform sulfide and barite lenses is dominated by chlorite alteration 58 700 (Gialli et al., 2012; Gialli, 2013). Migineishvili (2002, 2005) reported alunite, kaolinite, pyrophyllite 59 60 701 and jarosite in the altered rocks from the shallow part of the deposit. Little et al. (2007) described 61 62 63 64 65 21

702 fossils from the Madneuli deposit interpreted as polychaete worm tubes, which belong to fauna 1 703 typically found in submarine hydrothermal vents. A second style of mineralization is a steep zone 2 3 704 consisting of a quartz-chalcedony vein network containing pyrite, hematite, gold, tellurides, and 4 5 705 subsidiary chalcopyrite surrounded by a quartz-chlorite-pyrite alteration zone (Azhgirey and Berman, 6 706 1984; Geleishvili, 1989; Gialli et al., 2012; Gialli, 2013). This second mineralization type is presently 7 8 707 mined at Madneuli, and includes the economic gold reserves of the deposit (Gugushvili, 2004; 9 10 708 Migineishvili, 2005) with an average Au content of 1.3 ppm in 30 Mt of ore. The host-rock volcano- 11 sedimentary successions were deposited under alternating subaqueous and subaerial conditions related 12 709 13 710 to intermittent uplift and subsidence phases (Gugushvili et al., 2001, 2014; Migineishvili, 2002, 2005). 14 15 711 Detailed field and petrographic studies by Popkhadze et al. (2014) support the subaqueous origin of 16 17 712 the majority of the host rocks, including thick pyroclastic sequences. Although there are divergences 18 713 about details, the proposed genetic models are consistent with a submarine magmatic-hydrothermal 19 20 714 system, similar to a transitional VMS-epithermal setting with a potential porphyry system at depth 21 22 715 (Gugushvili et al., 2001, 2014; Migineishvili, 2002, 2005; Gialli et al., 2012; Gialli, 2013). A vertical 23 716 distribution of mineralization styles similar to the one of Madneuli is recognized in other prospects 24 25 717 and deposits of the Bolnisi district, including Sakdrisi, Kvemo Bolnisi and David Gareji (Fig. 8), with 26 27 718 copper-rich ore bodies at depth grading into sphalerite, galena, barite and gold-bearing mineralization 28 719 in the shallower parts of the mineralized systems (Gugushvili et al., 2001, 2014; Gugushvili, 2004). 29 30 31 720 32 721 The Sakdrisi epithermal deposit 33 34 722 The Sakdrisi deposit (Fig. 8) is part of a ~2 km-long, NE-trending range, which includes four other 35 36 723 prospects. It is hosted by a subhorizontal sequence of rhyodacitic, dacitic, and andesitic volcanic and 37 volcanoclastic rocks, which have been silicified down to a depth of 100-150 m below surface, locally 38 724 39 725 the wallrock alteration consists of carbonates and clay minerals (illite), and epidote is encountered 40 41 726 locally at depth, about 150-200 m below surface (Gugushvili, 2004; Gugushvili et al., 2014). 42 Subvertical gold-bearing quartz-barite zones predominate in the SW-part of the Sakdrisi trend with 43 727 44 728 gold grades ranging between 1.4 and 3 ppm, where open pit mining is currently carried out, and 45 46 729 subvertical quartz-chalcedony zones dominate in the NE-part (Gugushvili, 2004; Gugushvili et al., 47 48 730 2014), where gold was mined during the Bronze age (Hauptmann and Klein, 2009; Stöllner et al., 49 731 2014). 50 51 52 732 53 733 The Beqtakari epithermal prospect 54 55 734 The Beqtakari gold and base metal prospect (Fig. 8) is hosted by felsic to intermediate volcanic rocks 56 57 735 of the Gansadami formation, belonging to the upper stratigraphic sequence of the Bolnisi district. It 58 736 consists of two distinct ore zones: (1) one silicified zone exposed on surface with local barite and 59 60 737 enriched in gold devoid of base metals, and (2) a second zone crosscut by drilling, consisting of a 61 62 63 64 65 22

738 lithologically-controlled, folded breccia sequence mineralized with base and precious metals. The 1 739 main opaque minerals in the later ore zone are sphalerite, chalcopyrite, pyrite, barite, and subsidiary 2 3 740 galena and tennantite-tetrahedrite, cementing the clasts of the breccia. Hydrothermal alteration along 4 5 741 the ore bodies consists of interlayered illite/smectite, quartz, calcite and monmorillonite, grading out 6 742 into distal propylitic alteration (Lavoie, 2015; Lavoie et al., 2015). 7 8 9 743 10 11 744 Collision and suture zones between Eurasia and Gondwana-derived terranes: 12 745 Major controls on Cenozoic porphyry and epithermal deposits 13 14 746 Abundant Cenozoic magmatic activity, including the Dalidag, Pambak, Meghri-Ordubad and 15 16 747 Bargushat plutons (Fig. 2), can be traced along the collision and suture zones, which outline the 17 748 accretionary boundary between the Gondwana-derived South Armenian block and the Jurassic- 18 19 749 Cretaceous limit of the Eurasian margin (Figs 1, 2 and 3). This major collision zone, which partly 20 21 750 coincides with the Miskhan-Zangezur or Tsaghqunk-Zangezur zone (e.g. Khain, 1975; Gamkrelidze, 22 751 1986; Melkonyan et al., 2000; Saintot et al., 2006) and the regional dextral active Pambak-Sevan- 23 24 752 Sunik fault system (Fig. 2; Philip et al., 2001; Karakhanian et al., 2004), is the location of several 25 26 753 significant mining districts, which are products of the complex Cenozoic subduction to collision/post- 27 754 collision evolution during final convergence of Arabia and Eurasia. Most of this important collision 28 29 755 and metallogenic zone is concealed beneath the widespread blanket of Miocene to Pleistocene 30 31 756 sedimentary and volcanic rocks (Figs 1 and 2), but certainly constitutes an important exploration target 32 757 for future discoveries. 33 34 35 758 36 37 759 The Meghri-Ordubad district: Neotethys subduction to post-collision metallogenic evolution 38 760 The Meghri-Ordubad district lies in the Zangezur-Ordubad region, astride the territories of southern 39 40 761 Armenia and Nakhitchevan, and extends southwards into Iran (Fig. 5). Its eastern boundary is the NW- 41 42 762 oriented, dextral strike-slip Khustup-Giratakh fault, which constitutes the major tectonic boundary 43 763 between the Kapan block of the Eurasian margin and the Gondwana-derived South Armenian block 44 45 764 (Fig. 5). The composite Meghri-Ordubad and Bargushat plutons and the associated porphyry Cu-Mo 46 47 765 and epithermal deposits and prospects are mainly located in the central N-trending, uplifted Zangezur 48 766 block, which is separated from the downthrown western Nakhitchevan block by the NW-oriented 49 50 767 dextral strike-slip Ordubad-Salvard fault (Fig. 5; Tayan et al., 1976). The central, NS-oriented 3.5 to 4 51 52 768 km-wide Meghri-Tey graben-synclinal structure is the major ore deposit control (Tayan et al., 1976, 53 769 2005; Hovakimyan et al., 2015). With an area of about 1400 km2, the composite Meghri-Ordubad and 54 55 770 Bargushat intrusions form the largest single pluton cluster of the Lesser Caucasus. The Meghri- 56 57 771 Ordubad and Bargushat plutons intrude Devonian to Paleocene sedimentary basement and cover rocks 58 772 of the South Armenian block (Belov, 1968; Djrbashyan et al., 1976; Tayan et al., 1976). 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 23

773 Previous Rb-Sr isochron (Melkonyan et al., 2008, 2010), whole-rock K-Ar dating (Ghukasian et al., 1 2 774 2006), and recent U-Pb zircon ages combined with lithogeochemical data (Moritz et al., in press) have 3 775 allowed us to subdivide the pluton assembly into two broad stages. Initial normal arc, calc-alkaline to 4 5 776 high-K calc-alkaline magmatism, broadly between ~50 and ~40 Ma, resulted in the emplacement of 6 777 gabbroic and dioritic to granodioritic-granitic intrusions, coeval with extensive, Eocene subduction- 7 8 778 related arc volcanism in Iran (e.g., Vincent et al., 2005; Allen and Armstrong, 2008; Ballato et al., 9 10 779 2011; Verdel et al., 2011). The subsequent Oligocene to Mio-Pliocene magmatic evolution coincided 11 780 with the 40 to 25 Ma-old Arabian-Eurasian collision to post-collision tectonic evolution of the 12 13 781 Caucasian-Zagros region (e.g., Vincent et al., 2005; Allen and Armstrong, 2008; Agard et al., 2011; 14 782 Ballato et al., 2011; Verdel et al., 2011, McQuarrie and van Hinsberger, 2013). Early Oligocene high- 15 16 783 K calc-alkaline to shoshonitic magmatism between ~38 and ~28 Ma produced gabbroic, 17 18 784 gabbrodioritic, dioritic to monzonitic rocks, and late Oligocene to Miocene adakitic, high-K calc- 19 785 alkaline magmatism between ~27 and ~21 Ma resulted in the emplacement of granite, granodiorite and 20 21 786 quartz-monzonite (Moritz et al., in press; Rezeau et al., 2015). 22 23 787 The major ore deposits and prospects of the Zangezur-Ordubad region are porphyry Cu-Mo deposits 24 25 788 (Table 1), and subsidiary epithermal prospects (Table 1) of lesser economic interest hosted by volcanic 26 789 and plutonic rocks (Karamyan, 1978; Amiryan, 1984; Babazadeh et al., 1990; Moritz et al., in press). 27 28 790 The Cenozoic porphyry deposits of the Zangezur-Ordubad region are significantly enriched in Mo 29 30 791 with respect to the older late Jurassic-early Cretaceous porphyry deposits emplaced along the 31 792 Somkheto-Karabagh magmatic arc at Teghout and in the Gedabek district (Karamyan, 1978; 32 33 793 Babazadeh et al., 1990). Re-Os molybdenite dating (Table 2) reveals two main porphyry events 34 794 (Moritz et al., in press). The first porphyry Cu-Mo event is associated with Eocene subduction-related 35 36 795 magmatism, and includes the Agarak deposit (44.2 ± 0.2 Ma), and the Hankasar (43.07 ± 0.18 and 37 38 796 43.14 ± 0.17 Ma), Aygedzor (42.62 ± 0.17 and 43.19 ± 0.17 Ma) and Dastakert prospects (40.22 ± 39 797 0.16 to 39.97 ± 0.16 Ma; Table 2; Fig. 5). One skarn at a contact with an Eocene intrusion at Qefashen 40 41 798 yielded a Re-Os molybdenite age of 44.70 ± 0.18 Ma (Table 2). The second event is late Oligocene in 42 799 age, coeval with collision to post-collision magmatism, and includes the producing world-class 43 44 800 Kadjaran deposit (27.2 ± 0.1 to 26.43 ± 0.11 Ma), and the past producing Paragachay deposit (26.78 ± 45 0.11 Ma; Fig. 5). According to K-Ar ages published by Bagdasaryan et al. (1969), epithermal 46 801 47 802 mineralization is associated with both Eocene and Oligocene magmatic activity, at 37.5 ± 0.5 and 38.0 48 49 803 ± 2.5 Ma at the Tey-Lichkvaz gold prospect, and at 24 ± 1 Ma at the Atkis polymetallic prospect near 50 804 Kadjaran (Fig. 5). One molybdenite from an aplite in the Kadjaran area yielded a Re-Os age of 22.87 ± 51 52 805 0.09 Ma (Table 2). Together with the K-Ar age at Atkis, it suggests the presence of a third 53 806 mineralizing event at the Oligocene-Miocene transition, which is supported by the epithermal 54 55 807 overprint observed at the Kadjaran deposit (Hovakimyan et al., 2015). Moritz et al. (in press) 56 57 808 concluded that Oligo-Miocene collision to post-collision magmatism and porphyry ore deposit 58 809 formation were linked to asthenospheric upwelling along translithospheric, transpressional regional 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 24

810 faults between the Gondwana-derived South Armenian block and the Kapan block, resulting in 1 2 811 decompression melting of lithospheric mantle, metasomatised during Eocene subduction. 3 4 812 The evolution and setting of the Zangezur-Ordubad region of the Lesser Caucasus is comparable to the 5 6 813 Himalayan geodynamic environment along the Asian segment of the Tethyan belt, where protracted 7 814 Mesozoic to Cenozoic magmatism also resulted in the emplacement of successive generations of 8 9 815 subduction-related and collision to post-collision porphyry Cu-Mo deposits, with some of the later 10 11 816 being associated with large-scale, regional strike-slip faults (Hou et al., 2003, 2011, 2015). 12 13 817 14 818 Zod/Sotk: An ophiolite-hosted low-sulfidation epithermal system 15 16 819 The Zod/Sotk gold deposit is hosted by the Jurassic-Cretaceous Sevan-Akera ophiolite complex (Fig. 17 18 820 2; Galoyan et al., 2009; Rolland et al., 2009b, 2010). The deposit is located at the intersection of the 19 821 ophiolite belt with a ~N-oriented regional fault (Konstantinov and Grushin, 1970; Levitan, 2008), 20 21 822 immediately to the NE of the Tsaghkunk-Zangezur (or Miskhan-Zangezur) tectonic zone (Kozerenko, 22 23 823 2004), which borders the easternmost part of the South Armenian block (Khain, 1975; Gamkrelidze, 24 824 1986; Saintot et al., 2006). The ophiolite complex is intruded by stocks and ~NS- and ~EW-oriented 25 26 825 dikes of quartz diorite, syenite-diorite and porphyritic rhyolite (Konstantinov and Grushin, 1970; 27 28 826 Kozerenko, 2004; Levitan, 2008; Konstantinov et al., 2010). 29 30 827 The gold mineralization is controlled by EW- and NW-oriented structures, along which gabbro 31 32 828 intrusions are affected by quartz-talc-carbonate alteration, and by the contact with serpentinized 33 34 829 peridotite. The main ore bodies are 30 steeply dipping, mainly EW-oriented subparallel zones, 35 830 including quartz veins with sulfide lenses, veinlet zones in quartz porphyry dikes, and quartz vein 36 37 831 networks with disseminated sulfides (Melikyan, 1976; Amiryan, 1984; Kozerenko, 2004; Levitan, 38 39 832 2008). The six largest ore bodies are 10 to 40 m thick and constitute ~80% of the resources (Levitan, 40 833 2008). A pre-mineralization carbonate-talc alteration with subsidiary quartz and disseminated pyrite is 41 42 834 comparable to listwaenite alteration (Spiridonov, 1991). An overprinting ore-related alteration stage 43 44 835 consists of intense silicification, and sericite and pyrite (Kozerenko, 2004; Levitan, 2008). The 45 836 complex mineralogical composition of the deposit is the result of several subsequent stages, with pre- 46 47 837 ore quartz-chalcedony-pyrite, followed by a quartz-pyrite-marcasite-arsenopyrite-sphalerite 48 49 838 assemblage containing gold, tellurides, sulfosalts and sulfoarsenides (Table 1). Late and post-ore 50 839 mineral assemblages include quartz, stibnite, marcasite, and carbonate (including rhodochrosite). 51 52 840 Realgar and orpiment have also been reported by Amiryan (1984), Kozerenko (2004), Levitan (2008) 53 54 841 and Konstantinov et al. (2010). The host rock, alteration, gangue and ore mineral characteristics of the 55 842 Zod/Sotk deposit are comparable to the McLaughlin low sulfidation deposit located in the northern 56 57 843 Coast Range of California, U.S.A. (Sherlock et al., 1995). 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 25

844 All authors agree that dikes and stocks were overprinted by hydrothermal alteration during 1 845 mineralization. The felsic intrusions are variably interpreted as late Eocene (Konstantinov and 2 3 846 Grushin, 1970), Oligocene to early Miocene (Kozerenko, 2004), or Miocene (Levitan, 2008). This 4 5 847 explains why mineralization is broadly interpreted as Oligocene to Miocene in age. However, such 6 848 Neogene ages are at variance with respect to the K-Ar whole rock alteration age of 43 ± 1.5 Ma 7 8 849 reported by Bagdasaryan et al. (1969). This leaves the interpretation open whether the formation of the 9 10 850 Zod/Sotk deposit coincides with Eocene magmatism or is a product of Neogene collision to post- 11 851 collision tectonic and magmatic evolution along the Lesser Caucasus. 12 13 14 852 15 16 853 The Amulsar prospect: A major new gold discovery in the Lesser Caucasus 17 854 The precious metal Amulsar prospect (Fig. 2; Table 1) is hosted by late Eocene to early Oligocene 18 19 855 volcano-sedimentary rocks in southern Armenia (Lydian International, 2016). The host rocks consist 20 21 856 of multiple layers of volcanogenic conglomerate and breccia, fining upward into volcanogenic and 22 857 marly mudstone, and local limestone. Andesitic and dacitic volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks are 23 24 858 present in the lower stratigraphic units. Small plutons and subvolcanic intrusions are located to the 25 26 859 west of the prospect, and contain sub-economic galena-chalcopyrite veins. There is both a marked 27 860 lithological and a structural control on mineralization. Gold and silver mineralization is hosted by 28 29 861 silicified volcanic-sedimentary rocks interlayered with porphyritic andesite, interpreted as sills 30 31 862 affected by argillic alteration. Different structures were identified, which explain the final anatomy of 32 863 the prospect. Several thrusts produced a large dissected fault-fold structure. The main ore-controlling 33 34 864 structure consists of a highly, and multiply folded central zone, where precious metal mineralization is 35 36 865 associated with small-scale and variably oriented accommodation faults and fractures. Late oblique 37 866 normal faults have segmented the ore prospect (Lydian International, 2016). 38 39 40 867 The mineralization consists of gold and hematite with silica within fractures, and breccia zones. Early 41 42 868 alteration includes silicification and argillic alteration with subsidiary alunite, and strong silica- 43 869 hematite alteration is coeval with gold introduction. The Amulsar prospect has typical high- to 44 45 870 intermediate-sulfidation epithermal characteristics (argillic alteration, presence of alunite). Local 46 47 871 intrusions were dated at 33-34 Ma by K-Ar by Baghdasaryan and Ghukasian (1985), which suggests 48 872 that the epithermal system may have formed during the Neogene, and may have been associated with 49 50 873 the collision to post-collision evolution of the Lesser Caucasus. 51 52 53 874 54 875 The Meghradzor-Hanqavan ore cluster: An equivalent of the Meghri-Ordubad district? 55 56 876 This mining district occurs along the major NW-oriented and NE-dipping Marmarik fault, which 57 58 877 belongs to the northern extension of the regional Tsaghkunk-Zangezur (or Miskhan-Zangezur) 59 878 tectonic zone, and the dextral Pambak-Sevan-Sunik fault system (Fig. 2). Eocene to Holocene 60 61 62 63 64 65 26

879 sedimentary and magmatic rocks outcrop in the eastern downthrown block along the Marmarik fault 1 880 (Fig. 7), and the western uplifted block exposes the Jurassic intrusions, and basement rocks of the 2 3 881 Tsaghkuniats massif (Shengelia et al., 2006; Hässig et al., 2015). 4 5 6 882 Meghradzor epithermal deposit: The Meghradzor deposit occurs within the vicinity of the major 7 883 Eocene Pambak nepheline-bearing syenite (Fig. 7), and is hosted by middle Eocene andesite, tuff and 8 9 884 tuff breccia intruded by post-late Eocene granite, granodiorite and alkaline syenite. The deposit was 10 11 885 dated at 41.5 ± 1.0 Ma by K-Ar on sericite in altered host rocks (Bagdasaryan et al., 1969). It is a 12 886 typical low-sulfidation epithermal system with various sulfides, tellurides and native gold in ~EW- 13 14 887 oriented quartz-chalcedony-carbonate-sericite veins, and breccia zones (Table 1). The host rocks were 15 16 888 silicified, and affected by sericite, pyrite and argillic alteration (Amiryan and Karapetyan, 1964). 17 18 889 Hanqavan Cu-Mo prospect: The Hanqavan prospect (Fig. 7) consists of a porphyry Cu-Mo stockwork 19 20 890 hosted by a tonalite crosscut by quartz diorite and granodioritic dikes, which yielded a 33.3 ± 3 Ma 21 22 891 age by whole rock K-Ar dating (Bagdasaryan et al., 1969). Re-Os molybdenite dating revealed an age 23 892 of 29.34 ± 0.12 Ma for the porphyry Cu-Mo mineralization (Table 2). The mineralization contains 24 25 893 various sulfides, tellurides and native gold, and is controlled by NE- and EW-oriented faults (Table 1). 26 27 28 894 The Eocene and Oligocene ages for the ore-forming events within this district are reminiscent of the 29 895 different ore-forming pulses recognized in the Meghri-Ordubad mining district of the southernmost 30 31 896 Lesser Caucasus (Fig. 2; Moritz et al., in press). It is likely, that the metal endowment of the 32 33 897 Meghradzor-Hanqavan district is the result of repeated ore formation events controlled by the same 34 898 major tectonic zone separating the Eurasian margin from the Gondwana-derived South Armenian 35 36 899 block, extending from the southern to northern Lesser Caucasus, broadly coinciding with the Pambak- 37 38 900 Sevan-Sunik fault zone (Fig. 2). Further studies should investigate whether a long-lived magmatic and 39 901 tectonic evolution associated with translitospheric faults in a transpressional setting can explain pulsed 40 41 902 ore formation in the Meghradzor-Hanqavan district. 42 43

44 903 45 904 The Adjara-Trialeti zone: 46 47 905 Eocene subduction arc and back-arc setting or post-collisional setting? 48 Knowledge about the metallogenic setting of the Adjara-Trialeti belt in western Georgia is still 49 906 50 907 fragmentary (Fig. 1; Khomeriki and Tuskia, 2005; Gugushvili, 2015). It consists of a Cretaceous 51 52 908 volcanic arc related to northward subduction of Tethyan oceanic crust and is considered as a lateral 53 54 909 extension of the Eastern Pontides (Fig. 1; Adamia et al., 1977, 2010; Yilmaz et al., 2001). Late Eocene 55 910 shoshonitic magmatism of this belt is controversial (Yilmaz et al., 2001), as it has been interpreted in 56 57 911 terms of mature arc magmatism (Lordkipanidze et al., 1984), back-arc rifting (Adamia et al., 1977; 58 59 912 Lordkipanidze et al., 1979; Gugushvili, 1980), or a post-collision setting (Yilmaz and Boztuğ, 1996). 60 913 The shoshonitic rocks are overlain by late Eocene calc-alkaline volcanic rocks, intruded by syenite, 61 62 63 64 65 27

914 monzonite, diorite and granodiorite (Gugushvili, 1980, 2015). Porphyry Cu-Au and polymetallic (Pb- 1 915 Zn-Au) prospects (Merisi, Uchamba, Lashe, Gudna, Goma) are associated with the late Eocene calc- 2 3 916 alkaline rocks (Gugushvili, 2015). Hydrothermal alteration consists of silicification and sericite, 4 5 917 alunite, dickite, diaspore, and pyrite (Table 1; Gugushvili, 1980, 2015). Gold-bearing fault zones and 6 918 hydrothermal breccia veins, capped by a silicic zone, have been described adjacent to a quartz diorite 7 8 919 overprinted by quartz-sericite alteration at the new Kela project (Lydian International, 2016). The late 9 10 920 Eocene magmatic and ore belt extends to the east into the Artvin-Bolnisi zone (Fig. 1), where 11 polymetallic and gold-bearing occurrences are associated with Eocene diorite and monzonite stocks at 12 921 13 922 Moshevani and Bezaklo (Bezhanishvili, 1969; Gugushvili, 2015). 14 15 16 923 The geodynamic setting of the porphyry and epithermal prospects of the Adjara-Trialeti zone is open 17 924 to question, because precise geochronological data are missing. The middle to late Eocene tectonic 18 19 925 environment is generally interpreted as extensional and related to the opening of the eastern Black Sea, 20 21 926 followed by compression and uplift at the end of the Eocene and the early Oligocene (Adamia et al., 22 927 2011). Gugushvili (2015) interprets the late Eocene calc-alkaline magmatism, and the porphyry and 23 24 928 epithermal deposits and prospects within a subduction setting. However, the only subduction zone that 25 26 929 may have been active during the late Eocene was located far to the south beneath the Bitlis massif 27 930 (Fig. 3c), since collision of the Eastern Anatolian platform with the Eurasian margin occurred as early 28 29 931 as the late Cretaceous along the Somkheto-Karabagh belt (Rolland et al., 2009 a, b; Meijers et al., 30 31 932 2015), and between the Paleocene and early Eocene in the adjacent Eastern Pontides (Okay and 32 933 Şahintürk, 1997; Peccerillo and Taylor, 1976; Şengör and Yilmaz, 1981; Topuz et al., 2011; Robertson 33 34 934 et al., 2013). Therefore, a post-collisional setting is an alternative scenario, which should be tested for 35 36 935 the late Eocene geological and metallogenic evolution of the Adjara-Trialeti belt. 37 38 936 39 40 937 Relationship of the ore deposit districts of the Lesser Caucasus with adjoining tectonic provinces 41 42 938 Correlation of the Lesser Caucasus with the Eastern Pontides 43 939 During the Jurassic and Cretaceous evolution of the Eurasian active margin, the Eastern Pontides 44 45 940 along the Black Sea constituted the lateral western extension of the Artvin-Bolnisi zone and the 46 47 941 Somkheto-Karabagh belt into Turkey (Fig. 1; Adamia et al., 1977; 2011; Okay and Şahintürk, 1997; 48 942 Yilmaz et al., 2000, 2001). Volcanogenic massive sulfide, porphyry and epithermal ore deposit 49 50 943 districts of the Eastern Pontides (Yigit, 2009; Delibas et al., 2016), and deposits and prospects of the 51 52 944 Georgian Artvin-Bolnisi and Adjara-Trialeti zones are typically grouped into the same metallogenic 53 945 belt (Moon et al., 2001; Kekelia et al., 2004). Volcanogenic massive sulfide deposits of the Eastern 54 55 946 Pontides are interpreted as late Cretaceous (Yigit, 2009; Eyuboglu et al., 2014), whereas ages for 56 57 947 porphyry emplacement range between early to late Cretaceous (Delibas et al., 2016) and late 58 Cretaceous to Eocene (Yigit, 2009), and epithermal deposits between late Cretaceous and Eocene 59 948 60 949 (Yigit, 2009). 61 62 63 64 65 28

950 The late Cretaceous metallogenic event recognized in the Eastern Pontides and in the Artvin-Bolnisi 1 951 zone can be attributed to final subduction and closure of the northern branch of the Neotethys along 2 3 952 the Turkish-Georgian segment of the Eurasian margin (Fig. 3c). There is a general consensus that the 4 5 953 early Cenozoic magmatic activity in the Eastern Pontides was related to post-collisional crustal 6 954 thickening and delamination after Paleocene-early Eocene collision of the Tauride–Anatolide platform 7 8 955 and the Eurasian plate (Okay and Şahintürk, 1997; Peccerillo and Taylor, 1976; Şengör and Yilmaz, 9 10 956 1981; Topuz et al., 2011; Robertson et al., 2013). During the middle to late Eocene, the geodynamic 11 setting of the Eastern Pontides was extensional and was related to the opening of the eastern Black 12 957 13 958 Sea, followed by compression and uplift at the end of the Eocene and beginning of the Oligocene 14 15 959 (Yilmaz and Boztuğ, 1996; Okay, 2008; Topuz et al., 2011; Kaygusuz and Öztürk, 2015), although 16 17 960 some authors suggest that extension went on until the late Miocene (Temizel et al., 2012). In brief, the 18 961 Eocene porphyry-epithermal deposits/prospects of the Eastern Pontides are likely post-collisional, an 19 20 962 interpretation, which should be tested for the adjacent Georgian Adjara-Trialeti metallogenic belt. 21 22 963 An intriguing controversy is the vergence of subduction along the Eastern Pontides and the Adjara- 23 24 964 Trialeti zone during the Cretaceous and the early Cenozoic. Indeed, a majority of studies accept north- 25 26 965 verging subduction during the Cretaceous until collision of the Tauride–Anatolide platform with 27 966 Eurasia (e.g., Adamia et al., 1977; 2011; Yilmaz and Boztuğ, 1996; Okay and Şahintürk, 1997; Okay, 28 29 967 2008; Yilmaz et al., 2000, 2001; Delibas et al., 2016). However, some studies advocate a south- 30 31 968 verging subduction from the Cretaceous until the Eocene, which extended from the Eastern Pontides 32 along the entire Lesser Caucasus down to the Caspian Sea (Eyuboglu et al., 2011, 2012, 2014). The 33 969 34 970 correct answer to this controversy certainly has fundamental implications for future metallogenic and 35 36 971 geodynamic interpretations of the Lesser Caucasus and the Eastern Pontides. 37 38 972 39 40 973 Correlation of the Lesser Caucasus and the Iranian belts during the Mesozoic 41 42 974 Correlation of the Jurassic-Cretaceous Somkheto-Karabagh belt and Kapan zone with the Iranian belts 43 975 to the south is open to question. The NE-oriented Araks strike-slip fault constitutes a major regional 44 45 976 stratigraphic and structural limit between the Alborz and the Lesser Caucasus (Figs 1, 2 and 5; Sosson 46 47 977 et al., 2010). Berberian (1983) interpreted the Transcaucasus–Talysh–western Alborz belt as a single 48 978 Mesozoic Andean-type magmatic arc, and thus he concluded that the Alborz mountains were the 49 50 979 eastern continuation of the Somkheto–Karabagh arc and the Kapan zone. However, in contrast to the 51 52 980 Lesser Caucasus, no Jurassic and early Cretaceous arc-magmatism is reported in the Alborz, and 53 981 basaltic magmatism did not begin before the Barremian in the central Alborz (Wensink and Varekamp, 54 55 982 1980) and late Cretaceous in the western Alborz (Salavati, 2008). Moreover, a thick sedimentary basin 56 57 983 like the late Triassic to early Jurassic Shemshak Formation in Iran with an up to 4,000-m thick 58 package of siliciclastic sedimentary rocks (e.g., Fürsich et al., 2005) is unknown in the Lesser 59 984 60 985 Caucasus (Sosson et al., 2010). Finally, while the Greater Caucasus, the Alborz and other Iranian 61 62 63 64 65 29

986 terranes were affected by the Triassic-Jurassic Cimmerian orogeny (Adamia et al., 1981, 2011; Saintot 1 987 et al., 2006; Zanchi et al., 2006; Massodi et al., 2013), there is no evidence for such an orogenic phase 2 3 988 along the Lesser Caucasus and the Eastern Pontides (Sosson et al, 2010; Topuz et al., 2013; Hässig et 4 5 989 al., 2015). In brief, the Alborz and the Lesser Caucasus have contrasting Mesozoic tectonic, magmatic 6 990 and sedimentary records, which also reflect different metallogenic evolutions, and explain the absence 7 8 991 of ore districts with similar characteristics as Alaverdi, Kapan and Gedabek along the Alborz. 9 10 992 11 Correlation of the Lesser Caucasus and Cenozoic Iranian magmatic and metallogenic belts 12 993 13 994 Once the different Gondwana terranes (e.g., the South Armenian block) were accreted to the Eurasian 14 15 995 margin by the Paleocene, middle Eocene magmatism and/or coeval deep-water clastic sedimentation 16 17 996 took place across a vast area along the Tethyan belt, from southwest Turkey to Iran (Vincent et al., 18 997 2005). The Zangezur-Ordubad region of the southernmost Lesser Caucasus is the converging location 19 20 998 of the major Cenozoic Iranian Urumieh-Dokhtar and Alborz magmatic and metallogenic belts (Fig. 1). 21 22 999 The Alborz, the adjoining Talysh range, and the Lesser Caucasus underwent similar Cenozoic tectonic 231000 evolutions. The Talysh and the Alborz range represent back-arc systems during the Eocene, and 24 251001 underwent inversion, uplift and transpression during the late Eocene to early Oligocene (Brunet et al., 26 271002 2003; Vincent et al., 2005; Ballato et al., 2010; Verdel et al., 2011; Asiabanha and Foden, 2012). In 281003 the Lesser Caucasus, Paleocene to late-middle Eocene thick molasse series were deposited in a 29 301004 foreland basin to the southwest of the Somkheto-Karabagh belt, and subsequently underwent late- 31 321005 middle Eocene to Miocene shortening (Sosson et al., 2010). 33 341006 Magmas from the Iranian Urumieh-Dokhtar belt (Fig. 1) are characterized by predominantly normal 35 361007 arc and calc-alkaline compositions throughout the Cenozoic, except a few Miocene and Pliocene 37 magmatic centers showing adakitic compositions attributed to slab melting or slab break-off following 381008 391009 Arabia-Eurasia collision (Omrani et al., 2008; Shafiei et al., 2009; Yeganehfar et al., 2013). By 40 411010 contrast, the Alborz range and the southernmost Lesser Caucasus reveal broadly similar magmatic 42 evolutions during the Cenozoic, evolving from dominantly normal arc, calc-alkaline compositions 431011 441012 during the Eocene to adakitic and shoshonitic compositions sourced by a significant proportion of 45 461013 metasomatised lithospheric mantle during the Neogene (Moritz et al., in press). The Neogene 47 481014 shoshonitic and adakitic magmatism of the Alborz is attributed to decompression melting of 491015 metasomatised lithospheric mantle during extension and thinning of the crust (Aghazadeh et al., 2011; 50 511016 Castro et al., 2013). This contrasts with the transpressional geodynamic setting accompanied by crustal 52 531017 thickening during Neogene petrogenesis of shoshonitic and adakitic magmas as a consequence of 541018 decompressional melting of lower crust and lithospheric mantle in the southernmost Lesser Caucasus 55 561019 (Moritz et al., in press). 57 581020 The ore deposit cluster of the Zangezur-Ordubad mining district of the southernmost Lesser Caucasus 59 601021 (Fig. 5) extends into the Iranian Cenozoic porphyry Cu-Mo Alborz/Arasbaran and Urumieh- 61 62 63 64 65 30

1022 Dokhtar/Kerman belts (Fig. 1; Jamali et al., 2010; Aghazadeh et al., 2015; Simmonds and Moazzen, 11023 2015). The Iranian porphyry deposits along these two belts are interpreted as post-collisional. The 2 31024 Iranian porphyry systems are Miocene in age, except two porphyry occurrences dated at 27-28 Ma 4 51025 (see Fig. 15 in Aghazadeh et al., 2015; Simmonds and Moazzen, 2015), which is comparable in age to 61026 the Oligocene Paragachay and Kadjaran deposits of the southernmost Lesser Caucasus (Fig. 5). In 7 81027 brief, while the Iranian and the Lesser Caucasian Cenozoic porphyry Cu-Mo metallogenic belts can be 9 101028 linked to each other, they reveal distinct differences based on recent interpretations. Although, all 11 Neogene porphyry deposits are the product of collision to post-collision geodynamics, the main ones 121029 131030 are Oligocene and related to transpressional tectonics in the southernmost Lesser Caucasus, whereas 14 151031 the Iranian porphyry deposits are predominantly Miocene (e.g. Sungun and Sar Cheshmeh; Aghazadeh 16 171032 et al., 2015; Hassanpour et al., 2015), and related to post-collisional extension and lithospheric mantle 181033 delamination (Shafiei et al., 2009; and see Fig. 16b in Aghazadeh et al., 2015). The north to south 19 201034 younging of the porphyry systems, from Eocene-Oligocene in the southernmost Lesser Caucasus to 21 221035 predominantly Miocene in Iran, coincides with the progressive north to south younging of Arabia- 231036 Eurasia collision (Agard et al., 2011). 24 25 261037 271038 Conclusions 28 291039 The metallogenic setting of the Lesser Caucasus is the result of a long-lived geological evolution 301040 spanning from Jurassic nascent arc construction to Cenozoic post-collision. Our understanding about 31 321041 early ore formation during Jurassic arc construction along the Eurasian margin is certainly still 33 341042 fragmentary, especially because of poor geochronological constraints. The early magmatic evolution 351043 and its relationship with ore-forming events along the Somkheto-Karabagh belt and the Kapan zone 36 371044 need to be refined. The available data suggest that early metallogenic evolution was dominated by 38 391045 subaqueous magmatic-hydrothermal systems, VMS-style mineralization in a fore-arc environment or 401046 along the margins of a back-arc ocean located between the Eurasin margin and Gondwana-derived 41 421047 terranes. This metallogenic event apparently coincided broadly with a rearrangement of tectonic 43 441048 plates, resulting in steepening of the subducting plate during the middle to late Jurassic transition. 45 461049 Late Jurassic and the early Cretaceous diachronous emplacement of typical porphyry Cu and high- 47 481050 sulfidation epithermal systems occurred along the Eurasian margin, once the arc was sufficiently 49 501051 thickened and sufficient fertile magmas were generated over time by MASH processes in the crust. 511052 Regional uplift and strong erosion is invoked to explain exhumation of the porphyry systems to 52 531053 surface; however it remains to be understood how the early Cretaceous epithermal systems were 54 551054 preserved despite such erosion processes. Low-sulfidation type epithermal deposits and transitional 561055 VMS-porphyry-epithermal systems were formed during migration of the magmatic arc into the 57 581056 hinterland, coinciding with progressive Late Cretaceous flattening of the subduction geometry, 59 601057 compression and uplift of the northern Lesser Caucasus belt in the Bolnisi-Artvin zone. 61 62 63 64 65 31

1058 Collision of Gondwana-derived terranes with Eurasia resulted in closure of the northern branch of the 11059 Neotethys. This new plate geometry resulted in the rearrangement of subduction zones and set the 2 31060 stage for the next major metallogenic evolution of the Lesser Caucasus. Eocene porphyry Cu-Mo 4 51061 deposits and associated precious metal epithermal systems in the southernmost Lesser Caucasus were 61062 related to subduction-related magmatism. Final late Eocene-Oligocene accretion of Arabia with 7 81063 Eurasia resulted in Neogene collision to post-collision porphyry Cu-Mo deposit emplacement in the 9 101064 southernmost Lesser Caucasus, along major translithospheric faults. Further studies are required to 11 constrain how other major low- and high-sulfidation epithermal deposits spatially associated with 121065 131066 accretion and suture zones along the entire length of the Lesser Caucsus are either related to Eocene 14 151067 subduction-related magmatism or to Neogene collision/post-collision processes. 16 171068 The northern geologic and metallogenic setting of the northern Lesser Caucasus is intimately linked to 18 191069 the Cretaceous and Cenozoic evolution of the Turkish Eastern Pontides. Therefore, further 20 211070 investigations should understand how Eocene ore systems of the Adjari-Trialeti belt are related to 221071 subduction or to post-collision processes. The Cenozoic magmatism and ore deposit belt of the 23 241072 southernmost Lesser Caucasus can be traced into the Cenozoic Iranian Urumieh-Dokhtar and Alborz 25 261073 belts. By contrast, the Alborz and the Eurasian margin exposed in the southernmost Lesser Caucasus 271074 record different Mesozoic tectonic, magmatic, sedimentary and metallogenic evolutions. 28 29 301075 31 321076 Acknowledgments 33 341077 The research was supported by the Swiss National Science Foundation through the research grants 351078 200020-121510, 200020-138130 and 200020-155928 and the SCOPES Joint Research Projects 36 371079 IB7620-118901 and IZ73Z0-128324. The authors would like to thank the staff of the Zangezur 38 Copper-Molybdenum Combine, the Agarak Copper-Molybdenum Combine - GeoProMining for 391080 401081 access to their mines, the Azerbaijan International Mining Company for logistical support, property 41 421082 access and sample handling in the Gedabek mining district and in Nakhitchevan, the Teghout mine 431083 and the Madneuli company. We thank the many students and colleagues from the University of 44 451084 Geneva, Switzerland (M. Calder, S. Gialli, P. Hemon, S. Hovakimyan, J. Lavoie, J. Mederer, H. 461085 Rezeau), and from Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia (Sh. Adamia, T. Beridze, S. Cleghorn, F. 47 481086 Hedjazi, Z. Kutelia, R. Migineishvili, M. Natsvlishvili, R. Overall, A. Rashad, M. Svanidze, A. 49 501087 Turner, A. Vardanyan, S. Zohrabyan), who participated since 2008 in field work and discussions, 511088 provided important pieces of information and logistical help, and helped in obtaining authorizations to 52 531089 have access to properties and mines described in this review. We would like to thank very much A.G. 541090 Tvalchrelidze, Y. Rolland and J. Richards for their critical reviews and comments. 55 56

571091 581092 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 32

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1851 Zohrabyan, S.A., and Melkonyan, R.L., 1999, Role of structural factors on the location of 11852 mineralization in iron-pyrite deposits of the Alaverdi-Kapan zone: Proceedings of the National 21853 Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Armenia, Earth Sciences, v. 52, p. 31-40 (in Russian 31854 with English abstract). 41855 Zohrabyan, S.A., Mirzoyan, G.G., and Sarkisyan, N.A., 2003, Bartsravan ore field - geology, 51856 structure, ore mineralization: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the Republic 61857 of Armenia, Earth Sciences, v. 56, p. 30–38 (in Russian). 7 81858 Zonenshain, L.P., and Le Pichon, X., 1986, Deep basins of the Black Sea and Caspian Sea as remnants 91859 of Mesozoic back-arc basins: Tectonophysics, v. 123, p. 181-211. 101860 111861 121862 Figure captions 13 14 151863 Figure 1. Geological map from eastern Turkey to Iran highlighting the Lesser Caucasus area from 16 1864 Mederer et al. (2014), with additional information from Azizi and Moinevaziri (2009), Hässig et al. 17 181865 (2013a, b) and Zamani and Masson (2014). The Lesser Caucasus consists of the Somkheto-Karabagh 19 201866 belt along the Eurasian margin, the ophiolites of the Sevan-Akera suture zone and the South Armenian 211867 block. The South Armenian block and the Eastern Anatolian platform are of Gondwanian origin. 22 231868 Abbreviations of tectonic zones and faults: ABV - Artvin-Bolnisi volcanic-arc; ATB – Adjara-Trialeti 241869 belt; IAES – Izmir-Ankara-Erzinkan suture; KGF – Khustup-Giratagh fault. 25 26 271870 Figure 2. Simplified geological map of the Lesser Caucasus (after Mederer et al., 2014), and major 281871 regional faults (from Philip et al., 2001; Karakhanian et al., 2004). Legend of the geological 29 301872 background same as in Figure 1. The location of the maps of the major ore districts discussed in this 31 321873 review include from north to south: the Bolnisi district (Fig. 8), the Alaverdi district (Fig. 4), the 331874 Toukhmanouk-Meghradzor-Hanqavan ore cluster (Fig. 7), the Gedabek district (Fig. 6a), and the 34 351875 Kapan and Zangezur-Ordubad districts (Fig. 5). Other deposits and prospects discussed in the review 361876 are indicated by the small yellow boxes. Abbreviations of the ore deposits and prospects (yellow 37 381877 boxes): A – Amulsar, C – Chovdar, G – Gosha, M – Mehmana, and Z – Zod/Sotk. Abbreviations of 39 401878 the regional faults and major Cenozoic plutons: AF – Akerin fault, AkhF – Akhourian fault, BP – 411879 Bargushat pluton, DP – Dalidag pluton, GF – Garni fault, GSF – Geltareshka-Sarjkhamich fault, KGF 42 431880 – Khustup-Giratagh fault, MOP – Meghri-Ordubad pluton, PP – Pambak pluton, PSSF – Pambak- 441881 Sevan-Sunik fault system, SSF? - sublatudinal strike-slip fault (as suggested by Kazmin et al., 1986, 45 461882 Gabriyelyan et al., 1989, and Hässig et al., 2013a), TF – Tabriz fault. 47 481883 Figure 3. Geodynamic reconstruction of the Tethyan belt centred on the Lesser Caucasus (LCR) for 49 501884 Callovian (a), Campanian (b), Lutetian (c), and Rupelian (d) times (modified from Barrier and 51 521885 Vrielynck, 2008). Additional information for the Callovian time (a) are from Hässig et al. (2013a) for 531886 the position of the northern spreading center, the intra-oceanic subduction zone, and from Melkonyan 54 551887 et al. (2000) and Hässig et al. (2015) for the interpretation of a south-verging subduction zone beneath 561888 SAB. The main ore-forming events are shown for the geodynamic stage that is the closest in age. 57 581889 Abbreviations: ABV - Artvin-Bolnisi volcanic-arc; AR – Alborz range; ATB – Adjara-Trialeti basin; 59 601890 BFB – Balkan fold-belt; BPM – Bitlis-Pütürge massif; EAP – Eastern Anatolian platform; GCB – 61 62 63 64 65 47

1891 Greater Caucasus basin; GKF – Great Kevir fault; KOM – Khoy ophiolite massif; LCR – Lesser 1 21892 Caucasus range; LCV – Lesser Caucasus volcanic arc; MZT – Main Zagros thrust; PAM – Peri- 31893 Arabian massif; PoR – Pontides range; PoV – Pontides volcanic arc; SAB – South Armenian block; 4 51894 SAM – Sevan-Akera ophiolitic massif; SCB – South-Caspian basin; SkB – Sakarya block; SSB – 6 1895 Sanandaj-Sirjan block; TaP - Taurus platform; UDV – Urumieh-Dokhtar volcanic-arc; ZDF – Zagros 7 81896 deformation front (most abbreviations and domain names from Barrier and Vrielynck, 2008). 9 10 111897 Figure 4. Simplified geology of the Alaverdi mining district (modified from Karapetyan et al., 1982; 121898 Mederer et al., 2014; Calder, 2104). 13 14 151899 Figure 5. Simplified geological map of the Kapan and the Zangezur-Ordubad region, which includes 161900 the Kapan and the Meghri-Ordubad mining districts (after Karmyan et al., 1974; Tayan et al., 1976, 17 181901 2005; Achikgiozyan et al., 1987; Babazadeh et al., 1990; Mederer et al., 2014). The Meghri-Ordubad 191902 district is hosted by the composite Meghri-Ordubad and Bargushat plutons included in the Gondwana- 20 211903 derived South Armenian block. The Kapan block with its mining district and the Shikahogh and 22 231904 Bartsravan prospects belongs to the Eurasian margin. The Khustup-Giratagh fault (KGF) is the major 241905 tectonic break between the Kapan block and the Zangezur-Ordubad region (South Armenian block). 25 26 271906 Figure 6. a – Simplified geological map of the Gedabek mining district. b – Simplified geological 281907 map of the Chovdar mining district. c – Simplified geological map of the Gosha prospect (after Behre 29 301908 Dolbear, 2005). 31 321909 Figure 7. Simplified geological map of the Toukhmanouk-Hanqavan-Meghradzor ore cluster. 33 34 351910 Figure 8. Simplified geological map of the Bolnisi mining district (geology from Adamia and 361911 Gujabidze, 2004). 37 38 391912 40 411913 42 43 441914 45 461915 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 1530° 16 Arabian plate and terranes Main ore-forming events along the Eurasia of Gondwana origin 17a Lesser Caucasus: 18 Eurasian plate Jurassic Cu-pyrite-polymetallic 19 deposits of the Alaverdi and Kapan 20 Oceanic lithosphere districts (a) 21 LCV 22 SkB Major basins Subduction-related porphyry Cu and GCB 23 epithermal deposits during Jurassic- 24 back-arc basin Magmatism Cretaceous transition and Early 25 Cretaceous at Teghout and Gedabek Active oceanic spreading center 26 ? ? along Somkheto-Karabagh belt (a) 27 Major thrust fault Late Jurassic Toukhmanouk deposit, 28 intra-oceanic subduction South Armenian block (a) 2915° Major normal fault 30 SSB Late Cretaceous Bolnisi mining ? Active subduction zone 31 zone district, Eurasian margin (b) 32 Major strike-slip/wrench fault 33 Cenozoic subduction to collision/ ? post-collision porphyry Cu-Mo and 34 ? ? Intra-oceanic subduction, south- 35 ? verging subduction zone beneath epithermal deposits/prospects along SAB SAB, back-arc basin and spreading suture and accretion zones (c-d) 36 EAP Neotethys 37 TaP center based on interpretations by Hässig et al. (2013a, 2015) Late Eocene porphyry and epithermal 38 prospects of the Adjara-Trialeti belt 39 Mesogea Present day outline of the (c-d) 40 Black Sea and the Caspian Sea 41Gondwana Callovian: 163 Ma 1000 km 42 43b Eurasia c d 44 Eurasia 45° 45 Eurasia 45° 46 BFB 47 GCB 30° GCB 48 PoR 49 PoV GCB PoR LCR LCR 50 PoV ATB ABV LCR SAB 51 SCB SAB SCB EAP 52 SCB AR EAP TaP 53 TaP KOM AR 54 BPM 30° SAB SSB UDV 30° 55 BPM SSB 56 EAP Mesogea SSB 57 TaP GKF 58 ZDF MZT 59 Neotethys PAM 60 Mesogea Neotethys Arabia 6115° Arabia 62 Lutetian: Rupelian: 63 Campanian: 64 Arabia 1000 km 48.6 - 40.4 Ma 1000 km 33.9 - 28.4 Ma 1000 km 65 83 Ma Fig. 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 44°40‘ E 44°50‘ E 12 13 14 15 16 Akhtala

17 Shamlugh 41°10‘ N 41°10‘ 18 N 41°10‘ Koghb-Shnokh 19 intrusion 20 21 22 Alaverdi 23 Haghpat 24 25 26

27 Teghout 41°05‘ N 41°05‘ 28 N 41°05‘ 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 44°40‘ E 5 km 44°50‘ E 37 38 39 Pleistocene sedimentary deposits and Pliocene basalt Late Cretaceous sand- and limestone and conglomerate 40 Eocene lava flows and tuff (basalt, andesite, rhyolite), Late Jurassic lava flows, tuff and agglomerate (basalt 41 sedimentary rocks, granodiorite and quartz-diorite basaltic andesite, andesite, dacite and rhyolite) 42 Late Jurassic tonalite, quartz-diorite and 43 subvolcanic diorite and quartz-diorite Callovian sandstone and tuff 44 Late Jurassic rhyolite dike or sill (albitophyre) 45 Bathonian andesite, tuff and sedimentary rocks 46 Bathonian plagiogranite and subvolcanic quartz dacite Bajocian dacite and rhyolite (keratophyre), ignimbrite, 47 sedimentary rocks, including limestone, andesitic to basaltic pyroclastic rocks, minor lava flows, lava breccia and tuff 48 River Fault 49 50 51 Fig. 4 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Armenia 19Nakhitchevan 20

21 39°30’

22 D KGF BP 23 B Gondwana-derived 24 terrane Eurasian 25 H Cw margin 26 S 27 At Ce 28 Kapan PQ K 29 Sh 30 OSF M L 31 AP TL 32 MOP block Araks fault

33 Di Ay KGF 39°00’ 34 A 35 36 37 38 Iran 39 25 km 40 41 46°00’ 46°30’ 42 43 Plio-Pleistocene sedimentary Cu, Cu-Au and polymetallic veins and 44 and volcanic rocks stockwork-type deposits of Kapan district 45 Porphyry-type/associated prospect Oligo-Miocene sedimentary 46 Porphyry Cu-Mo deposit/prospect and volcanic rocks 47 Gold-base metal epithermal prospect 48 Composite Eocene to Deposits and prospects: 49 Miocene pluton A: Agarak (MOP) 50 Eocene sedimentary AP: Aygurt and Piyazbashi (MOP) 51 and volcanic rocks At.Aitkis (MOP) Ay: Aygedzor (MOP) 52 Paleocene sedimentary B: Bartsravan (Kapan) 53 rocks Ce: Centralni East (Kapan) 54 Early Cretaceous gabbro, Cw: Centralni West (Kapan) 55 diorite, quartz-diorite D: Dastakert (BP) 56 Di: Diakhchay (MOP) Cretaceous basaltic, andesitic, H: Hankasar (MOP) 57 dacitic, rhyodacitic lava K: Kadjaran (MOP) 58 Jurassic andesitic, dacitic, L: Lichk (MOP) 59 rhyolitic lava, breccia lava, tuff M: Misdag (MOP) 60 and hyaloclastite PG: Paragachay and Qapujuk (MOP) 61 S: Shahumyan (Kapan) 62 Proterozoic basement rocks Sh: Shikahogh (Kapan) TL: Tey-Lichkvaz (MOP) 63 Regional fault BP: Bargushat pluton MOP: Meghri-Ordubad pluton 64 KGF: Khustup-Giratagh fault OSF: Ordubad-Salvard fault 65 Fig. 5 45°45’E 45°50’E a Dashbulakh Perizamanil b

Djaygir Garadagh 1 2 3 Atabek-Slavyan 4 intrusion 5 6 7 8 9 10 Kharkhar 11 12 13 14

15 40°40’N 16 Mashkit 40°40’N 17 2 km 18 19 Bitti-Bulakh Siniar Kiziljadag 20 Cretaceous subvolcanic gabbro, 21 Fault 22 Novogorelovka diabase, partly porphyritic 23 Steeply dipping barite veins 24 Bathonian subvolcanic diorite, 25 Maarif Hydrothermal alteration with quartz-diorite, gabbro-diorite 26 Shekerbey silicification, kaolinite and limonite 27 Early Bathonian andesitic 28 Intensively silicified rocks, with Bejuk- volcanic and pyroclastic rocks 29 sericite, kaolinite, and pyrite 30 Kalahin Novospasovka Late Bajocian subvolcanic quartz- 31 Felsic dike (porphyritic diorite and 32 porphyry and quartz-keratophyre 33 quartz-diorite, albite, albitophyre) 34 Mafic dike (plagioclase andesite, Early Bajocian andesitic 35 36 diabase, porphyritic gabbro) lava and tuff, rhyolite 37 38 39 40 Waste dumps 41 Gedabek 42 intrusion 200 m 43 Gedabek Quaternary, alluvial 44 45 46 47 5 km Silicified rock 48 45°45’E 45°50’E 49 Bathonian andesitic volcanic Late steeply dipping gold- 50 Quaternary, alluvial Porphyry Cu 51 and pyroclastic rocks prospect bearing zone filled with quartz, 52 kaolinite, pyrite, base-metal Kimmeridgian quartz-diorite Bajocian subvolcanic dacite, Au epithermal 53 sulfides and tellurides 54 and diorite, partly porphyritic rhyodacite, rhyolite prospect or 55 Late Bajocian rhyolite, deposit Early, oxidized, steeply 56 Kimmeridgian granodiorite 57 porphyritic rhyodacite, dipping zone filled with quartz, and quartz-diorite Base metal 58 rhyodacitic tuff and tuff breccia epithermal kaolinite, pyrite, base-metal 59 c 60 Callovian-Oxfordian Early Bajocian porphyritic prospect sulfides and tellurides 61 pyroclastic rocks andesite, tuff and tuff breccia Late Bajocian subvolcanic rhyolite and rhyodacite 62 Prospect, 63 Bathonian subvolcanic uncertain Early Bajocian plagiogranite Early Bajocian andesite lava, lava breccia and tuff, 64 diabase, gabbro ore type 65 partly silicified, with disseminated pyrite and subsidiary kaolinite Fig. 6 45°30’E 45°40’E Frolova Au-Cu-Zn

Margahovit Fioletovo Au Au-W

Pambak 40°40’N Tsaghkuniats intrusion massif Toukh- 1 manouk 2 Au - (Zn- Hanqavan Marmarik fault 3 Meghradzor 4 Pb-Cu) Mo-Cu Au 5 Aghavnadzor 6 7 8 9 Fe-U 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Hrazdan 20 5 km Fe 21 22 45°30’E 45°40’E 40°30’N 23 24 Pleistocene-Holocene trachybasalt, trachyandesite, Middle Eocene basaltic andesite, andesite, dacite and 25 andesite,tuff and sedimentary deposits rhyolite and tuff breccia and sandstone (Basum and 26 Shirak suites) 27 Late Pliocene-Pleistocene basaltic andesite, 28 andesite, and volcanogenic sedimentary rocks Early Eocene basaltic andesite, andesite, dacite, 29 lava breccia, and sedimentary rocks 30 Late Miocene-Early Pliocene andesitic tuff, rhyolite, 31 perlite, obsidian, pumice sandstone, argillic rocks Late Cretaceous limestone, marl, sandstone and 32 conglomerate 33 34 Post-late Eocene granite and granodiorite Early Cretaceous diabase, basalt, basaltic andesite, 35 pyroclastic rocks, siltstone, mudstone 36 Post-late Eocene alkaline syenite, pseudo- 37 leucite syenite and nepheline syenite Late Jurassic diorite, gabbro-diorite, granodiorite, 38 quartz diorite, tonalite, leucogranite 39 Post-late Eocene poryphyritic granite 40 and syenogranite Neo-Proterozoic trondhjemite, plagiogranite, albitite, 41 granite, gneiss, serpentinite, gabbro 42 Late Eocene diorite, quartz diorite, quartz syenite, 43 monzonite, syenogranite, gabbro, diorite, tonalite, Neo-Proterozoic metamorphic basement rocks 44 (Arzakan and Hanqvan suites) 45 granodiorite and granite 46 Late Eocene basalt, basaltic andesite, andesite, 47 Fault 48 trachyandesite, trachyte, tephrite, rhyolite and 49 pyroclastic rocks (Pambak suite) Fig. 7 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 Adjara-Trialeti belt Major base metal and Town gold prospect and deposit Base metal and gold Fault occurrence Khrami Quaternary, alluvial massif Plio-Quaternary calc-alcaline continental basalt

Oligo-Miocene euxinic sedimentary rock Samgreti

41°30’N Middle-late Eocene turbidite Beqtakari Middle Eocene sub-alkaline to Bnelikhevi calc-alkaline basalt, andesite, dacite Marneuli Bolnisi Paleocene-Early Eocene turbidite Imedi Tamarisi Kvemo Cenozoic trachyte-rhyolite Darbazi Bolnisi Tsiteli Late Cretaceous dacite, rhyolite David Sakdrisi Sopeli Late Cretaceous diorite, quartz-diorite, Garedji plagiogranite Campanian-Maastrichtian shallow Madneuli marine carbonate rocks Cenomanian-Campanian calc-alkaline Artvin-Bolnisi zone 41°20’N basalt, andesite, dacite, and rhyolite Jurassic granite, granodiorite

1 Callovian-Tithonian calc-alkaline 2 Loki basalt, andesite, and dacite 3 massif 4 Bathonian marine clastic sedimentary rocks 5 6 Bajocian andesite, dacite 7 8 Early Jurassic, shallow marine 9 10 clastic sedimentary rocks 11 10 km 44°20’E 44°40’E Proterozoic-Paleozoic basement rocks: 12 gneiss-migmatite, schist, diorite, granite 13 14 15 16 17 18 Fig. 8 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Table 1 - Main ore deposits and prospects of the Lesser Caucasus. Based on similar tables published by Mederer et al. (2014) and Moritz et al. (in press). 23 Deposit name Deposit type Reserves-ore grade Status Age Host rock geology Main mineralogy Alteration Ore body geometry References 24 Somkheto-Karabagh belt (Eurasian margin) - Alaverdi mining district (see Figure 4) Chalcopyrite, pyrite, sphalerite, 25 Structurally-controlled by bornite, chalcocite, and Nalbandyan (1968), NNW- and NNE-oriented 135 ± 6Ma, 142 ± subsidiary galena, tennantite, Khatchaturyan (1977), 26 Cu-pyrite bodies 1.2Mt @ 5.6% Cu, 0.12 g/t Silicification, faults, and lithological 6Ma (K-Ar sericite Bajocian dacitic tuff and stannite, emplectite, argentite, and Zohrabyan and Alaverdi and polymetallic Au, 5.8 g/t Ag (indicated- Closed sericite, chlorite, contacts. Subvertical veins in 27 age of altered host andesitic agglomerate native gold and silver, electrum, Melkonyan (1999). Ages veins inferred resources) carbonate, pyrite deeper part; stockwork and rock) arsenopyrite. Quartz, sericite, by Bagdasaryan et al. 28 subhorizontal, stratiform chlorite, anhydrite, gypsum, (1969) lenses in shallower part. 29 calcite, dolomite. 30 Maximum age: 155 Chalcopyrite, pyrite, sphalerite, Structurally-controlled by ± 1 Ma (U-Pb zircon Bajocian basaltic Nalbandyan (1968), 31 4 Mt @ 3.53% Cu - 1.70% bornite, chalcocite, and NNW- and NNE-oriented age of altered andesitic, andesitic and Silicification, Khatchaturyan (1977), Cu-pyrite bodies Pb - 4.96% Zn - 1.03 g/t Open pit and subsidiary galena, tennantite, faults, and lithological 32 rhyolite sill). 142 ± dacitic tuff and lava sericite, chlorite, and Zohrabyan and Shamlugh and polymetallic Au - 8.1 g/t Ag (Proven- underground stannite, emplectite, argentite, contacts. Subvertical veins 6 Ma and 161 ± 4 breccia, overlain by a carbonate, pyrite, Melkonyan (1999). Ages 33 veins probable reserves and mining native gold and silver, electrum, in deeper part; stockwork Ma (K-Ar whole rock rhyolite sill (named hematite by Bagdasaryan et al. indicated resources) marcasite. Quartz, sericite, and subhorizontal, stratiform 34 and sericite ages of albitophyre) (1969) and Calder (2014) chlorite, barite, calcite, gypsum. lenses in shallower part. 35 altered host rock) Galena, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, 36 Stockwork and 1.2 Mt @ 0.58% Cu - tennantite, tetrahedrite, and Silicification, Paronikyan (1962), 141 ± 5 Ma and subhorizontal, stratiform 37 1.67% Pb - 4.48% Zn - 1.3 Bajocian subvolcanic subsidiary bornite, chalcocite, sericite, chlorite, Nalbandyan (1968), and Polymetallic 150 ± 5.5 Ma (K-Ar lenses. Intersection of dikes Akhtala g/t Au - 104 g/t Ag (Proven- Closed quartz-dacite, andesite marcasite, cassiterite, argentite, carbonate, pyrite, Zohrabyan and Melkonyan 38 lenses and veins whole rock age of and NE-oriented fractures probable reserves and and basalt electrum, native gold and silver. pyrophyllite, (1999). Ages by altered host rock) with NS-oriented faults. EW- 39 indicated resources) Barite, quartz, sericite, chlorite, dickite Bagdasaryan et al. (1969) oriented veins 40 calcite, gypsum. 41 Chalcopyrite, pyrite, 145.5 ± 0.5 Ma and molybdenite; subsidiary Amiryan et al. (1987), Middle-late Jurassic 42 149 ± 3 Ma (K-Ar sphalerite, galena, bornite, and Melkonyan and Open pit polyphase intrusion, Quartz, sericite, Porphyry Cu- 460 Mt @ 0.34% Cu - sericite age) and tetrahedrite, magnetite, Ghukasian (2004). Ages: Teghout mining since including quartz-diorite, pyrite, subsidiary Stockwork, disseminated 43 (Mo) 0.01% Mo - 0.01 g/t Au 145.85 ± 0.59 Ma chalcocite, covellite, and rare Paronikyan and Ghukasian 2015 biotite-hornblende kaolinite (Re-Os molybdenite enargite, luzonite and native (1974) and this study 44 tonalite and leucogranite age) gold. Quartz, anhydrite, (Table 2) 45 carbonates, sericite 46 Kapan zone (Eurasian margin) - Kapan mining district (see Figure 5) 47 2006–2011: 1.8 Mt @ Pyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, Maatvev et al. (2006), 156.14 ± 0.79 Ma 48 1.53 ppm Au, 29.8 ppm galena, fahlore, tellurides, Phyllic alteration, Mederer (2013), Mederer (Ar/Ar alunite). Middle Jurassic Ag, 0.24% Cu and enargite, digenite, bornite, and advanced et al. (2014)., and 49 Polymetallic Underground 140 ± 3 Ma and subvolcanic quartz- Subvertical EW-oriented Shahumyan 1.52% Zn; Open pit chalcocite, native gold and argillic (alunite), Achikgiozyan et al. veins mining 149 ± 1 Ma (K-Ar dacite, andesite and veins 50 potential: 36.3 Mt @ silver. Gangue: quartz, and hematite in (1987). Ages from whole rock age of injection breccia 3.13 g/t AuEq or 335 Mt @ carbonate, anhydrite, sericite uppermost part Bagdasaryan et al. (1969) 51 altered host rock) 1.19 g/t AuEq and kaolinite. and Mederer et al. (2014) 52 Chlorite, quartz, Mederer (2013), Mederer Estimated 30.000 t mined Middle Jurassic 53 Cu sulfide-quartz Underground Chalcopyrite, pyrite, and minor epidote and et al. (2014), since 1843 @ 1.16% Cu 161.78 ± 0.79 Ma breccia lava, Centralni West veins and operation galena and fahlore. Gangue: carbonate EW-oriented veins Achikgiozyan et al. 54 (both Centralni deposits (Ar/Ar sericite) hyalo-clastite, lava stockwork closed 2008 quartz and carbonates alteration. Sericite (1987). Age from Mederer together) flows 55 close to ore et al. (2014) 56 Mederer (2013), Mederer Underground Chalcopyrite, colusite, fahlore, Argillic alteration et al. (2014), 57 Cu-Au, sulfide and open pit 144.7 ± 4.2 Ma (Re- Middle Jurassic Centralni East see above and minor luzonite, galena, and silicification, Stockwork Achikgiozyan et al. stockwork abandoned in Os pyrite isochron) lava flows and tuff 58 enargite, covellite, tellurides diaspore, dickite (1987). Age from Mederer 2004 59 et al. (2014) 60 61 62 63 64 65 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Table 1 - continued 23 Deposit name Deposit type Reserves-ore grade Status Age Host rock geology Main mineralogy Alteration Ore body geometry References 24 Somkheto-Karabagh belt (Eurasian margin) - Gedabek mining district, Gosha prospect and Chovdar deposit (Figure 6) Orthogonal system of NS 7.4 Mt @ 4.7 g/t Au - 6.33 Gold with pyrite and tellurides, 25 Uncertain, possibly Bajocian andesite Silicification, and EW subvertical kaolinite- High-sulfidation g/t Ag (Proven-probable lesser amounts of chalcopyrite, Babazadeh et al. (2003). Gosha Prospect late Jurassic or intruded by rhyodacitic disseminated pyrite-quartz veins. Better 26 epithermal reserves and indicated- arsenopyrite, base-metal Behre Dolbearr (2005) early Cretaceous subvolcanic intrusion pyrite, kaolinite ore grades in crosscutting inferred resources) sulphides and sulphosalts 27 areas of both structures 28 Late Jurassic quartz- 117 Mt @ 0.354% Cu diorite intruded in Quartz, sericite, Pyrite, chalcopyrite, and 29 Djaygir Porphyry Cu (Indicated to inferred Prospect Early Cretaceous Bajocian tonalite, pyrite, kaolinite, Disseminated and stockwork subsidiary miolybdenite 30 resources) andesitic to rhyodacitic chlorite 31 tuff and tuff-sandstone 22.6 Mt @ 0.367% Cu - 32 133.3 ± 0.5 Ma (Re- Late Jurassic quartz- Pyrite, chalcopyrite, bornite, Babazadeh et al. (1990). 0.003 % Mo - 0.2 g/t Au - Quartz, sericite, Kharkhar Porphyry Cu Prospect Os molybdenite diorite intruded in covellite, chalcocite, Disseminated and stockwork Age from this study (Table 33 2-4 g/t Ag (Indicated to pyrite, kaolinite age) Bajocian tonalite molybdenite 2) 34 inferred resources)

35 41.5 Mt @ 0.43% Cu - Late Jurassic quartz- Pyrite, chalcopyrite, bornite, Quartz, sericite, Garadagh Porphyry Cu 0.002% Mo (Indicated to Prospect Early Cretaceous diorite intruded in covellite, chalcocite, Disseminated and stockwork Babazadeh et al. (1990) 36 pyrite, kaolinite inferred resources) Bajocian tonalite molybdenite 37 Past production: 16,000 t 38 Pyrite, enargite, barite, Silicification, @ 2% Cu. Unknown Bajocian andesite and High-sulfidation chalcopyrite, famatinite, sericite, argillic 39 Bitti-Bulakh reserves and resources: Closed Early Cretaceous tuff, intruded by Disseminated and lenses Butenko (1947). epithermal subsidiary fahlore, sphalerite, alteration 0.53 g/t Au - 0.5 g/t Ag - plagiogranite 40 galena, covellite (kaolinite) 41 1.07% Cu Early Bajocian andesite Silicification, 42 Unknown reserves and Epithermal and late Jurassic Fe-rich sphalerite, chalcopyrite, sericite, argillic Novogorelovka resources: 0.53 g/t Au- 0.5 Prospect Early Cretaceous Lens-shaped orebody Mamedov (1983) 43 polymetallic subvolcanic quartz- pyrite alteration g/t Ag - 1.07% Cu 44 dacite intrusion (kaolinite)

45 Sliicification, 32 Mt @ 0.51-0.72 % Cu - Bajocian andesitic sericite, 46 Maarif 0.01% Mo - 0.5-2 g/t Au Prospect Early Cretaceous porphyry intruded by Pyrite-chalcopyrite-molybdenite Stockwork disseminated (Probable reserves) subvolcanic rhyodacite 47 pyrite, chlorite 48 20.3 Mt @ 1.145 g/t Au - Highly altered quartz Low- to Mamedov (1983), Behre 49 0.29% Cu - 9.46 g/t Ag porphyry (dacite?) Pyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, Silicification, Disseminated, vein-type and intermediate/ Dolbear (2005), Hemon et Gedabek (Proven and probable In production Early Cretaceous intruding Jurassic stephanite, barite, native gold, sericite, pyrite, semi-massive to massive 50 high-sulfidation al. (2012) and Hemon reserves, and indicated andesitic volcanic and bornite, chalcoite, covvelite argillic alteration pyrite lenses epithermal (2013) 51 resources) volcaniclastic rocks 52 18.08 Mt @ 2.19 g/t Au - Silicification. Uncertain, possibly 53 High-sulfidation 16.72 g/t Ag (Probable Bajocian tuff, andesite, Pyrite, gold, enargite, Vuggy quartz. Musaev and Shirinov Chovdar In production late Jurassic or epithermal reserves and indicated- dacite and rhyolite tennantite-tetrahedrite, barite Argillic alteration (2002) 54 early Cretaceous inferred resources) (kaolinite) 55 56 Somkheto-Karabagh belt (Eurasian margin) - Mehmana mining district (see location in Figure 2) 57 3.3 Mt @ 3.9 g/t Au - Pyrite, chalcopyrite, native gold, Silicification, Agakishiev et al. (1989), Gizilbulak/ Cu-Au, 5.1g/t Ag - 1.3%Cu Closed since Bajocian basaltic hematite, and subsidiary sericite, Lens-shaped, stockwork and Khachanov (1993), Post-Oxfordian 58 Drmbon epithermal? (indicated-inferred 2014 andesite to dacite sphalerite, galena, bornite and carbonate, disseminated Vardanyan (2008) and 59 resources) tennantite-tetrahedrite chlorite, hematite Mederer et al. (2014) 60 61 62 63 64 65 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Table 1 - continued 23 Deposit name Deposit type Reserves-ore grade Status Age Host rock geology Main mineralogy Alteration Ore body geometry References 24 Artvin-Bolnisi zone (Eurasian margin) - Bolnisi mining district (Figure 8) and Dagkasaman area Pyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, Gugushvili et al. (2001), 25 Late Cretaceous tuff, Cu-polymetallic ore: 30 Mt barite, galena, tennantite, Migineishvili (2002, and volcanic and 26 Transitional VMS- @ 0.35% Cu - 0.4 g/t Au. tetrahedrite, hematite, Stockwork, stratiform 2005), Gialli et al. (2012) Open pit sedimentary rocks. U-Pb Silicification, Madneuli porphyry- Epithermal ore: 8 Mt @ Late Cretaceous tellurides, sulfobismuthites, massive sulphide lenses, Gialli (2013), Popkhadze 27 mining zircon ages of dikes sericite, chlorite, epithermal 0.55 g/t Au (Proven and native gold and silver, breccia pipes, veins et al. (2014), Gugushvili crosscutting Mashevera 28 probable reserves) subsidiary enargite, chalcosite, (2015). U-Pb ages from unit: 86.6-87.1 Ma. 29 covellite and bornite Moritz et al. (2012). 30 Cu-Au ore: 4 Mt @ 0.59% Silicification, Cu, 1.06 g/t Au; Late Cretaceous tuff, Base metal sulfides, pyrite, argillic alteration Gugushvili (2004, 2015), 31 Low-sulfidation Open pit Disseminated, breccia pipes Sakdrisi Epithermal: 8.6 Mt @ 1.77 Late Cretaceous and volcanic and native gold, barite, quartz, (illite, and Gugushvili et al. epithermal mining and stockwork 32 g/t Au (Proven and volcanoclastic rocks chalcedony, hematite montmorillonite, (2014) 33 probable reserves) kaolinite) Campanian felsic to Disseminated precious metal Silicification, 34 9.4 Mt @ 2.93 g/t Au - 33 intermediate calc- Sphalerite, chalcopyrite, galena, zone in silificied rocks and Low-sulfidation In argillic alteration Lavoie (2015) and Lavoie Beqtakari g/t Ag - 1.5% Zn -0.75% Late Cretaceous alkaline andesitic- pyrite, tennantite, tetrahedrite, breccia, with host rocks 35 epithermal development (illite, et al. (2015) Pb rhyodacitic volcanic marcasite clasts cemented by ore montnorillonite) 36 rocks minerals 0.7 Mt @ 4.38 g/t Au - 37 Precious metal Late Cretaceous tuff and Gold, sphalerite, and other base Silicification, Dagkasaman 18.64 g/t Ag (Probable Prospect Cretaceous? Veins and stokwork vein-type volcanic rocks metal sulfides albitization 38 reserves) 39 Miskhan/Tsaghqunk-Zangezur-Ordubad zone: Meghri-Ordubad mining district (Figure 5) 40 Molybdenite, chalcopyrite, 41 pyrite, bornite, chalcocite, Silicification, 40.22 ± 0.16 Ma to NW-oriented fracture zone. covellite, emplectite, enargite, sericite, argillic Karamyan (1978), Pijyan 42 9.6 Mt @ 0.95% Cu - In 39.97 ± 0.16 Ma Eocene granodiorite and Stockwork and breccia (ore Dastakert Porphyry Cu-Mo luzonite, magnetite, gold, alteration (1975). Ages from this 0.043% Mo development (Molybdenite Re-Os andesite-basalte minerals in matrix of 43 pyrrhotite, sphalerite, (kaolinite), study (Table 2) age) breccia) 44 tetrahedrite / tennantite, carbonates alabandite. 45 Molybdenite, chalcopyrite, 43.14 ± 0.17 Ma Late Eocene pyrite, galena, sphalerite. Silicification, 46 10.4 Mt @ 0.45% Cu - In Karamyan (1978). Ages Hankasar Porphyry Cu-Mo (Molybdenite Re-Os granodiorite and quartz- Gangue: quartz, sericite, sericite, Veins 0.038% Mo development from this study (Table 2) 47 age) diorite chlorite, carbonates, K-feldspar, carbonates 48 biotite. Silicification, 49 Past production: 460 tons 26.78 ± 0.11 Ma sericite, K- Babazadeh et al. (1990). of Mo. Ore grades: 0.01- Quartz-diorite, quartz Chalcopyrite, pyrite, Paragachay Porphyry Cu-Mo Closed (Molybdenite Re-Os feldspar, argillic Vein, stockwork Ages from this study 50 2.50 % Mo - 0.1-21.5% Cu syenodiorite molybdenite, magnetite age) alteration (Table 2) - 1 g/t Au 51 (kaolinite) 52 Silicification, 0.95 Mt @ 1.14% Cu - sericite, K- 53 Gabbrodiorite, diorite, Qapujuk Porphyry Cu-Mo 0.17% Mo - 0.3 g/t Au - Prospect Eocene-Oligocene Molybdenite, chalcopyrite, feldspar, argillic Babazadeh et al. (1990) quartz syenodiorite 54 4.0 g/t Ag alteration 55 (kaolinite) Pyrite, molybdenite, 56 Sericite, quartz, 2244 Mt @ 0.18% Cu - chalcopyrite, magnetite, 27.2 ± 0.1 Ma to disseminated Mkrtchyan et al. (1969), 57 0.021% Mo - 0.02 g/t Au Oligocene monzonite, sphalerite, galena, subsidiary 26.43 ± 0.11 Ma pyrite, argillic Karamyan (1978), Tayan Kadjaran Porphyry Cu-Mo (Proven and probable In production quartz-monzonite, covellite, enargite, luzonite, Stockwork 58 (Molybdenite Re-Os alteration (1984). Ages from this reserves, and indicated monzodiorite bornite,chalcocite, gold, age) (kaolinite), study (Table 2) 59 resources) tellurides, tetrahedrite / carbonate 60 tennantite. 61 62 63 64 65 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 Table 1 - continued 23 Deposit name Deposit type Reserves-ore grade Status Age Host rock geology Main mineralogy Alteration Ore body geometry References 24 Miskhan/Tsaghqunk-Zangezur-Ordubad zone: Meghri-Ordubad mining district - continuation (Figure 5) Silicification, 1.71 g/t Au - 29.4 g/t Ag - 24 ± 1 Ma (K-Ar Chalcopyrite, pyrite, sphalerite, Mkrtchyan et al. (1969). 25 Epithermal, Monzonite-hornfels sericite, pyrite, Atkis 0.79% Cu. No reported Prospect age of sericite from galena, molybdenite. Gangue: Veins Age from Bagdasaryan et polymetallic contact kaolinite, chlorite, 26 tonnage. altered host rock) quartz, calcite al. (1969) 27 carbonate Silicification, 28 Granodiorite, quartz- sericite, K- 350 Mt @ 0.43% Cu Chalcopyrite, pyrite, Misdag Porphyry Cu-Mo Prospect Likely Oligocene syenodiorite, quarz- feldspar, argillic Vein, stockwork Babazadeh et al. (1990) 29 (Inferred resources) molybdenite, magnetite, quartz monzonite alteration 30 (kaolinite)

31 1.13 Mt @ 1.28% Cu - 6.39 Native gold and silver, g/t Au - 23.4 g/t Ag Granodiorite, diorite, sulphosalts,pyrite, chalcopyrite, NS-oriented veins dipping 32 Agyurt Epithermal Prospect Eocene-Oligocene Babazadeh et al. (1990) (Probable reserves to quartz syenodiorite molybdenite, galena, sphalerite, steeply to the W 33 inferred resources) magnetite, quartz 34 1.7 Mt @8.6 g/t Au - 3.4 Silicification, 35 g/t Ag (Prove- probable Native gold, various sulfides, Ramazanov and Kerimli Piyazbashi Epithermal Prospect Eocene-Oligocene Andesitic tuff and flow argillic alteration Veins reserves, and inferred- quartz (2012) (kaolinite) 36 indicated resources) 37 Silicification, 34 Mt @ 0.63% Cu - Chalcopyrite, bornite, pyrite, 38 sericite, argillic Pijyan (1975), Karamyan 0.033% Mo - 0.05 g/t Au Early Miocene molybdenite, hematite, Lichk Porphyry Cu-Mo Prospect Oligocene-Miocene? alteration Stockwork (1978), and Hovakimyan 39 (Proven and probable porphyritic granodiorite magnetite. Gangue: quartz, (kaolinite), (2008) reserves) sericite, carbonates 40 carbonates 41 Silicification, sericite, K- 42 14.4 Mt @0.44% Cu - Chalcopyrite, pyrite, Vein, stockwork, along main Diakhchay Porphyry Cu-Mo Prospect Eocene-Oligocene Quartz-diorite feldspar, argillic Babazadeh et al. (1990) 0.015% Mo molybdenite, magnetite, quartz Ordubad fault 43 alteration 44 (kaolinite) Amiryan (1984), 45 3.5 Mt @ 0.44% Cu - 5.93 37.5 ± 0.5 Ma and Eocene granodiorite and Silicification, Hovakimyan (2010), Epithermal, g/t Au - 35.12 g/t Ag 38 ± 2.5 Ma (K-Ar syenodiorite and Middle Native gold, chalcopyrite, 46 Tey-Lichkvaz Prospect sericite, Stockwork and vein Hovakimyan and Tayan polymetallic (Proven and probable age of sericite from Eocene basalt and arsenopyrite, tellurides, pyrite carbonates (2008). Ages by reserves). altered host rock) andesite 47 Bagdasaryan et al. (1969) 48 Sericite, Eocene granodiorite and Native gold, base metal carbonates, Amiryan (1984), 49 0.5 Mt @ 11 g/t Au - 74.8 Epithermal, syenodiorite and Middle sulphides, pyrite chalcopyrite, argillic alteration Hovakimyan and Tayan Terterasar g/t Ag - 0.45% Cu (Proven Prospect Late Eocene? Veins and veinlets 50 polymetallic Eocene basalt and arsenopyrite, tellurides. (kaolinite), (2008) and probable reserves) 51 andesite Gangue: quartz, carbonates carbonates silicification 52 Silicification, 51.6 Mt @ 0.172% Cu - Pijyan (1975), Karamyan 42.62 ± 0.17 Ma Molybdenite, chalcopyrite, sericite, argillic 53 0.042% Mo (Proven and Eocene granodiorite, (1978), and Hovakimyan Aygedzor Porphyry Cu-Mo Prospect (Molybdenite Re-Os galena, sphalerite, pyrite, alteration Stockwork and vein probable reserves and syenogranite and Tayan (2008). Age 54 age) enargite, quartz (kaolinite), indicated resources) from this study (Table 2) 55 carbonates 56 Pyrite, molybdenite, Sericite, quartz, chalcopyrite, bornite, disseminated 45 Mt @ 0.5% Cu - Pijyan (1975), Karamyan 57 44.2 ± 0.2 Ma Eocene porphyritic magnetite, sphalerite, galena, pyrite, argillic 0.029% Mo- 0.025 g/t Au - (1978), and Tayan et al. Agarak Porphyry Cu-Mo In production (Molybdenite Re-Os leucocratic granodiorite, covellite, subsidiary covellite, alteration Stockwork 58 1.19 g/t Ag (Proven and (2007). Age from this age) syenogranite enargite. Gangue: quartz, (kaolinite), probable reserves) study (Table 2) 59 sericite, chlorite, carbonates, K- carbonate, albite, 60 feldspar, biotite chlorite, biotite 61 62 63 64 65 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 Deposit name Deposit type Reserves-ore grade Status Age Host rock geology Main mineralogy Alteration Ore body geometry References 24 Sevan-Akera suture zone (see location in Figure 2) 43 ± 1.5 Ma (K-Ar 25 whole rock Pyrite, sphalerite, native gold, Carbonate Amiryan (1984), Melikyan 26 23 Mt @ 7.0 g/t Au - 8.5 alteration age), but Late Jurassic gabbro, tellurides, sulfosalts, stibnite, (listwaenite), (1976), Spiridonov Low-sulfidation g/t Ag (Proven-probable interpreted as peridotite, amphibolite, realgar, orpiment. Gangue: quartz, talc, Mostly EW-oriented, deeply (1991), Kozerenko (2004) Zod - Sotk In production 27 epithermal reserves to indicated Oligocene to serpentinite (ophiolite quartz, chalcedony, calcite, sericite, steeping quartz veins and Levitan (2008). Age 28 resources) Miocene assemblage) rhodochrosite, siderite, montmorillonite, from Bagdasaryan et al. (Kozerenko, 2004; breunnerite dickite, beidellite (1969) 29 Levitan, 2008) 30 Miskhan/Tsaghqunk-Zangezur zone: Amulsar and Meghradzor-Hanqavan ore cluster (Figure 7) 31 Eocene-Oligocene 32 andesite, subvolcanic porphyritic Intrusion age from 33 122.4 Mt @ 0.77 g/t Au - Silicification, NE- and NW-oriented fault High-sulfidation In Unknown, Oligocene- andesite,andesitic- Base metal sulfides, gold, Bagdasaryan and Amulsar 3.5 g/t Ag (Measured and vuggy silica, control on subvertical ore 34 epithermal development Miocene? dacitic tuff, volcanic hematite Ghukasian (1985). Lydian indicated reserves) alunite, hematite bodies 35 breccia. Monzonite- International (2016) granosyenite dated at 36 33-34 Ma by K-Ar. 37 38 Late Eocene monzonite, monzodiorite, quartz- Silicification, Pyrite, native gold,sphalerite, 39 syenite, syenogranite, sericite, 41.5 ± 1.0 Ma (K-Ar chalcopyrite, galena, tellurides, Amiryan and Karapetyan 0.38 Mt @ 12.4 g/t Au andesite, dacite, tuff; disseminated Pinch-swell quartz veins 40 Meghradzor Epithermal In production age of sericite from molybdenite, pyrrhotite. (1964). Age from (Proven-probable reserves) late Jurassic-early pyrite, argillic along detachment zones altered wall rock) Gangue: quartz, carbonates, Bagdasaryan et al. (1969) Cretaceous tonalitie, alteration 41 sericite quartz-diorite; (kaolinite) 42 Precambrian schist 43 Pyrite, chalcopyrite, 44 109 Mt @ 0.044% Mo and molybdenite, galena, magnetite, Reserve and 29.34 ± 0.12 Ma Silicification, Porphyry/ 2.2 Mt oxidized ore @ Tonalite crosscut by scheelite, sphalerite, covellite, Structurally controlled by NE- Age from this study (Table 45 Hanqavan resource (Molybdenite Re-Os sericite, stockwork Cu-Mo 0.6% Cu (indicated- granodioritic dikes tellurides, native gold. Gangue: and EW-oriented faults 2) estimation age) carbonates 46 inferred resources) quartz, calcite, ankerite, 47 siderite. 48 Tsaghkuniat massif - South Armenian block (Figure 7) 49 Sphalerite, galena, NE-oriented 150-200m wide 21.92 Mt @ 1.62 g/t Au - Amiryan et al. (1997), 50 Precious metal- Reserve and 146.1 ± 0.6 Ma Late Jurassic mafic arsenopyrite, pyrite, alteration and mineralized 4.88 g/t Ag (Proven- Argillic alteration, and Wheatley and Toukhmanouk sulfide vein- resource (Molybdenite Re-Os volcanic rocks and chalcopyrite, gold, tellurides, zone, containing subvertical 51 probable reserves and sericite, pyrite Acheson (2011). Age from type/stockwork estimation age) Proterozoic trondhjemite arsenopyrite. Gangue: quartz quartz veins, typically indicated resources) this study (Table 2) 52 and subsidiary carbonate rimmed by sulphides 53 54 Adjara-Trialeti belt (see location in Figure 1) 55 Middle Eocene mafic volcanic rocks and tuff Silicification, 56 breccia. Late Eocene Chalcopyrite, galena, sphalerite, sericite, Porphyry-Cu, 2.9 Mt @ 0.38% Cu and Gugushvili (1980, 2015). shoshonitic rocks. Late and subordinate marcasite, disseminated Subvertical, EW- to NW- 57 Merisi polymetallic, 0.75 g/t Au (Proven and Closed Late Eocene Khomeriki and Tuskia Eocene calc-alkaline hematite, native gold and silver, pyrite, argillic oriented veins epithermal probable reserves) (2005) 58 andesite, diorite, sulfosalts, barite alteration 59 granodiorite, syenite- (kaolinite) diorite, syenite. 60 61 62 63 64 65 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 Table 2 - Re-Os Data for Molybdenite from ore deposits and prospects of the Lesser Caucasus 22 Re 187 187 Re-Os 23 Sample number Location Deposit type Description Wt (g) ± Re ± Os ± ±a ±b (ppm) (ppm) (ppb) age (Ma) 24 Somkheto-Karabagh belt (Eurasian margin): Alaverdi and Gedabek districts (Figs 4 and 6a, respectively) 25 Kharkhar, Gedabek RO404-3_XX-11-02C Porphyry Cu Quartz-molybdenite vein in porphyry intrusion 0.022 766.8 2.8 482.0 1.8 1071.3 3.3 133.27 0.53 0.68 26 district (Fig. 6a) Teghout, Alaverdi Quartz–molybdenite vein, thickness ~0.5 cm, in tonalite-porphyry, Alteration: RO812-8_Teghout-N7/83 Porphyry Cu 0.011 506.9 2.5 318.6 1.5 775.1 3.4 145.85 0.59 0.74 27 district (Fig. 4) silicification and sericite (elevation ~900m) 28 Tsaghkuniat massif - South Armenian block (Fig. 7) Intrusion-hosted gold and 29 RO812-5_Toukhmanouk Toukhmanouk Disseminated molybdenite in tonalite-granodiorite (Mirac intrusion) 0.024 117.8 0.4 74.0 0.3 180.5 0.5 146.14 0.59 0.74 30 base metal stockwork Miskhan/Tsaghqunk-Zangezur zone: Zangezur-Ordubad mining district (Fig. 5) 31 Quartz–molybdenite-chalcopyrite vein, thickness ~3 cm, alteration: K- feldspar, RO280-2_N2 Agarak Porphyry Cu-Mo 0.024 538.8 1.9 338.7 1.2 249.6 0.7 44.2 0.18 0.22 32 sericite, argillic, silicification (elevation ~1070m) RO812-7_Aygedzor_NRM- Quartz-molybdenite stockwork, vein thickness ~1.6m, in granodiorite, alteration: Aygedzor Porphyry Cu-Mo 0.011 1141.0 5.5 717.2 3.5 509.5 2.3 42.62 0.17 0.22 33 0560 sericitization and argillic (elevation 1100m) Quartz–molybdenite vein, thickness ~5 cm, in granodiorite (Rb-Sr isochrone age: 34 RO404-8_R32 Aygedzor Porphyry Cu-Mo 0.035 727.5 2.4 457.3 1.5 329.2 0.9 43.19 0.17 0.22 35 41.8 Ma; Melkonyan et al., 2010) RO812-2_Dastaker_NRM- Molybdenite from matrix of breccia, in granodiorite and volcanic rocks, alteration: Dastakert Breccia-hosted Cu-Mo 0.023 212.1 0.8 133.3 0.5 89.4 0.3 40.22 0.16 0.20 36 0547 silicification, sericitization (elevation ~2300m) RO812- Dastakert Breccia-hosted Cu-Mo Quartz–molybdenite–chalcopyrite matrix of breccia with clasts of volcanic rocks 0.020 235.6 0.9 148.1 0.6 98.7 0.3 39.99 0.16 0.20 37 4_Dastakert_N98m/75 38 RO391-4_R13 Dastakert Breccia-hosted Cu-Mo Quartz–molybdenite–chalcopyrite matrix of breccia with clasts of volcanic rocks 0.028 315.8 1.1 198.5 0.7 132.3 0.4 39.99 0.16 0.20 39 Quartz–molybdenite–chalcopyrite matrix of breccia with clasts of volcanic rocks RO391-5_98M/75 Dastakert Breccia-hosted Cu-Mo 0.052 207.9 0.7 130.7 0.4 87.0 0.2 39.97 0.16 0.20 40 (elevation ~2200m) Quartz-molybdenite stockwork in porphyry intrusion, veinlet zone, thickness ~5 41 RO812-3_Ankaser_N72p Hanqasar Porphyry Cu-Mo 0.022 76.3 0.3 47.9 0.2 34.5 0.1 43.14 0.17 0.22 cm, in granodiorite, alteration: silification, weak sericitization (elevation 2000m) 42 Quartz–molybdenite–chalcopyrite vein, thickness ~30 cm, adit N4, in granodiorite 43 RO404-7_R16 Hanqasar Porphyry Cu-Mo of Gekhi intrusion (K-Ar whole rock age: 38.6 Ma, and biotite age: 42 Ma; 0.045 45.1 0.2 28.3 0.1 20.3 0.1 43.07 0.18 0.22 Melkonyan et al., 2008, 2010) (elevation ~2200m) 44 Quartz-chalcopyrite-molybdenite stockwork and veins in porphyry intrusion, vein, RO812- Kadjaran Porphyry Cu-Mo thickness 10-12 cm, in monzonite, alteration: weak silification, sericite, argillic, 0.022 322.4 1.2 202.6 0.7 90.5 0.3 26.80 0.11 0.14 45 1_Kajaran_N160m/75 carbonates (elevation ~1950m) 46 Quartz-chalcopyrite-molybdenite vein, thickness 6-8 cm, host rock-monzonite; RO391-1_KJ-10-11D Kadjaran Porphyry Cu-Mo 0.050 222.6 0.7 139.9 0.5 63.0 0.2 27.02 0.11 0.14 47 alteration: weak silification, sericite, argillic, carbonates (elevation ~1935m) Quartz-chalcopyrite-molybdenite vein, thickness 8-10 cm, inmonzonite; alteration: RO391-2_KJ-10-13A Kadjaran Porphyry Cu-Mo 0.050 160.4 0.5 100.8 0.3 44.4 0.1 26.43 0.11 0.13 48 weak silification, sericite, argillic, carbonates (elevation ~1935m) Quartz-chalcopyrite-molybdenite vein, thickness 6-8 cm, host rock -monzonite; 49 RO391-3_KJ-10-01C Kadjaran Porphyry Cu-Mo 0.051 104.3 0.3 65.6 0.2 29.2 0.1 26.70 0.11 0.14 50 alteration: weak silification, sericite, argillic, carbonates (elevation ~1920m) RO280-1_NI Kadjaran Porphyry Cu-Mo Quartz–molybdenite vein, thickness ~12 cm, in monzonite, alteration: K-feldspar, 0.042 368.3 1.2 231.5 0.8 104.9 0.3 27.2 0.11 0.14 51 sericite, argillic, carbonates (elevation ~2100m) Kadjaran, middle Molybdenite disseminated in aplitic granite crosscutting porphyry granodiorite (U- RO404-9_R15 Porphyry Cu-Mo 0.045 197.9 0.7 124.4 0.4 47.4 0.1 22.87 0.09 0.12 52 stream Iry Pb zircon age: 22.22 ± 0.02 Ma; Moritz et al., in press) (elevation ~2000m) 53 Pegmatitic vein, thickness 1.2m, in monzonite, alteration: weak silification, argillic RO812-6_Kaler_NRM-0574 Kaler Pegmatite 0.010 1085.2 5.5 682.1 3.5 352.4 1.6 31.00 0.12 0.16 54 (elevation 2050) 55 RO404-5_119999 Paragachay Porphyry Cu-Mo Quartz-molybdenite stockwork in porphyry intrusion 0.030 258.6 0.9 162.5 0.6 72.5 0.2 26.78 0.11 0.14 Qefashen, Gekhi 56 RO404-6_M14 Garnet skarn Skarn in contact with the Gekhi intrusion, thickness ~0.5cm (elevation ~2100m) 0.021 108.1 0.4 67.9 0.3 50.6 0.2 44.70 0.18 0.22 intrusion 57 Miskhan/Tsaghqunk-Zangezur zone: Meghradzor-Hanqavan ore cluster (Fig. 7) 58 Quartz–molybdenite vein and stockwork, in tonalite cut by pre-ore granodiorite 59 RO404-4_HAN-11-01 Hankavan Porphyry Cu-(Mo) and porphyry granite dykes (age: 31.7 ± 32.9 Ma, whole-rock K-Ar dating; 0.021 173.4 0.6 109.0 0.4 53.3 0.2 29.34 0.12 0.16 60 Bagdasaryan, 1972), alteration: chlorite, sericite, carbonates (elevation ~2050m) a age uncertainty includes all analytical sources of uncertainty 61 b 187 age uncertainty includes all analytical sources of uncertainty and the uncertainty in the Re decay constant 62 63 64 65