Editor's Notes

Charles Dickens was a publishing current events and taught "the mul­ phenomenon, as popular as he was titude of men what to say and prolific. The first of eighteen serial think," reports Allyson McGill in the novels, Posthumous Papers of the Pick­ article describing the Wellesley Index wick Club (1836-37), made him fa­ to Victorian Periodicals. When it is mous at twenty-four. Several install­ completed in 1988, the index, which ments of The Old Curiosity Shop describes the contents of fifty major (1840-41) pushed print runs of Mas­ publications, will be an indispensa­ Our cover photograph, "Old Furniture," ter Humphrey's Clock, the weekly in ble reference work for scholars of is a Woodburytype by John Thomson, which it appeared, to 100,000 copies. Victorian studies. one of the few photographers to capture When the publishers of Household Dickens' audience quickly ex­ the daily traffic of London's working Words, a weekly that Dickens edited panded beyond the readers who class. This photograph and others from from 1850 to 1859, saw magazine waited faithfully for each printed in­ his collection Street Life in London sales dropping, they persuaded stallment. His works were being (1877-78) appear in the exhibition cata­ Dickens to shore its sagging circula­ adapted for the stage while he was logue The Golden Age of British Pho­ tion by writing another serial. His writing them; many were produced tography, 1839-1900. response was Hard Times (1854), without acknowledgment or permis­ which gave the magazine a boost sion even before the last installment that kept it in print for five more had been written let alone pub­ years. lished. In a review heralding the re­ This issue of Humanities reviews turn of Nicholas Nickleby to the New Humanities is a bimonthly review the circumstances of the Dickens York stage this fall, Robert Cushman published by the National phenomenon: the periodicals that of the New York Times called Charles Endowment for the Humanities prescribed his form, the manners Dickens "the greatest English play­ Chairman: Lynne V. Cheney and attitudes that inspired his sub­ wright never to write a play." Some Director of Public Affairs: jects, and the emotional nature of of the reasons for his popularity Marguerite Hoxie Sullivan the mass popular response to his with playwrights and theater-goers Assistant Director for Publications: classic works of literature. For Dick­ are explored in "Dickens on Stage" Caroline Taylor Editor: Linda Blanken ens' novels are as suggestive to the by Matthew Kiell. Managing Editor: Mary T. Chunko literary critic as they are available to Dickens is not merely popular; he Editorial Board: lay readers of all ages, and so repre­ is loved. Fred Kaplan, professor of Marjorie Berlincourt, James Blessing, sent the kind of bridge between the English at Queens College and the Harold Cannon, Richard Ekman, scholarly and public worlds that Graduate Center of the City Univer­ Donald Gibson, Guinevere Griest, many NEH programs seek to foster. sity of New York, is currently at Pamela Glenn Menke Michael Lund of Longwood work on a new biography of Dickens Designed by Maria Josephy Schoolman College, who has conducted NEH that will in some ways account for Summer Seminars for Secondary the strong emotional ties between The opinions and conclusions expressed in School Teachers on the great serial the writer and his audience. "To his Humanities are those of the authors and do novels, explains that periodical pub­ readers," Professor Kaplan writes in not necessarily reflect Endowment policy. Material appearing in this publication may be lication influenced both the way that the essay that opens this issue of freely reproduced with appropriate credit to Dickens conceived his novels and Humanities, "he confided indirectly Humanities. The editor would appreciate cop­ the way that his audience received his deepest emotional life." He also ies for the Endowment's reference. The chair­ man of the Endowment has determined that them. In "Reading Long Stories on made them laugh—a reader re­ the publication of this periodical is necessary the Installment Plan," Professor sponse too much ignored by schol­ in the transaction of the public business re­ Lund urges a return to the original ars, according to University of Colo­ quired by law of this agency. Use of funds for printing this periodical has been approved by serial format for Dickens' works to rado professor James Kincaid. the director of the Office of Management and recapture the gradual development Literary critics must acknowledge, Budget through September 1988. Send re­ important to the meaning of his long Professor Kincaid asserts, that Dick­ quests for subscriptions and other communi­ cations to the editor, Humanities, National stories. ens created many characters and Endowment for the Humanities, 1100 Penn­ Besides entertaining readers with scenes for no purpose other than to sylvania Avenue, N.W., Washington, D.C. serialized fiction, the 12,000 periodi­ delight his readers. We have col­ 20506. Telephone 202/786-0435. Annual sub­ scription rate: $14.00. (USPS 521-090) ISSN cals in print at one time or another lected these essays about him to de­ 0018-7526. between 1824 and 1900 analyzed light ours. — Linda Blanken 2 Contents

CHARLES DICKENS

Charles Dickens and Friends by Fred Kaplan. A biography-in-progress reveals that Dickens had great expectations of his friends. PAGE 4

Great Annotations by Joseph H. Brown. Dickens never completed Edw in Drood, but the complete set of notes for this novel and for most of his later works will be published soon. PAGE 8

Raising the Dickens: The Analysis of Humor by James R. Kincaid. A plea for more play in critical discussions of some of the funniest scenes and characters in liter­ ature. PAGE 10

Reading Long Stories on the Installment Plan by Michael Lund. If audiences get hooked on " to-be-continued" television, imagine what can happen with literary masterpieces. PAGE 17

Dickens on Stage by Matthew Kiell. Why playwrights love the novelist who loved the theater. PAGE 21

FEATURES

Fashionable Fictions by Jennifer Newton. Lifestyles of the rich and famous in Regency and Victorian England. PAGE 14

The Golden Age of British Photography by Caroline Taylor. The Victorians saw the camera as a wonder of science; museum-goers now see their wonderful art. PAGE 24

The Wellesley Index to Victorian Periodicals by Allyson F. McGill. A research tool that solves the conundrums caused by initials and pseudonyms. PAGE 29

A Cast of Thousands by Michael Lipske. A Biographical Dictionary of Ac­ tors, Actresses, Musicians, Dancers, Managers, and Other Stage Personnel in London, 1660-1800 tells stories of the stars and facts of the forgotten. PAGE 31

Ex Libris NEH. Books published in 1986 with NEH support. PAGE 33.

THE HUMANITIES GUIDE

Q & A: Research conferences PAGE 43. Bicentennial Bookshelf PAGE 44. Subscription information PAGE 45. Deadlines for proposals PAGE 46.

3 (counterclockwise) Library of Congress William Make­ peace Thackeray, 1811-63; William Charles Macready (as Iago), 1793-1873; Charles Dickens, 1812-70.

BY FRED KAPLAN

11 biography is, George Cruikshank, W.S. Landor, Platonic terms as the mating of two in a sense, the Edwin Bulwer, Mark Lemon, Daniel kindred sensibilities, the completion attempt to ex­ Maclise, Clarkson Stanfield, Thomas of the incomplete self, and in practi­ plore in a coher­ Noon Talfourd, W.P. Firth, W.E. cal terms as a compact of assistance ent and resonant Layard, and Angela Burdett Coutts. to advance mutual interests. When way the primary To the Victorians, friendship was the brother of his closest friend died, relationships of a compelling concern. They carried he reminded him that "you have a the subject's life: with himself, with in their cultural consciousness an Brother left. One bound to you by other people, and with his work. In ideal model of friendship based on ties as strong as ever Nature forged. the biography of Charles Dickens examples as old as the Arthurian By ties never to be broken, weak­ that I am writing, his preoccupation Round Table and as contemporary ened, changed in any way." with friendship is a dominant motif, as the exclusive clubs of the public Dickens constructed a community for Dickens had a genius for friend­ schools and universities. The Society of friends whose bonds were profes­ ship. During a tumultuous life that of Apostles at Cambridge, with its sional as well as personal, and he began in relative poverty in 1812 and secret rites of brotherhood, helped ended in wealth and international forge the special friendship between Fred Kaplan is the author of Thomas fame in 1870, he formed friendships Tennyson and Arthur Hallam, Carlyle, A Biography which was nomi­ with some of his most distinguished whose death inspired Tennyson's nated for the 1983 National Book Critics Victorian contemporaries. Those long poem, In Memoriam, which de­ Circle Award and was a jury selected fi­ with John Forster, Thomas Carlyle, scribes friendship between men as nalist for the 1984 Pulitzer Prize in bi­ William Makepeace Thackeray, the highest brotherhood. Carlyle ography. He is also the author of Sacred William Macready, and Wilkie Col­ forged a strong bond with John Ster­ Tears, Sentimentality in Victorian lins among other notables, helped to ling, a relationship they both ideal­ Literature and Dickens and Mesmer­ forge the Victorian definition of a lit­ ized as a perfect brotherhood of kin­ ism: The Hidden Springs of Fiction erary community. Apart from this dred sensibilities. among others and the coeditor of Dick­ literary circle, he became the center Like a number of his self-made, ens Studies Annual. Kaplan is Profes­ of a community of fascinating no­ nonprivileged contemporaries, Dick­ sor of English at Queens College and the tables, many of them writers, actors, ens needed to create societies of fel­ Graduate Center of the City University artists, and even aristocrats, includ­ lowship to fulfill the model. He de­ of New York and is currently writing a ing Douglas Jerrold, Leigh Hunt, fined friendship both in ideal biography of Charles Dickens. 4 worked at it even the more anx­ grine Pickle, Humphrey Clinker, such loneliness and isolation dim iously because he did not have pub­ Tom Jones, the Vicar of Wakefield, (though always bitter) memories. lic school and university ties. At Don Quixote, Gil Bias, and Probably the two most successful clubs like the Garrick and the Athe­ Robinson Crusoe came out, a glori­ and sustaining friendships of Dick­ naeum, which the Victorians trans­ ous host to keep me company. They ens' life were with John Forster and formed into essential social institu­ kept alive my fancy and my hope of Wilkie Collins. He met Forster in tions, the bonds of friendship as something beyond that place and 1835, when they were both in their well as of mutual professional assis­ tim e." early twenties and Dickens was tance were strengthened. In giving Other than with the characters of about to become famous. Forster birth to the Dickens circle, he helped his favorite books, his closest child­ was bluff, imperious, and loqua­ to create the modern literary com­ hood friendship was with his elder cious; but he was also immensely munity in which writers and artists sister, Fanny. But he had a strong energetic, very smart, accomplished band together to support one an­ sense that his parents, particularly and well-connected as a reviewer other emotionally against middle- his mother, were indifferent to him. and writer, and deeply loyal to Dick­ class indifference or hostility. Prior Eager to please and to be loved, he ens. His early training in the law al­ to the nineteenth century, literary developed a performance personal­ lowed him to act as Dickens' agent communities in England and ity, creating as best he could as well as his editor throughout a America often defined themselves as communities of friends and co­ lifetime of intensive literary busi­ integral elements of, rather than in workers in amateur theatricals and ness. They had their fallings opposition to, their societies. During in schoolyard games. His fascination out—their periods of anger and the nineteenth century, writers with reading, and soon with writ­ withdrawal. Dickens even carica­ tended more and more to define ing, heightened his sense of the soli­ tured Forster as Podsnap in Our themselves as antagonistic to the tude and loneliness of these activi­ Mutual Friend. But, he wrote to him dominant values of the culture. ties in which the pleasures were from America in 1842, "how I miss Dickens emphasized the importance inward ones; and the enjoyment of you.... How seriously I have of writers banding together in socie­ those pleasures brought the inevit­ thought, many, many times ... of ties of mutual assistance and sup­ able desire to counter solitude with the terrible folly of ever quarreling port in a culture that seemed to him company, to complement the self with a true friend." indifferent to art and callous in its with others. In early adolescence, Unlike Forster, who became in­ treatment of artists. Eighteenth- his sense of isolation was intensified creasingly conservative and unavail­ century notions of patronage had by his father's bankruptcy, the un­ able for fun and games, Wilkie Col­ given way, by the middle of the settled and migratory life of the fam­ lins, much younger than both nineteenth century, to twentieth- ily, and a period of harsh labor in a Dickens and Forster, was always century notions of art as business, of blacking factory. By early manhood, available in the 1850s and 1860s to literature as media. In fact, on the he energetically compelled himself accompany Dickens on late night ex­ professional level, Dickens' closest into creating communal structures cursions and travels abroad. A bohe­ friend, John Forster, acted as infor­ and friendships that would keep mian bachelor with two morganatic mal literary agent for him and other members of the circle, anticipating the role of the literary agent in mod­ ern society. Before the early nine­ teenth century, writers negotiated with publishers themselves, usually s 5 hampered by their ignorance of and ■3 inexperience in business matters. To some extent, perhaps, Dickens' From David idealization of friendship originates Copperfield, an in what appears to have been a engraving by lonely childhood. He early on devel­ Hablot Knight oped a heightened (and, of course, Browne, known factually exaggerated) sense of being as "Phiz." neglected by his parents. He lived "Tommy partly in the imaginary world of Traddles and Da­ books, daydreams, and fantasies. vid in David When he discovered a rich treasure Copperfield are some among the of eighteenth-century novels and many friendship plays in his father's small library, he pairs whose rela­ thought of the vivid procession of tionships provide characters who came alive off the variations on the page into his imagination and mem­ fraternal theme ory as a community of friends. that so preoccu­ "From that blessed little room," he pied Dickens in told Forster in his autobiographical his life and in his fragment, "Roderick Random, Pere­ work." families, Collins was a sophisticated London literary life and a close ment that complicated, and probably and cynical devotee of personal friend of the Dickens family. Dick­ changed, the relationships in ways pleasure. But he also, like Dickens, ens' children lovingly referred to the that made them distinctly different worked hard at being a novelist and rotund humorist as "the Porpoise." from his friendships with men. Of dramatist, finally having great Angered by rumors that he was hav­ his friendships with women, only popular success in the 1860s with ing an affair with his sister-in-law that with the fabulously wealthy The Moonstone and The Woman in or, alternately or simultaneously, an philanthropist Angela Burdett White. Both Forster and Collins were affair with a young actress, Dickens Coutts was free of gender complica­ Dickens' intimates, so close to his asked Lemon to publish a statement tions. With rare exceptions, the Vic­ heart as friends and fellow confes­ that he had written denying the alle­ torians believed that men could be sors that this generally secretive gations. Both Lemon and Bradbury friends only with men; indeed, man confided to them his feelings, and Evans, the publishers of Punch friendship was mostly a male con­ his thoughts, and, during the col­ and the publishers of Dickens' nov­ cept and preserve. The attempt of lapse of his marriage in 1857-58, the els also, thought such a statement John Stuart Mill and Harriet Taylor complicated problems he confront­ unsuitable for a magazine of humor. to create a friendship independent of ed. "The mere mention of the fact Dickens castigated Bradbury and marriage and to cross the gender ... is a relief to my present state of Evans and shortly changed publish­ boundaries was the exception that spirits," he told Forster, "and I can ers. He refused to have further con­ proves the rule. Although Dickens get this only from you" and Collins, tact with Lemon or to allow anyone had glimpses of the possibility of "because I can speak of it to no one in his family to visit "Uncle Mark." friendship with women and even of else." They were part of the small Friendship, then, was an ultimate a marriage that would also be a circle of friends who knew about his value for Dickens—not subject to friendship, they were fitful, con­ twelve-year-long affair with Nelly mitigating circumstances, independ­ fused glimmers, upon which he Ternan. From both he got unswerv­ ent judgment, peripheral issues. It never acted, conflicting with his ing support. For Dickens, friendship was a matter of romantic passion, of model of friendship as exclusively meant complete loyalty. Anything idealized loyalty and love. And, in a male. He chose to involve himself less was betrayal. sense, it was inverted romantic with women who could never be his A demanding, obsessive personal­ passion: the passion for the female friends. By doing so, he reveals how ity, Dickens ruthlessly severed a other turned into a passionately inti­ centrally important friendship and long friendship with the genial, mate, though nonsexual, love for a its rewards were to him. Through­ well-intentioned Mark Lemon when, male friend. Throughout his life he out his life, he felt ambivalent about in 1858, Lemon expressed less than searched, as he confessed to Forster women, and though he dazzled, complete approval of Dickens' treat­ in 1855, for "the one friend and com­ charmed, and flirted with them, ment of Catherine Dickens, his wife panion I have never made." none of his relationships with of twenty-two years. The two men Inveterately flirtatious, his friend­ women was satisfying to him. In had been intimate friends since the ships with attractive women like principle, he idealized them, but not late 1840s. As editor of Punch, Frances Colden, Lavinia Watson, as friends and companions. Lemon had been a central figure in and Mary Boyle had an erotic ele­ Dickens' life-long preoccupation with the theater and with amateur theatricals was partly a response to his need for a community of friends who would be bound together by shared feelings and activities. Begin­ ning in childhood, he delighted in creating amateur theatricals. In the 1840s, now a successful novelist, he organized the Dickens Theatrical Company, in which the amateur performers were mostly personal friends. They were to perform for From The various charitable causes, including Golden Age of raising funds for an impoverished British Photog­ literary comrade, Leigh Hunt. Dick­ raphy, "Sunshine ens delighted in his many roles as and Shade" by producer, director, script doctor, F.R. Pickersgill. and star performer. But what gave "Throughout his life, Dickens felt him special pleasure was forging the ambivalent about bonds of fraternal community, the women__ In close ties created by daily interaction principle, he ide­ in a common cause with people with alized them, but whom he had strong identification not as friends and sympathy. Putting on a play, he and compan­ wrote to a friend in 1857, was "like ions." writing a book in company; a satis­ Victoria and Albert Museum From Pickwick himself and his readers, as if they Papers, an en­ were intimate friends. The serial graving by form of publication contributed to Hablot Knight this rapport, since author and reader Browne. "The greatest friend­ sustained their relationship over a ship of Dickens’ f t period of almost two years in the life was that - case of Dickens' long novels. He with his could not, he felt, threaten this col­ audience." lective friendship with some of the details of his private life. When the relationship was threatened by ru­ mors of scandal, he fought back vig­ orously to protect his livelihood and his life. But it was also to protect what he genuinely felt to be a sacred and sustaining friendship, a mutual confidence and trust between him­ self and his readers. In May 1858, he forced his in-laws and his wife to sign a document for publication that attested to their belief that he was innocent of charges of moral corrup­ tion, reminding them that his and their welfare depended upon his au­ diences believing that the values he represented in his novels were the values that he embodied in his life. When he began in April 1858 to give public readings from his novels for which the audiences paid—pre­ viously he had given occasional readings for charity—he was exhila­ rated by what seemed to him an in­ tensification of the intimacy between himself and his audience-friends. At first he feared, as he told Forster, that the "sacred" bond of friendship between himself and his readers had been damaged by the publicity sur­ rounding his separation from Catherine. On the contrary, "he was received," a contemporary witness faction of a most singular kind, Mortimer Lightwood in Our Mutual reported, "with a roar of cheering which has no exact parallel in my Friend, and Tommy Traddles and that might have been heard at life." The act of transforming ac­ David in David Copperfield are some Charing Cross." "These occasions," quaintances into friendships and among the many friendship pairs he told an audience in London, gave friendships into shared intimacies whose relationships provide varia­ him a means "of strengthening seemed to him a creative process, tions on the fraternal theme that so those relations ... of personal like creating a work of art. preoccupied Dickens in his life and friendship" he felt he had with his The frequent depiction in his nov­ in his work. If there was an erotic el­ readers, even those "who will never els of friendships between fictional ement in his desire for such friend­ hear my voice or see my face." He characters provides additional exam­ ships, he was not aware of it, al­ had the opportunity, he said, to ples and insights into Dickens' defi­ though he does reveal his awareness blow off his "superfluous fierceness" nition of and need for friendship. of the danger of false friendship in in the actual presence of his readers The strong bond between Nicholas his most directly autobiographical "instead of in my own solitary room, and Smike in Nicholas Nickleby novel with the relationship between and to feel its effect coming freshly typifies the kind of male love and James Steerforth and David back upon me from the reader." loyalty that Dickens valued. In Pick­ Copperfield. Whenever he briefly addressed his wick Papers, Mr. Pickwick's intimate The greatest friendship of Dick­ reading audiences, he asked them to community of traveling friends rep­ ens' life was that with his audience. imagine that they were gathered to­ resents the power of friendship to To his readers he confided indirectly gether around a fireside in the form a self-sustaining community. his deepest emotional life—and he winter, a small group of friends en­ Pip and Herbert Pocket in Great Ex­ had from the beginning of his career gaged in the intimate bonding of pectations, Eugene Wrayburn and a sense of the special bond between hearts that only friendship provides. 7 la Hue Dd, ed C. 1951 Co., & Mead Dodd, House, Bleak

n literary criticism, riosity Shop. Incomplete plans also record after the fact. one critic's definitive reading may be exist for Martin Chuzzlewit and Great It has been known since Dickens' another's misinterpretation. Who Expectations. With the exception of A death that plans exist, but few schol­ has not wanted to call on the author Tale of Two Cities, complete sets of ars have used them. Part of the himself to arbitrate the debate when notes have been preserved for later problem has been their inaccessibil­ evidence can be found on both works: Dombey and Son, David ity: The notes for Our Mutual Friend sides? However problematic the idea Copperfield, Bleak House, Hard Times, are lodged in the Pierpont Morgan of authorial intention may be for Little Dorrit, Our Mutual Friend, and Library in New York, those for Great some, for critics of Dickens the au­ Edwin Drood. Expectations in the Wisbech and Fen- thor's voice is now available in Once Dickens began to plan a land Museum, and the rest in the Harry Stone's edition of Dickens’ novel, his usual practice was to keep Victoria and Albert Museum in Working Notes for His Novels, a book one sheet of notes for each num­ London. The few transcriptions that published by the University of bered installment. He would divide have been made are inaccurate in Chicago Press this year with subven­ each sheet in two, on the left half detail and in format. It has been tion from NEH. listing questions about overall easier for scholars to use other Except for his earliest works, espe­ planning (names, conjunctions, and sources of evidence. cially the largely improvised Pickwick possibilities) and on the right record­ Stone's edition makes available all Papers, Dickens planned his novels ing the substance of individual chap­ of the extant plans in a single refer­ carefully. The earliest plans to sur­ ters (titles, events, and motifs). Most ence work, presenting on facing vive are a few sheets dealing with often he would fill out each sheet in pages photographic facsimiles and the later installments of The Old Cu- succession as he worked his way typographic transcriptions of each through the novel. Sometimes, how­ sheet of the notes. Most readers can­ Joseph H. Brown is a manuscript editor ever, he worked ahead in the plans, not decipher the facsimiles without at the University of Chicago Press. and he would also go back to keep a reference to the transcriptions be­ 8 cause Dickens' handwriting is often ence to the relevant section of the "Durdles" (Edwin Drood). The notes difficult to read. Yet the handwritten notes reveals, however, that Dickens will verify the connotations or the notes carry many nuances of empha­ consciously followed a narrative names and reveal the connections sis, spacing, and afterthought that strategy that introduces a revolution intended by Dickens. the transcriptions cannot convey. in sensibility and technique: "His ill­ Besides extensive critical work on The side-by-side format allows the ness only expressed in the child's Dickens, Stone previously has pro­ reader to make the most effective own feelings—Not otherwise de­ duced a two-volume edition of use possible of both the transcrip­ scribed," Dickens wrote. Charles Dickens' Uncollected Writings tions and the facsimiles. Another area where the notes en­ from "Household Words" (Bloom­ Stone believes that publication of hance interpretation is Dickens' fa­ ington, Indiana, 1968). As he the notes will enlarge the reader's mous selection of names. Even the worked on Dickens over the years, picture of the novelist. The notes, he most casual reader of David Copper­ Stone collected photostats of a num­ says, are a "lode" that "can be used field is struck by the force of ber of the plans, and of necessity he to verify a meaning, document an "Murdstone"; the connotations of transcribed them. He found himself intention, underscore a motif, trace the name are clear. But only the using these plans so much that he a genesis, buttress a reading, clarify notes will reveal how intentional determined to collect and transcribe a relationship, examine the creative those connotations are and how all the remaining plans for him­ process, or study Dickens' complicated was the evolution from self—and now, for other Dickens imagination." "Mr. Harden" through "Mr. readers as well, ur- In Dombey and Son, for example, Murdle" and "Mr. Murden" to "Mr. Paul's death is considered one of the Murdstone." The name of "Murd­ The University of Chicago Press was earliest and best fictional renditions stone" reverberates beyond David awarded $10,000 in outright funds and of a child's consciousness. This Copperfield, and the connections are $3,033 in matching funds through the scene has been interpreted simply as obvious among the Murdstone-type Texts-Publications Subvention Program an unconscious but natural out­ characters graced with the names for "Dickens' Working Notes for His growth of the new romantic sensibil­ "M urdle" (Little Dorrit), "Head­ Novels" in August 1984. Penelope ity and the cult of the child. Refer­ stone" (Our Mutual Friend), and Kaiserlian was the project director.

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The first page of the handwrtten manuscript of Bleak House, written in No­ vember, 1851; (opposite page) the printed ver­ sion of the same material. miliar, easy to center. It leads compellingly to meaty analyses, whether psychoanalytic, formal, or ideological: the mind, text, culture, and history can be and often are seen as indices of power. Even hu­ mor has not escaped. What characterizes explanations rooted in power? Like the discussion of Sam Weller's joke, they exhibit some of the ideas of contemporaries of Dickens, such as Marx, Darwin, and Freud. The current practice of some of the most sophisticated and advanced scholars in the humanities and social sciences, however, can be more narrowly rooted. In literary theory, and in many related fields, the most beguiling models have been erected through ideological and linguistic/philosophical thinkers like Derrida and Foucault. Dis­ trusting the old essentialist lan­ guage, human-centered assump­ tions, formalism, and the entire baggage of liberal-humanist- bourgeois ideology, many scholars have proceeded to employ a new historicism, a new anthropology, and a deconstructive method that re­ veal the tendencies of traditional studies of the past to assert ideolog­ ical constructs as if they were natu­ ral, a priori realities. Prominent crit­ ics now attempt to reveal how giant and undisturbed constructs like "the individual," "repression," or "ro­ reud, interest­ Fat Boy, you see, and wanting him mantic love" are simply flattering il­ ingly, said that dead, gains a kind of homicidal lusions, attractive by virtue of their laughter had not power with this joke. He also re­ feint of being independent of history one but two leases both fear and aggression to­ and culture and therefore outside functions: the of­ ward his own father and his substi­ the control of power. Nothing, we fensive release of tute father Mr. Pickwick by seizing are now told, including the analyst hostility or in­ the castrating shears into his own writing the study, is liberated from hibited fear and the protection of in­ hands and turning deep anxiety into power; nothing can stand outside, fantile play-pleasure. Equally inter­ a joke. Perhaps. But to read Sam's free and objective. esting, he spent virtually all his own simile as a desire to perform and to But surely power is merely a con­ analytical energies on the first func­ escape from castration catches only a struct like all others, allowing us to tion, and we critics have followed part of our response as we read. see certain things in certain ways, his lead. Many discussions of humor Sam really does not seem to hate the blinding us to other things and other in the works of Charles Dickens Fat Boy, his own father, or Mr. Pick­ ways of seeing. Power suggests the have ignored play and pleasure and wick; and he certainly doesn't fear have drawn instead on metaphors of them. He is amused by them, tutors James R. Kincaid is Professor of English power to show that the apparently them, and, in the latter two cases, at the University of Colorado, Boulder, pointless humor has a point alright. loves them. Sam engages in play for and the author of Dickens and the Sam Weller in The Pickwick Papers, its own sake, not in power Rhetoric of Laughter (Clarendon for example, plays out the forbidden exchanges. Press, 1972), Tennyson's Major Oedipal fantasy when he says to the We don't yet know how to do Poems: The Comic and Ironic Pat­ Fat Boy, while putting the finishing much of anything with play, except terns (Yale University Press, 1975), touches on the boy's dress, "There; to make it subservient to power, giv­ and The Novels of Anthony Trollope now we look compact and comfort­ ing it a purpose of some sort. Pure (1977), along with essays on Victorian able, as the father said when he cut play in itself, as a metaphor for un­ literature and culture and on literary his little boy's head off, to cure him derstanding, escapes us. Power, on theory. He is currently at work on a o' squintin'." Sam, hating the rival the other hand, seems tangible, fa­ study of Victorian pedophilia. 10 expenditure of certain energies for anxiously or overeagerly entering narrowly: 'Tis better to have kissed a some ends, purposeful or not. What into the various sports. The world of poor relation or a plain girl, than if we propose a model wherein en­ Dingley Dell, that is, is situated psy­ never to have kissed at all.' ergy is used for no ends, has no goal chologically and socially; it is clear Or laughed at all. Next to Pickwick, but the delight in its own expendi­ that its comfy leisure stands in con­ Martin Chuzzlewit was taken by the ture? Further, what if energy is not trast to, perhaps builds on, fluster Victorians as Dickens' most uproari­ used but created, raised out of noth­ and want elsewhere, that its very ous novel. We priggish moderns re­ ing? The best model we have for this snugness depends on the contrast gard it as a scorching analysis of cul­ mode of understanding may be that with all those who are not admitted tural and personal decadence, as an of play, anarchic motion that has no to Dingley Dell, not eligible for exposure of the bankruptcy of capi­ idea of causality or purpose beyond Christmas. But to emphasize this talist individualism. To be sure, the itself. situatedness seems to me to be giving novel does feature such attractions Dickens, the tormented, angry, in too meekly to ideological-power as the business dealings of a merry neurotic version of him anyhow, has forms of explanation. After all, even undertaker, a mildly murderous been before us for some time. What the poor relations are swept away by midwife, a cynically bogus insurance ingenuity can do to perceive formal joy, controlled not by economic anx­ company, and a YOU-NIGHTED coherence and ideological consist­ iety but by the mistletoe: "As to the STATES OF AMERICA populated ency in Dickens' great, sprawling poor relations, they kissed every­ by loony, economically adrift entertainments has been done, and body, not even excepting the plainer women and a host of Clint East­ done well. I'm not suggesting that portions of the young-lady visitors." wood types who kill for fun and the results are false, simply that we We really can choose whether to lo­ profit. There is nothing to prevent might try out the possibility of an­ cate ourselves in reference to the sig­ us from picking up on the power other perspective, one that brings nals of power—"poor," "plain"— clues, if we choose. Here's a pathetic into focus the sprawl, the gaps, the and the cultural readings they dic­ outcast from ruthless capitalism, wild and purposeless carnival. tate or to think of the kissing. Per­ Augustus Moddle, ruminating on Take The Pickwick Papers, Dickens' haps it should not be a matter of his confounded bad luck at suicide first novel and perhaps the favorite stark choice, but we are in danger of attempts: "'There are some men,' in­ of his contemporaries but of few ignoring the ice-sliding, the leap­ terrupted Moddle with a hollow modern readers. G. K. Chesterton, frog, the squeals and giggles. Sam laugh, 'who can't get themselves who knew plenty about horsing Weller, who is at least as shrewd run over. They live a charmed life. around and about Victorian percep­ about such matters as Foucault, Coal waggons recoil from them, and tions, is an exception: "To the level would know better, would see less even cabs refuse to run them down. of 'The Pickwick Papers' it is doubt­ ful if he ever afterwards rose." At the heart of Chesterton's response is Dingley Dell, less an estate than a perpetual-motion playground. Dingley Dell is a huge party room with an enormous, groaning table of food and punch at one end, a Christmas tree at the other, and an expansive middle dripping with mis­ tletoe. Upstairs are feather beds the size of the China Sea. Outside are ponds for sliding and fields for leap­ frog. No one becomes tired, grumpy, cold. It's all eating, drink­ ing, kissing, giving and receiving presents (not wages), playing; end­ less rejoicing and endless childhood; life as it ought to be: "Happy, happy Christmas, that can win us back to the delusions of our childish days." Even in May, Dingley Dell creates a world that makes it seem "as if it were Christmas." Significantly, this merry world is decidedly not a cloud-cuckoo land; it contains its share of sexual jealousy, resentment, and economic worries. It may, for some, even rest on "delu­ Caricature by sions." There are present at these Andre Gill, from never-ending Christmas festivities a L'Eclipse (Paris), group of "poor relations," somewhat June 14, 1868. "Who's there?" screamed a numerous chorus of treble Sam and Tony Weller argue in Pick­ voices from the staircase inside, consisting of the wick, there is a Providence in death: "Wot 'ud become of the undertakers spinster lady of the establishment; three teachers, five without it?" Now, in chapter of Mar­ female servants, and thirty boarders, all half-dressed, tin Chuzzlewit, Mrs. Gamp, among other things a versatile nurse for the and in a forest of curl-papers. Of course, Mr. Pickwick terminally ill, visits the undertaker didn't say who was there; and then the burden of the Mr. Mould at his home to engage in some free-enterprise back- chorus changed into— "Lor! I am so frightened." scratching: if he approves of some moon-lighting on her part, she'll see what she can do to send a few Ah!" Moddle has been called a lime, and softly sleeps the calm Ideal, in corpses his way. I ought to add that "manic depressive," by a modern the whispering chambers of Imagination. this Mrs. Gamp is an economic won­ critic apparently possessed of To hear it, sweet it is. But then, out- der, carrying with her not only her Moddle's own spirit. Similarly, the laughs the stern philosopher, and saith prodigious abilities but a prodigious wonderful "transcendental ladies" in to the Grotescjue, “What ho! arrest for appetite for comfort in the form of America have been seen (by me, me that Agency. Go, bring it here!" And liquor and pickled cowcumbers and, alas) as an unblinking portrait of es­ so the vision fadeth. most importantly, a portable testi­ sential nothingness, a peek into the mony to her abilities in an imaginary Those who appropriate this frolic ex­ Nietzschean abyss. Their profligate friend, Mrs. Harris. The force of an clusively for power analyses really play with words—and with Ralph economic analysis, however, is deserve a one-way ticket to the vor­ Waldo Emerson—is tortured into surely enfeebled by Mrs. Gamp's vo­ tex of immensity. significance, made thrall to power. luptuous pleasure in lots of talk, in I can't resist one more squint at play, and in a wild proliferation of Mind and matter .. . glide swift into Martin Chuzzlewit, this one at the details that have no bearing on her the vortex of immensity. Howls the sub­ commercial aspects of death. As earnings: Likeways, a few rounds o' buttered toast, first cuttin' off the crust, in consequence of tender teeth, and not too many of 'em; which Gamp himself, Mrs. Chuzzlewit, at one blow, being in liquor, struck out four, two single and two double, as was took by Mrs. Harris for a keepsake, and is carried in her pocket at this present hour, along with two cramp-bones, a bit o' ginger, and a grater like a blessed in­ fant's shoe, in tin, with a little heel to put the nutmeg in.

"Gamp is my name—and Gamp my natur," she proudly announces, in a sentence that has about as much point as a power-controlled analysis of her general conversation. I have, however, been Gampian in this digression and have impolitely left that worthy woman waiting at the door of Mr. Mould's home. Mr. Mould himself would not do so, since he respects Mrs. Gamp greatly and also finds her highly entertain­ ing. We first see him, surrounded by his wife and daughters, joking on the pastoral idyll they have created, what with the happy sound of cof­ fins being made in the back room: From Pickwick Papers, an en­ "Quite the buzz on insects," said Mr. graving by Mould, closing his eyes in a perfect lux­ Hablot Knight ury. "It puts one in mind of the sound of Browne. Mr. animated nature in the agricultural dis­ Pickwick is u/ieafeectecl “‘/vrxzAmy u f”o f t/io tricts. It's exactly like the woodpecker trapped behind tapping." the door. S em iriar^ ^ /or- 9/ousuy 12 Mrs. Gamp enters this delirium and "Ladies—dear ladies," said Mr. Pickwick. the whole company picks up on a kind of Dingley Dell merriment, rag­ "Oh, he says we're dear," cried the oldest and ugliest ging the girls about their marriage teacher. "Oh, the wretch!" plans, Mrs. Gamp taking the lead, even though "the blessing of a "Ladies," roared Mr. Pickwick, rendered desperate by daughter was deniged me; which, if the danger of his situation. "Hear me. I am no robber. I we had had one, Gamp would cer­ tainly have drunk its little shoes want the lady of the house." right off its feet, as with our pre­ "Oh, what a ferocious monster!" screamed another cious boy he did, and arterwards send the child a errand to sell his teacher. "He wants Miss Tomkins." wodden leg for any money it would —The Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Glub fetch as matches in the rough." Drinks follow all around, more jokes, and then, very briefly, busi­ what a labor it is to read Dickens. works"), he embraces his loyal wife, ness: "I will not deny ... that I am "How ridiculous!" as Dora says. salutes his unending stream of chil­ but a poor woman, and that money Dora is not caught in simplified cau­ dren, and turns to making punch. is an object; but do not let that act sality, in strict narrative plots, in Even David says, "I never saw a upon you, Mr. Mould. Rich folks power. It's not that we cannot, if we man so thoroughly enjoy himself may ride on camels, but it ain't so wish, examine her with the aid of amid the fragrance of lemon-peel easy for 'em to see out of a needle's those instruments, but for how long and sugar; the odor of burning rum, eye. That is my comfort, and I hope will we be satisfied with bowing to and the steam of boiling water." I knows it." More jokes, more the explanatory radiance of power? That, as they say, is the ticket; and it drinks, more stories about Mrs. Mr. Micawber should be our guide. may provide us with entrance to a Harris, and finally Mrs. Gamp must Unbamboozled by the agencies of different analytical paradigm, one depart to abuse another patient, power (in this case, "the Minion of clouded as yet—but clouded with leaving behind her serenity and a Power—in other words, a ribald the glories of sugar, lemon, and heightened taste for fooling around: Turncock attached to the water­ rum. "She's the sort of woman, now," re­ flects Mr. Mould, "one would al­ most feel disposed to bury for noth­ ing: and do it neatly, too!" Commerce is subsumed by play. Making a living for Mr. Mould and Mrs. Gamp simply provides a stage for performance, a set of cues for one-liners or for extended, discon­ nected monologues. I'd like to go on, showing how, for instance, David Copperfield ex­ changes a paradigm of play for one of power, thereby smothering within himself a responsiveness to nonsense, to pointlessness, to his own childhood. His young wife, Dora, sees life differently:

"My love," said I, "I have work to do." "But don't do it!" returned Dora. "Why should you?" It was impossible to say to that sweet tempered little surprised face, otherwise than lightly and playfully, that we must work to live. "Oh! How ridiculous!" cried Dora. "How shall we live without, Dora?" said I. "How? Any how!” said Dora. From Martin Chuzzlewit, etching by "Phiz" "We must work to live" is a dreary for Number maxim David shares with those of XVIII, Chapter us who write laborious essays on XLIX (June 1844). these works anonymously and puffed them shamelessly. Colburn had interests in a number of journals and magazines, where gossipy pre­ BY JENNIFER NEWTON views of the next book by "the bril­ liant author of ..." would often ap­ pear just before publication. Another favorite technique was to plant glow­ ing reviews, sometimes penned by the author of the book in question. But Colburn made himself a for­ tune by being shrewd enough to seize on the congruence of many elements—the widening of literacy and leisure, the development of cir­ culating libraries, and new printing techniques that allowed him to print inexpensive editions. Most impor­ tantly, he saw that an increasingly large parvenu class would devour formulaic novels that could act, as Mrs. Catherine Winifred Hughes suggests, as Gore, an 1837 en­ "hornbooks for social climbers." In graving from many ways, Hughes continues, New Monthly Colburn was a pioneer of modem Magazine. marketing techniques and a creator of the best-seller. he late Ellen Moers defining its superiority in terms of Most critics not in Colburn's pay once described the fashion—entree to certain clubs, disliked these novels, and their dis­ Regency period as the dandyesque attire, insouciant spend­ taste was more than purely aes­ time "when aristoc­ ing and gambling, and a style that thetic. William Maginn, editor of racy and monarchy assiduously avoided any appearance Fraser's magazine and a promoter of were more widely de­ of responsibility or commitment. middle-class virtues, was scornful of spised (and hence more nastily ex­ What moral authority the aristocracy the bourgeois interest in aristocratic clusive) than ever before or since in possessed was severely eroded by doings. Another critic was certain English history." Yet during this this elitism. Rising economic and po­ that the lack of tight plot construc­ brief time, a genre called the "silver litical pressure eventually led to the tion in the episodic, digressive fash­ fork" novel, which detailed aristo­ passage of the Reform Bill of 1832, ionable novel mirrored the moral cratic life in often excruciating detail, which extended the franchise to laxity of the upper classes. William was avidly read by the rising middle men paying a certain amount of Hazlitt, in an 1827 review, noted class. In a book in progress, "Fash­ property tax annually. The Reform that the middle class showed self­ ionable Fictions: The Silver Fork Bill dealt a death blow to oligarchical contempt and servility in its fascina­ Novel from Lister to Thackeray," politics in England and, by exten­ tion with aristocrats "eating off NEH fellow Winifred Hughes is ex­ sion, to Regency high society. silver forks." ploring this seeming contradiction. During the critical decade before The term "silver fork," thus The first three decades of the the Reform Bill, an enterprising pub­ coined in opprobrium, was in fact nineteenth century were certainly a lisher named Henry Colburn found used by Colburn's novelists to de­ time of extraordinary social tensions that a popular, largely middle-class scribe themselves. This is reflective, in England; as Hughes notes, this audience existed for novels that de­ Winifred Hughes believes, of the was when "class" replaced "rank" as scribed elite society from the inside. "ambivalence of tone" built into the a description of one's social place, He developed a stable of writers to best of the silver fork novels. They when the middle class as we know it chum out this fiction—only some of could be read either as celebrations today began to be defined. Buoyed whom were aristocrats. Others, like of the high life and its pleasures or by new wealth and new confidence, Thomas Henry Lister and Mrs. as satires debunking aristocrats and the upper middle class began to as­ Catherine Gore, were not of aristo­ parvenus who wanted to be aristo­ pire to political power. The aristoc­ cratic origin, but moved comfortably crats. To a class forming its identity, racy, on defense from this assault in fashionable circles. Still others Hughes suggests, these novels could from below and led by the personal —most notably the young Benjamin serve both as "fantasies of release tastes of the Prince Regent (King Disraeli—were complete social no­ from responsibility" and as "caution­ George IV, 1820-30), reacted by bodies relying on imagination and ary tales unmasking the corruption aspiration. of irresponsible aristocracy." Jennifer Newton is a free-lance writer in The aristocratic credentials of his A writer particularly deft at Washington, D.C., and a frequent con­ authors apparently mattered little to creating fantasy was Disraeli, who tributor to Humanities. Colburn, who published many of wrote his first silver fork novel, Viv- 14 ian Grey, at the age of twenty-one. largely unexamined periodical es­ One of her contemporaries, Peter This book was published anony­ says and reviews from the period. George Patmore, wrote a thinly dis­ mously by Colburn in 1826 and was But, as she notes, "It's hard to read guised caricature of Mrs. Gore as widely praised for its knowing clev­ the reviews without having read the Lady Bab Brilliant, critic and yet idol erness about London society until its novels." In the process of reading of the fashionable world. In a key author was discovered to be a young novels that had not been checked passage, Patmore writes: man from a completely unfashion­ out of the library in a century, she Lady Bab Brilliant not only did not able background who worked by discovered the works of Mrs. pretend to be any better than her friends day in a firm of solicitors. Disraeli's Catherine Gore (1799-1861) and has and associates, but in reality was no bet­ second novel, The Young Duke, was come to view Gore as a unique tran­ ter. She was in truth an epitome, in her­ just as much a product of imagina­ sitional figure between Regency glit­ self, of all the fashionable follies and not tion; his father, upon hearing the ti­ ter and Victorian sobriety. a few of the fashionable vices... . which tle, is said to have remarked, "What Biographical details on Gore are she had so effectively held up to public does Ben know of dukes?" The obscure. Of middle-class origin, contempt and indignation." novel is an outsider's fantasy of a married to an army officer, she life of luxury and opulence, with achieved social position by virtue of After reading most of Gore's nov­ countless sensual descriptions of her personality and her writing. els, Hughes comments that she is in­ banquets, drinking bouts, and balls. Gore, a mother of ten, produced clined to give them more credit than "Oh to be young and a duke," ex­ some 200 volumes of poetry, drama, other critics have, both as works of claims the title character. "It's too and fiction. She began in the 1820s fiction and as social barometers. She much!" by writing historical romances in the considers several worthy of reprint. Fairly soon after The Young Duke, manner of Sir Walter Scott, but she There are two "delightful" comedies notes Hughes, Disraeli moved into soon turned to the fashionable of manners from 1831, Pin Money the society he had been imagining. novel, which, as Hughes says, "she and Mothers and Daughters, the latter After other silver fork novels and his continued imperturbably to turn a wicked depiction of the marriage election to parliament in 1837, out" well into the 1850s, long after market of Regency society. The Disraeli wrote a trilogy of novels— the vogue had died out. Hamiltons; or, Official Life in 1830 Sybil, Conyngsby, and Tancred— that laid out a serious political role for CT 3 the chastened aristocracy; in doing so, Disraeli transcended the genre in which he had begun. Hughes plans era to include a chapter on Disraeli in her book, as well as one on the man who helped launch Disraeli into fashionable society, Edward Bulwer-Lytton. Bulwer, whose 1828 novel Pelham was said to have been the how-to manual for dandies, came from a background of wealth and privilege and eventually inherited a title. In addition to writing silver fork nov­ els, Bulwer dabbled in another con­ temporary genre, the Newgate novel, which featured lurid crimes and life in the underclass. Perhaps the most famous reaction to Bulwer's work was that of Thomas Carlyle, who read a review and ex­ The growth of a cerpts of Pelham in Fraser's magazine literate middle and was moved to write Sartor class, imitative Resartus (1831). This book-length es­ of aristocratic say, which uses the aristocratic pre­ manners, ex­ occupation with clothes as the basis panded the mar­ for a condemnation of false social ket for formulaic customs, became one of the central novels that could texts of the Victorian period. act as "horn­ books for social When Hughes began her study of climbers." This the early nineteenth century, she in­ circumstance is tended to show how critics of the satirized in an time helped to shape the emerging engraving in Victorian social consensus, and so Punch, April 6, she investigated the wealth of 1878. 15 (published in 1834) is a political Thackeray himself was equally frus­ heading is "A Progress." novel that evinces Gore's Whig sym­ trated when contemplating the work Can the silver fork novels, sand­ pathies for reform. And Cecil; or, The of Mrs. Gore. wiched historically between Austen Adventures of a Coxcomb (1841) is a Vanity Fair could be called the last and Scott on one side and Dickens bittersweet elegy for the lost Re­ silver fork novel. In transcending and Thackeray on the other, be con­ gency, as told by an aging dandy. A the genre, it guaranteed that no one sidered anything other than markers tour-de-force of first-person narrat­ could use its conventions seriously between masterpieces? Mrs. Gore ing in which the author never drops again. But among the Victorians, referred flippantly to her "ormolu her mask, Cecil is also the last of who had in a sense defined them­ railroad" of novels, but the hero in Gore's novels to focus completely on selves against the Regency, literary her Women As They Are; or, The Man­ Regency manners. Later work treatments of aristocracy had to con­ ners of the Day makes a characteristi­ chronicles confrontation, adjustment front silver fork traditions. Hughes cally ambivalent claim for them: and, eventually, accommodation be­ points out that Dickens included a "We have perhaps had more than tween aristocracy and bourgeois, parody of a silver fork novel in enough of fashionable novels, but as mostly in love and marriage. Nicholas Nickleby, with the book, the amber which serves to preserve It was a younger writer who, after Lady Flabella, which Kate Nickleby the ephemeral modes and caprices serving a long journalistic appren­ reads to her pretentious parvenu of the passing day, they have their ticeship bashing at fashionable nov­ employer, Mrs. Wititterly. ("There value." Today, when the profes­ els, wrote the book that, in was not a line in it ..." says Dick­ sional class is fascinated with the Hughes's words, "broke the mold of ens, "which could, by the remotest English country house and the the silver fork genre." William contingency, awaken the smallest wealth and the idylls of a leisured Makepeace Thackeray, whose early excitement in any person breath­ elite, we might instructively read reviews deplored the "sham art" of ing.") In Bleak House, Dickens uses again those rambling repositories, silver fork novels, wrote parodies of the loose, digressive silver fork form the silver fork novels. the genre, including "Lords and Liv­ (and present tense) to portray the eries," published in Punch in the stagnation of the aristocratic Dedlock Winifred Hughes was awarded $27,500 mid-1840s and recognizably based family. When the plot shifts to the through the Fellowships for University on Mrs. Gore. After the brilliant suc­ story of Esther the orphan, the tense Teachers Program for "Social Attitudes cess in 1848 of Vanity Fair, Thack­ switches to past and the narrative and Theories of Fiction in 19th-Century eray's satirical view of fashion seems acquires movement. The chapter England" in November 1985. to have mellowed considerably. He was launched into society, and he began a correspondence and friend­ ship with Mrs. Gore. Upon reading a new edition of The Hamiltons, which she sent him in 1850, he wrote her a remarkable—if some­ what oblique—recantation of his earlier criticism of her: And I think some critics who carped at some authors for talking too much about fine company ought to hold their tongues. If you live with great folks, why should you not describe their man­ ners? ... I ... believe it was only a se­ cret envy and black malignity of disposi­ tion which made me say in former times this author is talking too much about grand people, this author is of the silver- fork school. Although it seems that Thackeray had read The Hamiltons only after he had written Vanity Fair, there are re­ markable parallels in plot and char­ acterization between the two books. Even more notable is the similarity in tone—the ambivalence toward fashion and society displayed by both authors. Twentieth-century Benjamin critics who find Thackeray mad­ Disraeli as a dening because his true attitude to­ young dandy ward a character like Becky Sharp from Fraser's seems impenetrable should note that Magazine, 1833. 16 —

arly in Dickens' "'Sometimes I try to think that the third full-length time may come when I may hon­ novel, Nicholas estly tell her [Madeline] this [that he Nickleby (1838-39), loves her]; but it is so far off, in such the hero finds he distant perspective, so many years must take the job must elapse before it comes, and of assistant at Mr. when it does come (if ever), I shall Wackford Squeers' Academy in be so unlike what I am now, and Yorkshire. Although young Nicholas shall have so outlived my days of knows nothing about the school or youth and romance ... that even I his duties there, and though the feel how visionary all such hopes school is far from London, his must be, and try to crush them mother, and his sister Kate, he is rudely myself and have the pain carried away immediately in antici­ over, rather than suffer time to pation of speedy success at his new wither them, and keep the disap­ career: Reading pointment in store.'" Nicholas has come to think in terms of long sto­ "To be sure, I see it all," said poor ries, and his lengthy struggle for Nicholas, delighted with a thousand vi­ happiness is a model that Dickens' sionary ideas, that his good spirits and readers accepted in their own lives his inexperience were conjuring up be­ Long (even though the author himself fore him. “Or suppose some young no­ achieved fame and fortune well be­ bleman who is being educated at the fore he was thirty). Hall, were to take a fancy to me, and get This Victorian perspective, how­ his father to appoint me his travelling Stories ever, is often lost in modem ap­ tutor when he left, and when we come proaches to the novels of Dickens. back from the continent, procured me We do recognize the length of Victo­ some handsome appointment.... And rian novels in one sense—the num­ who knows, but when he came to see me on the ber of words in a typical text. Most when I was settled (as he would of paperback editions of Nicholas course), he might fall in love with Kate, Nickleby, for instance, run 800 to 900 who would be keeping my house, pages. And the recently revived, and—and—marry her, eh! uncle? Who Installment very successful dramatic production knows?" (Chapter III) by the Royal Shakespeare Company Nicholas's naivete is obvious even has gained extra attention because of before we see how Dotheboys Hall Plan the unusual eight-hour length has crippled Smike and many more; needed to tell most of the story. Yet but another way to understand the both these forms for Dickens' novel limited vision of Dickens' hero here are short compared to the original. is to recognize that he sees his life in In college and university classes, terms of the wrong literary genre for students read Nicholas Nickleby in his time. Nicholas thinks this adven­ perhaps a week; and theater audi­ ture will be short, a brief interval of ences see the play in one or two trial and separation quickly over­ nights. What Dickens wrote, how­ come in success and reunion. He ever, took his nineteenth-century thinks, that is, in terms of the short audience nineteen months to read. BY story. For Dickens and his genera­ From the initial success of Pickwick tion, however, the frame of refer­ Papers (1836-37), most of Dickens' ence Nicholas must come to accept MICHAEL LUND major works appeared in one famil­ is that of a long story. Characters do iar format: twenty parts in nineteen succeed in Victorian fiction, but only monthly issues (the last two coming after years of struggle. together as a double number)—more Dickens' nineteenth-century read­ than a year and a half's worth of ers recognized at an early point in reading. any novel that they were beginning Serialization is one of the most of- a long story, with resolution difficult and distant. Indeed, it would have Michael Lund is Associate Professor of been some fifty-eight chapters be­ English at Longwood College, Farmville, fore Dickens' hero Nicholas, still Virginia. He has published many articles separated from the woman he loves on Victorian serials, especially those by and the fulfillment of his dreams, Dickens and Thackeray and in 1986 con­ gains the maturity to see that few ducted an NEH Summer Seminar for things come quickly or easily in life. Secondary School Teachers on great se­ He tells Kate in Chapter LXI, rial novels. 17 ten mentioned characteristics of this essential Dickens form. Modern bling up some installments while Dickens' work. There certainly have literary criticism has dictated that still taking the full semester to com­ been fine studies of how Dickens works of art should be read and plete the reading of a major work. adapted as a writer to the serial for­ taught as autonomous, whole enti­ Dickens' long stories, read in in­ mat, making sure each monthly ties, which means that works are stallments over an academic term, number provided entertainment traditionally assigned to be read in semester, or year, add depth and enough to be read by itself and yet their entirety before class discussion substance to courses from the fresh­ also carefully crafting it to fit into the or lecture. Many long novels, in fact, man level to the graduate program. thematic structure of a larger work are often simply excluded from syl­ At Longwood College, for instance, of art. And some general truths labi in favor of shorter, more man­ the freshman English program fea­ about the serial audience's experi­ ageable, but often less important tures one major installment text read ence frequently are acknowledged— works. We read "A Christmas serially in the customary Introduc­ that Dickens' readers, for instance, Carol" instead of the longer classic tion to Literature course. In recent were always eager to find out "what David Copperfield; we teach George years freshmen have studied such happens next" in his stories. Few Eliot's Silas Marner instead of her serial works as Dickens' Bleak House scholars have referred, however, to masterpiece, Middlemarch; students and Joseph Conrad's Nostromo the temporal dimension of the texts: are assigned Dostoevsky's Notes from —classics they probably would not Citations are to page or chapter the Underground instead of the in­ have read in any other format and numbers in modem single-volume comparable Brothers Karamozov. And certainly would not have read as editions, rather than to installment yet these famous works of long fic­ carefully as they have in the install­ numbers and months of publica­ tion could be brought back into the ment approach. When students are tions. Critics have not focused, for canon and, thus, to the common between installments (made like example, on how watching Smike knowledge of many Americans if ed­ Dickens' original audience to "wait" waste away over a period of months ucators returned to the original se­ for what makes them "laugh" and (rather than pages) affects the mean­ rial format in which they appeared. what makes them "cry"), they read ing of the novel. Although the academic schedule and study the more traditional mate­ Not only do critics tend to think of does not run in nineteen-month rial of an introductory literature Dickens' long stories in shortened terms, one can still copy the install­ course, short stories and lyric poems time frames, but the traditional uni­ ment format by providing a week or that illustrate the elements of litera­ versity curriculum also compresses ten days between parts or by dou­ ture (point of view, symbolism, and so forth) in a conveniently packaged anthology. But with the featured long story, students continue to de­ TQD velop their appreciation of an endur­ O3 r; ing statement about the human con­ & S dition constructed on a significantly grander scale. Reading such classics over three or four months' time can increase a student's confidence in his or her in­ terpretations of literature. In classes where each novel is read and taught only as a whole, students often be­ lieve that, reading on their own, AiOIJCPO fti’ they have misinterpreted the novel, and that the professor replaces theii faulty reading with a better, more authoritative one. In a serial reading experience, by contrast, because the development of understanding is gradual, students do not have to think that their own conceptions are wrong; they might be accurate ac­ cording to the evidence available at that point in the novel. Later, fol­ lowing the characters' lives further through time, students can refine their own understanding. Serial reading also works against Front Nicholas the notion entertained by many stu­ Nickleby, an dents that personality (in life) and etching by character (in fiction) are absolutes, Hablot Knight unchanging, almost one-dimen­ Browne. Js'ic/io/aA' starte' 9/orAx/ure. sional forces that remain fixed 18 through time. Moreover, traditional Wrapper for the literary analysis—based on a view of monthly numbers the text as a static entity that one can of Dombey and fix in a single, final reading—also Son, designed by Hablot Knight encourages this kind of thinking Browne and pub­ about literary characters. Reading a lished in August long novel in installments over time 1847. tends to undermine this perspective by creating an intense community of readers, a set of individuals who are following a common history for an extended period. Because long asso­ ciation often leads to affection, stu­ dents find they care about the fate of the characters. Furthermore, they learn that they cannot comprehend the lives of these individuals in an evening or over a weekend, classi­ fying them by types and then filing them away under fixed categories where they will give no further trouble until the exam (when they can be disposed of for good!). The serial characters of Dickens and other nineteenth-century writers keep returning with new, surprising statements and actions. If we care about them (and it's hard not to, when we, like the Victorians, invest such time in them and know them so well), we have to revise continu­ ally our notions of them. Study of Dickens' long stories in their original form encourages new understanding of a historical sensi­ bility as well as insight into theoreti­ cal questions about the nature of lit­ erary experience. That the long time of publication in a Dickens story de­ termined in precise measurable ways how Victorians understood his work is made clearer through study of the nineteenth-century periodical press. Contemporary reviews in the ture of property, visible in the de­ or payment for his authorship. In "weeklies" (popular weekly newspa­ bate over the Reform Bill of 1832, his June 1839 installment, Dickens pers) enthusiastically and in great came into the text of Dickens' long had his hero Nicholas attack such lit­ detail commended to their readers story in June 1839, at the publication erary hacks who would take '"the "Dickens' latest," quoting at length of number XV. The meaning of uncompleted books of living au­ from the monthly number and com­ Dickens' text to a Victorian audience thors, fresh from their hands, wet menting on key incidents and char­ included a contemporary public bat­ from the press, cut, hack, and carve acters. The more critically sophis­ tle between Dickens and literary pi­ them to the powers and capacities of ticated monthly and quarterly rates of his day. The widening of the [their] actors and the capability of journals record the reactions of an legal definition of property would [their] theatres .. . without his per­ audience that has taken the full time lead as early as 1838 to a public re­ mission, and against his will ..." of serial publication (usually a year consideration of the ownership of lit­ (chapter XLVIII). For Victorians, un­ or more) to understand the major lit­ erary works, though no bill passed derstanding of this long story about erary texts of its age. Identifying and Parliament until 1842. In between the hero's rise to self-sufficiency and studying the material in Victorian those years Dickens himself productivity included an awareness periodicals, particularly in the week­ confronted the issue of copyright, as of Dickens' public battle to receive lies, as sources of understanding throughout the serial run of Nickleby credit for his own creation. Dickens' long stories, offer a bright (April 1838 to October 1839) imita­ Returning to this nineteenth- prospect for Victorian studies. tions and unauthorized stage ver­ century habit of reading in parts, In Nicholas Nickleby, for instance, sions of his story were being pro­ however, can also lead contempo­ Victorian uncertainty about the na­ duced without acknowledgment of rary literary scholars to new insights 19 about reading in general, not just series" entitled The Personal History, for including this text in freshman Victorian reading. Although estab­ Adventures, Experiences & Observations composition was, according to pro­ lished critical frameworks tend to of Peter Leroy by Eric Kraft. Available fessor Hughes, "the paradigm of treat any literary text as an autono­ initially from Apple-wood Books in process in current composition ped mous whole, even single volume Cambridge, Massachusetts, this on­ agogy; students could not only be editions are seldom read all at once. going novel appeared quarterly in told that writing is a process, but We insert pauses in the text (when compact 96-page volumes in could witness it in a story only par we get up for a cup of coffee or lay a 1982-85. In 1986 Apple-wood tially written when publication be­ book down at the end of a day) even stopped publication of Peter Leroy at gan." (Wolfe, in fact, finished the when the original publication format number 8 ("Call Me Larry"); and last chapters only about three did not. Reading a Dickens novel or Warner Books announced plans to months before they were to be pub­ any long work is not an uninter­ reissue parts 1 —4 nationally begin­ lished.) At Longwood in the spring rupted single event, but a process ning in September 1986, with distri­ 1987 semester, all freshmen enrolled during which life and history go on bution of additional installments de­ in English 101, "Introduction to Lit­ and in which breaks inevitably oc­ pendent on audience response. Each erature and Composition," will read cur. A number of contemporary lit­ part adds to the story of Peter Kraft's Peter Leroy in installments erary theorists are attempting to an­ Leroy's growing up in Babbington, from January to mid-May. The en­ alyze the minute by minute, page by New York, as narrated by the pro­ thusiasm and excitement generated page movement of a reader through tagonist himself. Advertisements for by reading such contemporary seri­ a text, taking into account the read­ the series feature the slogan, "BE­ als, as well as student familiarity er's simultaneously ongoing life. CAUSE LIFE DOESN'T HAPPEN with television and movie serials, Dickens' installment novels are an ALL AT ONCE, neither does The encourages students to approach excellent critical model for such Personal History, Adventures, Experi­ other literary works, like the novels studies. Not only are there formal ence & Observations of Peter Leroy." of Charles Dickens. pauses in the texts at installment Kraft's deft style, which blends his Charles Dickens created the in­ endings, but the historical record of individual voice with echoes of Dick­ stallment novel by drawing on one Victorian readers shows how events ens (David Copperfield), Twain (Huck of humanity's oldest traditions, com­ outside the fiction influence the un­ Finn), and Proust (Remembrance of munal storytelling, in which charac­ derstanding of a novel. Things Past), has inspired praise ter and event are primary and in The appeal of serialization cap­ from reviewers. which the audience's fears and tured so effectively by Dickens in his Recovery of Dickens' long stories dreams are embodied. Such stories time has not been lost, of course, in in the classroom and in scholarship and their appeal are unlikely to end. our own century. The installment may lead to more serious considera­ When Kate is seen married and form has continued beyond the tion of such contemporary efforts by happy at the conclusion of Nicholas nineteenth century in popular enter­ Wolfe and Kraft. At Washburn Uni­ Nickleby, for instance, she has "many tainment—movie serials, radio versity in Topeka, Kansas, students new cares and occupations, and drama, television soap operas (as enrolled in the freshman composi­ many new faces courting her sweet well as weekly television series), and tion course of Professor Linda K. smile (and one so like her own, that movie sequels like the "Star Wars" Hughes, an expert on Victorian se­ to her mother she seemed a child trilogy. The features of a continuing rial poems, subscribed to Rolling again) ..." (chapter LXV). In the story—speculation, suspense, com­ Stone magazine from July to Decem­ end of every Dickens long story is mitment—are even more attractive ber of 1984 in order to read Bonfire of the beginning of another, for inher­ in great literature. The form's the Vanities as it appeared in its origi­ ent in his vision is the continuation strengths account for the fact that nal biweekly format. The rationale of the human story. there have been efforts by writers who have earned critical praise to re­ vive the installment novel—Norman Mailer, whose An American Dream appeared in Esquire (January-August 1964), for instance, and, more re­ cently, Tom Wolfe, whose The Bon­ fire of the Vanities appeared from July 1984 to August 1985 in Rolling Stone. Wolfe's novel, in fact, has invited a number of comparisons with the fic­ tion of that Victorian journalist who, moving from "Sketches by Boz" to The Pickwick Papers, established a The first page of new publication format for the great Great Expecta­ tions in its origi­ literature of his age. nal appearance in In a different mode, though still All the Year appearing in installments, is a fine Round, Decem­ new work with no hint of an end­ ber 1, 1860. ing, a "serial novel" or "novel 20

Timothy Wahrer (left) as Pip and Guthrie Theater's Great Expectations. hofen as Herbert Pocket in the production of Mark Benning-

21 Great Expectations "Dickens' solution is good in the tal information. tension—for Herbert gentle,is trying well-bred in hiswayhis firstto teachlessons Pip whilein table ... manners, feeding Pip and us the vi­ tion the narrator can latch onto: justabsorb. novel. On stage managesit is brilliant: to give heHerbert, his narrator, some comic discomfort— drama. Her examplescene was betweenthe dining Herbert Pip: "ThePocket sceneand cause could it beinvolves deadly a be­ playwright's about events which ownare notexperience, from his even or era.the Therewaft of isn't a prevailing emo­facts that the reader/viewer must to show the generaldience symposiumof theater-goers au­readers andwhat Dickensis involvedtransformation in theof literature into nightmare—someone videhaving exposition to pro­ withcontext no for personal it. Herbert is telling Pip of Minnesota and to Carleton examine College how goodDickens theater makes and howgood theater Dickens. makes Thelyzed playwrighta scene ana­from BY MATTHEW KIELL works as well on "Dickens' novels have always "Public readings also made the In the symposium, Field was dramatization, even ifone it wasperson. by only It's Greatno Expectations surprise thatstage as it does in the book thatroom ." "Something about the way he wrote and by scholars from the University series of postperformancesions at discus­the Guthrie,the Minnesota sponsored Humanities by Council, transfer so easily to the stage. of the low literacyone rate copy in of London,a readmonthly aloud wouldto a wholebeple whogroup wouldof peo­ have been waiting made it wonderful to hear the Henry James," says Field. novels of Dickens You closer paid; to you theater. satother in people;a room andwith you listened to a you're curled up with in your living Minneapolis. In a symposium and Field explained why Dickens' novels been read aloud," she says. Because impatiently for the next installment. words. Other greatwonderful writers to aren't hear; so try to imagine joined by director Stephen Kanee

Great Ex­ though he may not adopt the thor, and every very good actor writer offiction, every good au­ plays direct to has recently completed a "Dickens was a theater person," writer in Chicago. that are in him must permeate the art of Matthew Kiell is an editor and free-lance dramatic form, writes in effect for the long run at the Guthrie Theater in stage. He may write novels always, and says playwright Barbara Field, Although Charles Dickensonly a made few minor plays,efforts he was at neverwriting far from the the­ plays never, but the truth and wisdom which truth and passion are the life. pectations whose stage adaptation of ater. Throughout his playslife he threeattended or fourHe nightseven had a week.a own small home, theater staging in private ity hisproductions and char­ and leading performing roles. —Charles Dickens, 1858 Courtesy of Guthrie Theater "As an adaptor, I was grateful for reader's eye. novel from an author who was often the ploy, but I assumed that I'd have Jan Hodge points out, "Dickens is hurried and careless. As it is laid to fiddle with the scene to put the a master of description. But onstage out, it is also well-designed for the information and the interruptions in often a description can be done visu­ stage, which made my work easier. I the optimal places for a theater audi­ ally for a much different effect and shuffled the order of a couple of ence. When I sat down to work it much more efficiently. Costuming, events toward the end to make them out, however, Dickens left me noth­ background tricks, and stage design more appropriate for the stage. Cer­ ing much that needed fixing. can convey a lot more to an audi­ tain events had to be telescoped and "The interruptions always come at ence more immediately than reading a few omitted; of necessity I consoli­ the point where your mind starts a long description." dated several characters and con­ drifting, which allows the audience Professor Hodge recalls the case of densed actions." The play has a little release, and the expository a scene in the book involving Pip eleven actors covering twenty-nine point is always taken up and and Biddy, which he had the semi­ parts over two-and-a-half hours. slammed over the net at the mo­ nar participants read: "None of them "The Orlick subplot in the novel was ment the audience is ready to hear recognized what is going on in the one omission which I didn't mourn. and absorb it. This requires a special scene. They didn't realize that Biddy It lacks theatrical 'pay-off.' The skill, one not necessarily in the bag is very much in love with Pip when Wopsle episodes were rather harder of tricks belonging to a novelist. The they are young. But when they saw to lose, but I had a certain self- technique which Dickens demon­ the play, Biddy's feelings were ex­ consciousness about the Hamlet strates in this scene is nothing less pressed clearly and unmistakably. scene.... Since we didn't have the than faultless stagecraft." Many things that Dickens does very luxury of time and numbers, it was subtly and indirectly are focused better laid to rest-----More seri­ Seminar for teachers and illuminated in the play." ously, I regret that I was unable to Discussions of Dickens and drama "For me," Hodge says, "Barbara include the criminal justice scenes. followed the Guthrie production of Field's visit to the class was the best Again, limitations of time and num­ Great Expectations on its thirty-week part of the whole seminar program ber of actors forced me to omit the tour of more than 200 performances because the teachers could talk to scenes, but I included them in a first in 103 cities across thirty-three states someone who had adapted a Dick­ draft." and one Canadian province. At ens novel—could hear her talk about Barbara Field and Stephen Kanee's Morningside College in Sioux City, how she wrote it, what she was in­ pragmatic analysis helps to bring one stop in the tour, Dickens scholar terested in doing, what the technical into focus the differences in artistic Jan Hodge conducted a two-week problems were. How do you convey concerns and in narrative priorities summer seminar on Dickens for area in three minutes on stage what Dick­ between playwright and novelist. high school teachers. ens took five chapters to develop? Practical limitations of staging—both With support from the Iowa Hu­ What characters have to be left out physical and economic—must al­ manities Board, area businesses, and because of limitations in scope? ways be considered; a novel has as his own institution of Morningside, Looking at these problems brings a wide a stage as the author's imagi­ Hodge led the seminar for a dozen new dimension to an understanding nation. Theater depends on action participants from a fifty-mile radius of the book itself. For instance, the and character, whereas a book can of Sioux City—ten high school Eng­ class came to appreciate the Wopsle be internalized and carried by a nar­ lish teachers, one junior high school character, partly because Barbara rator's voice. English teacher, and one high school Field was so sorry that she couldn't Field surmounted these narrative history teacher. include it." difficulties—and in so doing man­ The seminar culminated in a dia­ aged to incorporate more of Dickens' logue with playwright Barbara Field Necessary economy own words into her plays—by using and a matinee performance of the The decisions made in adaptation special narrative devices. In another Dickens adaptation. The teachers can be seen as practical literary criti­ of her adaptations, "A Christmas asked questions about several Dick­ cism. "To this day I regret Carol," an actor portrays Dickens, ens works that are typically part of Magwitch," director Kanee says. who sits at dinner with his family; the high school curriculum, as well "He's much more complex and the family needs money, so he sets as about the themes that made the fascinating than he appeared in the to writing a story. "How can you le­ author so popular and important in play. In the book, Magwitch is ulti­ gitimately produce "A Christmas his own day and today. mately the most sympathetic charac­ Carol" that doesn't start 'Marley was ter; in the play, he's avuncular. The dead, to begin with'?" Field asks Insight through comparison sense of grief the reader feels on his rhetorically. In Great Expectations the The comparative study of a novel death was less intense in the play narration is shared by the entire and a faithfully conceived dramati­ than it is in the novel. But it was a cast—actors momentarily stepping zation of that work was used in the necessary economy; you have to sac­ out of character—a technique many seminar as a way to gain insight into rifice subplots, though Magwitch will recognize from David Edgar's the original classic and into the sub­ was not a total sacrifice." adaptation of Nicholas Nickleby. tleties of both art forms. Dickens In her symposium talk, Field ad­ Hodge insists that the primary was a consummate craftsman—so dressed alterations required in the function of dramatizing a novel is fine, in fact, his artistry and tech­ adaptation. " Great Expectations is an not to lead the audience back to nique can pass by even an astute uncharacteristically well-structured reading books. But both he and 22 Field acknowledge that reading has Shakespeare. I'd never have done that the world has real problems, become a lost art in America, and that if I hadn't fallen in love with nonetheless believes and demon­ they welcome the positive effect that Laurence Olivier." strates in his novels that there is a an adaptation can have. On this Why Dickens in the 1980s? Uni­ place for love in human relation­ score, Field recalls an important mo­ versity of Minnesota English profes­ ships and that goodness and de­ ment for her before the Guthrie sor Gordon Hirsch answered that cency can prevail and can make a tour. question firmly in his talk at the difference. Dickens is not naive; he Because two other plays in re­ Guthrie symposium: "The world of is not sentimental. He understands hearsal filled the theater's facilities, Dickens' novel is, first of all, the causes of problems and tries to the touring company rehearsed on a recognizably modern." get people to understand them so high school stage in a working-class Both Dickens' book and Field's that they do something about it." neighborhood in Minneapolis. adaptation of Great Expectations con­ The theme "is personalized in the 'When the show was ready to go on vey a single major theme. As play," Kanee explains. "You see Pip tour," Field relates, "we performed a Stephen Kanee sees it, "A useful life and those people around him—not preview for the kids there, most of is a productive life, a working life, London or the society of England. whom had never seen a play, most no matter what the trade. Anyone The novel provides a tapestry, a so­ of whom certainly had never read who simply adopts social graces is ciological look at London and the so­ Dickens. The teachers cautioned us removing himself from any value to ciety of the England of Dickens' that there would probably be a lot of society and to himself." tim e." bad behavior. But within three min­ Barbara Field sees it in the form of "Dickens is such a tremendously utes after the curtain rose, there a few questions: "What are your true rich writer," Hodge adds "that any­ wasn't a sound except some perfect values? Do you settle for the up­ thing short of reading Dickens will emotional responses to the story. wardly mobile life, or work for simply be that—short of Dickens. I The teachers were in tears by the loftier goals? These quandaries exist love the theater. I very much like end. And obviously they might try today, and they existed when Dick­ Barbara Field's adaptation of this to teach that book. I thought it was ens wrote Great Expectations. I can play; I saw it five times. At the same wonderful. see my life in that work. Great art time Dickens on the stage will never "An adaptation is the quick access does show us ourselves and inter­ substitute for Dickens on the printed to the original work," she continues. pret our lives for us." page." ^ "People who are afraid of reading Seminar director Jan Hodge are more likely to read something agrees. "Dickens is the master of they've seen dramatized for them. pointing out all the foibles that are Programs of the Iowa Humanities Board When I was twelve, that happened timeless—hypocrisy, greed, re­ and the Minnesota Humanities Commis­ with me. I saw the movie of Henry venge. Yet, Dickens, for all of his ec­ sion are supported through the NEH Di­ V, then went and read my first centricities and even while realizing vision of State Programs.

Pip (Timothy Wahrer) is brought to the eerie decaying mansion of Miss Havisham (Darrie Lawrence) to play with her ward, Estella (Ann-Sara Matthews). 23 TO A GENERATION raised on the tional Collection for the Art of Pho­ Edinburgh. The exhibition and its instant image, it is difficult to com­ tography at the Victoria and Albert accompanying catalogue, arranged prehend the complete astonishment Museum in London with other se­ thematically to reflect events in and confusion of the Victorians lections from the Philadelphia nineteenth-century British cultural when first confronted with a photo­ Museum of Art, the Royal Archives and social history, examined not graph. Until the invention of pho­ at Windsor Castle, the Royal Photo­ only what Victorian photographers tography, there always had been an graphic Society in Bath, the Science showed but what they did not show obvious difference between a picture Museum in London, and the Scot­ of Victorian society. and the object it was meant to repre­ tish National Portrait Gallery in Although the photographs in the sent. But in the daguerreotype, within the limits of two-dimensional representation, the fundamental dis­ tinction between representation and reality suddenly disappeared. No clear-cut point could be found where the image could be separated from its represented object. What had been understood clearly to be an art­ ist's interpretation of reality in a print or a painting suddenly seemed to be reality itself. Photography was first seen by a wide public audience at the Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of All Nations at the Crystal Palace in 1851. Although primarily pre­ sented as a new scientific wonder, along with the electric telegraph, tel­ escopes, musical, horological, and surgical instruments, a few photo­ graphs were exhibited in the Fine Arts division. Those shown were praised not so much for their aes­ thetic beauty but for their truth to nature—a quality that was upheld as a great, even a moral good, for which science was responsible. More than a hundred years later, the Philadelphia Museum of Art or­ ganized an exhibition, The Golden Age of British Photography, 1839-1900, with NEH support. The 240 photo­ graphs presented in the exhibition were drawn primarily from the Na­

Caroline Taylor is Assistant Director for Publications in the NEH Public Affairs Office. 24 TAYLOR

exhibition included images of pov­ of photographs at the Philadelphia widely available to the middle erty and suffering, most Victorian Art Museum, these Victorian pho­ classes and changed forever the way photographers fell short of fulfilling tographers tended to reflect a largely that people keep visual records of Charles Dickens' hope that photog­ positive image of the time—a time of their lives, the exhibition proceeded raphy would be the "good spirit domesticity and of moral rigor sanc­ to cover the calotype era with its who would take the house tops off" tioned and exemplified by Victoria salted-paper "sun pictures," explor­ to reveal to society the truth about and Albert. ing the Victorians' search for ideals itself. Instead, says project director Beginning with the daguerreo­ of virtue and beauty in the styles Martha Chahroudi, assistant curator type, which made portraiture more and lands of antiquity, their invest­ ment in the romantic ideal of nature as a source of truth and goodness, their belief in scientific investigation as an essential factor in human prog­ ress, and their pride in empire. The daguerreotype, developed by Louis Jacques Mandes Daguerre in 1839, produced a direct positive im­ age of an object on a silver-coated copper plate. For the image to "fix" itself on the plate, the object had to remain motionless in bright light for several minutes. The daguerreotype was used almost exclusively for landscape, architecture, or still-life scenes until 1840 when the perfec­ tion of chemical "accelerators" to fix the image more quickly and the in­ troduction of larger, faster lenses made portraits possible. In the less than two decades that the daguerre­ otype process remained popular, millions of daguerreotype portraits were made. The revelations of early photog­ raphy were at once marvelous and terrible. Carl Dauthendey, a profes­ (above) Lewis sional daguerreotypist in 1843, de­ Carroll's portrait scribed the reaction of his clients: of Xie Kitchin; "People were afraid at first to look (left) an 1852 for any length of time at the pictures photograph of produced. They were embarrassed the Crystal Pal­ ace by Benjamin by the clarity of these figures and Brecknell Turner. believed that the little, tiny faces of The Great Exhi­ the people in the pictures could see bition held here out at them...." in 1851 contained To the Victorians, it seemed that the first substan­ nature was the active force in tial display of creating that inseparable connection photographs. 25 between image and object, or, as the guerreotype by William Henry Fox James Robertson brought back to London Spectator commented at the Talbot, showed that it was possible England the images of monuments, time, "nature herself reflecting her to make images through a process public buildings, and classical sites own face." that revealed more than the eye encountered on the grand tour. Also Many people suspected the da­ could see and more than the hand documented for archaeologists and guerreotype was actually the work could draw. What the eye could not surveyors, through the works of of an extremely able draftsman until help but see was a landscape slowly Samuel Bourne, Philip Egerton, John they examined the print under a being altered by the railway and by Murray, and Linneaus Tripe, were magnifying glass and found, not the industrialization. the 11 million square miles of the disintegration of the image into a Because these unaesthetic realities planet that constituted the British series of brush or pen strokes, but were not considered an appropriate Empire. an even more detailed representa­ subject for photography, photog­ The portraits of Julia Margaret tion of reality. The daguerreotype's raphers like Roger Fenton, Edward Cameron; author Lewis Carroll;. totally uncompromising representa­ Fox, Robert Howlett, Benjamin Clementina, Lady Hawarden; Henry tion of the human face, its essence Brecknell Turner, and Henry White Arthur Herbert; and David Wilkie captured in an isolated instant, focused their lenses on the Wynfield, while indicative of the troubled the Victorians. They were picturesque—preserving, at least on qualities in men and women that the accustomed to sitting for portraits by paper, the unmarred rural land­ Victorians most admired, also re­ an artist, who could be instructed to scape, the ivy-covered ruin, the vealed how the Victorians viewed interpret the sitter in a more flatter­ peaceful village. the roles of men, women, and chil­ ing, more accurate, or more "artis­ The technological advances made dren in upper-class society. tic" light. On close examination of a in the 1850s and 1860s produced "The photographs of the time at­ daguerreotype, however, one could processes that were able to render a test to a love of exactitude," says see the lines and even the hairs on a great detail and wealth of informa­ Chahroudi, "of minute detail, of the hand, the tiny shadows cast by folds tion with infinite subtlety and soft­ precise focusing of the lens to di­ in cloth—even the shadow of a mus­ ness, says Chahroudi. And, as the rectly observe the truth of nature." tache on the upper lip of a lady who British increasingly identified them­ Although it eventually became clear never would have permitted such selves with the creative civilizations that photographs were far from per­ accuracy of detail in her portrait. of antiquity, photographers Francis fect reflections of nature, the notion Calotypes, which were invented at Bedford, Francis Frith, Frank Mason that the photographic process was about the same time as the da­ Good, Robert Macpherson, and essentially automatic—that the hu­ man role was minimal—made it dif­ ficult for the Victorians to accept the idea that a photograph could be a work of art. Because the camera, like most machines, was only capable of producing standardized and often imperfect results, it was believed to be incapable of artistic expression. The proper role of photography was to communicate information, not to express artistic imagination. In the period 1855-60, a new con­ troversial and theatrical mode of photography emerged that featured the tableau vivant through which the purposes implicit in ideal beauty— "not merely to amuse but to in­ struct, to purify, to ennoble," as photographer Jabex Hughes wrote in "Close No. 193" 1859—were depicted, not with paint by Thomas but with the cameras of Oscar G. Annan. Trustees of the Glasgow Rejlander, Henry Peach Robinson, City Improve­ and William Lake Price. ments Act com­ In the 1880s, a rash of technologi­ missioned cal improvements in the camera, Annan, Glas­ negative, and printing papers and gow's leading methods greatly increased the casual commercial pho­ uses of photography by the public at tographer, to re­ large. This gave rise to a new self- cord the closes and wynds of the consciousness of the place of pho­ city before they tography in relation to the visual were swept arts, says Chahroudi. "Photograph­ away. ers adopted the profound fastidious- 26

(left) "The Great Eastern: "Gathering Water Lilies" Isambard Kingdom Brunei Inspecting Checking by Peter Henry Emerson, Drum" by Robert Howlett, 1857. (below) 1886.

Philadelphia Museum of Art ness of the Aesthetic Movement and entered into close rapport with the art of printmaking as practiced in etching." The technological advances that allowed more democratic use of photography also opened up new areas of subject matter and new kinds of artistic expression. The photograph as a scientific tool, as a documentation, as a record of places and events, persons and roles, also became a study in composition and contrast, light and shadow, focus and perspective. "Beginning with the work of Paul Martin in the 1890s," says Chahroudi, "photographers looked forward to the beginning of a new century when society became as much a subject of art as nature, when spontaneity became as valid as contemplation, and when the im­ mediacy of events became as inter­ esting for artists as the eternally picturesque." (right) "Portrait of Mary Hillier" The Philadelphia Museum of Art was by Julia Margaret awarded $33,980 through the Humani­ Cameron, 1865- ties Projects in Museums and Historical 75; (below) Organizations Program for "Golden Age "Gorleston" by of British Photography" in August Paul Martin, 1984. Martha Chahroudi was the project 1892. director. Victoria and Albert Museum itra n Abr Museum Albert and Victoria rom the time Vic­ toria assumed the throne in 1837 until her death in 1901, English society witnessed tremendous changes. Great Britain grew from an agrarian society to an industrial na­ tion; the working classes rebelled and the middle class was born; Darwin voyaged on the Beagle and formulated the theory of evolution, and Victorian writers addressed an increasingly literate population. The meteoric rise of the periodical during Victoria's reign has been attributed to the growth of an educated class, particularly the mid­ MAY—OCTOBER, 1862. dle class. Many of its members, lacking the classical education of the upper classes, sought self-education The Wellesley Index through reading. In 1850 John Henry Newman commented that it was "the extreme influence of periodical Victorian Periodicals publications . .. quarterly, monthly, or daily [which] teach the multitude of men what to think and what to say." The periodicals are of the greatest importance, therefore, to scholars of the Victorian period. When Walter E. Houghton of Wellesley College researched and wrote his ground-breaking study of Victorian culture, The Victorian Frame the full circumstances surrounding secure funding for later ones. In The of Mind, 1830-1870 (Yale University these sources in order to evaluate New Statesman, reviewer Christopher Press, 1957), he discovered problems clearly a writer's stance. Before 1860 Ricks wrote: "The Wellesley Index ... for anyone wishing to work with few articles were signed, and of the is simply a great work of reference, Victorian periodicals, a source that millions of articles which appeared probably the most important aid to had barely been tapped by scholars. between 1824 and 1864, more than literary research since the Cambridge The existing indexes to nineteenth- 96 percent appeared anonymously Bibliography of English Literature.. . . century periodicals were either diffi­ or under a pseudonym. The diffi­ Future scholars will wonder how cult to use or were incomplete. The culty of conducting his own research anybody managed without [it], sheer numbers partly explained the prompted Houghton and his wife rather as people now wonder what difficulty. Esther to embark on the compilation it can have been like before there Between 1824 and 1900, there of an index to nineteenth-century was the [Oxford English Diction­ were more than 12,000 periodicals in periodicals, which, with NEH sup­ ary]. . . . [This] book . . . will quietly print at one time or another, con­ port, is now near completion. change the whole nature of Victorian taining millions of articles. Major The multivolume index that the studies." and minor authors wrote on all con­ Houghtons envisioned was to detail Scholars can now anticipate the ceivable topics, covering history, bi­ the authorship and complete con­ completion of the Houghtons' vi­ ography, sociology, literature, reli­ tents of approximately fifty major sion. Volumes four and five of the gion, law, medicine, the sciences, monthly or quarterly publications. Wellesley Index to Victorian Periodicals and the arts. Analyzing current Because of the size of the undertak­ will be published by the University events, as well as reflecting on the ing, Houghton initially had trouble of Toronto Press in autumn 1987 and past, periodicals played a crucial role convincing anyone it could be done. 1988, respectively. in determining public opinion. The Wellesley College provided an initial Each volume contains indexes for essays tell the story of the Victorian grant, but by the spring of 1962 this eight to twelve journals, preceded age—if only one can find them. money had been spent, and applica­ by essays describing the journals. It is important that scholars know tions for further funding were re­ Readers learn, for example, that fused by several foundations. Using Cornhill Magazine (1860-1900) began Allyson McGill is a graduate student in his own funds, Houghton published under the editorship of William Victorian Studies at the University of the first volume of the index in 1966. Makepeace Thackeray, whose popu­ Indiana—Bloomington. The reviews of this volume helped larity assured the magazine's early 29 The 12,000 peri­ bibliography of each contributor's odicals in print periodical writings. For the first between 1824 and time, the Victorian scholar can see at 1900 played a a glance the essays and stories of crucial role in de­ termining public some 12,000 authors. What is more, opinion. A refer­ parts A and B enable the reader to ence to Oliver see what topics were important to Twist appears in these writers, when they were im­ the satiric com­ portant, and how the ideas of these ment on white- writers changed over the course of collar crime in time. It also provides scholars with Punch, Novem­ the chance to compare the reactions ber 2, 1878. of other writers in other journals, an important feature considering the frequency of dialogues carried on be­ tween publications. Finally, part C, "Initials and Pseu­ donyms," is the only work of its kind in Victorian studies. Not only does the index try to solve these co­ nundrums, it also prints those that remain unsolved—perhaps in hope that future sleuths may provide fur­ ther pieces to this literary puzzle. At the time of Houghton's death in 1983, Jean Slingerland became ex­ ecutive editor of the series. Slingerland, who first worked with Houghton as a Wellesley undergrad­ uate in the early 1940s and holds a master's degree in English literature from Harvard University, joined the staff of the index in 1980. Upon her arrival, Houghton handed her o Longman's Magazine (1882-1900) to u prepare for volume 4. "It was a won­ derful one to cut my teeth on," she says, "largely signed and interesting in its own right." success. The more politically ori­ they have scoured the archives of Working with four drawers of ented, Whig-flavored Edinburgh Re­ such renowned libraries as the Brit­ note cards, Slingerland has recently view (1802-1900) had a major impact ish Library, Oxford's Bodleian, and completed the bibliographic research on political thought and action. Con­ the National Library of Scotland. and written the introduction for the tributors included such authorities Other external clues appeared in Dublin University Magazine. on political economy as John Stuart printed biographies and collections The project will end with volume Mill and Thomas Malthus. Although of reprinted essays bearing the au­ 5, an index of the preceding four the journal was liberal in its view­ thor's name on the title page or in volumes. It will bring together the point, its acknowledged audience such sources as the Dictionary of Na­ bibliographies in one alphabetical was conservative and aristocratic; tional Biography and individual list, a virtual Who's Who of Victo­ the editors, in an attempt to en­ biographies. rian periodical authors. In addition, lighten their readers, printed articles With volume 2, Houghton had volume 5 will include all the correc­ on such issues as the Poor Laws, called on the resources of a large tions and additions that have been taxes, and emigration, but avoided staff in his effort to identify correctly discovered since the publication of radical rhetoric. those sources that had still evaded prior volumes. Further emendations Each volume of the index is di­ more conclusive verification. To this will appear in Victorian Periodicals Re­ vided into three sections. Part A lists end, the researchers turned to the view, a publication of the Research the actual tables of contents and articles themselves, reading hun­ Studies in Victorian Periodicals. identifies the contributors. To ascer­ dreds of pages in their attempts to tain the authors of these articles, re­ garner internal clues. Their labors The Wellesley College Library was searchers in North America and have resulted in an 87 percent over­ awarded $116,469 through the Tools Europe have looked at author lists, all attribution rate for part A of Program for "Wellesley Index to Victo­ account books, and the editorial cor­ volume 4 with a total of 88,244 rian Periodicals, 1824—1900," beginning respondence of publishing houses entries. in June 1984. Jean Slingerland is the (particularly in London). In addition, Part B consists of an alphabetical project director. 30 Courtesy of Southern Illinois University Press hilip Highfill recalls being offers corrections to such standard at a party in London, works of reference as the Dictionary years ago, when a man of National Biography, Grove's Dic­ asked about his work. tionary of Music and Musicians, and Highfill, a professor of The London Stage itself. English at George Washington Uni­ Entries range from a few lines to versity, explained that he was writ­ dozens of pages, and present not ing a biographical dictionary of the only the best-known performers but known 8,500 actors, actresses, musi­ also the most humble of players and cians, singers, dancers, managers, personnel—anyone who contributed acrobats, contortionists, puppeteers, (and to whom a name can be strong men, dwarfs, freaks, mimics, pinned) at London's patent theaters, dressers, and performing animals opera houses, pleasure gardens, the­ that populated the stages of London atrical taverns, music rooms, fair and its immediate environs during booths, and other places of public the 140 years from the Restoration of entertainment. A Cast of Charles II, in 1660, to the end of the A paragraph from the preface of season 1799-1800. the Dictionary of Actors suggests the "Are you mad?" responded the extent to which it has liberated other man at the party. researchers from years of drudgery: "Everybody was suggesting that," "The authors have combed every Thousands Highfill recalls. "Except some people source that ingenuity could sug­ who knew it was doable. And they gest. ... We have scaled mountains knew it was formidable." of manuscripts: letters, memoirs, di­ It is now two-thirds complete, and aries, theatrical account books, par­ BY MICHAEL LIPSKE Southern Illinois University Press is ish registers, wills, and Lord Cham­ publishing volumes 11 and 12 of berlain's records. We have inspected what will be the eighteen-volume Bi­ numerous collections of London, ographical Dictionary of Actors, Ac­ provincial British, American, and tresses, Musicians, Dancers, Managers, Continental playbills and newspaper and Other Stage Personnel in London, notices of performances, and num­ 1660-1800. Supported by the NEH, bers of annotated scrapbooks, extra­ the Dictionary of Actors is, not sur­ illustrated volumes, original paint­ prisingly, a team effort. In addition ings, and engravings. We have to Highfill, the authors are Kalman made levy also on local histories, Burnim, Fletcher Professor of Drama surveys, maps, contemporary and Oratory at Tufts University, and poetry, periodical essays, sales cata­ Edward Langhans, chairman of the logues, plays, critical works, Department of Drama and Theater genealogies, rare books, and ships' at the University of Hawaii. lists." The project, said to represent the By making research on Restora­ equivalent of more than fifty tion theater personnel easier, scholar-years in research, was in­ Highfill and his colleagues hope to tended originally to yield a mere inspire in-depth studies of English twelve volumes and 2,000 to 3,000 theater history. The Dictionary of Ac­ entries, and it was to "take three or tors should be useful to more than four years of my life," says Highfill. scholars of the theater. The entries "That was early optimism. It grew give not only a record of players, but like Topsy. You look back and you the salaries earned by theater profes­ realize you've swum halfway across sionals, the physical hazards they the lake and you may as well swim faced, the travels they made— on." He prefers not to predict when matters of interest to historians and the lake will be crossed. "I'm super­ social scientists. The biographies, stitious about very few things, but long and short, allow a reader to that's one of them." move back into professional lives The Dictionary of Actors is the suc­ "which are, after all, integrated into cessor to The London Stage, 1660- the lives of the rest of the people in 1800, an eleven-volume calendar of London," says Highfill. "Because Portraits from A Bio­ graphical Dictionary of performances also published by this enterprise [of acting] was regu­ Actors, Southern Illinois University Press. A etc. (top to bot­ larly attacked by clerics," he adds, tom) John Henry Packer census of players, the new work also the Dictionary of Actors should also as Gulwell, Sir Joshua be of value to moral and religious Reynolds, caricature of Michael Lipske is a free-lance writer in historians. Elizabeth Billington Washington, D.C. The Folger Shakespeare Library in (1802), Anne Oldfield. Washington, D.C., and the British Printed accounts of performances named Mr. Mahoney, a giant named Museum in London are among the increase with time, but remain less Miller, and "Moustache" the per­ more than sixty libraries in Europe than fully reliable. "The kind of forming dog, best known member of and the United States that the au­ thing we call newspapers and maga­ the troupe of trained canines man­ thors turned to for access to manu­ zines didn't really get started until aged by a Signor Scaglioni. "I see scripts and rare books. They combed late in the first quarter of the cen­ him now," goes a recollection of a the National Archives of England, tury," says Highfill. "You didn't get performance by Moustache, "in his Scotland, and Ireland and the previ­ reportage of actual performances little uniform, military boots, with ously unexploited records of the —reviews, we would call smart musket and helmet, cheering Royal Society of Musicians. Wills them—until later. And then, of and inspiring his fellow soldiers, to were studied in Somerset House as course, there were plenty. But a follow him up the scaling ladders, well as Salt Lake City, where the great many puffs." Where a and storm the fort." Genealogical Society of the Church publicity-conscious manager did not Moustache aside, Highfill says it is of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints inflate his actor's performance, a his serious wish that the Dictionary of has assembled its collection of jealous competitor might arrange for Actors will raise the level of theatrical filmed British manuscript records. "I publication of a deflating piece of biography. "It's obviously a field dragooned my family one summer critical slander. where there have been many and had them all sitting in front of Although the authors have at­ abuses," he says, with actors' biog­ microfilm readers in Utah," recalls tempted restraint in use of anec­ raphies tending toward sensational­ Highfill. dotes, they note in their preface, "It ism and prurience. Theatrical biography poses special has sometimes been necessary to re­ With their notecards on file at the problems for researchers. With Res­ port a good but fictitious story of Folger Shakespeare Library, Highfill, toration theater, it was standard to widespread currency in order to im­ Burnim, and Langhans have marked print only surnames in playbills. As peach it. Separating an actor from the way for scholars who wish to the Dictionary of Actors notes of Da­ his legends is, after all, a delicate present more fully the lives sketched vid Erskine Baker, grandson of and painful operation not only be­ out in the Dictionary of Actors. "I Defoe, "The question of possible act­ cause some excellent stories may be hope," says Highfill, "people can de­ ing appearances by David Baker is true but because most are at least il­ vote comparable time to one person complicated by the presence onstage lustrative of traits of character and and bring out a really long narrative somewhere in the metropolis of one thus possess some truthfulness." on some of these people." Baker or another virtually at any The Dictionary of Actors is further For better or worse, there is also given moment during thirty-five enhanced by portraits, at least one grist in the Dictionary of Actors for years in the middle of the century." for each biographical subject for less scholarly talespinners. There whom a likeness exists. "I corre­ could be a screenplay or at the least sponded with many a noble lord," a paperback romance in the life of Highfill says of the search for pic­ John Brahan, at his height England's tures of actors, musicians, and other greatest singer, later a seller of pen­ performers. A total of some 1,400 cils on the hard streets of London. portraits will appear in the com­ And there is a television series to pleted work. The authors have also outdraw Dallas in the adventures of listed, following each entry, all other Macklin, actor, dancer, singer, man­ known original portraits—an iconog­ ager, playwright, and Irishman. raphy that should well serve art Macklin engaged in "fisticuffs," says historians. Highfill, with the tragedian Quin, General readers, with or without a killed a fellow actor in a scene-room specific interest in theater history, dispute over a stock wig, and cre­ are likely to enjoy the Dictionary of ated the theatrical sensation of Actors for its enormous cast of small 1740-41 with his revolutionary inter­ fry. Volume 10, for example, pre­ pretation of Shylock. He acted for sents the great actor Charles the last time at age ninety, capping a Macklin, and the young Mozart's career that ran nearly seven dec­ fifteen-month sojourn in England. ades. "God help me—my memory, I But there is also an entry for the am afraid, has left me," he said, and wire dancer Anthony Maddox, of left the stage for good. It's all there whom David Garrick, when urged —triumph, tragedy, and a cast of to have the equilibrist appear at thousands—in the Dictionary of Drury Lane Theater, wrote, "I can­ Actors. ^ not possibly agree to such a prostitu­ tion upon any account; and nothing Southern Illinois University Press was but downright starving would in­ awarded $20,000 through the Texts- duce me to bring such defilement Publications Subvention Program for "A Courtesy ot Southern Illinois University Press and abomination into the house of Biographical Dictionary of Actors" in Samuel Reddish as Posthumus and John Palmer as William Shakespeare." There are also February 1986. Kenney Withers is the Iachimo. entries for a Drury Lane watchman project director. __

33 Stanford Architectural Simon and Oxford Univer­ Stanford Univer­ University of University of The Law Courts: The Ar­ The Peasant Economy and San Juan de La Cruz y El Medievalia et Humanistica. The Road to Redemption: Popol Vuh. The Fables of Odo ofCheriton. The Mosaics of San Marco in Baseball's Great Experiment: Breaking the Land: The Transfor­ Chaucer and the Imagery of Nar­ Shakespeare in Sable: A History of University of Illinois Press. University of Chicago Press. El Colegio de Mexico, Universidad de Philip C.C. Huang. Luce Lopez Baralt. David B. Brownlee. Pete Daniel. V.A. Kolve. Mary Flowers Braswell. "Sin the Lady, and Michael Perman. Errol Hill. Otto Demus. Dennis Tedlock. Jules Tygiel. John C. Jacobs. Social Change in North China. SOCIETY OF ARCHITECTURAL HISTO­ AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION sity Press. HERBERT FEIS PRIZE mation of Cotton, Tobacco, and Rice Cultures Since 1880. Venice. Southern Politics, 1869-1879. Puerto Rico-Recento de Rio Piedras, 1985. RIANS ALICE DAVISBOOK HITCHCOCKAWARD History Foundation and MIT Press. JOHN K. FAIRBANK PRIZE AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION MODERN LANGUAGE ASSOCIATION NORTH AMERICAN BRITISHCONFERENCE STUDIES IN PRIZE BRITISH COUNCIL FREDERIC, W. CONNORHISTORY PRIZEOF IDEAS IN THE the Law: The English Noblewoman in the rative: The First Five Canterbury Tales. University Press. ORGANIZATION OF HISTORIANSAMERICAN AVERY O. CRAVEN AWARD North Carolina Press. P.E.N. AWARD FOR POETRY Shuster, 1985. AWARD Islam. chitecture ofGeorge Edmund Street. sity Press. BERTRAM L. JOSEPH AWARD FORSTUDIES Black Shakespearean Actors. Massachusetts Press. MITCHELL FOUNDATIONMITCHELL PRIZE FOR THE HISTORY OF Late Middle Ages," ENGLISH-SPEAKING UNION AWARD PUERTO RICO NATIONAL LITERARY ACHIEVEMENT IN SHAKESPEARE ART JAMES RUSSELL LOWELL PRIZE Syracuse University Press, 1985. Jackie Robinson and His Legacy. TRANSLATION CENTER AWARD EX H.G. Bohn, 1892. NEH LIBRIS In this dual symbolism of esteem to scholarship in the humanities.They continue the tradition lenceof excel­ in American scholarship. the ideas of medieval religion,tory, and his­ literature. and of tradition, these are engravingsespecially appropriate for this list of books. Whether theyproducts are of fellowships the or of collabo­ rative research, whether translated lished with Endowment subvention,these works were determinedpanels by of scholars to bepublic supportworthy becauseof of the signifi­ cant contribution they would make with Endowment support or pub­

to show Victorian Bibliomania: or Book Madness. selves with their cultural past—with also reflect the Victorians' use of Bibliomania: The Illuminated Book in tion will explain, the decorations books and book design to link them­ EDITOR'S NOTE: The annual list of is illustrated this year with tionsillumina­ that Victorian book lavisheddesigners on their pages. NEH-funded Part of exhibition,an at the Museum of Art, School Rhode Islandof Design between andJanuary March 9 17, these flect decorations the esteemed re­ place in ofthe theVictorian book mind. As the exhibi­ books published with NEH support Nineteenth-Century England, Kimball Collection, John Hay Library, Brown University Thomas Frognall Dibdin, Inc., Metuchen, NJ, and London, 1986. Jonaitis, Aldona. Art of the Northern Tlingit. ARCHAEOLOGY AND Reitz, Elizabeth J. and C. Margaret Scarry. University of Washington Press, Seattle and Reconstructing Historic Subsistence with an Exam­ London, 1986. ANTHROPOLOGY ple from Sixteenth-Century Spanish Florida. Lavin, Irving, ed. Gianlorenzo Bernini: New Edited by Donna J. Seifert. (Special Publica­ Aspects of His Art and Thought. Pennsylvania tion Series, No. 3; The Society of Historical State University Press, University Park and Blackburn, Stuart H. and A.K. Ramanujan, Archaeology) Braun-Brumfield Inc., Ann Ar­ London, 1985. eds. Continuity and Autonomy: Processes in In­ bor, 1985. Liang, Mingyue. Music of the Billion: An In­ dian Folklore. Oxford University Press, India, Runnels, Curtis N. "The Bronze-Age troduction to Chinese Musical Culture. 1985. Flaked-Stone Industries from Lerna: A Prelim­ Heinrichshofen Edition, New York, 1985. Bonavia, Duccio. Mural Painting in Ancient inary Report." Hesperia, Vol. 54, No. 4 May, Ernest D. J.S. Bach as Organist: His In­ Peru. Translated by Patricia J. Lyon. Indiana (Oct.-Dec. 1985), pp.357-91. struments, Music, and Performance Practices. University Press, Bloomington, 1985. Svoboda, Terese, trans. Cleaned the Croco­ Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1986. Brody, Jacob Jerome. Yazz Navajo Painter. dile's Teeth: Nuer Song. The Greenfield Review Neumann, Frederick. Ornamentation and Im­ Northland Press, 1983. Press, Greenfield Center, NY, 1985. provisation in Mozart. Princeton University Cordell, Linda. Prehistory of the Southwest. Yegul, Fikret K. The Bath-Gymnasium Com­ Press, Princeton, 1986. Academic Press, New York and London, plex at Sardis. (Archaeological Exploration of Olson, Roberta J.M. Fire and Ice: A History 1984. Sardis, Report 3; George M.A. Hanfmann and of Comets in Art. Published for the National Coulson, William D.E. and Nancy C. Jane Ayer Scott, Gen. Eds.) Harvard Univer­ Air and Space Museum/Smithsonian Institu­ Wilkie. "Ptolemaic Kilns in the Western Nile sity Press, Cambridge, MA, and London, tion. Walker Publishing Company, New Delta." Ancient Greek and Related Pottery: Pro­ 1986. York, 1985. ceedings of the International Vase Symposium, Palisca, Claude V. Humanism in Italian Ren­ Amsterdam, 1984. (Allard Pierson Series, Vol. aissance Musical Thought. Yale University 5) pp.67-71. ARTS—HISTORY & Press, New Haven, 1985. Coulson, William, Albert Leonard, Jr. and CRITICISM Parsons, Lee Allen. The Origins of Maya Art: Nancy Wilkie. "Three Seasons of Excavations Monumental Stone Sculpture of Kaminaljuyu, and Survey at Naukratis and Environs." Jour­ Guatemala, and the Southern Pacific Coast. nal of the American Research Center in Egypt, Bevington, David, Ronald Herzman, and Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Col­ Vol. 19, 1982, pp.73-109. Richard Emerson. Homo, Memento Finis: The lection, Washington, DC 1986. Davis, Jack L. Keos V, Ayia Irini: Period V. Iconography of Just Judgment in Medieval Art and Rivers, Elias. Things Done with Words: Speech Verlag Philipp von Zabem, Mainz on Rhine, Drama. Medieval Institute Publications, West­ Acts in Hispanic Drama. Juan de la Cuesta- 1986. em Michigan University, Kalamazoo, 1985. Hispanic Monographs, Newark, 1986. Dien, Albert E., Jeffrey K. Riegel, and Biebuyck, Daniel. The Art of Zaire, Vol. I: Sawyer, Paul L. Ruskin's Poetic Argument: Nancy T. Price, eds. Chinese Archaeological Ab­ Southwestern Zaire. University of California The Design of the Major Works. Cornell Univer­ stracts, Vols. 2-A. (Monumenta Archaeologica, Press, Berkeley, Los Angeles, London, 1985. sity Press, Ithaca and London, 1985. Vols. 9-11) The Institute of Archaeology, The Capwell, Charles. The Music of the Bauls of Schulz, Anne Markham, "Revising the His­ University of California, Los Angeles, 1985. Bengal. Kent State University Press, Kent, tory of Venetian Renaissance Sculpture: Georgiou, Hara S. Keos, Vol. VI, Ayia Irini: 1986. Niccolo and Pietro Lamberti." Saggi e memorie Specialized Domestic and Industrial Pottery. Caskey, Miriam. Keos II, The Temple at Ayia di storia dell'arte, 15, pp.7-61. Leo S. Olschki, Verlag Philipp Von Zabem, Mainz on Rhine, Irini, Part I: The Statues. American School of Florence, 1986. 1986. Classical Studies, Princeton, 1986. Walton, Guy. Versailles a Stockholm: Dessins Gumerman, George. A View from Black Champa, Kermit Swiler. Mondrian Studies. du National museum Peintures, Meubles et Arts Mesa: The Changing Face of Archaeology. Univer­ The University of Chicago Press, Chicago and Decoratifs de Collections Suedoises et Danoises. sity of Arizona Press, Tucson, 1984. London, 1985. Udevalla, Suede: Imprimer en Suede par Kamenskii, Archimandrite Anatolii. Tlingit Chatman, Seymour B. Antonioni: Or the Sur­ Bohuslaningens Dodtryckeri, 1985. Indians of Alaska. Translated by Sergei Kan. face of the World. University of California (The Rasmuson Library Historical Translation Press, Los Angeles, 1985. Series, Vol. 2) The University of Alaska Press, Corpus des Mosaiques de Tunisie, Vol. II, Fasc. CLASSICS Fairbanks, 1985. 2, Nos. 140-257: Thuburbo Majus, les Mosaiques Mendenhall, George E. The Syllabic Inscrip­ de la Region du Forum. Aicha Ben Abed-Ben tions from Byblos. Beirut, Lebanon: American Khader, Mongi Ennaifer, Marie Soiro, and University of Beirut Press, 1985. Margaret A. Alexander. Institut National Cicero. Philippics. Edited and Translated by Napier, A. David. Masks, Transformations, d'Archaeologie et d'Art, Tunis, 1985. D.R. Shackleton Bailey. The University of and Paradox. University of California Press, Donaldson, Thomas E. Hindu Temple Art of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill and Berkeley, Los Angeles, London, 1986. Orissa, Vol. 2. (Studies in South Asian Cul­ London, 1986. Pearson, Richard, Karl Hutterer, and Gina ture, Vol. 12; Janice Stargardt, ed.) E.J. Brill, Fortenbaughn, William W., ed. Lee Barnes, eds. Windows on the Japanese Past: Leiden, 1986. Theophrastus of Eresus: On His Life and Work. Studies in Archaeology and Prehistory. University Etlin, Richard A. The Architecture of Death: (Rutgers University Studies in Classical Hu­ of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, 1986. The Transformation of the Cemetery in 18th Cen­ manities, Vol. 2) Transaction Books, New Porter, Frank W. III. In Pursuit of the Past: tury Paris. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA 1983. Brunswick and Oxford, 1985. An Anthropological and Bibliographic Guide to Gilmour, John C. Picturing the World. Miller, James. Measures of Wisdom: The Cos­ Maryland and Delaware. (Native American Bib­ Albany, NY: State University of New York mic Dance in Classical and Christian Antiquity. liography Series, No. 8). The Scarecrow Press, Press, 1986. University of Toronto Press, Toronto, Buffalo,

James K. Colling, Gothic Ornament Drawn from Ex­ isting Authorities Vol. I. J. Jobbins, 1848. (opposite page) William Caxton, The His­ tory of Godefrey of Bologne and the Conquest of Jerusalem. Ham­ mersmith: William Morris, 1893. Rhode Island School of Design and London, 1986. Santirocco, Matthew S. Unity and Design in Horace's Odes. The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill and London, 1986. Thesaurus Linguae Graecae Canon of Greek Au­ thors and Works. (2nd edition). Edited by Luci Berkowitz and Karl A. Squitier. Oxford Uni­ versity Press, New York and Oxford, 1986. Vidal-Naquet, Pierre. The Black Hunter: Forms of Thought and Forms of Society in the Greek World. Translated by Andrew Szegedy- Maszak. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and London, 1986.

HISTORY-NON-U.S.

Amelang, James S. Honored Citizens of Barcelona: Patrician Culture and Class Relations, 1490-1714. Princeton University Press, Princeton, and Guildford, Surrey, 1986. Anderson, Lisa. The State and Social Transfor­ mation in Tunisia and Libya, 1830-1980. (Princeton Studies on the Near East) Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1986. Baldwin, John W. The Government of Philip Augustus: Foundations of French Royal Power in the Middle Ages. University of California Press, Berkeley, 1986. Becker, Seymour. Nobility and Privilege in Late Imperial Russia. Northern Illinois Univer­ sity Press, DeKalb, 1985. Bock, Felicia G., trans. Classical Learning and Taoist Practices in Early Japan, with a Trans­ lation of Books XVI and XX of the “Engi-shiki." (Occasional Papers, No. 17) Center for Asian Studies, Arizona State University, 1985. Brooks, Jeffrey. When Russia Learned to Read: Literacy and Popular Literature, 1861-1917. Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1985. Buckley, Roger N. "Kwetsbare eilandstaatjes in het Caribisch gebied." Inter­ nationale Spectator, August 1985, pp.495-498. Buckley, Roger Norman, ed. The Haitian Journal of Lieutenant Howard, York Hussars, 1796-1798. The University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville, 1985. Cortes Conde, Roberto, and Shane J. Hunt, eds. Latin American Economies: Growth and the Export Sector, 1880-1930. Holmes and Meier Publishers, New York, 1985. Culler, A. Dwight. The Victorian Mirror of History. Yale University Press, New Haven, 1985. D'Amico, John. Renaissance Humanism in Pa­ pal Rome: Humanities and Churchmen on the Eve of the Reformation. Johns Hopkins, Baltimore, 1983. Darwin, Charles. The Correspondence of Charles Darwin: Vol. 1, 1821-1836. Edited by Frederick Burkhardt and Sydney Smith. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1985. Keightley, David N., ed. The Origins of Chi­ The Hispanic Seminary of Medieval Studies, Hanawalt, Barbara. The Ties that Bound: Me­ nese Civilization. University of California Press, Ltd., Madison, 1985. diaeval English Families. Oxford University Berkeley, Los Angeles, London, 1983. Lydon, Sandy. Chinese Gold: The Chinese in Press, New York, 1985. Kelly, Raymond G. The Nuer Conquest: The the Monterey Bay Region. Capitola Book Com­ Huang, Philip. The Peasant Economy and So­ Structure and Development of an Expansionist pany, Capitola, 1985. cial Change in North China. Stanford University System. University of Michigan Press, Ann Ar­ Mamalakis, Marcos J., comp. Historical Sta­ Press, Stanford, 1985. bor, 1985. tistics of Chile: Money, Banking, and Financial Johnson, David, Andrew J. Nathan, and Klapisch-Zuber, Christiane. Women, Fam­ Services, Vol. V. Greenwood Press, Westport, Evelyn S. Rawski, eds. Popular Culture in Late ily, and Ritual in Renaissance Italy. Translated Ct., and London, 1985. Imperial China. University of California Press, by Lydia Cochrane. The University of Chicago McGrew, William W. Land and Revolution in Berkeley, Los Angeles, London, 1985. Press, Chicago and London, 1985. Modern Greece, 1800-1881: The Transition in the Kanatchikov, Semen Ivanovich. A Radical Kleinman, Ruth, Anne of Austria: Queen of Tenure and Exploitation of Land from Ottoman Worker in Tsarist Russia: The Autobiography of France. Ohio State University Press, Rule to Independence. Kent State University Semen Ivanovich Kanatchikov. Translated and Columbus, 1985. Press, Kent, 1985. edited by Reginald E. Zelnik. Stanford Uni­ Levine, Hillel. "Gentry, Jews, and Serfs: Moeller, Robert G., ed. Peasants and Lords versity Press, Stanford, 1986. The Rise of Polish Vodka." Review, Vol. 4, in Modern Germany: Recent Studies in Agricul­ Kann, Arcadius. The Plow, the Hammer, and No. 2 (Fall 1980), pp.223-50. tural History. Allen & Unwin, Boston, the Knout: An Economic History of 18th-Century Lopez de Ayala, Pedro. Coronica del rey don London, and Sydney, 1986. Russia. University of Chicago Press, Chicago Pedro. Edited by Constance L. Wilkins and Moreno Fraginals, Frank Moya Pons and London, 1985. Heanon M. Wilkins. (Spanish Series, No. 19) Manuel, and Stanley Engerman, eds. Between 35 Their Forests from Colonial Times to the Present. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln and London, 1985. Davis, Jefferson. The Papers of Jefferson Davis, Vol. 5: 1853-1855. Edited by Lynda Lasswell Crist and Mary Seaton Dix. Louisiana State University Press, Baton Rouge and London, 1985. Douglass, Frederick. The Frederick Douglass Papers, Series One: Speeches, Debates, and Inter­ views, Vol. 3: 1855-63. Edited by John W. Blassingame. Yale University Press, New Ha­ ven and London, 1985. Doyle, Dan H. Nashville in the New South, 1880-1930. University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville, 1985. ______Nashville since the 1920s. University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville, 1985. Fleming, Thomas. New Jersey: A History. (The States and the Nation Series), (with his­ torical guide). W.W. Norton & Co., New York and London; American Association for State and Local History, Nashville, 1984. Slavery and Free Labor: The Spanish Speaking Car- Press, Chapel Hill and London, 1986. Formisano, Ronald. The Transformation of L ibbean in the Nineteenth Century. Johns Hopkins Underdown, David. Revel, Riot and Rebel­ Political Culture: Massachusetts Parties, jj University Press, Baltimore, 1985. lion: Popular Politics and Culture in England, 1790s-1840s. Oxford University Press, New Nicholas, David. The Domestic Life of a Medi­ 1603-1660. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1985. York, 1983. eval City: Women, Children, and the Family in Webber, Carolyn, and Aaron Wildavsky. A Franklin, Vincent. Black Self-Determination: Fourteenth-Century Ghent. University of History of Taxation and Expenditure in the West­ A Cultural History of the Faith of the Fathers. Nebraska Press, Lincoln and London, 1985. ern World. Simon and Schuster, New York, Lawrence Hill, Westport, CT, 1984. Ober, Josiah, ed. The Craft of the Ancient 1986. Garvey, Marcus. The Marcus Garvey and Historian: Essays in Honor of Chester G. Starr. Wills, John E., Jr. Embassies and Illusions: Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers: Association of Ancient Historians; University Dutch and Portuguese Envoys to tiing-hsi, Vol. IV, 1 September 1921-2 September 1922. Press of America, Lanham, MD, 1985. 1666-1687. Council on East Asian Studies, Edited by Robert A. Hill. University of ______Fortress Attica: Defense of the Athenian Harvard University, Cambridge, 1984. California Press, Berkeley, Los Angeles, and Land Frontier, 404-322 B.C. E.J. Brill, Leiden, Zenkovsky, Serge A., ed. and trans. The London, 1985. 1985. Nikonian Chronicle, Vol. 3: From the Year 1241 to Gompers, Samuel. The Samuel Gompers Pa­ Parker, S. Thomas. Romans and Saracens: A 1381. The Kingston Press, Inc., Princeton, pers, Vol. 1: The Making of a Union Leader, History of the Arabian Frontier. (The American 1986. 1850-86. Edited by Stuart B. Kaufman. Uni­ Schools of Oriental Research, Dissertation versity of Illinois Press, Urbana and Chicago, Series, No. 6) Eisenbrauns, Winona Lake, IN, 1986. 1986. Gratton, Brian. Urban Elders: Family, Work, Paster, Gail K. The Idea of the City in the Age HISTORY-U.S and Welfare among Boston's Aged, 1890-1950. of Shakespeare. The University of Georgia Temple University Press, Philadelphia, 1986. Press, Athens, 1985. Hagan, William T. The Indian Rights Associa­ Pinkney, David H. Decisive Years in France, Axtell, James. The Invasion Within: The Con­ tion: The Herbert Welsh Years, 1882-1904. The 1840-1847. Princeton University Press, text of Cultures in Colonial North America. Ox­ University of Arizona Press, Tucson, 1985. Princeton, 1986. ford University Press, New York, 1985. Hanke, Lewis, ed. Guide to the Study of ' Raleigh, Donald J. Revolution on the Volga: Berlin, Ira, Barbara J. Fields, Thavolia United States History Outside the U.S., 1917 in Saratov. Cornell University Press, Glymph, Joseph P. Reidy, and Leslie S. 1945-1980, Vols. I-V. Kraus International Pub­ Ithaca and London, 1986. Rowland, eds. Freedom: A Documentary History lications, White Plains, NY, 1985. Ruggiero, Guido. The Boundaries of Eros: Sex of Emancipation, 1861-1867; Series 1, Vol. I: The Heyman, Christine. Commerce and Culture: ■ ' Crime and Sexuality in Renaissance Venice. Destruction of Slavery. Cambridge University The Maritime Communities of Colonial (Studies in the History of Sexuality). Oxford Press, Cambridge, 1985. Massachusetts, 1690-1750. W.W. Norton, New University Press, New York and Oxford, Catton, Bruce. Michigan: A History. (The York, 1984. 1985. States and the Nation Series), (with historical King, John Owen III. The Iron of Melancholy. Scalapino, Robert A. and George T. Yu. guide) W.W. Norton & Co., New York and Wesleyan University Press, Middletown, CT, Modern China and Its Revolutionary Process: Re­ London; and American Association for State 1983. current Challenges to the Traditional Order, and Local History, Nashville, 1984. Kulikoff, Allan. Tobacco and Slaves: The De­ 1850-1920. University of California Press, Clark, William and Meriwether Lewis. The velopment of Southern Cultures in the Chesapeake, ^Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London, 1985. Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, 1680-1800. The University of North Carolina Silver, Isidore. Ronsard and the Hellenic Ren- Vols. II: Journals, August 30, 1803-August 24, Press, Chapel Hill and London, 1986. aissance in France, II: Ronsard and the Grecian 1804. Edited by Gary E. Moulton. University Leach, Douglas Edward. Roots of Conflict: Lyre, Part II. (Travaux d'Humanisme et Re­ of Nebraska Press, Lincoln and London, 1986. British Armed Forces and Colonial Americans, naissance, No. 208) Librairie Droz S.A., Clifton, James A. The Pokagons, 1683-1983: 1677-1763. University of North Carolina Geneve, 1985. Catholic Potawatoni Indians of the St. Joseph River Press, Chapel Hill, 1986. Smith, John. The Complete Works of Captain Valley. University Press of America, Lanham, Lisio, Donald J. Hoover, Blacks, and Lily- John Smith (1580-1631) in Three Volumes. New York, and London, 1984. Whites: A Study. University of North Carolina -.Edited by Philip L. Barbour. Published for the Cox, Thomas R., Robert S. Maxwell, Press, 1985. Institute of Early American History and Cul­ Phillip Drennon Thomas, and Joseph J. Lofaro, Michael, ed. Davy Crockett: The ture by the University of North Carolina Malone. The Well-wooded Land: Americans and Man, the Legend, the Legacy (1786-1986). Uni-

Henry Shaw, Illuminated Ornaments Selected from Manuscripts of the Middle Ages. William Pickering, 1833. versity of Tennessee Press, Knoxville, 1985. Schutz, Albert J. The Fijian Language. Uni­ Rereading the Vulgate Cycle. Ohio State Univer­ Lovoll, Odd S., ed. Scandinavians and Other versity of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, 1985. sity Press, Columbus, 1985. Immigrants in Urban America: The Proceedings of Carlyle, Thomas and Jane Welsh Carlyle. a Research Conference, October 26-27, 1984. St. The Collected Letters of Thomas and Jane Welsh Olaf College Press, Northfield, MN, 1985. Carlyle, Vols. 10-12. (Duke-Edinburgh Edi­ Marshall, George C. The Papers of George LITERATURE tion). Charles Richard Sanders, general edi­ Catlett Marshall, Vol. 2: “We Cannot Delay," tor. Duke University Press, Durham, 1985. July 1, 1939-December 6, 1941. Edited by Larry Davitch, David. My Soul and I: The Inner Life I. Bland. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Anderer, Paul. Other Worlds: Arishima Takeo of Walt Whitman. Beacon Press, Boston, 1985. Baltimore and London, 1986. and the Bounds of Modern Japanese Fiction. Co­ Cixous, Helene, and Catherine Clement. Morrissey, Charles T. Vermont: A History. lumbia University Press, New York, 1984. The Newly Born Woman. Translated by Betsy (The States and the Nation Series), (with his­ Brown, Charles Brockden. Clara Howard: In Wing. (Theory and History of Literature, Vol. torical guide). W.W. Norton & Co., New York a Series of Letters; Jane Talbot: A Novel. Sydney 24). University of Minnesota Press, and London; and American Association for J. Krause, general editor (Bicentennial Edi- Minneapolis, 1986. State and Local History, Nashville, 1984. Nash, Gerald D. The American West Trans­ formed: The Impact of the Second World War. Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1985. Olmsted, Frederick Law. Defending the Union: The Civil War and the U.S. Sanitary Com­ mission, 1861-1863. Edited by Jane Turner Censer. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and London, 1986. Panagopoulos, E.P. Essays on the History and Meaning of Checks and Balances. University Press of America, Lanham, New York, and London, 1985. Peterson, Charles S. Utah: A History. (The States and the Nation Series), (with historical guide). W.W. Norton & Co., New York and London; and American Association for State and Local History, Nashville, 1984. Rorabaugh, William J. The Craft Apprentice: From Franklin to the Machine Age. Oxford Uni­ versity Press, New York, 1986. Slaughter, Thomas P. The Whiskey Rebellion: Frontier Epilogue to the American Revolution. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986. Swierenga, Robert P., ed. The Dutch in America: Immigration, Settlement, and Cultural Change. Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, 1985. Tabrah, Ruth M., Hawaii: A History. (The States and the Nation Series), (with historical guide). W.W. Norton & Co., New York and London; and American Association for State and Local History, Nashville, 1984. Walters, Ronald G. The Antislavery Appeal: American Abolitionism after 1830. The John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1976.

INTERDISCIPLINARY

Mitchell, W. J.T. Iconology: Image, Text, Ide­ ology. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1986. Henry Noel Humphrey, ed., Sentiments and LANGUAGE AND Similies of William LINGUISTICS Shakespeare. Longman, Brown, Green, & Long­ Cooper, Jerrold S. Sumerian and Akkadian mans, 1851. Royal Inscriptions, Vol. I: Presargonic Inscrip­ tions. (Translation Series, Vol. 1) The Ameri­ can Oriental Society, New Haven, 1986. tion). Kent State University Press, Kent, 1986. Cooper, James Fenimore. Gleanings in Lehiste, Ilse and Pavle Ivic. Word and Sen­ Benhabib, Seyla. Critique, Norm, and Utopia: Europe: The Rhine. Historical introduction by tence Prosody in Serbocroatian. (Current Studies A Study of the Foundations of Critical Theory. Co­ Ernest Redekop and Maurice Geracht. Text in Linguistics) The MIT Press, Cambridge, lumbia University Press, New York, 1986. Established with explanatory notes by MA, and London, 1986. Benson, David. Chaucer's Drama of Style: Thomas Philbrick and Maurice Geracht. (The Linguistic Atlas of the Gulf States: Vol. 1, Poetic Variety and Contrast in the "Canterbury Writings of James Fenimore Cooper; James F. Handbook. Edited by Lee Pederson. The Uni­ Tales." The University of North Carolina Beard, Editor-in-Chief) State University of versity of Georgia Press, Athens, 1986 Press, Chapel Hill and London, 1986. New York Press, Albany, 1986. Middle English Dictionary, Part R.6. Robert E. Betz, Hans Dieter, ed. The Greek Magical Pa­ ______The Pilot: A Tale of the Sea. Edited, Lewis, Editor-in-Chief. The University of pyri in Translation, Including the Demotic Spells, with historical introduction and explanatory Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, 1986. Vol. I: Texts. The University of Chicago Press, notes, by Kay Seymour House. (The Writings Middle English Dictionary, Part S.l. Robert E. Chicago and London, 1986. of James Fenimore Cooper; James F. Beard, Lewis, Editor-in-Chief. The University of Brownlee, Marina S., The Status of the Read­ Editor-in-Chief) State University of New York Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, 1986. ing Subject in the Libro De Buen Amor. Chapel Press, Albany, 1986. Nelson, Kristina. The Art of Reciting the Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Couperus, Louis. The Hidden Force. Trans­ Qur'an. (Modern Middle East Series, No. 11). Press, 1985. lated by Alexander Teixeira de Mattos. Edited University of Texas Press, Austin, 1985. Bums, Elizabeth Jane. Arthurian Fictions: by E.M. Beekman. (Library of the Indies; 37 E.M. Beekman, general editor) University of and London, 1985. sity Press, Princeton, 1985. Massachusetts Press, Amherst, 1985. Hardy, Thomas. The Complete Poetical Works Lukacs, Georg. Georg Lukacs: Selected Corre­ Dillingham, William B. Melville's Later Nov­ of Thomas Hardy, Vol. Ill: Human Shows, Winter spondence, 1902—1920. Edited and translated by els. The University of Georgia Press, Athens, Words, Uncollected Poems. Edited by Samuel Judith Marcus and Zoltan Tar. Columbia Uni­ 1986. Hynes. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1985. versity Press, New York, 1986. Dilthey, Wilhelm. Wilhelm Dilthey: Selected Harris, Janice Hubbard. The Short Fiction of Mack, Maynard. Alexander Pope: A Life. Yale Works, Vol. V: Poetry and Experience. Edited by D.H. Lawrence. Rutgers University Press, New University Press, New Haven, 1985. Rudolf A. Makkreel and Frithjof Rodi. Brunswick, NJ, 1984. Martin, Peter. Pursuing Innocent Pleasures: Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1985. Howard, June. Form and History in American The Gardening World of Alexander Pope. Archon Dreiser, Theodore. An Amateur Laborer. Literary Naturalism. The University of North Books, The Shoe String Press, Hamden, CT, Edited by James L.W. West III. University of Carolina Press, Chapel Hill and London, 1984. Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, 1983. 1985. Magliola, Robert. Derrida on the Mend.

Edward L. Black- bume, Sketches, Graphics and De­ scriptive for a His­ tory of the Decora­ tive Painting Applied to English Architecture Dur­ ing the Middle Ages. Plate 7. John Williams & Co., 1847.

Emerson, Ralph Waldo. The Poetry Note­ Kelley, Philip, and Ronald Hudson, eds. books of Ralph Waldo Emerson. Edited by Ralph The Brownings' Correspondence, Vol. 3: January H. Orth, Albert J. Van Frank, Linda Allardt, 1832-December 1837, Letters 435-601. Purdue University Press, West Lafayette, and David W. Hill. University of Missouri Wedgestone Press, Winfield, KS, 1985. 1984. Press, Columbia, 1986. Laforgue, Jules. Moral Tales. Translated by McCullough, Helen Craig, trans. Kokin Ferster, Judith. Chaucer on Interpretation. William Jay Smith. New Directions Publishing Wakashu: The First Imperial Anthology of Japanese Cambridge University Press, New York, 1985. Corp., New York, 1985. Poetry. Stanford University Press, Stanford, Foley, John Miles. Oral Tradition in Litera­ Link, E. Perry, ed. and co-translator. Roses 1985. ture: Interpretation in Context. University of and Thorns: Contemporary Chinese Literature from ______Brocade by Night: 'Kokin Wakashu' Missouri Press, Columbia, 1986. 1979-1980. University of California Press, and the Court Style in Japanese Classical Poetry. ------Oral Tradition. Volume 1. Number Berkeley, 1984. Stanford University Press, Stanford, 1985. I. January 1986. Slavica Publishers, ______People or Monsters? Stories and Metzger, Lore. One Foot in Eden: Modes of Columbus, Ohio, 1986. Reportage of China after Mao. Indiana Univer­ Pastoral in Romantic Poetry. University of Frank, Elizabeth. Louise Bogan: A Portrait. sity Press, Bloomington, 1983. North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill and Alfred A. Knopf, New York, 1985. ______Stubborn Weeds: Popular and Con­ London, 1986. Gillespie, Michael P. A Catalogue of James troversial Chinese Literature after the Cultural Motto, Marylou. Mined with a Motion: The Joyce's Trieste Library. University of Texas at Revolution. Indiana University Press, Poetry of Gerard Manley Hopkins. Rutgers Uni­ Austin (Harry Ransom Humanities Research Bloomington, 1983. versity Press, New Brunswick, NJ, 1984. Center), Austin 1986. Llull, Ramon. Selected Works of Ramon Llull Perez Galdos, Benito. Torquemada. Trans­ Gleckner, Robert F. Blake and Spenser. The (1232-1316), Vols. I and II. Edited and trans­ lated by Frances M. Lopez-Morillas. Columbia Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore lated by Anthony Bonner. Princeton Univer- University Press, New York, 1986. 38 Proust, Marcel. Correspondence de Marcel Ming. Columbia University Press, New York, Design of School Island Rhode Proust: Tome XIII, 1914. Edited by Philip Kolb. 1986. Plon, Paris, 1985. Courtenay, William J. Covenant and Causal­ ______Correspondence de Marcel Proust, ity in Mediaeval Thought: Studies in Philosophy, Tome XIV, 1915. Edited by Philip Kolb. Plon, Theology, and Economic Practice. Variorum, Paris, 1986. London, 1984. Ritsons, Yannis. Exile and Return: Selected Dewey, John. John Dewey: The Later Works, Poems, 1967-1974. Translated by Edmund 1925-1953, Vol. 8. Edited by Jo Ann Boydston. Keeley. The Ecco Press, New York, 1985. Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale Rojas, Fernando de. Celestina: Tragicomedia and Edwardsville, 1986. de Calisto y Melibea,. Vols. I and 11. Edited by ______John Dewey: The Middle Works, Miguel Marciales. (Illinois Medieval Mono­ 1899-1924, Vols. 6-10. Edited by Jo Ann graphs, I) University of Illinois Press, Urbana Boydston. Southern Illinois University Press, and Chicago, 1985. Carbondale and Edwardsville, 1985. Rubin, Louis D., Jr., Blyden Jackson, Dunning, Stephen N. Kierkegaard’s Dialectic Rayburn S. Moore, Lewis P. Simpson, and of Inwardness: A Structural Analysis of the Theory Thomas Daniel Young, eds. The History of of Stages. Princeton University Press, Southern Literature. Louisiana State University Princeton, 1985. Press, Baton Rouge and London, 1985. Force, James E. William Whiston: Honest Sekora, John, and Darwin Turner, eds. The Newtonian. Cambridge University Press, Art of Slave Narrative: Original Essays in Criti­ Cambridge 1985. cism and Theory. Essays in Literature Books, Gerbi, Antonello. Nature in the New World: Macomb, 1983. From Christopher Columbus to Gonzalo Fernandez Silbajoris, Frank R. Tolstoy and the Teachers. de Oviedo. Translated by Jeremy Moyle. Uni­ REFERENCE Center for Slavic and East European Studies, versity of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh, 1986. Columbus, OH; 1985. Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich. Lectures Slater, Candace. Trial of Miracles: Stories on the Philosophy of Religion, Vol. Ill: The Con­ Catalogus Translationum et Commentariorum: from a Pilgrimage in Northeast Brazil. University summate Religion. Edited by Peter C. Hodgson. Mediaeval and Renaissance Latin Translations and of California Press, Berkeley, 1986. Translated by R.F. Brown, P.C. Hodgson, and Commentaries, Annotated Lists and Guides, Vol. Thoreau, Henry D. The Illustrated "A Week J.M. Stewart. University of California Press, V. Edward Cranz, Editor-in-Chief. The Catho­ on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers." Edited by Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London, 1985. lic University of America Press, Washington, Carl F. Hovde, William L. Howarth, Elizabeth James, William. The Varieties of Religious Ex­ D.C., 1984. Hall Witherell. Princeton University Press, perience. (The Works of William James. The Chinese Recorder Index: A Guide to Chinese Princeton, 1983. Frederick H. Burkhardt, Gen. Ed., Fredson Missions in Asia, 1867-1941, Vols. 1 and 2. Twain, Mark. Adventures of Huckleberry Bowers, textual editor, Ignas K. Skrupskelis, Compiled by Kathleen Lodwick. Scholarly Re­ Finn. Edited by Walter Blair and Victor associate editor), Harvard University Press, sources Inc., Wilmington, DE, 1986. Fischer. (The Mark Twain Library of the Mark Cambridge and London, 1985. A Concordance to the English Prose of John Twain Project; Robert H. Hirst, general editor) Kasoff, Ira. The Thought of Chang Tsai Milton. Laurence Sterne and Harold H. University of California Press, Berkeley, Los (1020-1077). Cambridge University Press, Kollmeier, general editors. (Medieval & Ren­ Angeles, and London, 1985. Cambridge, 1984. aissance Texts & Studies, Vol. 35). Medieval & Vranich, Stanko B. Obra Completa de Don Kevles, Daniel J. In the Name of Eugenics: Renaissance Texts & Studies, Binghamton, Juan de Arguidjo (1567-1622). Albatros Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity. Alfred NY, 1985. Hispanofila, Valencia, 1985. A. Knopf, New York, 1985. Corcoran Archives: A Guide to the Corcoran Ar­ Weinberg, Florence M. Gargantua in a Con­ Kvart, Igal. A Theory of Counterfactuals. chives. Prepared by Katherine Kovacs and vex Mirror: Fischart's View of Rabelais. Peter Hackett Publishing Co., Indianapolis, 1986. others. Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington, Lang Publishers, New York, 1986. Lee, Leo Ou-fan, ed. Lu Xan and His Legacy. D.C., 1985. West, James L.W. III. A "Sister Carrie" Port­ University of California Press, Berkeley, Los Diehl, Huston. An Index of Icons in English folio. University Press of Virginia, Angeles, and London, 1985. Emblem Books, 1500-1700. University of Charlottesville, 1985. Marrone, Steven P. Truth and Scientific Oklahoma Press, Norman and London, 1986. ------The Making of "This Side of Para­ Knowledge in the Thought of Henry of Ghent. Ghali, Noureddine, Sidi Mohamed dise." University of Pennsylvania Press, (Speculum Anniversary Monographs, 11). Mahibou, and Louis Brenner, lnventaire de la Philadelphia, 1983. The Medieval Academy of America, Bibliotheque 'Umarienne de Segou. (Conservee a Wordsworth, William. “The Tuft of Prim­ Cambridge, 1985. la Bibliotheque nationale). Editions du Centre roses, " with Other Late Poems for "The Recluse." Myers, Gerald E. William James: His Life and National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris, Edited by Joseph F. Kishel. (The Cornell Thought. Yale University Press, London and 1985. Wordsworth; Stephen Parrish, general editor) New Haven 1986. A Guide to Thomas A. Edison Papers: A Selec­ Cornell University Press, Ithaca and London, Nagel, Thomas. The View from Nowhere. Ox­ tive Microfilm Edition, Part I (1850-1878). 1986. ford University Press, New York, 1986. Thomas E. Jeffrey, microfilm editor. Reese V. ______The Fourteen-Book “Prelude." Edited Norton, Bryan G., ed. The Preservation of by W.J.B. Owen. (The Cornell Wordsworth; Species: The Value of Biological Diversity. Stephen Parrish, general editor) Cornell Uni­ Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1986. versity Press, Ithaca and London, 1985. Oakley, Francis. Omnipotence, Covenant, & Ziolkowski, Theodore. Varieties of Literary Order: An Excursion in the History of Ideas from Thematics. Princeton University Press, Abelard to Leibniz. Cornell University Press, Princeton, 1985. Ithaca and London, 1984. Ockham, Guillelmi de. Brevis Summa Libri Physicorum Summula Philosophiae Naturalis et PHILOSOPHY Quaestiones in Libros Physicorum Aristotelis. (Opera Philosophica, VI). Edited by Stephen Brown. Franciscan Institute, St. Bonaventure University, St. Bonaventure, NY, 1984. Adams, James Luther, Wilhelm Pauck, Ooms, Herman. Tokugawa Ideology: Early Roger Lincoln Shinn, eds. The Thought of Paul Constructs, 1570-1680. Princeton University Tillich. (An American Academy of Arts and Press, Princeton, 1985. Sciences Book) Harper & Row, New York, Peirce, Charles S. Writings of Charles S. 1985. Peirce: A Chronological Edition, Vol. 3, Ball, Milner S. Lying Down Together: Law, 1872-1878. Edited by Christian J.W. Kloesel. Henry Shaw, Metaphor, and Theology. University of Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1986. Dresses and Deco­ Wisconsin Press, Madison, 1985. The Southern Journal of Philosophy, Spindel ration of the Mid­ Blumenberg, Hans. Work on Myth. Trans­ Conference 1984: Recovering the Stoics. Edited by dle Ages, Vol. II. lated by Robert M. Wallace. (Studies in Con­ Ronald H. Epp. Vol. 23 Supplement. William Pickering, temporary German Social Thought). The MIT Van DeVeer, Donald. Paternalistic Interven­ 1843. Press, Cambridge, MA, and London, 1985. tion: The Moral Bounds on Benevolence. Ch'ien, Edward T. Chiao Hung and the Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1986. Restructuring of Neo-Confucianism in the Late Gorham Art Library Jenkins, Director and Editor. University Publi­ cations of America, Frederick, MD, 1985. The Jane Adams Papers. Edited by Mary Lynn McCree Bryan. (Guide to the microfilm edi­ tion). University Microfilms International, Ann Arbor, 1985. Kinneavy, Gerald Byron. A Concordance to "The York Plays." (Garland Reference Library of the Humanities, Vol. 626) Garland Pub­ lishing, Inc., New York and London, 1986. Limbaugh, Ronald H. and Kirsten E. Lewis, eds. The Guide and Index to the Microform Edition of the John Muir Papers, 1858-1957. Chadwyck- Healey Inc., London and Ann Arbor, 1986. Machlis, Paul, ed. Union Catalog of Clemens Letters. (A publication of the Mark Twain Proj­ ect of the Bancroft Library). University of California Press, Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London, 1986. A Manual of Manuscript Transcription for the Dictionary of the Old Spanish Language, by Da­ vid Mackenzie. Fourth Edition by Victoria A. Burrus. The Hispanic Seminary of Medieval Studies, Ltd., Madison, 1986. A Manual of the Writings in Middle English, 1050-1500, Vol. 7. Albert E. Hartung, general editor. Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sci­ ences, New Haven, 1986. Middle English Dictionary, Part R.6. Robert E. Lewis, editor-in-chief. University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, 1986. Middle English Dictionary, Part S.l. Robert E. Lewis, editor-in-chief. The University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, 1986. Miller, Joseph C. Slavery: A Worldwide Bibli­ ography, 1900-1982. Kraus International Publi­ cations, White Plains, NY, 1985. Schmitt, Charles B. and Dilwyn Knox. Pseudo-Aristoteles Latinus: A Guide to Latin Works Falsely Attributed to Aristotle before 1500. (Warburg Institute Surveys and Texts, Vol. 12). The Warburg Institute, University of London, London, 1985.

RELIGION

Creel, Richard E. Divine Impassibility: An Es­ say in Philosophical Theology. Cambridge Uni­ versity Press, New York, 1986. Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. I. Edited by Ehsan Yarshater. Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, Boston, and Henley, 1985. Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. II, Ease. 1 and 2. Edited by Ehsan Yarshater. Routledge & Kegan Paul, London, Boston, and Henley, 1985. Freeman, Ann. "Carolingian Orthodoxy and the Fate of the Libri Carolini." Viator: Me­ dieval and Renaissance Studies, Vol. 16 (1985), pp. 66-108. Hopkins, Jasper. Nicholas of Cusa's Dialec­ tical Mysticism: Text, Translation, and Interpre­ tive Study of "De Visione Dei." Arthur of Banning Press, Minneapolis, 1985. Knight, Douglas A. and Gene M. Tucker, eds. The Hebrew Bible and Its Modem Interpret­ ers. (The Bible and Its Modem Interpreters, 1; Douglas A. Knight, general editor) (Centen­ nial Publications; Society of Biblical Literature) Fortress Press, Philadelphia; Scholars Press, Owen Jones, Grammar of Ornament. London, 1856. Chico, 1985. Koenen, Ludwig. Didymos Der Blinde: Kommentar Zu Hiob, IV. 1. Dr. Rudolph Habelt GMBH, Bonn, 1985. Lippy, Charles H. Bibliography of Religion in the South. Mercer University Press, Macon, GA, 1985. Lopez-Baralt, Luce. San Juan De La Cruz y El Islam. El Colegio De Mexico, sadad De Puerto Rico-Recinto De Rio Piedras, 1985. ______Huellas del Islam en la 40 Gorham Art Library Literatura Espanola de Juan Ruiza Juan Goytisolo. Hiperion, Madrid, 1985. Meister, Michael, ed. Discourses on Siva. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, 1984. Musto, Ronald. The Children of God: Pacifism and Peacemaking in the Catholic Church. Orbis Books, Mary Knoll, NY, 1986.

SOCIAL SCIENCES

Anderson, James E. and James E. Hazleton. Managing Macroeconomic Policy: The Johnson Presidency. (An Administrative History of the Johnson Presidency Series). University of Texas Press, Austin, 1986. Bellah, Robert N., Richard Madsen, William M. Sullivan, Ann Swidler, Steven M. Tipton. Habits of the Heart: Individualism and Commitment in American Life. University of California Press, Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London, 1985. Berger, Suzanne, ed. L'organizzazione degli interessi nel’Europa occidentale: Pluralismo, corporativismo e la transformazione della politica. II ulino, Bologna, 1983. (Italian edition of Organizing Interests in Western Europe: Plural­ ism, Corporatism, and the Transformation of Poli­ tics. Cambridge University Press, New York, 1981.) Bergquist, Charles. Labor in Latin America: Comparative Essays on Chile, Argentina, Venezuela, and Colombia. (Comparative Studies in History, Institutions, and Public Policy). Stanford University Press, Stanford, 1986. Collier, David, ed. O novo autoritarismo no America Latina. Paz e Terra, Rio de Janeiro, 1982. (Portuguese edition of The New Authori­ tarianism in Latin America. Princeton Univer­ sity Press, Princeton, 1979.) Dahlberg, Kenneth A. ed. New Directions for Agriculture and Agricultural Research: Neg­ lected Dimensions and Emerging Alternatives. Rowman & Allanheld, Totowa, NJ, 1986. Daniels, Norman. Just Health Care. (Studies in Philosophy and Health Policy). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1985. De George, Richard T. The Nature and Lim­ its of Authority. University Press of Kansas, Lawrence, 1985. Donegan, Jane B. "Hydropathic Highway to Health": Women and Water-Cure in Antebellum America. Greenwood Press, Westport, CT, 1986. Dorian, Nancy C. The Tyranny of Tide. An Oral History of the East Sutherland Fisherfolk. Karoma Publishers, Inc., Ann Arbor, 1985. Evans, Peter B., Dietrich Rueschemyer, and Theda Skocpol, eds. Bringing the State Back In. Cambridge University Press, New York, 1985. Gilman, Sander L. Jewish Self-Hatred: Anti- Semitism and the Hidden Language of the Jews. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and London, 1986. Gonzalez, Eduardo. La persona Y El Relato: Pryecto de Lectura Psicoanalitica. Jose Porrtia Turanzas, S.A., Madrid, 1985. Haddad, Yvonne, and Ellison Findly, eds. Women, Religion, and Social Change. State Uni- Owen Jones, One Thousand and One Initial Letters. Illumination by William Morris. Illustration by Edward versify of New York Press, Albany, 1985. Burne-Jones. London, 1864. Hendricks, Glenn L., Bruce T. Downing, and Amos S. Deinard, eds. The Hmong in Transition. Center for Migration Studies of New York, Inc.; The Southeast Asian Refugee Studies of the University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, 1986. Kitcher, Philip. Vaulting Ambition: Sociobiology and the Quest for Human Nature. The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 1985. Kousser, J. Morgan. Dead End: The Develop­ ment of Nineteenth-Century Litigation on Racial 41 Boston Public Library Peiss, Kathy L. Cheap Amusements: Working Women and Leisure in Tum-of-the-Century New York. Temple University Press, Philadelphia, 1986. Peterson, Jacqueline and Jennifer S.H. Brown, eds. The New Peoples: Being and Becom­ ing Metis in North America. (Manitoba Studies in Native History, 1). The University of Manitoba Press, 1985. Provine, William B. Sewall Wright and Evo­ lutionary Biology. (Science and Its Conceptual Foundations). The University of Chicago Press, Chicago and London, 1986. Rostow, W.W. Eisenhower, Kennedy, and For­ eign Aid. (Ideas and Action Series, No. 5), University of Texas Press, Austin, 1985. Rupp, Lelia J. and Verta Taylor. "The Women's Movement since 1960: Structure, Strategies, and New Directions." American Choices: Social Dilemmas and Public Policy since 1960, pp.75-104. Edited by Robert H. Bremner, Gary W. Reichard, and Richard J. Hopkins. Ohio State University Press, Columbus, 1986. Scarry, Elaine. The Body in Pain: The Making and Unmaking of the World. Oxford University Press, New York, 1985. Schwartz, Helen J. Interactive Writing: Com­ posing with a Word Processor. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, New York, 1985. Shapiro, Laura. Perfection Salad: Women and Cooking at the Turn of the Century. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, New York, 1986. Smith-Rosenberg, Carroll. Disorderly Con­ duct: Visions of Gender in Victorian America. Alfred A. Knopf, New York, 1985. Spacks, Patricia Meyer. Gossip. Alfred A. Knopf, New York, 1985. Taylor, James. Jonas Hanway: Founder of the Marine Society: Charity and Policy in 18th- Century Britain. Scholar Press, Berkeley, CA, 1985. Unschuld, Paul U. Medicine in China: A His­ tory of Ideas. (Comparative Studies of Health Systems and Medical Care). University of California Press, Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London, 1985. Valenzuela, Samuel J. Democratizacion Via Reforma: La expansion del sufragion en Chile. Instituto de Desarrollo Economico y Social, Buenos Aires, 1985. Weitzman, Lenore. The Divorce Revolution: The Unexpected Social and Economic Consequences for Women and Children in America. The Free Press, New York, 1985. William Morris, A Dream of John Ball and a King's Lesson. Hammersmith: Kelmscott Press, Welch, Claude E., Jr. Protestant Thought in 1892. the Nineteenth Century (1870-1914). Volume 2. Yale University Press, New Haven, 1985. Zuriff, G.E. Behaviorism: A Conceptual Recon­ struction. Columbia University Press, New York, 1985.

Discrimination in Schools. (An Inaugural Lec­ Colonial Lagos. Cambridge University Press, ture delivered before the University of Oxford New York and London, 1985. on February 28, 1985). Clarendon Press, Ox­ Martin, Cheryl E. Rural Society in Colonial ford, 1986. Morelos. University of New Mexico Press, Krauss, Ellis S., Thomas P. Rohlen, and Albuquerque, 1985. Patricia G. Steinhoff, eds. Conflict in Japan. Mintz, Sidney W. Sweetness and Power: The University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, 1984. Place of Sugar in Modem History. Elisabeth Laitin, David D. Hegemony and Culture: Poli­ Sifton Books—Viking, New York, 1985. tics and Religious Change among the Yoruba. The Naff, Alixa, Becoming American: The Early University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1986. Arab Immigrant Experience. Southern Illinois Levine, Hillel. "Between Polish Autarky University Press, Carbondale and and Russian Autocracy: The Jews, the Edwardsville, 1985. Propinacja, and the Rhetoric of Reform." Inter­ Newfarmer, Richard, ed. Profits, Progress, national Review of Social History, Vol. 27 (1982), and Poverty: Case Studies of International Indus­ pp. 66-250. tries in Latin America. University of Notre Light, Donald W. and Alexander Schuller, Dame Press, Notre Dame, IN, 1985. eds. Political Values and Health Care: The Ger­ Overmyer, Daniel L., and David K. Jor­ man Experience. (MIT Press Series on the Hu­ dan. The Flying Phoenix: Aspects of Chinese Sec­ manities and Social Dimensions of Medicine). tarianism in Taiwan. Princeton University The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, and Press, Princeton, 1985. London, 1986. Parish, William L., ed. Chinese Rural Devel­ Mann, Kristin. Marrying Well: Marriage, Sta­ opment: The Great Transformation. M.E. Sharpe, tus and Social Change among the Educated Elite in Inc., Armonk, NY, and London, 1985. 42 THE Humanities

for those who are thinking of applying GUIDE for an NEH grant NEH Increases Size of Conference Grants THE DIVISION of Research Pro- cal projects for the New Testament to 1820. grams has recently revised its cate- period. Although of principal inter- • to evaluate new methods, mate- gory of funding for research confer- est to lexicographers, the results rials, or scholarship that affects un- ences. The ceiling on grants for will affect studies in classics, reli- derstanding of an area of knowl- conferences has been raised to gion, and languages. edge. Harvard University received $40,000 to accommodate the sup- support for an international sympo- port of major, sometimes interna- Are conferences on curricula or on sium on new iconographic and tional conferences on broader re- how teaching could be improved in monumental evidence for prehis- search topics and involving more a certain discipline eligible for toric Huari government in the cen- scholars than would have been pos- funding? tral Andes. sible under the previous $10,000 • to assess the state of an estab- ceiling. The Division especially an- No, not through the Conferences lished field of research, or to con- ticipates proposals that seek to de- category, which exists primarily to sider the significance of emerging fine or assess the state of research advance research in the humanities, fields or subfields. With support in an entire field or major topic and The Division of Education Programs, from the Conferences category, Co- which reach a diverse group of con- however, does make grants for lumbia College, Chicago, held a ference participants. Guidelines for projects to strengthen the curricu- conference for fifteen musicologists applying for conference funding are lum and to improve teaching in the to assess the state of scholarship available from the NEH Public Af- humanities. Applicants who are and to promote research on critical fairs Office, Room 409, 1100 planning conferences on topics in issues emerging in black music Pennsylvania Avenue, NW, Wash- elementary and secondary educa- scholarship, ington, D.C. 20506 202/786-0438. tion should call Carolynn Reid- Some of the questions that appli- Wallace, 786-0377, and on topics in How are applications in the Confer- cants may have are answered here higher education, Lyn Maxwell ences category evaluated? by Conferences program officer White, 786-0380. Crale Hopkins. Like all proposals received by the The Division of Research Programs Division of Research Programs, a Is support still available through the guidelines state that research con- proposal for a conference is evalu- Conferences category for smaller ferences "should be designed to ac- ated first by specialist reviewers, research conferences on specialized complish objectives that cannot be who are asked to assess its contri- topics? attained by other means." What are bution to the specific field and who some examples? typically comment on plans for Yes. NEH makes grants ranging topics, for presenters to be invited, from $6,000 to $40,000 for confer- The following are examples of ap- and on the scholarship reflected in ences to advance the current state propriate objectives for conferences the proposal. The reviewers' com- of research on topics determined to supported through the Research ments are considered in the more be significant to the humanities. In division: general evaluation by a panel of addition to broad areas of study, • to coordinate disparate efforts scholars from various fields in the subjects that are highly focused but ongoing in a single field or to bring humanities, who are asked to judge are of great potential importance together scholars from different dis- the significance of the conference are also eligible. In 1985, for exam- ciplines who have been studying in comparison with others consid- ple, the Institute for Advanced the same issue or period. For exam- ered in the same round. Study, Princeton, received a grant pie, the Institute of Early American through the Conferences category History and Culture, Williamsburg, What are some of the flaws that will for a meeting of specialists to Virginia, received support for a con- damage the chance of funding for a coordinate a replacement of ference of American and British proposal? Moulton and Milligan's Vocabulary scholars to compare modernization of the Greek Testament and to de- and socioeconomic change in An inappropriate objective for a termine further Greek lexicographi- America and Great Britain from 1600 conference will earn it low ratings 43 from panelists. If a conference is be described in the proposal. At from presenters and develop spe­ proposed to assert a theory or inter­ this stage, it is important, for in­ cific topics. pretation, for example, rather than stance, to review the program of to examine a posed question, it will the last professional meeting in the What information should the pro­ probably not be recommended for field; posal for a conference include? funding, nor will a proposal that 3. develop a tentative format for the does not demonstrate sufficient number and kind of presentations; The proposal should describe the planning. 4. secure from the host institution a research topic and its significance, commitment of support. The NEH the prospective effect of the confer­ What steps should be included in expects the institution to commit to ence on scholarship in the field, the planning a conference? at least 20 percent of the cost of the format for the conference, and rep­ conference; resentative topics. The proposal A scholar or group of scholars who 5. write or call Program Officer should include letters of commit­ has an idea for a conference should Crale Hopkins (202/786-0204) for a ment from most of the presenters, complete the following steps before preliminary discussion of the pro­ the anticipated number of partici­ submitting a final application to posal. The number of funded pro­ pants, and the plan for publishing NEH: posals submitted by applicants who proceedings, including a statement take advantage of this opportunity of interest from a scholarly press or 1. read the Division of Research for consultation is double the num­ journal. If publication is not Programs' guidelines; ber submitted by applicants who planned, the proposal should ex­ 2. conduct a bibliographic survey to did not consult in advance with pro­ plain how the results of the confer­ develop a clear idea of the context gram staff; ence will be disseminated. for the topic. That context should 6. secure letters of commitment

BICENTENNIAL BOOKSHELF

In an effort to make reference works Levy, Leonard, editor. The Encyclo­ Dry, editors. The Complete Anti- and other books about the U.S. Con­ pedia of the American Constitution. 4 Federalist. 7 vols. University of stitution available to all Americans vols. Macmillan Publishing Com­ Chicago Press, Chicago, 1982. during the bicentennial year, the pany, New York, 1986. This list also includes the follow­ NEH is offering $500 grants to public The Endowment recommends that ing histories: libraries to purchase titles for a "Bi­ these reference be complemented Bowen, Catherine. The Miracle at centennial Bookshelf." To be eligi­ with selections from a list also devel­ Philadelphia. Little, Brown, and Co., ble, a library must match the award. oped in consultation with constitu­ Boston, 1986. Preference will be given to libraries tional experts. Some of the titles on Kelly, Alfred H., Winfred with limited acquisitions budgets. this list include the following pri­ Harbison, and Herman Belz. Ameri­ The deadline is December 15, 1986. mary sources: can Constitution: Its Origins and Devel­ Based on suggestions from consti­ Cooke, Jacob E., editor. The Feder­ opment. 6th ed. Norton, New York, tutional scholars, the NEH recom­ alist. Wesleyan University Press, 1983. mends that libraries build their Middletown, 1961. McDonald, Forrest. Novus Ordo bookshelves around four recently re­ Elliot, Jonathan, editor. Debates in Seclorum: The Intellectual Origins of the issued reference works: the Several State Conventions on the Constitution. University Press of Congressional Research Service, Adoption of the Federal Constitution. 5 Kansas, Lawrence, 1985. Library of Congress. The Constitution vols. 2nd ed. B. Franklin, New McLaughlin, Andrew C. A Consti­ of the United States of America: Inter­ York, 1888-96. tutional History of the United States. pretation and Analysis. Government Hyneman, Charles S. and Donald Irvington, New York, 1935. Printing Office, Washington, D.C., Lutz, editors. American Political Writ­ Rutland, Robert A. The Ordeal of 1986. ings During the Founding Era: the Constitution: The Anti-Federalists Farrand, Max, editor. The Records 1760-1805. 2 vols. Liberty Fund, and the Ratification Struggle of of the Federal Convention of 1787. 4 Indianapolis, 1983. 1787-1788. Northeastern University vols., rev. ed. Yale University Press, Jensen, Merrill, editor. The Docu­ Press, Boston, 1983. New Haven, 1967, 1987. mentary History of the Ratification of Wood, Gordon S. The Creation of Kurland, Phillip B., and Ralph the Constitution. 7 vols. State Histori­ the American Republic, 1776-1787. Lemer, editors. The Founders' Consti­ cal Society of Wisconsin, Madison, Norton, New York, 1942. tution. 5 vols. University of Chicago 1976, 1986. Press, Chicago, 1987. Storing, Herbert J., and Murray 44 Exp. date: Mo./Yr.

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Please make checks and money orders payable to Superintendent of Documents Mail to Humanities, Office of Public Affairs, National Endowment for the Humanities, o Washington, D .C. 20506.