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Truthmaker Monism Annals of the Japan Association for Philosophy of Science Vol.29 (2020) 61～73 61 Truthmaker Monism Taiji Yukimoto∗ and Tora Koyama∗∗ Abstract Monism is a metaphysical view according to which there is only one funda- mental object. This paper will explore monism within the context of truthmaker theory, or Truthmaker Monism, a view rarely discussed in literature. Although few truthmaker theorists defend monism, at least explicitly, some theories seem to share the spirit of monism to some extent. Interestingly, they are proposed as solutions for the same problem, called the problem of negative truth.Acloseexam- ination will show that while each of these solutions can account for the problem, they are unsatisfactory for different reasons. This paper will suggest a novel solu- tion to the problem of negative truth which preserves the advantages of existing solutions while avoiding the difficulties with which they are faced. Key words: monism, truthmaker, actuality, duplicate, the Humean denial of necessary connections Introduction Monism is a metaphysical view according to which there is only one fundamental object. Recent discussions of monism in analytic metaphysics began with the sem- inal paper by Jonathan Schaffer (2010b).1 Although his view is undoubtedly one of speculative metaphysics, the arguments raised in his paper invoke not only the stan- dard apparatus of metaphysics such as mereology and possible worlds, but also the history of philosophy (Aristotle, Spinoza, and Hegel, among other great figures) and contemporary physics (and particularly the phenomenon of entanglement in quantum ∗ Graduate School of Human Sciences, Osaka University, 1–3, Yamadaoka, Suita, 565– 0871, Japan ∗∗ Research Institute for Time Studies, Yamaguchi University, 1677-1, Yoshida, Yam- aguchi, 753–8511, Japan This paper is based on Yukimoto’s talk at the 8th annual conference of Japan As- sociation for the Contemporary and Applied Philosophy. He would like to thank to the audience there for their helpful comments and suggestions. We also would like to thank the anonymous referees for their careful readings and insightful comments. 1 Schaffer (2010b) distinguishes two kinds of except Section 5 Monism, Priority and Existence Monism. We ignore this distinction for the sake of argument. —61— 62 Taiji Yukimoto and Tora Koyama Vol. 29 mechanics). We should consider monism in broader subfields of philosophy for that reason. This paper will explore monism in truthmaker theory, or Truthmaker Monism, a view rarely discussed in literature.2 Although few truthmaker theorists defend monism, at least explicitly, some theories seem to share the spirit of monism to some extent. Interestingly, these theories are proposed as solutions for the same problem, called the problem of negative truth. A close examination will show that while each theory can account for this problem, they are unsatisfactory for different reasons. This paper will suggest a novel solution to the problem of negative truth, preserving the advantages of existing theories while avoiding their shortcomings. This paper is organized as follows: As a preliminary, a broad explanation of the notion of truthmaker is given in Section 1, a thesis of the orthodox truthmaker theory that is presupposed in the dispute regarding the problem of negative truth, Truthmaker Maximalism, is also given. Section 2 discusses the problem of negative truth, and its standard solution to this problem is also examined. Section 3 discusses monistic views, which are supposed to account for the problem of negative truth; according to our analysis, however, this perspective may pose a dilemma. Section 4 proposes a novel solution, and finally, Section 5 explores Truthmaker Monism. 1. What is Truthmaker? In this section, we give a rough overview of truthmaker theory.3 Two concepts are essential to the argument below: the idea of a necessary condition for truthmaking, and what is known as Truthmaker Maximalism. Truthmaker theorists contend that there exist concrete entities that are grounds for (at least most) contingent truths. The proposition that Socrates exists, for ex- ample, is contingently true and Socrates himself is a concrete entity for the truth. In other words, because Socrates exists, the proposition that he exists is true; if he does not exist, it is not true. We call these concrete entities truthmakers because they are seen to make contingent truths true. Truthmaker theory is an ontological inquiry based on the notion of truthmaker. While the concept of a truthmaker is difficult to define, very few theorists deny the need for a necessary condition, according to which, if an entity is a truthmaker for a proposition, it necessitates the proposition’s truth (Rodriguez-Pereyra, 2006).4 2 Roughly speaking, Truthmaker Monism is the view that the world is the only truth- maker for every truth. Some argue that Truthmaker Monism could render truthmaker theory trivial. However, Schaffer (2010a) defends Truthmaker Monism from these ob- jections. 3 For the topics discussed within the context of truthmaker theory, see MacBride (2020). 4 For truthmaker theorists who deny the need for the necessary condition, see Bar- —62— Truthmaker Monism 63 Conversely, if it is possible that an entity exists while the proposition is false, the entity is not a truthmaker for the proposition. Athens is not a truthmaker for the existence of Socrates, nor are some of the molecules that constituted Socrates. Some truthmaker theorists claim that all contingent truths have truthmakers (Rami, 2009), a position that is referred to as Truthmaker Maximalism. We assume this position.5 The problem of negative truth, our focus in this paper, is essentially an objection against Truthmaker Maximalism in literature. Our novel solution to this problem, proposed in Section 4, is the most valuable for the proponents of Truthmaker Maximalism. 2. The Problem of Negative Truth The problem of negative truth can be traced back to Russell (1919). He claimed there exist negative facts, such as the fact that Socrates is not alive, as well as positive facts. His reasoning can be followed in the context of truthmaker theory. What is the truthmaker for the negative truth that there are no unicorns? For the positive case we considered in the previous section, Socrates himself is the truthmaker. He is no doubt indispensable for the truth. Similarly, for other positive cases, say, the truth that there are horses, any horse can be the truthmaker for it. However, for negative cases such as the fact that there are no unicorns, it appears that nothing can be a truthmaker. Obviously, a unicorn cannot be the truthmaker because if the unicorn exists, the proposition is not true, and therefore, is not a fact. However, Russell identified what he called negative facts, which, if they exist at all, can make the proposition that there are no unicorns true (and thereby necessitate that truth).6 Although introducing negative facts into our ontology, as Russell did, can solve the problem of negative truth, the concept has also received heavy criticism. Nega- tive facts have bizarre characteristics compared with positive ones. We focus on three characteristics in particular. The first is constituency. It is unclear what constituents a negative fact is made of (Rodriguez-Pereyra, 2006), and because one cannot perceive a negative fact, it is difficult to specify its components. The problem is that although it seems easy to distinguish the fact that there are no unicorns from other negative facts, such as there are no dragons, it would be quite difficult to specify how they differ without referring to their components. The second characteristic is connected to perceivability. Negative facts are not directly perceivable (Molnar, 2000, sec. VI). Perception is the relation between the perceiver and the perceived. When the latter cel´o Aspeitia (2015); Briggs (2012); Griffith (2015). 5 Note that we take Truthmaker Maximalism as a thesis about the actual world (Mol- nar, 2000, p. 72). Accordingly, truths involving other worlds are not our concern. 6 More precisely, as one can easily see, the problem is about negative existential truths. —63— 64 Taiji Yukimoto and Tora Koyama Vol. 29 does not exist, it does not hold or at least it is mysterious how the perceiver can per- ceive it. Some claim that we can perceive a negative fact in an ordinary context, but only by comparison with a positive fact. Without comparison with an appropriate positive counterpart, one cannot perceive a negative fact. The third characteristic of negative facts is related to causal efficacy. Negative facts are causally ineffective (Molnar, 2000, sec. V). According to the so-called Eleatic principle, causal efficacy is the mark of a real existent. However, a causal relationship is usually one between actual events or entities, such as striking a billiard ball as the cause and the collision with another ball as the effect. If there is no striking, no specific effect will occur. Obviously, these characteristics of negative facts are interrelated, and one could deny the validity of any or all three. For instance, some might reject the claim that negative facts are causally ineffective. In fact, some negative facts are believed to be causes in ordinary contexts. The fact that I am not at my house would imply a cause of theft. However, if one takes the scenario at face value, there would be too many causes and effects present. I am not at my house, at my office, at my parents’ house, and other places. These other negative facts could cause events that are too small to notice. Also, there are many other things that I am not doing, which would be the cause of still other effects. Many unnoticeable causations seem disastrous for our causal understanding. We believe that striking a ball is the cause of the collision. If there were many other causes unnoticeable to us, such as no one stopping the ball, the striking would be only a part of the cause.
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