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Evolución De Las Campañas Electorales En El Cine Norteamericano

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Evolución De Las Campañas Electorales En El Cine Norteamericano DEPARTAMENT DE TEORIA DELS LLENGUATGES I CIÈNCIES DE LA COMUNICACIÓ ENTRE LA FICCIÓN Y EL REPORTAJE: EVOLUCIÓN DE LAS CAMPAÑAS ELECTORALES EN EL CINE NORTEAMERICANO JAVIER MARTÍNEZ TARÍN UNIVERSITAT DE VALÈNCIA Servei de Publicacions 2009 Aquesta Tesi Doctoral va ser presentada a València el dia 6 de febrer de 2009 davant un tribunal format per: - Dr. José Luís Castro de Paz - Dr. José Mª Bernardo Paniagua - Dr. Pablo Ferrando García - Dr. Vicente Ponce Ferrer - Dr. Josep Gavaldà Roca Va ser dirigida per: Dr. Juan Miguel Company Ramón ©Copyright: Servei de Publicacions Javier Martínez Tarín Dipòsit legal: V-3730-2009 I.S.B.N.: 978-84-370-7487-0 Edita: Universitat de València Servei de Publicacions C/ Arts Gràfiques, 13 baix 46010 València Spain Telèfon:(0034)963864115 Departament de Teoria dels Llenguatges Universitat de València ENTRE LA FICCIÓN Y EL REPORTAJE: EVOLUCIÓN DE LAS CAMPAÑAS ELECTORALES EN EL CINE NORTEAMERICANO Tesis Doctoral presentada por Javier Martínez Tarín Director de la Tesis: Dr. D. Juan Miguel Company Valencia, 2008 1 ÍNDICE Introducción…………………………………………………………………………5 1. Democracia y medios de comunicación………………………………………...19 1.1. Los medios de comunicación y la comunicación política.…………………….26 1.1.1. Función de los medios de comunicación……………………………….28 1.1.2. Agenda setting: criterios de selección……………………………………..36 1.1.3. La televisión como medio dominante de información………………….41 1.1.4. Poder y medios de comunicación: fabricación del consenso……………45 1.1.5. De la palabra a la imagen……………………………………………….47 1.1.6. El discurso dominante de la televisión………………………………….59 1.1.7. La democracia mediática y las campañas electorales……………………65 1.1.8. Juegos lingüísticos de los políticos……………………………………...80 1.1.9. Información frente a comunicación……………………………………87 2. Un mundo feliz: el control de la información………………………………….95 2.1. El cine: componente esencial de la industria del entretenimiento………….....99 2.2. La construcción histórica e ideológica a través del cine……………………..108 3. El espectáculo: el discurso social dominante………………………………….113 3.1. La esfera política y el espectáculo televisivo………………………………...116 3.2. La campaña electoral en clave dramática…………………………………....134 3.3. Star system político y cinematográfico……………………………………….136 3.4. La industria del espectáculo político………………………………………..147 4. Los films: cine y campañas electorales………………………………………...155 4.1. El político (All the King´s Men, Robert Rossen, 1947): La política antes de la era de la televisión…………..……………………………………………………….166 4.1.1. Las elecciones controladas por el poder establecido…………………...172 4.1.2. La prensa escrita: la ficción del cuarto poder………………………….178 4.1.3. Estrategias y engaños electorales……………………………………....184 2 4.1.4. El gabinete de prensa del político……………………………………..194 4.1.5. Los mecanismos democráticos de control…………………………….198 4.2. El candidato (The Candidate, Michael Ritchie, 1972): la política de la imagen:………………………………………………………………………….206 4.2.1. El profesional de la comunicación política como cazatalentos………...211 4.2.2. La industria del espectáculo entra en la escena política………………..221 4.2.3. La imagen dicta el discurso político…………………………………...231 4.2.4. El debate electoral y la política de la imagen…………………………..235 4.3. Ciudadano Bob Roberts (Bob Roberts, Tim Robbins, 1992): la política espectáculo……………..……………………………………………………….245 4.3.1. Política y música: el candidato como estrella de folk…………………..251 4.3.2. Bob Roberts: el rebelde conservador………………………………….257 4.3.3. La culminación de la política espectáculo……………………………...261 4.3.4. Los medios en campaña electoral……………………………………..266 4.3.5. El político como actor televisivo……………………………………...274 4.4. La cortina de humo ( Wag the Dog, Barry Levinson, 1997): la realidad política como ficción…………………………………………………………………………...286 4.4.1. La ficción como agenda política………………………………………300 4.4.2. El fontanero del presidente y el productor de Hollywood……………..303 4.4.3. Washington y Hollywood: la magia del cine al servicio del poder……...306 4.4.4. Agenda setting a través del relato cinematográfico………………………321 4.5. Fahrenheit 9/11 (Fahrenheit 9/11, Michael Moore, 2004): el cine como instrumento electoral……………………………………………………………325 4.5.1. La televisión y el recuento electoral…………………………………....337 4.5.2. El papel de los medios tras el 11–S……………………………………341 4.5.3. La guerra contra Irak: la manipulación mediática……………………...348 5. Conclusiones……………………………………………………………………360 3 6. Fichas técnicas, artísticas y carteles de los films……………………………...376 6.1. El político (All the King´s Men, Robert Rossen, 1947)…………………………376 6.2. El candidato (The Candidate, Michael Ritchie, 1972)…………………………...378 6.3. Ciudadano Bob Roberts (Bob Roberts, Tim Robbins, 1992)……………………...380 6.4. La cortina de humo (Wag the Dog, Barry Levinson, 1997)………………………382 6.5. Fahrenheit 9/11 (. Fahrenheit 9/11, Michael Moore, 2004)……………………385 7. Bandas sonoras…………………………………………………………………387 7.1. Ciudadano Bob Roberts (Bob Roberts, Tim Robbins, 1992)...……………………387 7.2. La cortina de humo (Wag the Dog, Barry Levinson, 1997)………………………389 7.3. Fahrenheit 9/11 (Fahrenheit 9/11, Michael Moore, 2004)……………………..391 8. Bibliografía……………………………………………………………………...396 4 Introducción El presente trabajo se plantea para investigar la relación existente entre dos campos con muchos puntos de conexión, y que, quizá, no han sido suficientemente estudiados en su zona de superposición. Nos referimos a la comunicación política –durante el periodo electoral en particular– y su representación cinematográfica en Estados Unidos. Por consiguiente, este estudio tiene la intención de revisar esta relación centrándose, por un lado, en el cine y su desarrollo en tanto que producto cultural de masas y su influencia en otros espacios sociales y culturales; y por otro, en el área de la política y la comunicación en las modernas democracias, su funcionamiento y estrategias comunicativas durante las campañas electorales. Ambos componentes tienen sus orígenes y momentos de desarrollo y esplendor en los Estados Unidos, que se ha erigido en ambos ámbitos en la referencia fundamental y obligada desde una perspectiva teórica e incluso práctica. La amplitud de ambos espacios imposibilita un tratamiento exhaustivo de todos los aspectos que los integran. Nuestra tarea se centrará, en consecuencia, en algunas cuestiones hacia las que se dirigirán nuestros esfuerzos obviando otras que, aunque no menos importantes, sin embargo, no entran en nuestro campo de análisis. Un elemento central para nosotros sería el estudio de la evolución de las campañas electorales, tal y como queda recogida por algunos films políticos representativos de este género –si se puede manejar dicho concepto– tan norteamericano. Hollywood ha tenido tradicionalmente un claro interés por retratar las elecciones políticas y su desarrollo ha quedado fijado en el celuloide, reflejando los cambios que la comunicación política va operando a lo largo de las décadas hasta el momento. Por otra parte, es de nuestro interés estudiar la influencia del espectáculo cinematográfico en el ámbito político en sí mismo, en términos de estrategias propias de representación fílmica, así como la modelización del mundo político en el ámbito cinematográfico. Se trataría, en definitiva, de ver el doble proceso de contacto e influencia entre cine y política. Generalmente, cuando se habla de la evolución política se enfatiza la fuerte transformación que se da en esta área social debido al desarrollo de los medios de comunicación de masas, concretamente televisión, radio, prensa e Internet, obviando la posible influencia que ejerce el cinematógrafo. La relación de estos medios de comunicación y su impacto sobre el 5 marketing político es indiscutible y, sin duda, formará parte de nuestra investigación; no obstante, creemos que el cine puede haber supuesto asimismo un elemento importante en el desarrollo de la política, porque muchas de las estrategias espectaculares asumidas por otros medios proceden precisamente del cinematógrafo. Nuestra intención es, pues, intentar matizar y verificar dicha influencia en la comunicación política y la manera en que se plantea la política y sus campañas electorales como espectáculo. Este estudio nos va a llevar, también, a plantearnos los mecanismos que los medios audiovisuales ponen en marcha en la maquinaria comunicativa de las elecciones. Asimismo, es interesante, desde nuestro punto de vista, investigar el hecho de que algunos films han nacido con una clara vocación política de influir de manera activa en un proceso electoral determinado, y valorar hasta qué punto este objetivo se ha conseguido, o si por el contrario los efectos han sido totalmente opuestos a esta intención. En multitud de ocasiones la intención comunicativa del emisor puede verse totalmente modificada, e incluso conseguir unos efectos contrarios a los deseados por motivos diversos: desde una recepción problemática hasta cambios de contexto inesperados. Un ejemplo de esta complejidad la encontramos precisamente en el campo de la comunicación política al estudiar los sondeos de opinión y las encuestas electorales, cuya publicación puede tener efectos nebulosos en términos de movilización el día de las elecciones. A lo largo de la historia el poder ha buscado la comunicación con los gobernados – súbditos o ciudadanos– a través de los medios a su alcance. Durante mucho tiempo ha prevalecido la comunicación oral (la voz y el gesto), quedando restringida ésta a las reducidas dimensiones de un auditorio al que un orador puede dirigirse. Más tarde
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